[
    {
        "title": "Touching Concrete while pouring by hands",
        "body": "The most likely explanation for trouble with the hands coming into contact with fresh concrete is found in the ingredients of concrete or cement and the chemical reactions they possibly cause. These effects can be a little bit delayed in time, like a few hours or the next day.  What is concrete?     Although the terms cement and concrete often are used interchangeably, cement is actually an ingredient of concrete. Concrete is basically a mixture of aggregates and paste. The aggregates are sand and gravel or crushed stone; the paste is water and portland cement. Concrete gets stronger as it gets older. Portland cement is not a brand name, but the generic term for the type of cement used in virtually all concrete, just as stainless is a type of steel and sterling a type of silver. Cement comprises from 10 to 15 percent of the concrete mix, by volume. Through a process called hydration, the cement and water harden and bind the aggregates into a rocklike mass. This hardening process continues for years meaning that concrete gets stronger as it gets older.   One of the key ingredients in cement is lime, or Calcium oxide which may react to Calcium hydroxide, both substances or alkaline and caustic.   Occupational safety precaution say this:     Appendix D Lime Safety Precautions       Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), like most materials or chemicals in common use, is not dangerous to work with providing a few simple precautions are exercised. Quicklime (calcium oxide), also called \u201chot\u201d lime, is considerably more dangerous to use than hydrated lime. While both types of lime are strongly alkaline, quicklime is much more caustic and can produce severe burns quickly when in contact with moist skin. It is also desirable to prevent as much hydrate as possible from coming into contact with workers\u2019 skin. Usually danger from severe burns is remote, but prolonged contact of hydrated lime with a perspiring workers\u2019 skin where the skin is also chafed by tight clothing has produced bad burns. Other persons with particularly sensitive skin have developed forms of skin irritation (dermatitis) through prolonged contact. There is no urgency in removing hydrated lime from skin, but it should be flushed off with water as soon as convenient. However, quicklime should be washed off or at least brushed off immediately after contact with skin, since it is caustic. Hot, humid weather conditions tend to heighten the caustic effect of hydrated lime on a worker\u2019s skin.   After Work   Bathe or shower after a workday to cleanse the body entirely of lime and protective cream.   First Aid   1. Skin burns--Wash thoroughly with soap and warm water to remove all lime. Apply a standard burn ointment used for heat or caustic burns, and cover with sterile bandages. Keep bandaged during healing to prevent infection.   2. Lime in the Eyes--Hold worker\u2019s eye open and flush out with water immediately. Too much water cannot be used.   3. Report all burns from lime or cases of lime in eyes immediately so that medical attention can be provided without delay.   But these are not all the possible causes.      Construction Safety Association of Ontario: Cement Hazards and Controls Health Risks and Precautions in Using Portland Cement      Health effects   Cement can cause ill health by skin contact, eye contact, or inhalation. Risk of injury depends on duration and level of exposure and individual sensitivity.      Hazardous materials in wet concrete and mortar include:         alkaline compounds such as lime (calcium oxide) that are corrosive to human tissue   trace amounts of crystalline silica which is abrasive to the skin and can damage lungs   trace amounts of chromium that can cause allergic reactions.   Skin contact   The hazards of wet cement are due to its caustic, abrasive, and drying properties.         Wet concrete contacting the skin for a short period and then thoroughly washed off causes little irritation. But continuous contact between skin and wet concrete allows alkaline compounds to penetrate and burn the skin.      When wet concrete or mortar is trapped against the skin\u2014for instance, by falling inside a worker\u2019s boots or gloves or by soaking through protective clothing\u2014the result may be first, second, or third degree burns or skin ulcers. These injuries can take several months to heal and may involve hospitalization and skin grafts.      Personal protection   To protect skin from cement and cement mixtures, workers should wear:         alkali-resistant gloves   coveralls with long sleeves and full-length trousers (pull sleeves down - over gloves and tuck pants inside boots and duct-tape at the top to keep mortar and concrete out)   waterproof boots high enough to prevent concrete from flowing in when  workers must stand in fresh concrete   suitable respiratory protective equipment such as a P, N or R 95  respirator when cement dust can\u2019t be avoided   suitable eye protection where mixing, pouring, or other activities may endanger eyes (minimum\u2014safety glasses with sideshields or goggles, under extremely dusty conditions, tight-fitting unvented or indirectly vented goggles. Don\u2019t wear contact lenses when handling cement or cement products).         Work practices   When laying concrete block, have different sizes on hand to avoid cutting or hammering to make them fit.         Work in ways that minimize the amount of cement dust released.   Where possible, wet-cut rather than dry-cut masonry products.   Mix dry cement in well-ventilated areas.   Make sure to work upwind from dust sources.   Where possible, use ready-mixed concrete instead of mixing on site.   When kneeling on fresh concrete, use a dry board or waterproof kneepads to protect knees from water that can soak through fabric.   Remove jewelry such as rings and watches because wet cement can collect under them.         Hygiene         Clothing contaminated by wet cement should be quickly removed. Skin in contact with wet cement should be washed immediately with    large amounts of cool clean water.   Don\u2019t wash your hands with water from buckets used for cleaning tools.   Provide adequate hygiene facilities on site for workers to wash hands and face at the end of a job and before eating, drinking, smoking, or using the toilet. Facilities for cleaning boots and changing clothes should also be available.         First aid   Skin contaminated with wet or dry cement should be washed with cold running water as soon as possible. Open sores or cuts should be thoroughly flushed and covered with suitable dressings. Get medical attention if discomfort persists. Contaminated eyes should be washed with cold tap water for at least 15 minutes before the affected person is taken to hospital.   The above is what makes nearly every form of cement problematic. A less generalised source of a multitude of problems is the variable nature of other ingredients:     Besides portland cement, concrete may contain other cementitious materials including fly ash, a waste byproduct from coal burning electric power plants; ground slag, a byproduct of iron and steel manufacturing; and silica fume, a waste byproduct from the manufacture of silicon or ferro-silicon metal. Some of these cementitious materials are similar to the volcanic ashes the Romans mixed with lime to obtain their cement binder.   Although these other ingredients should be chosen carefully by the manufacturer, the list of possible substances is quite long. Things like toxicity or allergenic potential are impossible to predict for that from general considerations. Some cement mixtures contain quite a lot of hexavalent chromium for example.  The most likely cause remains the alkaline nature of cement. Symptoms for the occupational safety hazard might look like:           But     These Problems Aren't Set in Stone   Concrete burns are a serious, sometimes disabling problem for exposed workers. Medical tests cannot predict who will get skin problems.   There are even cases of second hand cement exposure.  From all of this it should be clear to practice good occupational safety, to use protective gear and consult a medical practitioner as soon as any suspicious symptoms appear.  For a recent review of potentially problematic ingredients, see:     Rawaz Kurda & Jos\u00e9 D. Silvestre & Jorge de Brito: \"Toxicity and environmental and economic performance of fly ash and recycled concrete aggregates use in concrete: A review\", Heliyon, 4(4) 2018, DOI:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00611   A study on the potential metal leaching and toxicity of FA, when used as binder in soil stabilization, showed significant differences in leaching characteristics with respect to heavy metals. [\u2026]    Numerous toxic elements show high enrichment in the fine particles of coal FA [66]. In fact, the concentration of volatile elements, such as, Cd, Pb and Zn, increases with the decrease of FA particle size from coarse to fine [67, 68]. Moreover, the particles of FA have a large surface area in comparison to mass [69]. The smaller particles have higher surface areas and contain significant surface concentrations of potentially toxic trace elements [70]. According to Roy et al. [71], the leachability of elements (P, Fe, Al, B, K, and Ca) decreases for longer ages. The authors also sorted the relative concentrations of leached elements in 3 pH levels: (I) Alkaline: Se > B > Cr > Ni> Cu > Ba > As > Zn > Al; (II) Neutral: B > Cd > As > Se > Zn > Ni > Mn > Cu >Ba; and (III) Acidic: B \u226b Zn > Ca, F > Na > Mg, Co > Ni, Sr > Be > Cu, Pb, Al \u226b Si, Fe, K.   Based on a study by Theis and Gardner, the aqueous solubility of FA ranges is about 0.5\u20133% of total original mass. In spite of the insignificant total amount of leachate, the content needs to be precisely investigated and compared to the corresponding regulations.[\u2026]         It has been argued that FA concrete showed considerable leaching of heavy metals and must be regarded as hazardous materials while other studies show that heavy metal's concentrations in leachates from concrete containing FA are significantly lower and very close to the EPA drinking water standard limit;   Long-term leaching from well-cured concrete produced with OPC and neither RCA nor NA release detectable concentrations of toxic metals;   The leaching metals of FA decrease when they are incorporated in concrete. This reduction of the heavy metals' leaching between the FA powder and FA concrete may be related to the cement's ability to solubilize/stabilize the concentration of heavy metals due to chemical retention processes that allow the incorporation of the elements in the cement matrix, and physical retention by encapsulation. However, this study still suggests avoiding the use of FA concrete for drinking water tank and architectural concrete applications.      That means that concrete may contain quite a bit of problematic substances. Which substances anyone working with these cannot be predicted by just talking about \"concrete\". The actual mixture in use has to be analysed.",
