SHORT OUTLINE
From Great Issues in Philosophy, by James Fieser
Home: https://storage.googleapis.com/jfieser/120/Index.html
2008, updated 1/1/2024, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
This is an abbreviated outline of the text material for this course, the purpose of which is to help you take notes by filling in definitions, theories and other key points presented and the lectures and readings.
THE MEANING OF LIFE
Introduction
Star Wars action figure example
Different questions surrounding life's meaning
A. Life's Chronic Ailments
Gilgamesh and Death
Gilgamesh story
Two morals of the story
Heidegger's view of death
Criticisms of Heidegger
Sisyphus and Futility
Sisyphus story
Examples of futility in life
Camus's view of Sisyphus
Criticism of Camus
Boethius and Cosmic Insignificance
Example in the film Monty Python's The Meaning of Life
Problem: sense of cosmic insignificance in the face of the universe's vastness
Boethius's story
Lady Philosophy's account of cosmic insignificance
Ricoeur's solution
Criticism of Ricoeur
Job and Suffering
Job story
Unprovoked and unresolved suffering
Solution in the book of Job
Criticism of that solution
B. Ancient Greek Solutions
Epicureanism and Pleasure
Example of Jack the Epicurean English professor
Epicurus's view of pleasure
Mental vs. physical pleasures
Luxuries
Short term vs. long term pleasures
Criticism of Epicureanism
Epicurus's final view of happiness
Stoicism and Accepting Fate
Example of prisoner of war
Epictetus's "banquet" analogy
Criticism of Stoic solution
Skepticism and Doubt
Example of Skeptics Society and Roswell aliens
Pyrrho's view of skeptical tranquility
Two criticisms of skeptic solution
Cynicism and Defying Convention
Example of Lollapalooza
Diogenes view of Cynicism
Three criticisms of Cynic solution
C. Western Religious Solutions
Having Children
Example of Abraham
Natural rewards of having children
Two criticisms of the having children solution
Life after Death
Two conceptions of life after death
Solution to death, futility, and suffering
Two criticisms of life after death solution
Furthering God's Kingdom
Augustine's two cities
Mormon example
Three features of furthering God's Kingdom solution
Criticism of furthering God's Kingdom solution
D. Eastern Religious Solutions
Daoism and the Way of Nature
Tale of the cook
Daoist approach to life
Daoist solution to life's problems
Criticism of Daoist solution
Buddhism and Extinguishing Desire
Four Noble Truths
Nirvana
Dalai Lama's view of nirvana
Criticism of Buddhist solution
Hinduism and the Four Goals of Life
Four goals of life
Problem with most discussions of life's meaning
Benefits of multi-solution approach to life's meaning
F. Conclusion
Meaning of life involves various philosophical questions
Philosophy involves criticisms
Different ways of addressing philosophical issues
GOD
Introduction
Elvis Underground
A. The Nature of God
Personalness and Goodness
Example of Elvis creed
Definition of the the Theistic God
Attribute of personalness
Problem of anthropomorphism
Attribute of perfect goodness (omnibenevolence)
Compassion
Justness
Three views of God's gender
Power and Separateness
Attribute of all-powerfulness (omnipotence)
First view of all-powerfulness
Dilemma of the rock
Second view of all-powerfulness
Attribute of separateness
Separateness
Pantheism
B. Arguments for God's Existence
The Cosmological Argument
Leibniz's cosmological argument
Hume's criticism
The Design Argument from Analogy
Argument from analogy
Problem with premise 1
Problem with premise 2
Final problem (Hume)
The Design Argument from Probability
Argument from probability
Criticism of premise 1
Criticism of premise 2
Emotional appeal of the probability argument
The Ontological Argument
Anselm's argument
Gaunilo's criticism
C. Criticisms of Religious Belief
Belief in Miracles
Kenyan minister example
Hume's three assumptions about miracles
Hume's argument against miracles
First criticism regarding scientific discoveries
Second criticism regarding "reasonable belief"
Psychological Theories of Religion
Lucretius
Marx
Nietzsche
Freud
Point in common
Believer's response
D. The Problem of Evil
Introduction
Two kinds of evil
The Argument
Formal argument
"Clear paths" to resolving the tension
Possible Solutions.