        "id": 2404,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Accidentally took cold medicine an hour early",
        "body": "The main concern here is whether you took more than a recommended daily and more than a recommended single dose. That being said, people are different (in body mass, metabolism, health status etc.), so we can talk about probabilities, but not give a definite answer if something will happen.  The doses for acetaminophene (paracetamol):      The usual adult dose by mouth is 0.5 to 1 g every 4 to 6 hours up to a maximum of 4 g daily   The doses for dyphenhydramine:     For most indications, diphenhydramine hydrochloride is given by mouth in usual doses of 25 to 50 mg three or four times daily   For phenylephrine:     For nasal congestion [...] phenylephrine hydrochloride may be given by mouth in doses up to 20 mg every four hours.    If you are taking the medicine every 4 hours that's 6 times a day. You can see that by taking the medication one hour earlier once does not push your dose over the recommended limits. However, as I said, everyone is different and should you notice any symptoms or side effects you should contact your healthcare provider. Also, if you have any questions about your therapy your doctor and/or pharmacist are the best person to ask.  That being said: are these doses recommended by a doctor, or have you decided to take the medicine every 4 hours yourself? You can see that, with this regimen, your are pushing the doses towards the upper limit, which is not always necessary. These substances are treating the symptoms not the cause of your cold, so if you take less it might affect how you feel, but not the outcome of your treatment. Finally, taking a medicine every four hours disrupts your sleep, which might not be the best idea, especially when you are ill.    Source for dosages: Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference 34th edition",
        "id": 968,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the right medical procedure to correct Meniscus problems?",
        "body": "As shown in this study, the results of surgery are no better than the results of sham surgery. Such studies had been done previously with the same result, but these earlier studies included typical patients, a significant fraction of such patients suffer from degenerative disease like osteoarthritis. Then if surgery is found to not work, you don't know if that's due to the nature of the disease process or if surgery wouldn't even work under ideal circumstances. That's why this study was done and the results were negative:     In conclusion, the results of this randomized, sham-controlled trial show that arthroscopic partial medial meniscectomy provides no significant benefit over sham surgery in patients with a degenerative meniscal tear and no knee osteoarthritis. These results argue against the current practice of performing arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in patients with a degenerative meniscal tear. ",
        "id": 505,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which essential nutrient is the first that will cause debilitating illness if supply is insufficient",
        "body": "Since you have listed water as one of the nutrients, then clearly insufficient water will rapidly lead to renal failure and death.  If you don't want to include water, then one of the water soluble vitamins since these are not stored in the body in significant amounts as opposed to fat soluble vitamins.  And you've already answered with Vitamin C which is correct and can occur in 1-3 months.  In studies conducted on prison \"volunteers\" signs of deficiency appeared at 4 weeks.  Thiamine is another crucial water soluble vitamin.  Liver thiamine stores are depleted in 18 days and      A deficiency in thiamine leads to decreased activity of thiamine-dependent enzymes that triggers a sequence of metabolic events leading to energy compromise. Neuronal death often occurs in certain neuronal populations that have high metabolic requirements and high thiamine turnover.15 Areas commonly affected by thiamine deficiency are the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus, mammillary bodies, the periaqueductal gray matter, and the floor of the fourth ventricle, which includes the ocular motor, vestibular nuclei, and the cerebellar vermis.16 Lesions also may involve the fornices, the hippocampus, the area round the third ventricle, the quadrigeminal bodies, and the cortex.17 The predilection to affect memory circuits is responsible for the most important sequela of Wernicke\u2019s encephalopathy\u2014 Korsakoff\u2019s psychosis.18   Thiamine deficiency should be suspected in alcoholics presenting with confusion since they have poor diets, but also since alcohol inhibits thiamine absorption.  It should also be considered in some forms of heart failure.  Detecting which nutrient causes symptoms first would be difficult without controlled trials and in the modern era, the historical experiments conducted on prisoners and conscientious objectors would now be considered unethical.",
        "id": 2214,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Biotin supplement for Hair loss and is it really needed?",
        "body": "Biotin or vitamin B7 is a very common vitamin. It is widely available in all kinds of foods and what is more important intestinal bacteria produces biotin. As so true, acquired deficiency of biotin in modern world is practically non-existent (Wikipedia).    There are however some genetic mutations which can lead to biotin deficiency (Wikipedia). One of the prominent symptoms of inborn biotin deficiency is alopecia or hair loss. Due to this biotin supplements are often marketed as a treatment for hair loss.   A recent review in a high quality dermatology journal recaps the current treatments for male and female hair loss (PubMed). Authors conclude that \"No clinical trials showing efficacy treating hair loss; in vitro studies show no influence of biotin on cultured human follicular keratinocytes\".  I would not waste my money on biotin supplement due to the very negligible likelihood of biotin deficiency causing hair loss.",
        "id": 388,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fainted history in both myself and my father. Can it be related?",
        "body": "There is, unfortunately, no yes or no answer to this, especially not on-line. However, these information can help:  There can be various underlying causes of fainting, mostly cardiovascular or neurological. It is important to note that same pathophysiological mechanisms may be a part of different clinical syndromes. Some of these (classification adjusted for laypersons) include:   vasovagal syncope (neurocardiogenic syncope) orthostatic syncope (usually caused by orthostatic hypotension) - this is a subset of syncope caused by peripheral circulatory impairment various cardiac problems hypoglycaemia hypoxia reflexive anoxic seizures (RAS) loss of consciousness can be caused by an epileptic seizure or even a stroke, and should be distinguished from a syncope.   etc.  The fact that you faint after standing up is certainly one component of it, but as this article suggests, even that can be classified under different clinical syndromes (peripheral circulatory impairment or neurocardiogenic syncope, e.g.). This is why it is best practice to have this condition checked by a physician. Diagnosis cannot be made on-line.  To answer your other question, whether the condition is hereditary, it may, but doesn't have to be. The only way to determine this is to find the cause of fainting in both cases, that is in your and in your father's case.  On a general note, conditions caused by genetic disorders (i.e. mutations) may be monogenic (mutation is found on a single gene) and polygenic (mutations are on several genes, and one has to inherit more than one, for a condition to manifest). Than, there is a matter of a pattern in which the condition is passed on - whether the condition is dominant or recessive (i.e. whether the condition will manifest itself if you have the gene for it from one parent, or only if you inherited a certain mutation from both parents). In the end, there are multy-factorial conditions:     Very few health conditions are only caused by genes \u2013 most are caused by the combination of genes and environmental factors. (from NHS).   The claim very few is, as anongoodnurse noticed, proportional to overall number of diseases, but there are still a lot of conditions that are genetic.  So the matter of whether the conditions in a parent and child are connected isn't always straight-forward, but the place to start is definitely to determine the aetiology  in both cases, which can be done by a physician (in person).    References:   Essentials of Clinical Neurology: Neurology History and Examination Chapter 8: Episodic loss of consciousness NHS: Fainting - Causes NHS: Genetics - Genetic inheritance ",
        "id": 412,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Risks of Caffeine Powder",
        "body": "Caffeine comes from coffee beans, but it can also be synthesized in a laboratory.   Caffeine has the same structure whether it\u2019s in Coffee, Energy Drinks, Tea or pills/powder.  Caffeine dosages should be tailored to individuals. If you are new to caffeine supplements then the usual recommended start is with a 100mg dose (see warning below). Typically, 200mg of caffeine is used for fat-burning supplementation (impact is still being discussed in scientific community), while acute strength increases occur at higher doses, 500mg and above (again, still under discussion). Researchers tend to use a dosage range of 4-6mg/kg bodyweight.  The structure is the same but its easier to take more than you are used to if you measure wrong. I would personally suggest you avoid powder and go for pill form if you are set on reducing intake through less coffee.  You can read more about caffeine over at Examine.com    Caution Notice   Caffeine is highly stimulatory and a systemic vasoconstrictor. Caution should be exerted if one is either not used to caffeine ingestion or currently has high blood pressure.  Caffeine should not be used as a supplement in those with cardiac impairments without prior consultation of one's doctor.  Caffeine can also have an effect on ones quality of sleep; while you may be able to fall asleep, it will be of inferior quality.  Note: Habitual caffeine use leads to tolerance. This means the effects of caffeine will be diminished, often to the point where the only benefit a user experiences is caffeine\u2019s anti-sleep effect. This is an \u2018insurmountable\u2019 tolerance, which means more caffeine will not overcome it. A month-long break from caffeine will reduce tolerance.",
        "id": 1232,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any phase III clinical trials of probiotics?",
        "body": "You can search on the clinical trials website to find most of the trials conducted with probiotics.  Eg. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?intr=%22Lactobacillus%22 gives currently 589 results, some of which are described as phase 3 studies.  You can change the search term to acidophilus or whatever you're interested in.",
        "id": 2012,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sharp sudden pain in torso?",
        "body": "Check with doctor first.  1 - i think you have spin or disk hernia near L5-S1 or so  2 - is your posture poor or stable?  3 - if you sneeze (simulate real sneeze) does the pain triggers?  Drink lot of water if the pain is like you explained from belly to pelvic muscle ",
        "id": 1086,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can ibuprofen and paracetamol be taken together?",
        "body": "Yes, it is safe. The mechanism that ibuprofen and paracetamol use are different and don't interact negatively. In fact, the two drugs (medicines) can be used in conjunction for a synergistic effect so that it will provide greater pain relief than either drug alone. With that said, still follow the standard dosing instructions for each drug. That means don't take more than 3000 Mg of paracetamol in one day (24 hours) (this is a strict limit, can cause permanent damage  if you exceed 4000 mg in 24 hours) and don't take more than 1200 mg of ibuprofen in any 24 hour period or you risk stomach bleeding. Hope this helps :)  Sources: http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/857.aspx?CategoryID=73 Acetaminophen with ibuprofen",
        "id": 871,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My fruit punch Gatorade has a new warning label saying that it is genetically engineered",
        "body": "FDA guidelines for GenMod Foods     FDA regulates the safety of food for humans and animals, including foods produced from genetically engineered (GE) plants. Foods from GE plants must meet the same food safety requirements as foods derived from traditionally bred plants. Read more at Consumer Info About Food From Genetically Engineered Plants.   In the USA at least, the FDA regulates the general health risks of all foods as they are currently understood before allowing a company to sell those foods. If you are looking for an official source to tell you that GenMod'd food is as safe to consume as the unmodified version, this would be one. On the other hand, research concerning GenMod is still being conducted, and the FDA is not always up to date, so YMMV.",
        "id": 2270,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there tables that compare deadly effects of various psychoactive drugs?",
        "body": "These tables you wish for are not quite exactly in the format you would seem to like them and as far as I know not available for a \"global every substance we know\" analysis. It is also quite difficult to compare all of them in one metric alone since these drugs are sometimes quite incomparable.  General harmful results involving a certain drug  Most of the following tables and graphics are attempting to aggregate and integrate many aspects of \"harm\" involving a drug can cause. \"Involving\" a drug here includes any harm resulting from societal or legal troubles and other consequences. That is largely due to the legal or illegal status of a drug. In the case of clean cannabis (i.e. unadulterated, uncontaminated etc.) the direct physical harm from the drug itself, while not completely without possible dangers, is close to zero for the very vast majority of adult people without pre-existing conditions that would increase their vulnerability.    Since this data is based on the official statistics from countries waging the war on drugs, sometimes these statistics are a bit skewed. For example, if an autopsy reveals any casualty had consumed cannabis this is recorded as cannabis being involved in the death (and then sometimes sloppily even reported as \"causing\") even if the drug itself cannot and did not cause the death. These cases are for example resulting from accidents in traffic even if it entirely the fault of an entirely sober driver.  When interpreting the data, these intentional skewing by the authorities has to be taken into account.  But some very thorough studies on general harm were done, like these one for the UK:     Psychoactive drugs of misuse: rationalising the irrational (The Lancet Volume 369, No. 9566, p972, 24 March 2007)      Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis (The Lancet Volume 376, No. 9752, p1558\u20131565, 6 November 2010)   These findings lend support to previous work assessing drug harms, and show how the improved scoring and weighting approach of MCDA increases the differentiation between the most and least harmful drugs. However, the findings correlate poorly with present UK drug classification, which is not based simply on considerations of harm.   These findings are somewhat better described and more accessible in      Drugs that cause most harm Scoring drugs (Economist Nov 2nd 2010, The Economist online)      The prohibition policy that is associated with the War on Drugs is not in any way based on reality, rationality, common sense or risk/benefit analysis but ideology based on moral panics and a crime against humanity in itself. Still that list is not to be read that the above table is giving any substance a free pass on the basis that if it is deemed less dangerous than alcohol and alcohol is legal\u221e so\u2026 These numbers are composite aggregates and as such have a weakness of too much information reduction necessary to convince uneducated voters and politicians to readjust their decision making on perhaps some basis of rationality and a more balanced view of the available evidence.  Getting this into an again more complicated to read table, with numbers and legal status again for the UK:        Heroin  \u2013\u2013 Class A drug. Originally used as a painkiller and derived from the opium poppy. There were 897 deaths recorded from heroin and morphine use in 2008 in England and Wales, according to the Office of National Statistics (ONS). There were around 13,000 seizures, amounting to 1.6m tonnes of heroin.      Cocaine  \u2013\u2013 Class A. Stimulant produced from the South American coca leaf. Accounted for 235 deaths \u2013 a sharp rise on the previous year's fatalities. Nearly 25,000 seizures were made, amounting to 2.9 tonnes of the drug.      Barbituates  \u2013\u2013  Class B. Synthetic sedatives used for anaesthetic purposes. Blamed for 13 deaths.       Street methadone  \u2013\u2013 Class A. A synthetic opioid, commonly used as a substitute for treating heroin patients. Accounted for 378 deaths and there were more than 1,000 seizures of the drug.       Alcohol  \u2013\u2013 Subject to increasing concern from the medical profession about its damage to health. According to the ONS, there were 8,724 alcohol deaths in the UK in 2007. Other sources claim the true figure is far higher.      Ketamine \u2013\u2013 Class C. A hallucinogenic dance drug for clubbers. There were 23 ketamine-related deaths in the UK between 1993 and 2006. Last year there were 1,266 seizures.       Benzodiazepines  \u2013\u2013 Class C. A hypnotic relaxant used to treat anxiety and insomnia. Includes drugs such as diazepam, temazepam and nitrazepam. Caused 230 deaths and 1.8m doses were confiscated in more than 4,000 seizure operations.      Amphetamine  \u2013\u2013  Class B. A psychostimulant that combats fatigue and suppresses hunger. Associated with 99 deaths, although this tally includes some ecstasy deaths. Nearly 8,000 seizures, adding up to almost three tonnes.       Tobacco  \u2013\u2013   A stimulant that is highly addictive due to its nicotine content. More than 100,000 people a year die from smoking and tobacco-related diseases, including cancer, respiratory diseases and heart disease.       Buprenorphine    \u2013\u2013  An opiate used for pain control, and sometimes as a substitute to wean addicts off heroin. Said to have caused 43 deaths in the UK between 1980 and 2002.       Cannabis  \u2013\u2013 Class B. A psychoactive drug recently appearing in stronger forms such as \"skunk\". The subject of intense controversy over its long-term effects and capacity for inducing schizophrenia. Caused 19 deaths and there were 186,000 seizures, netting 65 tonnes of the drug and 640,000 cannabis plants.      Solvents  \u2013\u2013  Fumes inhaled to produce a sense of intoxication. Usually abused by teenagers. Derived from commonly available products such as glue and aerosol sprays. Causes around 50 deaths a year.      4-MTA  \u2013\u2013 Class A. Originally designed for laboratory research. Releases serotonin in the body. Only four deaths reported in the UK between 1997 and 2004.      LSD \u2013\u2013  Class A. Hallucinogenic drug originally synthesised by a German chemist in 1938. Very few deaths recorded.      Methylphenidate \u2013\u2013   Class B drug. Brand name of Ritalin. A psychostimulant sometimes used in the treatment of attention deficit disorders.      Anabolic steroids   \u2013\u2013 Class C. Used to develop muscles, notably in competitive sports. Also alleged to induce aggression. Have been blamed for causing deaths among bodybuilders. More than 800 seizures.      GHB   \u2013\u2013 Class C drug. A clear liquid dance drug said to induce euphoria, also described as a date rape drug. Can trigger comas and suppress breathing. Caused 20 deaths and 47 seizures were recorded.      Ecstasy  \u2013\u2013   Class A. Psychoactive dance drug. Caused 44 deaths, with around 5,000 seizures made.   Alykl nitrites \u2013\u2013  Known as \"poppers\". Inhaled for their role as a muscle relaxant and supposed sexual stimulant. Reduce blood pressure, which can cause fainting and in some cases death.   Khat   \u2013\u2013 A psychoactive plant, the leaves of which are chewed in east Africa and Yemen. Also known as qat. Produces mild psychological dependence. Its derivatives, cathinone and cathine, are Class C drugs in the UK.      