Good comes out of evil
Criticism
Re-examine divine goodness
Criticism
Suffering part of development (Hick)
Criticism
The Free Will Defense
First criticism
Second criticism
Third criticism
E. Faith and Reason
Introduction
"Faith alone" position
Blaise Pascal: Wagering on Belief in God
The wager
Next steps in the belief process
James's criticism
William James: The Right to Believe in God
Three features of a "genuine option"
When religious belief is justified
The argument
Criticism by scientifically-minded person
Alvin Plantinga: Rationally-Foundational Belief in God
Believing God exists vs. knowing God exists
Foundationalism
"God exists" is a rationally-foundational belief
The argument
Criticism
F. Religious Pluralism
Introduction
Doctrinal claims vs. effective paths to salvation
Four Options
Naturalism
Exclusivism
Inclusivism
Pluralism
The Problem of Conflicting Doctrines
The problem
First response
Second response (Hick's)
The Problem that Anything Goes
The problem
Two ways to investigate God
Religion's two main ingredients (James)
MIND
Introduction
Cryonics example
A. What is a Mind?
Introduction
Easy problem
Hard problem
Knowledge about the Mind
Introspection
Behavior
Physiological monitoring
Three Features of Consciousness
Privateness
Non-localizability
Intentionality
Problem of Other Minds
The problem
Solution from analogy
Limitations of the solution from analogy
B. Personal identity
Introduction
Sirhan Sirhan example
The Body Criterion
Definition
Examples
Counterexample 1
Counterexample 2
The Mind Criterion
Definition
Examples
Criticism 1
Criticism 2
Different criteria for different needs
Life after Death
Reincarnation
Criticism
Ethereal body
Criticism
Disembodied spirit
C. Varieties of Mind-Body Dualism
Introduction
Definition of mind-body problem
Definition of mind-body dualism
Definition of mind-body materialism
Dualism's Assets and Liabilities
Example of near death experience
Argument from non-localizability
Main problem with dualism
Sensory perception and bodily movement
Interactive dualism
Definition of interactive dualism
Pineal gland theory (Descartes)
Description of theory
Problem 1
Problem 2
God shuttles information back and forth (Malebranche)
Description of theory
Problem 1
Epiphenomenalism (Bonnet)
Description of theory
Train smokestack analogy
Problem 1
Problem 2
Gradualism (Conway)
Description of theory
Problem 1
Parallelism
Definition of parallelism
Leibniz's theory
Problem 1
Problem 2
D. Varieties of Mind-Body Materialism
Arguments for Mind-Body Materialism
Lucretius
Locke
Denies the three unique features of the conscious mind
Behaviorism
ATM machine example
Definition of behaviorism
Ryle's "ghost in the machine" criticism of Descartes
Criticism 1
Identity Theory
Definition of identity theory
Two parts of identity theory
Problem 1
Problem 2
Eliminative Materialism
Two views of eliminative materialism
Pre-scientific theories
Two parts of eliminative materialism
Functionalism
Star Trek example
Definition of functionalism
Hierarchical model of mental functions
Criticism 1
E. Artificial Intelligence
Introduction
Elektro example
Three tasks of the mind aimed for in AI
The Road to Artificial Intelligence
Two types of artificial
Weak
Strong
Turing test
Two kinds of computing processes
Serial
Parallel
Searle: The Chinese Room
Description of example
Point of example
Criticism 1
Artificial Intelligence and Morality
Star Trek example
Question of moral personhood
Different criteria of moral personhood
Question of preventing malevolent robots
Two issues
FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Introduction
Acxiom example
A. Main Concepts
Definition of free will
Definition of determinism
Issue of political freedom
Issue of fatalism
Types of "choices"
B. The Case for Determinism
Basic point underlying determinism
Argument for determinism from materialism
The argument
Dualist's two criticisms
Argument for determinism from predictability
The argument
Criticism
Hypnotism counterexample
Libet experiment counter example
C. The Case for Free Will