Again, this is not a guideline for anything but an attempt to rationalise. Solvents are one of the stupidest ways imaginable to get intoxicated, rather than inebriated, causing quite a lot of individual damage in a very short amount of time. But since they cause comparatively few deaths and not much crime, they get a good spot on the list. Cannabis is listed as causing 19 deaths. Which is again difficult to put into perspective, as the substance  may have been \"involved\" in the deaths recorded in that statistic, but certainly did not directly cause any death in itself from an overdose.  Chewing just Khat is also listed above. While the leaves have to be chewed for a long time to produce any effect at all, and no deaths are recorded from the leves, the purified substance can be quite nasty and if this chemical is then again adulterated or mixed the results are anyones guess again.  These findings are found refined visually in Drug harmfulness:              Bringing all these substances into one comparison has its advantages \u2013 but it is very difficult comparison in a very complicated matter. One thing to keep in mind besides the overall harm a substance might cause is the directly deadly effect any one given substance might cause. This is a problem for many drugs, as the quality classic illegal drugs from the 1960s like Cannabis and LSD, simply are just not deadly at all, despite causing the moral panic that deludes the public mind until today. Using organically grown coca-leaves as a tea or chew will not kill anyone, using the isolated active substance cocaine migt very well cause a fatal overdose. This is amplified danger if a first purified substance is then again diluted with an unknowable mixture of substances to sell it illegally \"on the street\".  The greatest harm and the most deaths from any of these substances can be read as caused primarily by the societal and political attitudes and laws around them, not by any pure substance as such.  Deaths directly caused by certain drugs  If \u2013 still \u2013 only the concrete death rate related to the most troubling substances, and the statistic reduced to the substances alone, recorded in nation-wide statistics are the primary concern, then for the US, the NIH gives the following figures:     Overdose Death Rates \u2013 (Revised September 2017)      Again, just concerning deaths, this time defined as drug poisoning deaths:     Drug poisoning deaths in the United States, 1980-2008.   If illegal or psychotropic psychoactive drugs were consequently treated like prescription drugs in the terms describing their effects, then one thing becomes apparent: prescription drugs, like chemically concentrated or purified natural drugs tend to have a very narrow therapeutic window or therapeutic index.  Opium has a wider therapeutic window since it's a mixture of opioids that are both synergistically and antagonistically. Opium is also comparatively weak compared to morphine that has a smaller window since it is the most depressing and analgesic substance isolated from opium, heroin is then an artificial  derivate with increased potency and purely synthetic opioids, like fentanyl, show so much receptor affinity and a that effect and overdose have to be again much more precisely calculated. Pharmacokinetics and route of administration differ as well.  How many deaths a drug causes also depends on the base rate of users of this drug. This ratio may be calculated with some confidence for users of tobacco and alcohol, but from illegal drugs this is a very convoluted story. Acute overdose poisoning from alcohol and even death is not uncommon, also even from acute withdrawal of that drug. All these effects are very rare from tobacco.  The numbers you are looking for would have to come from controlled lab experiments with pure substances and then extrapolated. Thanks to the current prohibition and uncontrolled market situation, this is largely an exercise in futility.",
        "id": 2211,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chlorophyll supplements: metabolism of chlorophyll in the human body and proof for resulting health benefits?",
        "body": "According to WebMD (evidence from Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database), there seems to be lack of convincing evidence to claim that chlorophyll supplements help to treat pain, cancer, infections or other health conditions.  Linus Pauling Institute provides few details about chlorophyll metabolism. They mention some old studies, according to which chlorophyll may promote wound healing. Most other studies have been done in vitro or in animals.  Many other \"health articles\" you find after searching for \"chlorophyll health benefits\" present chlorophyll in a misleading way and without references to studies, so it's best to skip them.",
        "id": 2709,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often can cancer just be cut out?",
        "body": "Surgery is typically an option taken with either superficial cancers, ones that do not tend to metastasize, ones that create well concentrated tumors, and/or are not next to crucial structures. The surgeon typically removes the tumor and some surrounding healthy tissue to ensure complete removal(1). In reality any tumor could be potentially operable if we had perfect hands, but a tumor is deemed inoperable when the surgeon himself does not feel safe attempting to excise it(2).  Typically survival rates from cancers depend on the stage they were caught in (3). Early cancers can usually be successfully treated with chemo and/or surgery, although it should be noted even if surgery is successful it is generally used along with chemo regardless just as an extra precaution(4).  In all honestly it is difficult to answer your question with percentages or raw numbers. It depends wildly on the type of cancer, tumor progression, location of the tumor, and unfortunately the skill of the surgeon himself/herself.  Further complicating those numbers is the fact that not all surgeries are intended for complete removal. Sometimes you may want a diagnostic sample or to perform a palliative surgery, in which you remove enough of the tumor to relieve symptoms for a patient that is usually beyond any other means of help(4).  More than likely you'll find much more reliable numbers in the other types of cancer therapies, most specifically in targeted biological/genetic approaches which are becoming more and more prevalent. Many of these are hopeful but for now far from human clinical trials (5,6).  A brand new finding, that is in clinicals from what I understand, is called SR2943 which targets the famed \"Warburg Effect\" of cancer cells. However even this has variable effects depending on the type of cancers since they do not all use this effect to the same degree, maybe some do not use it at all(7).  There is even some evidence to suggest cancer cells use amino acids at an abnormal rate and perhaps we should do something similar, that SR2943 does to limit lipogensis, but specifically for amino acids(8).  Hope this helps. I decided to go a bit beyond your question as I felt it may help you to understand the concept of cancer and tumors a bit more.",
        "id": 846,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Help identifying possible workplace contaminants",
        "body": "Framing the symptoms as mold-like biases thinking through the scenario. Contact dermatitis would account for multiple individuals experiencing rash with similar appearance and distributions.  The fact that people work in an adjacent building for the same employer imply they use the same cleaning service, same chemicals and identical ventilation.  Is this certain?  I disagree organic ( carbon-based?) agents have been ruled out, but respiratory complaints that resolve with a change in environment does  suggest an airborne component;  if fevers ( and not mistaking feeling warm, sweaty, shaky as signs of fever) are actually part of the picture, then I suggest reporting these cases to local public health department.  They would be on the best position to look at epidemiology of the cases, which may extend beyond this employer and building.  Alternatively, there may be a history of similar cases in this building, which would also be helpful to identify. Follow up appreciated. ",
        "id": 211,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does fasting improve your immune system even when you are already having some infection?",
        "body": "This sounds like dream come true for 'alternative medicine': Water-Only Fasting Can Help The Body To Fight Off Disease \u2013 And Can Have The Most Profound Health Benefits Too:      A recent news item caught my attention \u2013 it concerns the therapeutic value of fasting.  Researchers at the University of Southern California presented a study that explained that refraining from food for as little as two days can regenerate the immune system, and in addition, fasting for two to four days helps the body to fight infection and \u201cflips a regenerative switch\u201d that triggers stem cell-based regeneration of new white blood cells, thereby renewing the body\u2019s defense system. During the fast, the body gets rid of the parts of the system that might be damaged or old, the inefficient parts. The scientists believe that even if you start with a system heavily damaged by chemotherapy or aging, fasting cycles can generate an entirely new immune system.  In a small pilot clinical trial researchers found that fasting for a 72-hour period prior to chemotherapy protected patients against toxicity. Fasting also affects the levels of a substance in our bodies called IGF -1 and in reducing this it diminishes tumour growth and the risk of developing cancers.   So, how does water-only fasting actually work? What is going on in the body?      Water-only fasting \u2013 as the name suggests is where you only drink water and take no food whatsoever and, most importantly, you must take complete bed rest.  The truly therapeutic part of the fast does not actually begin until the second or third day: the reason for this is that during the first 24 - 48 hours after starting a water fast, the body is still burning off circulating blood sugar and also sugar stored in the muscles and liver in the form of glycogen. Once the first two to three days of the fast are over, your body then begins to burn fat tissue for fuel. Next, molecules named ketones begin circulating in the blood. Ketones suppress hunger and this is why fasting is not a difficult process \u2013 once you are over the first few days.       