Introduction
Definition of agent causation
Feeling of freedom
The argument
Hypnotism counterexample
Recent psychological experiment counterexample
Moral responsibility
Argument from moral responsibility
Criticism
Human dignity
The argument
Criticism
Personal transformation
The argument
Jaspers' boundary situations
The argument
Criticism
Quantum Indeterminacy
The argument
Criticism 1
Criticism 2
D. The Freedom of Action Alternative
Definition of free action
First explanation of free and unfree actions
Frankfurt's explanation of free and unfree actions
First and second order desires
Human vs. animal choices
Criticism
E. Free Will and God
Free Will and Divine Foreknowledge
The argument against free will from divine foreknowledge
Cleanthes' view
Solution: two notions of timelessness
Determinism and Divine Goodness
Argument for God's responsibility for human evil
Free will solution
Problem with free will solution
Divine Fate and Free will
Lazy man argument for the incompatibility of fate and free will
Chrysippus's argument for the incompatibility of fate and free will
Criticism
Freedom in Heaven
Problem of Freedom in Heaven argument
Augustine's view
Solution 1
Problem
Solution 2
Problem
Solution 3:
Problem
Does it Matter
Tension between scientific vs. humanistic values
REALITY
Introduction
Parallel universe example
David Lewis's view possible worlds
Definition of metaphysics
A. Idealism
Introduction
Monism
Materialism
Idealism
Dualism
Subjective Idealism
Matrix example
Definition of subjective idealism
Berkeley view
Berkeley's argument for subjective idealism
Criticism of premise 1
Bostrom's theory
Absolute Idealism
Definition of absolute idealism
Hegel's view
Three stages of conflict-and-resolution:
Hegel's argument for absolute idealism
Panpsychism
Definition of panpsychism
Argument for panpsychism
Combination problem
Solution
B. Time
Introduction
Structure of time:
Bounded or unbounded:
Continuous or discrete:
Linear or closed loop:
Branching or non-branching:
Single or multiple:
Does Time Flow: Dynamic Theory vs. Static Theory
Einstein vs. Bergson
Definition of dynamic time theory
Presentism
Growing Past Theory
Moving Spotlight Theory
Definition of static time theory
Block universe
Criticism 1
Criticism 2
Time Travel
Purpose of time travel paradoxes
Twin paradox
Predestination paradox
Bootstrap paradox
Grandfather paradox
The Ship of Theseus and Identity over Time
Ship 1: refurbished ship with old boards replaced
Ship 2: ship reassembled from the old replaced boards
Hobbes's solution:
Block universe solution:
C. Abstract Objects
Realism
Definition of concrete objects
Physical things: a chair, a rock, a person
Events: earthquakes, a birthday party
Times: seconds, moments, years
Places: my back yard, outer space
Definition of abstract objects
Universal properties: greenness, squareness, chairness
Universal relations: smoothness, coldness, betweenness
Mathematical entities: the number 5, pi, the null set
Propositions: meaningful statements such as "the door is brown"
Definition of realism
Definition of anti-realism
Argument for realism
Plato's theory of the Forms
Mathematical entities
Argument from indispensability
Anti-realism criticism
Anti-Realism: Nominalism and Conceptualism
Principle of simplicity ("Ockham's Razor")
Definition of nominalism
Paraphrase nominalism
Definition of conceptualism
Problem with conceptualism
Descartes' solution: concepts are physical patterns that are directly imprinted on the brain itself
Substance: Substratum Theory vs. Bundle Theory
Definition of substance-substratum
How many substances:
Monistic materialism: there is only one substance-substratum in the universe, which is material stuff.
Monistic idealism: there is only one substance-substratum in the universe, which is spirit-mind in nature, such as the mind of God.
Dualism: There are two substance-substrata in the universe, one of which is matter and the other spirit-mind
Pluralism: There are many substance-substrata in the universe, one for each concrete particular object like a tree.