Many people don\u2019t understand the process of ketosis correctly and fear that this could damage the kidney and brain, possibly leading to loss of consciousness and even more dire consequences. However, a group of \u2018hygienic physicians\u2019 as doctors working in this field are known (and which includes Dr Sabatino as one of the leaders in the field), have supervised many thousands of fasts over the past 50 years, and have shown these concerns to be unfounded. In fact, when fasting is undertaken in a supportive environment, with the supervising practitioner ensuring proper hydration, and total resting conditions, kidney and heart function often dramatically improve as weight and blood pressure drop. There is often a dramatic improvement in the acuity of special senses, vision, hearing etc. People wearing glasses will sometimes remark how they experience moments of absolutely perfect eyesight without their glasses.      \"Researchers found out\": without a link to the original study, not even a date on the article cited above, that is very poor reporting and avoids being checked for accuracy. A very poor practice. Apart from some valid information, and relying on unsourced and probably preliminary scientific evidence, and using impressive sounding abbreviations, there is also the corresponding bull**** mixed under (e.g. \"fasting cycles can generate an entirely new immune system\").  But are there studies that might confirm these alleged findings? A more reliable source for this claim is presented in a very accessible article here:     Feed Or Starve A Sickness? It Depends On The Infection:   To investigate how loss of appetite might affect the immune system in sick animals, researchers infected some mice with the bacteria Listeria (a common cause of food poisoning), and some with the influenza virus.   When the mice were force fed, those with bacterial infections died\u2014but those with viral infections were more likely to survive. The researchers determined that glucose in food was responsible for these divergent fates (rather than proteins or fats). When the team used drugs to block the mice from using glucose, the mice infected with bacteria survived, while their virus-ridden peers died.   Viral and bacterial infections induce different types of immune responses. So our metabolism might require different fuels to prevent inflammation from damaging the body. During a viral infection, glucose seems to be key. But during a bacterial infection, fasting benefited the mice by allowing them to use ketones, a different fuel that is produced when fat is broken down.   That indicates an important finding that might have very profound effects in the future. But the cited article is sensible enough to also state clearly:     But it\u2019s definitely too soon for these findings to translate into advice about how sick people should eat. This study focused on one strain of mice in a lab setting and only a couple of forms of infection. \u201cIt remains to be seen how these results apply to critical illness in humans,\u201d Medzhitov and his coauthors wrote.   The original research article is published here:  Opposing Effects of Fasting Metabolism on Tissue Tolerance in Bacterial and Viral Inflammation (2016).  To repeat, in there is the important caveat to note:     One limitation of this study (common to most animal studies) is that it was performed on a single mouse strain (C57BL/6J) in one mouse facility. Thus, the roles of genetic background and facility-specific environment remain unknown. In addition, there are many caveats with extrapolating data on organismal biology from studies in unnatural settings of animal facilities. [\u2026] Finally, it remains to be seen how these results apply to critical illness in humans.   Further studies at least confirm that there are some interesting changes related to the modulation of immune system responses while fasting:      Fasting metabolism modulates the interleukin-12/interleukin-10 cytokine axis (2017):   [\u2026]  Growing evidence indicates that metabolic processes impact both, innate and adaptive immunity. [\u2026] In conclusion, we showed that fasting metabolism modulates the IL-12/IL-10 cytokine balance, establishing novel targets for metabolism-based immune-modulation.   So, sadly, we still do not know for sure.   General problems to simply saying \"it works\" are summarised here:     Calorie restriction in rodents: Caveats to consider (2017):   The calorie restriction paradigm has provided one of the most widely used and most useful tools for investigating mechanisms of aging and longevity. By far, rodent models have been employed most often in these endeavors. Over decades of investigation, claims have been made that the paradigm produces the most robust demonstration that aging is malleable. In the current review of the rodent literature, we present arguments that question the robustness of the paradigm to increase lifespan and healthspan. Specifically, there are several questions to consider as follows:          At what age does CR no longer produce benefits?   Does CR attenuate cognitive decline?    Are there negative effects of CR, including effects on bone health, wound healing, and response to infection?    How important is schedule of feeding?    How long does CR need to be imposed to be effective?    How do genotype and gender influence CR?    What role does dietary composition play?         Consideration of these questions produce many caveats that should guide future investigations to move the field forward.   To compare these findings in animals with how humans will react to fasting while infected, a general overview of fasting across different species might be useful and is  documented here: Marshall D. McCue: \"Comparative Physiology of Fasting, Starvation, and Food Limitation\", Springer: Heidelberg, New York, 2012.  ",
        "id": 1277,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Baking soda + xylitol, as replace for casual flouride toothpaste",
        "body": "First of all: even brushing with nothing \u2013 except the dry brush \u2013 is better for dental hygiene than doing nothing at all. Before the invention of the tooth brush people were actively caring for their teeth. One interesting example is found in the \"toothbrush tree\", which has a number of beneficial attributes.  To address the questions:   Abrasiveness is usually no big problem for the gums. Tooth enamel is another story, but:  Baking soda as an abrasive in toothpastes: Mechanism of action and safety and effectiveness considerations:      Conclusions:   On the basis of the collected evidence, baking soda has an intrinsic low-abrasive nature because of its comparatively lower hardness in relation to enamel and dentin. Baking soda toothpastes also may contain other ingredients, which can increase their stain removal effectiveness and, consequently, abrasivity.   Practical Implications:   Even those formulations have abrasivity well within the safety limit regulatory agencies have established and, therefore, can be considered safe.  For plastic retainers after rinsing in your mouth? Totally inert. If you do not have a regular toothpaste, then baking soda is a nice alternative. But fluoride containing pastes are usually considered way superior. For \"remineralisation\": tooth enamel is mainly built from hydroxylapatite. Sodium bicarbonate is usually very low in Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, that is calcium, phosphorous, or beneficial trace elements like strontium and fluoride.  The direct contribution to remineralisation has to be considered zero. The neutralising effect of the soda (Evidence for biofilm acid neutralization by baking soda) might contribute a little bit to enable the natural capacity of your saliva to remineralise.  Test the baking soda on any piece of plastic, like a  bowl or a cup. It will not do anything to it.   That might look very safe and effective now. Reading certain studies just emphasises this:     Stain removal and whitening by baking soda dentifrice: A review of literature:    Conclusions:   The evidence available in the literature indicates that baking soda-based dentifrices are effective and safe for tooth stain removal and consequently whitening. A number of clinical studies have also shown that baking soda-based dentifrices are more effective in stain removal and whitening than some non-baking soda-containing dentifrices with a higher abrasivity. So far, research efforts have mainly focused on stain removal and tooth-whitening efficacy and clinical safety of baking soda dentifrices used with manual toothbrushes, with only a few studies investigating their effects using powered toothbrushes, for which further research is encouraged.   Practical Implications:   As part of a daily oral hygiene practice, baking soda-based dentifrice is a desirable, alternative or additional measure for tooth stain removal and whitening.   But this should not be misread!  All of the above just says that the plan from the question is not really dangerous. Baking soda and xylitol may even be a quite clever combination compared to soda alone.  Comparing toothpaste on this basis with regular paste containing fluoride shows the  superiority of added fluoride for maintaining oral health in numerous studies, for example:     Comparing three toothpastes in controlling plaque and gingivitis: A 6-month clinical study:   After 6 months, subjects assigned to the triclosan/copolymer/fluoride group exhibited statistically significant reductions in gingival index scores and plaque index scores as compared to subjects assigned to the herbal/bicarbonate group by 35.4% and 48.9%, respectively. There were no statistically significant differences in gingival index and plaque index between subjects in the herbal/ bicarbonate group and those in the fluoride group. The triclosan/copolymer/fluoride dentifrice was statistically significantly more effective in reducing gingivitis and dental plaque than the herbal/bicarbonate dentifrice, and this difference in efficacy was clinically meaningful.   That means unless your local drinking water is very high in fluoride or you drink large amounts of green or black tea (containing large amounts of fluoride) tooth pastes with fluoride will be much better at protecting dental health.",
        "id": 2033,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I tolerate passive smoking?",
        "body": "Outdoor secondhand smoke certainly can be harmful.  There are increasing numbers of locations banning outdoors smoking as well.  The links provided above in the comments provide great information on general health risks of secondhand smoke; it's impossible to quantify time/distance/wind direction/ventilation etc specifically for your situations, as there are too many factors.    But the research is out there about heath risks from outdoor secondhand smoke.  Take care to differentiate reliable sources from unreliable.  But Googling \"smoking outdoors\" yields a number of academic research links, such as from Stanford:     \"We were surprised to discover that being within a few feet of a   smoker outdoors may expose you to air pollution levels that are   comparable, on average, to indoor levels that we measured in previous   studies of homes and taverns,\" said Wayne Ott, professor (consulting)   of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford and co-author of   the JAWMA study. \"For example, if you're at a sidewalk caf\u00e9, and you   sit within 18 inches of a person who smokes two cigarettes over the   course of an hour, your exposure to secondhand smoke could be the same   as if you sat one hour inside a tavern with smokers. Based on our   findings, a child in close proximity to adult smokers at a backyard   party also could receive substantial exposure to secondhand smoke.\"   https://news.stanford.edu/news/2007/may9/smoking-050907.html",
        "id": 1991,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long should it take for a woman to return to her pre pregnancy weight",
        "body": "Dr Julie Wray, of Salford University, interviewed women two to three weeks, three months and six to seven months after they had given birth to gain a unique insight into postnatal recovery.  She concluded that it takes a year to recover from childbirth. Her study also revealed significant dissatisfaction amongst new mothers with postnatal services.  In the first few days after you give birth, you'll lose weight quickly, as the extra water you carried during late pregnancy is passed out in your wee and sweat. You will lose more weight as the amount of circulating blood returns to normal levels, and your uterus gets smaller. But after this, weight loss tends to slow down.  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2102517/Women-need-year-recover-childbirth-study-finds.html  http://www.babycentre.co.uk/a536333/your-body-after-the-birth",
        "id": 1377,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is Immunotherapy for cancers?",
        "body": "This is very broad as asked. I will answer with one example, there are others.  Immunotherapy gets the patient's own immune system to destroy the tumours rather than the treatment itself destroying them. This might involve making the immune system more active, or interfering with the way that tumours hide or shield themselves from the immune system. For example, Wikipedia says of Ipilimumab     T lymphocytes can recognize and destroy cancer cells. However, an inhibitory mechanism interrupts this destruction. Ipilimumab turns off this inhibitory mechanism and allows the lymphocytes to continue to destroy cancer cells.   (Lymphocytes are your own white blood cells, the same mechanism that cleans up infections in your body all the time.)  This article at cancer.gov summarizes some studies showing how Ipilimumab and other immunotherapies are changing outcomes for melanoma. You can do you own searches for other drugs and other cancers. For example Nivolumab is combined with \"ipi\" for melanoma. I have also seen ads on tv for Nivolumab for lung cancer.  How much longer will patients live? That depends on the cancer. Melanoma has dismal outcomes if it's Stage IV - median survival of about 6 months, less than 10% surviving 5 years - and chemotherapy doesn't help survival. (One article on how bad stage IV is with traditional treatments.)  So there's plenty of room for improvement. The studies in the article above include some of that improvement. It's hard to find much on long-term odds, because they haven't been using these drugs long - ten years at most.   Why not use it everywhere? Well they literally do not know what cancers it works for (presumably not all of them) or precisely what kind of survival improvements to expect. It's a no-brainer to use it with something that has survival times of just a few months, but should you use it with something that has survival times of 2 or 3 years? Because there is a cost. First, a dollar-cost: $200,000 a year is typical. And second, the side effects are very bad. They can be fatal. And when they're not fatal, they're hospitalize-you-and-major-steroids bad, and take-a-compensating-medication-for-the-rest-of-your-life bad. The immune system can over-react causing inflammation and swelling that might damage or destroy your thyroid, pancreas, adrenal gland, or whatnot, or give you colitis. Understanding the side effects is a big part of the current studies. One study describing how people went from months of survival to years mentions \"55% of patients will have high-grade adverse events\" so widespread use will be held back by that.  Here's a study I'm very familiar with. It compares two dose regimens of two different immunotherapy drugs for melanoma. These regimens have already been shown to have the same response rate; the study compares the side effects. It's normal for some patients to have to stop taking the treatment because the side effects are intolerable. And a similar study (same combination of drugs, same disease) reported results where over 60% of patients getting the combination were still alive after 2 years. 65% is so much better than 10%!  There are other immunotherapy drugs, but in general you see:   the treatment doesn't attack the cancer; rather it enables the patients own immune system to do so the improvements in survival are astonishing. People living years instead of months, and possibly decades instead of months. People becoming immediately \"better\" with no symptoms instead of lingering with constant side effects of chemo and radiation, or surgeries many times a year the long term outcomes are not well known at all the side effects are very dangerous when they happen the cost is high   From a personal point of view, yesterday I said to my doctor \"it feels like being around when insulin or antibiotics were first being used\" and he agreed, yes it does. But that includes the part where you don't know for sure how things will turn out.",
        "id": 1888,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much caffeine intake a day is still safe for health?",
        "body": "I have found an article published in November 2017 that states:  \"Evidence supported consumption of \u2264400 mg/day in adults is not associated with overt, adverse effects.\"  Link to the article:  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691517301709  You can see the meaning of 400 mg of caffeine at this webpage:  https://www.foodinsight.org/caffeine-safe-amount-daily-efsa  What makes 400 mg of caffeine?   5 shots (2-oz) of espresso 4.7 cups (8-oz) of drip coffee 5 cans (250 ml) of energy drinks ",
        "id": 2425,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can pregnancy lead to growing taller?",
        "body": "It's possible, but don't count on it.   Amazingly, there isn't really much in the literature about this that I could find - most studies focus on maternal weight, not height. While the absence of evidence isn't evidence of absence, you'd think some of these dozens (or rather hundreds) of studies would have noticed women not only putting on weight, but also growing in height...   Even sites featuring speculation on this put the occurrence of it happening as very low, less than a 0.1 percent. Please note that as far as I can see, that site doesn't offer a citation even for this low number, just some women reporting it. On other websites, other recent mothers that they grew shorter during pregnancy.   As an example from the established literature, the study Prepregnancy Weight and the Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes studied weight gain and loss in a large number of women (over 100,000)      Maternal height and prepregnancy weight are recorded by recall in centimeters and kilograms, respectively, and used to calculate the prepregnancy body-mass index   No formal post-pregnancy measurement of height seems to have been done, though.   Weight gain and the outcome of pregnancy looked at all registered births in the United States in 1980, about three million,  again, only weight was considered, height was considered fixed.   If there is an effect, it seems to be either so rare or so small that it hasn't been studied yet. ",
        "id": 650,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Severely dehydrated. Any \"quick\" way to fix that?",
        "body": "If you're finding it difficult to get in the habit of drinking enough water, there are lots of other ways to increase your fluid intake. In addition to getting enough fluids when you are dehydrated, it is also important to replenish electrolytes and minerals in your body, and this will help you to hydrate yourself more quickly than simply drinking lots of water. Here are my suggestions:   Sports drinks like Gatorade contain electrolytes and may be more appealing to you than water. If you prefer a less sugary option, coconut water also contains high levels of electrolytes.  You can also make an oral re-hydration solution (ORS) at home, simply mix 4 cups water with 6 small spoonfuls of sugar, and a half a small spoonful of salt and mix to dissolve. This will restore lost fluids and minerals more quickly than plain water. You can also eat watery fruits and vegetables to re-hydrate yourself more quickly, as these not only have high water content but will replenish lost minerals -watermelon, cantaloupe, grapefruit, oranges, strawberries, cucumber, grapes, papaya, celery, lettuce, spinach, zucchini and tomatoes are some good examples. If you don't like to eat these foods plain, consider blending into a smoothie. Dehydration causes loss of minerals like potassium - eat 1-2 bananas a day to replenish your potassium.     Hope this helps!",
        "id": 1712,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a mucocele on the lip pop up and become a canker sore?",
        "body": "Mucoceles can rupture.  Usually that will resolve them though.  If it persists, it needs a doctor most likely.  You can find more details on that here and explanation of what a doctor would do for one that isn't resolving after rupture. http://www.steadyhealth.com/medical-answers/oral-lesions-oral-mucocele-and-canker-sores",
        "id": 1867,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the spit test for candida legitimate?",