Definition of substratum theory
Argument
Two metaphysical components of substratum theory
Definition of bundle theory
Two parts to bundle theory
Trope theory
Conceptualist: attributes are bundles of concepts in our brains
Fictional Objects
Lewis theory
Abstract object theory
Abstract person-kinds (Nicholas Wolterstorff) theory
Abstract artifact theory
Nominalism theory
Conceptualists theory
D. Criticisms of Metaphysics
Kant's critique of metaphysics
Phenomenal realm
Noumenal realm
Transcendental idealism
Intuitions of space and time:
12 Categories:
Response to Kant's theory
Logical Positivism's critique of metaphysics
Principle of verification:
Problem with the verification principle
Scientism's critique of metaphysics
Extreme scientism
Moderate scientism
Ladyman and Doss's view
Naturalistic metaphysics
KNOWLEDGE
Introduction
Heaven's Gate example
Definition of epistemology
Procedural knowledge and propositional knowledge
A. Skepticism
Introduction
Philosophical skepticism
Radical Skepticism
Local skepticism vs. radical skepticism
Pyrrhonian skepticism
Human Skepticism
Cartesian Skepticism
Criticisms of Radical Skepticism
I know one truth: I exist
Skeptic's response:
Can't live as skeptics in our normal lives
Skeptic's response:
Radical skepticism is self-refuting
Skeptic's response:
Radical skepticism has an unrealistically high standard of knowledge
Skeptic's response:
B. Sources of Knowledge
Introduction
Definitions of experiential and non-experiential knowledge
Experiential Knowledge
Perception
Direct realism
Indirect realism
Problems:
Introspection
Problems:
Memory
Problems:
Testimony
Problems:
Extrasensory perception
Problems:
Religious experience
Problems:
Non-Experiential Knowledge
Math and logic examples
Necessity
Analyticity
Rationalism and Empiricism
Definition of rationalism
Definition of empiricism
Kant's solution
C. The Definition of Knowledge
Introduction
JTB definition of knowledge
Justified True Belief
Truth
Possible counter-instance and criticism of this
Belief
Possible counter-instance and criticism of this
Justification
Possible counter-instance and criticism of this
The Gettier Problem
Point of Gettier's argument
Red ball example
No defeater solution
D. Truth, Justification and Relativism
Theories of Truth
Correspondence theory
Criticism
Coherence theory
Criticism
Deflationary theory
Theories of Justification
Foundationalism
Criticism
Coherentism
Criticism
Reliabilism
Clock metaphor
What's so Bad about Relativism?
Acceptable types of relativism
Etiquette relativism
Aesthetic relativism
Perceptual relativism
Controversial types of relativism
Truth relativism
Justification relativism
Criticism of truth and justification relativism
Nietzsche's response (Nietzsche)
E. Scientific Knowledge
Confirming Theories
Scientific hypothesis, theory and law
Scientific hypothesis
Scientific theory
Scientific law
Types of confirmation
Simplicity
Unification
Successful prediction
Falsifiability
Scientific Revolutions
Definition of scientific revolution
Paradigm shifts (Kuhn)
Criticism of Kuhn
ETHICS
Introduction
California bank robbers
A. Moral Relativism
Plato: Objective Moral Forms
Three features of moral objectivism
Three features of moral relativism
Plato's theory of the forms
Moral Relativism
Sextus Empiricus, examples of moral diversity
Argument from cultural variation
Objectivist response to premise 1
Objectivist response to premise 2
The Moderate Compromise
Compromise 1
Compromise 2
B. Selfishness
Introduction
Example of postman
Definition of psychological egoism
Definition of psychological altruism
Ought implies can
Hobbes: The Case for Egoism
Pity
Charity
Argument from simplicity
Butler: The Case for Altruism
Different self-oriented motives
Instinctive benevolence
Egoism and the Struggle for Survival
Evolution and selfishness
Kin selection
Reciprocal altruism (Wilson)
C. Reason and Emotion
Introduction
PETA
Moral Reasoning: Detecting Truth and Motivating Behavior
Two principles of moral reasoning
Hume: We Can't Derive Ought from Is
Criticism of principle 1
Criticism of principle 2
Cannot derive ought from is
Ayer: Moral Utterances Express Feelings
Factual reports
Nonfactual expressions
Emotivism
D. Virtues
Introduction
Definition of virtue and vice
Aristotle: The Virtuous Mean
Animalistic and rational elements of people
Mean between extremes
Examples
Virtues and Gender
Psychological distinction between men and women
Virtue theory and feminist ethics (three points)
Gilligan's view of care
Virtues and Rules
Argument from misused virtues
Argument from hidden mental habits
Two conclusions about virtue and rules
E. Duties
Pufendorf: Duties to God, Oneself and Others
Instinctive duties
Duties to God, oneself and others
Kant: The Categorical Imperative
Hypothetical imperatives vs. categorical imperatives
The categorical imperative principle
Intrinsic vs. instrumental value
Duties to Animals and the Environment
Direct vs. indirect duties
Kant and indirect duties to animals
Self-awareness criterion of moral
Indirect duties to the environment
Direct duties to the environment
F. Utilitarianism
Introduction
Problem with duty theory
Utilitarianism defined
Bentham: The Utilitarian Calculus
Seven factors
Mill: Higher Pleasures and Rules
Criticism of Bentham's view of quantified pleasures
Criticism of Bentham's act utilitarianism
Mill's rule utilitarianism
Solving moral dilemmas
Reactions from Duty Theorists
Criticism 1 of utilitarianism
Criticism 2 of utilitarianism
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Introduction
Interim Government of the Republic of Texas
A. The Social Contract
Hobbes's Theory
Two factors of the state of nature
First law of nature
Second law of nature
Third law of nature
Need for government
The Prisoner's Dilemma
Example of me and Joe
Application to social contract theory
Social Contracts and Bigotry
Animals and minorities
Potential domination of bigots
B. Rights
Introduction
Freedom from harm
Freedom to act
Legal rights vs. natural rights
Three features of natural rights
Natural Rights and Revolution
Locke's state of nature
Locke's list of rights
Justification for revolution
Are Natural Rights Grounded in Fact?