        "body": "You're correct, your friend is indeed gullible.  Oropharyngeal candidiasis can be diagnosed by an experienced clinician by looking at the mouth to see characteristic plaques, or by taking swabs for microbiological culture.  Blood cultures can be taken for systemic candidiasis. Antibody profiles are suggested as a method to also assist in the diagnosis. The differential movement in water and sedimentation rate of saliva has no known medical use, and is promoted as a way to sell naturopathic anti-candida treatments.  Since the test will often be \"positive\" even in the absence of a candida infection, the promoters get to sell more product.",
        "id": 897,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "It is possible to kill staph. aureus in tonsils with antibiotics or citricidal?",
        "body": "This question is vague and could use clarification. Are you having symptoms of a tonsil infection? If so, what? Have you seen a doctor?  First off, Staph aureus is a normal skin and mouth bacteria. In the study below, about 40% of patients had S. aureus in their throat on admission (not acquired in the hospital) (1). Since S. aureus is a normal part of our microbiome, you do not need to take antibiotics to kill it unless you have symptoms of infection, namely trouble swallowing, sore throat, fever, and pus coming from the tonsils (4). Even if you have tonsillitis, it's unlikely to be caused by staph-- the majority of cases are caused by a virus (4).  What makes you concerned about S. aureus in particular? If you do have symptoms of infection in your tonsils, you should see a doctor. If they think the infection is likely due to staph, they will probably prescribe Bactrim, clindamycin, doxycycline, or cephalexin, though there are many good options (3). There is some evidence that citricidal may have antibacterial properties, but citricidal has not yet been tested in human subjects so there is no way of knowing how well it works compared to antibiotics(2).  Again, many people have staph aureus on their skin and in their mouths-- this is not the same as an infection. You do not need treatment unless you have symptoms. If you are concerned, see a doctor.  References:  Rate of Colonization of Staph Aureus in the Throat  Possible Bacteriocidal Properties of Citricidal  Antibiotics Used for Soft Tissue Staph Infections  Causes and Symptoms of Tonsillitis",
        "id": 2131,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Replicated medicine by pharmacists",
        "body": "The problem is a copyright issue for the synthesis of ivacaftor. It's an organic compound, not a biologic, so within reach of any decent pharmaceutical company. A new efficient method is described here http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jhet.2931/full but that's not going to help if it breaks laws. And we're talking big money.     The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to improving healthcare for people with cystic fibrosis, provided $150 million of the funding for the development for ivacaftor in exchange for royalty rights in the event that the drug was successfully developed and commercialized. In 2014, the Foundation sold these royalty rights for $3.3 billion. The Foundation has stated that it intends to spend these funds in support of further research   https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivacaftor",
        "id": 2163,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Existence of injection administering certification?",
        "body": "Yes there is. In the USA, the certification is called a Medical Assistant.  It is a certification that is unlicensed, thus they must work under supervision of a licensed provider (who CAN inject legally) such as LVN RN BSN APRN PA MD/DO...     Phlebotamy (drawing blood) is different than administering injections, as you are not putting a substance in the patient.  There is a certification program for this as well, and can be done by most health practitioners.  But regarding whether it can be done by someone not certified, it seems that rules differ institution to institution.  ",
        "id": 1409,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How anti-inflammatory are nsaids?",
        "body": "You're asking if there is a dose response relationship for ibuprofen, and what does it look like. For most people the analgesic effect (surrogate for inflammation) flattens out at 400 mg, but 20% might get a better response with a higher dose. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2000723/",
        "id": 839,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the 2017-2018 flu vaccine a \"good match\" for circulating influenza viruses?",
        "body": "The research into last year's flu season puts the blame on egg-based vaccine production.  Reference: https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/2/1/16960758/flu-vaccine-effectiveness  Researchers guess at the dominant flu strains well before flu season starts, then grow the strains in chicken eggs - an outdated process that takes weeks.  Additionally, H3N2 (influenza A and the dominant strain last year) is infamous for rapid mutation. Often, the dominant strain can mutate after the previously mentioned researchers' guess has been finalized and the vaccine is queued for mass production. Also reported in the Vox article: 33% combined vaccine effectiveness in H3N2 seasons, vs. slightly over 50% when influenza B dominated and 67% in H1N1 (swine flu) seasons.  Another problem the article mentions with growing flu vaccines in chicken eggs: H3N2 viruses mutate to get better at infecting the eggs, which means that even if you guess at the correct strain and grow it in eggs, the output vaccine isn't guaranteed to have the same structure (and therefore won't be as effective as expected).  Why is the industry still using eggs?  2 reasons, again mentioned in the Vox article: The industry is already optimized and built around the egg-based workflow (economy of scale) - and more modern approaches (cell-based and recombinant) are far more expensive. Additionally, more research is needed to determining if the cell-based and recombinant approaches produce a more reliable vaccine.  In a summary answer to your question, it would appear to be \"no\", due to the egg-based mutation mentioned above. The Vox article also mentions abysmal protection rates in that season's vaccine against the dominant H3N2 strain, as low as 17% reported in Canada.",
        "id": 2169,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What OT techniques are common following heart bypass, and how do these correlate to resuming normal daily activities?",
        "body": "Occupational therapists primarily use functional activities to assess and treat individuals who have lost independence due to illness or injury. It is uncommon to use craft type activities outside of mental health and paediatrics unless it holds some specific meaning for the individual undergoing treatment.  In assessing an individual who has undergone cardiac surgery and is looking to regain independence, I would observe/assist them with a regular activity, such as getting dressed or preparing a hot drink depending on their current level of function. I would specifically be looking at standing and exercise tolerance, functional mobility within the area, balance, and fine motor function. Observing the activity would allow me to ensure other functions were intact - for example, those related to cognition. Once I understood their present physical presentation, I would prepare a treatment plan that enabled me to work on the skills required to develop their independence.   The key thing, for me as a therapist, is to ensure that the treatment activities I am preparing are meaningful to the individual, and that they address the areas identified within my assessment. Every treatment session is also an assessment so that treatment is fluid and adapts as the needs of the individual change. If your father's current treatment is not meaningful and is not helping him to progress, I would certainly speak to his therapist in order to understand why they believe the activities are beneficial and what the goals of the intervention are.  About me: Occupational therapist of 13 years.",
        "id": 832,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tourniquet application on a venous bleed",
        "body": "In venous lacerations, blood would be able to be stopped by placing a tourniquet below the injury. By stopping the blood from returning from the limb, you wouod be able to effectively prevent blood loss. This would work in the rare case of just the vein being cut, but it's safer to place the tourniquet above the injury in case the vein is not the only thing cut.",
        "id": 1327,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the actual symptoms of the common cold?",
        "body": "Common cold is one of the labels used to describe non specific infection of the upper respiratory tract. Other labels include acute rhinitis, acute rhinopharyngitis or acute coryza.  Upper respiratory tract infections (URI) can be caused by multiple virus families such as the rhinovirus (the most common cause of URI), the influenza virus, the coronavirus and the adenovirus.  While most of the URI share similar manifestations like rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, cough and sore throat, some symptoms may be much likely associated with a specific type of virus: myalgia and fatigue are commonly seen in influenza and parainfluenza infections, while conjunctivitis are often linked to adenovirus infection.  In general cases, URI are self limited diseases. However, some patients (children aged less than 1 year and adults aged more than 65 years, pregnant woman, and people of any age with comorbid illnesses) are at risk of developing complications. Pulmonary complications are the most frequent complications of influenza infection and are often associated with secondary bacterial infection that can lead to acute lung injury. The latter is associated with high mortality rate. Neuromuscular and cardiovascular complications are less common.  Sources:   Kasper, Dennis L, and Tinsley R. Harrison. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, Rothberg MB1, Haessler SD. Complications of seasonal and pandemic influenza.Crit Care Med. 2010 Apr;38(4 Suppl):e91-7 ",
        "id": 1032,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do antihistamines work?",