Bentham's criticism of natural rights
Universal declaration of human rights
Do We Need Rights?
Correlativity of rights and duties
Sufficiency of duties
The added element of rights
C. Political Liberalism and Property
Introduction
Political liberalism defined
Distributive justice defined
Nozick and Libertarianism
Libertarianism defined
Argument for minimalist state
Two principles of entitlement theory
Libertarian solution to poverty (three prongs)
Practical problem with libertarianism
Rawls and Welfare Liberalism
Natural lottery
Original position
Veil of ignorance
Two principles of justice
Criticism: rational gamblers
D. Individual and Community
Introduction
Antz movie example
Individualistic vs. community-oriented theories
Plato's Republic
Community as a giant human being
Three groups of people
Noble lie
Orwell's 1984
Marx and Communism
Historical materialism
Class struggle
Alienated labor
Communist revolution
Criticism of communism
Species-being
E. Governmental Coercion
Introduction
Three examples
Four Justifications
Harm principle
Offense principle
Legal paternalism
Legal moralism
Mill's Principle of Liberty and Harm
Mill's principle of liberty
Rejection of principles of offense, paternalism and moralism
Happy society argument for liberty
Social contract argument for liberty
Defense of legal paternalism
G. War
Introduction
War of Texan freedom example
Just War Theory
Initially waging war (jus ad bellum)
Just cause
Right intention
Proper authority
Reasonable success
Conducting war (jus in bello)
Discrimination
Proportionality
Pacifism
Types of pacifism
Absolute pacifism
Conditional pacifism
Religious justifications for pacifism
Secular justifications
Cost/benefit analysis
Killing innocent people
Free rider criticism
Pacifist response
ART
Introduction
Carl Andre bricks
"The Museum of Non-Visible Art" example
Branches of art
Philosophy of art vs. art theory
A. Beauty
Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder?
Musical preference is a personal matter
Definitions:
Subjectivism:
Objectivism:
Subjectivism
Evidence of no universality:
Argument from lack of universality
Objectivism
Argument from universality
Evidence of universality:
Reid's view
Culturalism
Fallacy of False Dilemma:
Criticism 1:
Criticism 2:
Culturalism:
Three-part division:
Parallels in ethics:
Beauty and Goodness
Beauty-Goodness Theory:
Goodness:
Greek term:
Feature 1:
Feature 2:
Convertibility of transcendentals:
Augustine:
Theory of artistic beauty:
The rhythm and harmony of music:
Decline of the beauty-goodness theory:
Moore's theory
Regarding feature 1:
Two planets thought experiment:
Regarding feature 2:
Beauty and Taste
Taste theory:
Artistic taste and culinary taste analogy: .
Joseph Addison:
Artistic taste:
Tea Connoisseur Example:
Three features of taste theory
It is psychological theory:
The "immediacy of art" thesis:
Various qualities of mental taste:
Value taste:
Lockean subjectivists view of value taste
Culinary taste:
Value taste:
Reid's objectivist view of value taste
Culinary taste:
Value taste:
Criticism:
Beauty and Evolution
Peacock example
Augustine:
Evolutionists:
Darwin, The Origin of the Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871)
Natural selection:
Sexual selection:
Lower sense of beauty within animals
Arises through sexual selection:
Insects-plants:
Animals:
Higher sense of beauty within humans does not arise through sexual selection
Sexual Selection:
Natural Selection:
Culture:
Denis Dutton, The Art Instinct (2009)
What humans specifically find beautiful is an evolutionary trait shaped by natural selection, and not merely a social construction
Evolution has set limits on what culture can pass off as art
Evidence
Surveys show a common preference for landscape art of a very specific format:
Pear-shaped stone (Acheulean tool:
"Universal signatures" of art that reveal a precise art instinct
Technical artistic skill
Nonutilitarian pleasure
Stylistic rules
Appreciation and interpretation
Imitation
Special focus
Imagination
Limits to evolutionary theories of beauty
No evolutionary explanation of all the stages
A major missing link is whether animals like the peahen experience a genuine sense of beauty
B. Aesthetics
Introduction
Anesthetic dulls sensations, aesthetic enlivens sensations, particularly pleasure
Term introduced by Alexander Baumgarten (1714-1762) as a replacement for the word "taste" in philosophical discussions of art
Broad philosophical use:
Narrow philosophical use:
The Aesthetic Attitude of Disinterestedness
Mansion example
Kant:
Edward Bullough:
Over-distancing:
Under-distancing:
George Dickie: "The Myth of the Aesthetic Attitude", 1964
Criticism 1:
Criticism 2:
Response to Dickie:
The Aesthetic Experience
What is this mysterious aesthetic experience that emerges when you view an art object?
Direct vs. indirect description of an experience
Direct: my kitchen table is the large rectangular object with four legs in my kitchen.
Indirect: my kitchen table is the object that I sit down in front of for every meal.
Indirect descriptions of the experience of "sour" (direct ones are not possible)
Sour results from the activation of sour taste receptors on the tongue.
Sour is commonly associated with acidic foods like lemons.
Sour things incline you to pucker your mouth.
Private experiences can only be described indirectly, not directly
e.g., Platonic beauty cannot be directly described since it is a mystical experience
Ineffability thesis:
Monroe Beardsley's indirect description of an aesthetic experience
a mental activity that (1) is unified, (2) has a fixed attention on an object, and (3) produces pleasure (i.e., "intense and pleasurable focus on an object")
Criticism of Beardsley: William Kennick's "warehouse test"
Someone knowledgeable about art goes into a warehouse of every kind of object, and places white stickers ones that produce an aesthetic experience, and a black sticker on those that involve an "intense and pleasurable focus on an object".
If Beardsley is right, then black and white stickers will be exactly same objects; the reality is that they won't, e.g., Munch's "The Scream" or an ordinary rock from the vantage of a geologist
Four reasons there isn't a distinct aesthetic experience
Even if there is no unique art experience, the notion may still be a helpful one
May help unify the various branches of art
May provide a lure for people to engage in art activities
The Aesthetic Object
Possible candidates for art objects
Painting: artist's conception, preliminary sketches, final painting, reproduction poster, viewer's conception.
Music: composer's conception, rough drafts, musical score, premiere performance, recording, listener's conception.
Sculpture: sculptor's conception, preliminary sketches, original sculpture, miniature reproduction, viewer's conception.
Literature: author's conception, rough drafts, printed words in the first edition, reader's conception.
Theatre: playwright's conception, rough drafts, script, premiere performance, local performance, viewer's conception.
Two general categories of possible art objects:
(1) mental conceptions, and (2) physical manifestations.
Intuitionist theory (Croce-Collingwood):
The art object is not the physical manifestation, but, rather, the concept within the artists mind that is then transmitted to the viewer's mind
The viewer "reproduces" or "reconstructs" the artist's original intuition through some physical medium
The physical manifestation is just a middleman, e.g., The Museum of Non-Visible Art
Criticisms of intuitionist theory
Criticism 1:
Criticism 1:
Art object as physical manifestation
The closer we get to the first completed version of an artwork, often its public debut, the closer we are to its identity as the original art object
Derivative art object: an art object with a secondary status that depends upon an earlier original version (copies, replicas, recreations, interpretations, restorations, renovations, revisions, covers, forgeries)
Derivative art object thesis: we are permanently removed from any truly "original" art object, because of the passage of time and the ordinary process of decay, and derivatives are all we can know
e.g. music:
Dewey:
C. What is Art?
Imitationism: Representing Things in the World
Introduction
imitation theory of art is that all art imitates the world
the essence of each branch of art is based on the imitation of a sensibly perceptible reality
Plato:
Aristotle:
Charles Batteux (1713-1789): The Fine Arts Reduced to a Single Principle (1746)
"the artist does not represent nature as it actually is, but rather as it could be as truly beautiful with all the perfections it could have"
Artists enter a state of mind often called "enthusiasm", which is like an intoxication or heavenly vision, in which they transport themselves into the reality that they wish to represent
Problems with imitationism
Criticism 1:
Locke's empiricism
Criticism 2:
Expressivism: Communicating Emotions
The theory of expressivism:
Aristotle's cathartic expressivism:
Purgation and catharsis:
Tolstoy's artist-viewer expressivism:
art is the infectious communication of emotions through some created object
Criticism: expressivism depicts an emotional reaction that is too melodramatic and unrepresentative of what the vast majority of art lovers experience
Formalism: art is about the purely visual or auditory components of the artwork that are alterable, not about what it represents or its relationship to the larger world.
"art for art's sake",
Significant form: "lines and colours combined in a particular way; certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions"
"imagine a boat in complete isolation, detach it from man and his urgent activities and fabulous history"
Three points
Philistine:
Criticism 1:
Criticism 2:
Food analogy:
Family Resemblance Theory: Non-Exclusive Common Features
Art warehouse test:
De-definitions of art:
Family resemblance definition:
Wittgenstein's family resemblance:
Morris Weitz (1916-1981):
"criteria of recognition": the conditions that frequently recur
Traditional
Art is an "open concept": "new art forms, new movements will emerge, which will demand decisions" about which features to include
Criticism: doppelganger problem: two objects in the art warehouse have exactly the same colored stickers, yet one would be art and the other not
e.g., organ fugue written by Bach vs. a computer-generated musical composition created though machine learning
Institutional Theory: Agreement by Art Institutions
Institutional definition: art is that which is accepted as such by authorities of art
George Dickie: A work of art in the classificatory sense is (1) an artifact (2) a set of the aspects of which has had conferred upon it the status of candidate for appreciation by some person or persons acting on behalf of a certain social institution (the art-world). [Art and the Aesthetic, 1974, Ch. 1]
E.g., painting done by Betsy the chimpanzee
Criticism:
Resemblance-institutional theory: over time art institutions have identified a list of family resemblance features that serve as rules for what we call art; It cautiously weeds out some that have proven inviable, and cautiously adds new ones as new needs arise.
Solution to doppelganger problem with Weitz's theory: a social system of baroque music theorists would determine whether or not to confer legitimacy upon the computer piece
Solution to tyrannical institution problem of Dickie's theory: we may dismiss such tyrannical systems as illegitimate since they discard too may tried and true family resemblance rules, and whimsically add new tyrannical ones
LOGIC
Introduction
Fallacies of the Sophists
A. What is an Argument?
Terms
Premise: a statement which is used as evidence for a conclusion
Conclusion: a statement which is supported by at least one premise
Argument: at least one premise accompanied with a conclusion.
Propositions and Non-Propositional Statements
Utterance: The most general form of verbal expression
which conveys meaning. Statements include questions ("who am I?"), commands ("get that porcupine out of my face!"), expressions of feelings ("three cheers for old glory!"), and propositions (see next definition).
Proposition: An either true or false statement about the world, such as, "The door is brown"
Premise and Conclusion Indicators
Premise Indicators
Since
For
Because
Given that
For the reason that
In view of the fact that
Conclusion Indicators
Therefore
Thus
Hence
So
Accordingly
For this reason
Consequently
It follows that
Argument Diagrams
Joint inference: 1+2 |→ 3
Independent inference: 1 |→ 3 and 2 |→ 3
B. Informal fallacies
Fallacies of Relevance
Argument against the Person (argumentum ad hominem): attacking a person's character instead of the content of that person's argument.
Argument from Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam): concluding that something is true since you can't prove it is false.
Appeal to Pity (argumentum ad misericordiam): appealing to a person's unfortunate circumstance as a way of getting someone to accept a conclusion.
Appeal to the Masses (argumentum ad populum): going along with the crowd in support of a conclusion.
Appeal to Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam): appealing to a popular figure who is not an authority in that area
Irrelevant Conclusion (non sequitur): drawing a conclusion which does not follow from the evidence.
Other Common Fallacies
False Cause (post hoc ergo procter hoc): inferring a causal connection based on mere correlation.
Circular Reasoning: implicitly using your conclusion as a premise.
Equivocation: an argument which is based on two definitions of one word.
Composition: assuming that the whole must have the properties of its parts.
Division: assuming that the parts of a whole must have the properties of the whole.
Red Herring: introducing an irrelevant or secondary subject and thereby diverting attention from the main subject.
Straw Man: distorting an opposing view so that it is easy to refute.
C. Propositional Statements
Complex Propositions and Logical Connectives
Logical Connectives
Conjunction: P and Q
Disjunction: P or Q
Conditional: if P then Q
Negation: not P
Conjunction Clue Words ("And")
P, but Q
P, although Q
P; Q
P, besides Q
P, however Q
P, whereas Q
Conditional Clue Words ("If-Then")
If P, it follows that Q
P implies Q
P entails Q
Whenever P, Q
P, therefore Q
Q follows from P
Q, since P
Nested Logical Connectives
D. Propositional Logic
Valid Argument Forms
Valid Argument: an argument which fits a valid argument form (such as modus ponens)
Modus Ponens
premise (1) If P then Q
premise (2) P
concl. (3) Therefore, Q
Modus Tollens
premise (1) If P then Q
premise (2) Not Q
concl. (3) Therefore, not P
Disjunctive Syllogism (two versions)
premise (1) P or Q
premise (2) not P
concl. (3) therefore, Q
Hypothetical Syllogism
premise (1) if P then Q
premise (2) if Q then R
concl. (3) Therefore, if P then R
Fallacious Argument Forms
Fallacious Modus Ponens: fallacy of affirming the consequent
premise (1) if P then Q
premise (2) Q
concl. (3) therefore, P
Fallacious Modus Tollens: fallacy of denying the antecedent
premise (1) if P then Q
premise (2) not P
concl. (3) therefore, not Q
Fallacious Disjunctive Syllogism: fallacy of asserting an alternative
premise (1) P or Q
premise (2) P
concl. (3) therefore, not Q
Sound and Unsound Arguments
Sound Argument: an argument which (a) follows a valid argument form, and (b) has only true premises.
E. Inductive Logic
Inductive vs. Deductive Arguments
Deductive argument: an argument whose conclusion follows necessarily from its basic premises.
Inductive argument: an argument in which the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion.
Inductive Probability
Inductively very strong: probability is close to certain.
Inductively strong: probability is high.
Inductively weak: probability is low.
Inductively very weak: probability is close to non-existent.
Inductive Argument Forms
Simple Enumerative Induction: drawing a generalized conclusion about an entire class of things based on a few observations about members of that class.
premise (1) Item x has attribute A
premise (2) Item y has attribute A
concl. (3) Therefore, all items of the same type as x and y probably have attribute A
Fallacy of hasty generalization: drawing a general conclusion based on one or several atypical instances.
Statistical induction: drawing a conclusion about a population based on a statistically acceptable sample.
premise (1) n percent of a sample has attribute A.
concl. (2) Therefore, n percent of a population probably has attribute A.
Fallacy of small sample: a conclusion is too strong to be supported by a small sample number.
Fallacy of biased sample: a conclusion is too strong to be supported by a nonrandom sampling technique.
Statistical syllogism: drawing a conclusion about an item based on statistics about the population as a whole.
premise (1) n percentage of a population has attribute A.
premise (2) x is a member of that population.
concl. (3) Therefore, there is an n probability that x has A.
Fallacy of small proportion: a conclusion is too strong to be supported by the small population proportion with the attribute.
Argument from Analogy: drawing a conclusion about one individual based on its similarities with another individual.
premise (1) Objects x and y each have attributes A, B and C.
premise (2) Object x has an additional attribute D.
concl. (3) Therefore, object y probably also has attribute D.
Fallacy of false analogy: comparing two items that have trivial points in common, but differ from each other in more significant ways.