        "body": "A very brief review of an allergic response is in order so that the answer makes sense. Think of a linked chain of events here.  An \"allergen\" is something a person is allergic to, e.g., cat dander or pollen. When someone is exposed to an allergen, they either become allergic or not.  In a susceptible individual, something in the allergen (called an antigen, usually a protein of some kind) causes the person's immune system to produce an antibody (or Immunoglubin, in this case Immunoglobin E, or IgE) to the antigen, which then circulates throughout the entire system. The individual is now considered \"sensitized\". The IgE's bind to receptor sites on mast cell surfaces.  When a sensitized individual is re-exposed to the antigen, the antigen binds to the IgE's changing the cell surface, triggering a response.  Mast cells, found in connective tissues throughout the body - but especially in mucus membranes and skin - make and store a molecule called histamine. When the antigen binds to the IgE's on the mast cell, the cell is \"signalled\" to release (among other things) histamine, a molecule which causes local capillaries to swell and leak fluid: the typical runny/stuffy nose, red/itchy/watering eyes, etc.  So that's a basic allergic response involving histamine.     Is the antihistamine doing something regarding his immune's system reaction or is it doing something about the symptoms? How does it work?   The antihistamine essentially blocks the effect of histamine on the capillaries. It doesn't decrease his immunity to the antigen (it doesn't stop IgE from being produced); it just treats the symptoms (stuffy nose, watery eyes, etc.)     Will his immune system learn how to behave whilst taking antihistamines? Would the process of learning be better or worse for taking them?   The antihistamine will have [little or]* no effect - either positive or negative - on his immune system. It is used only to make the allergic symptoms more tolerable.    *The immune system is so incredibly complex, many things are still being worked out. I would not categorically rule out some kind of modulation, but for all intents and purposes, this is not what antihistamines are used for.  Image from The Asthma Center Histamine and H1-antihistamines: Celebrating a century of progress IgE and mast cells in allergic disease Janeway, Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition Histamine and H1-antihistamines: Celebrating a century of progress",
        "id": 137,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Magnesium gel vs magnesium oil",
        "body": "Magnesium oil (in the form of spray, gel, lotion or bath flakes) contains magnesium chloride (Amazon). There seems to be no evidence that magnesium chloride is even absorbed through the skin in significant amounts (Myth or Reality - Transdermal Magnesium, PubMed Central).  There is also no evidence that magnesium in any form (including oral) would prevent muscle cramps (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database/WebMD):     Taking magnesium supplements does not seem to decrease the frequency   or intensity of muscle cramps. ",
        "id": 2130,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to avoid snoring?",
        "body": "Remedies to control snoring:   Pillows. There is a pillow called the SONA pillow its FDA approved and is proven to work.      The study was performed to determine the ability of a new inclined   pillow to treat snoring and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. The SONA   Pillow is a triangular pillow with space to place your arm under the   head while sleeping on the side.    From the WebMD article \"7 Easy Fixes for Snoring\":   Beware sprays and pills. They can not be all they said they would be or not be properly researched to be safe or work.      Use caution before you self-treat with over-the-counter sprays and   pills until you've checked with your doctor, says Sudhansu   Chokroverty, MD, FRCP, FACP, program director for Clinical   Neurophysiology and Sleep Medicine at JFK Medical Center in Edison,   N.J. \"Many stop-snoring aids are marketed without scientific studies   to support their claims,\" says Chokroverty, who is also a neuroscience   professor at Seton Hall University's School of Health and Medical   Sciences.  More on pillows. Utilizing full body pillows can help. Also, don't sleep on back and elevating the head of the bed can help, but may cause neck pain. Taping tennis balls to the back of your pajamas to stop yourself from lyin on your back is said to work, as well. Another warning:     This may cause neck pain, however.\" If snoring continues regardless of   the sleep position, obstructive sleep apnea may be a cause. \"See a   doctor in this case,\" Chokroverty says.  Keeping your nasal passage ways open and eliminating allergens. Change and clean bedding and remove dust and other allergy triggers. As for nasal passage ways:      If snoring starts in your nose, keeping nasal passages open may help.   It allows air to move through slower, Slaughter says. \"Imagine a   narrow garden hose with water running through. The narrower the hose,   the faster the water rushes through.\"      Your nasal passages work similarly. If your nose is clogged or   narrowed due to a cold or other blockage, the fast-moving air is more   likely to produce snoring.   Things to do to fix this are:   Hot showers before bed time Netti pots Nasal strips   NLM.NIH.GOV states simply.      Lose weight if you are overweight. It may help, but thin people can   snore, too. Cut down or avoid alcohol and other sedatives at bedtime   Don't sleep flat on your back   Those can be included with some lifestyles changes mentioned by Mayo Clinic:   Quit smoking Get enough sleep Raise head of bed about 4 inches   Alternative treatments mentioned are playing certain musical instruments and singing which can improve muscle control and train muscles of the upper airway.   Seeking a doctors care is very important as snoring can be a sign of sleep apnea which can be life threatening. The cause of snoring is important and can change treatment. Also, of note is that snoring can not be cured, only controlled.   By remedies I assumed you meant things other than surgery, implants, CPAP and Radiofrequency tissue ablation. ",
        "id": 993,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Thinking about a muscle spasm makes it stop?",
        "body": "This is a very interesting case.  First things first, we should determine why one moves and how one moves. The concerning brain area is the primary motor cortex.     The primary motor cortex (M1) lies along the precentral gyrus, and generates the signals that control the execution of movement. Secondary motor areas are involved in motor planning. [...] 1   As you probably know is the human body controlled by electrical pulses, so-called action potentials. These control your body and are sent out by the brain (very simplified).     Electricity is a natural phenomenon in  our body and it is involved in the specific functions of certain special cells in the brain and in smooth and striated muscles. Each pattern of light, sound, heat, pain, each twinkle, finger snap, each thought translates into a sequence of electric pulses. How does it happen? [...] 2   You should read a few paragraphs before proceeding reading if you don't know about action and resting potential anymore.  As I believe that you are someone who is competent to use Google, I tell you that I haven't found anything related to cramps and mental willpower as well. But I found something else which sparked my interest.     We tested the hypothesis that the nervous system, and the cortex in particular, is a critical determinant of muscle strength/weakness and that a high level of corticospinal inhibition is an important neurophysiologic factor regulating force generation. [...] Mental imagery training, however, attenuated the loss of strength [...] These findings suggest neurological mechanisms, most likely at the cortical level, contribute significantly to disuse-induced weakness, and that regular activation of the cortical regions via imagery attenuates weakness [...] 3   This research is phenomenal, suggesting that thinking about exercising can attenuate muscle loss and could even promote hypertrophy. You may ask now what this has to do with your case.     A cramp is an involuntary and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax. Cramps can affect any muscle under your voluntary control (skeletal muscle). [...] 4   Of course, what now follows is but pure speculation but I guessed that I could try.  If we pair the findings above mental exercise and the reasons behind a cramp and the information of what we know of action and resting potential, we could conclude that thinking about a muscle area in particular promotes movement and simple action in it. As a cramp is defined as a contracted muscle which is not able to relax, thinking about it might promote movement and action in it once again, resulting in the satisfying feeling of getting rid of the cramp.  It's important to know that you usually move subconsciously - you don't think too much about grabbing this one glass of water, walking around the corner or getting in and out of the bus. This is all done by your subconscious in order to keep your attention fixated on something more important. Imagine if you think about moving your muscles all day, we would live a life with information overload where we can't think of the important things.  So figuratively speaking, the following happens: Your commando center has a Commander-In-Chief, you, and a lot of subordinates. One for moving your legs, one for keeping your heart beating, one for getting embarrassed, one for simple walking and many more. Of course, every subordinate needs to learn their trade and this is done by practicing. So, especially in your childhood, your subordinates are eager to learn. You, the Commander-In-Chief, still always have the right of way - if you say something, your subordinates do so. So it happens that one of your subordinates makes a mistake, for example biting your cheek while eating, and you, the Commander-In-Chief, are left with the consequences. So you think about it, get angry at yourself and hope that your subordinate, your subconscious, has learned it. The same goes for a cramp. A subordinate wasn't wary enough and a cramp occurs because of one of the many reasons (overuse of muscle, dehydration, muscle strain, etc. 5). Oh snap! The subordinate is overloaded and you have to handle it by enforcing your electrical signals on this very specific point in your arm and, vo\u00edla, your arm is able to move again because you ordered your little army of electrical impulses to go to this specific point to isolate the problem.  As earlier stated, there is absolutely no scientific basis for this and neither I'm a physician nor a researcher so take this with a grain of salt. But I hope to have given you at least one idea of what might happen.     http://brainconnection.brainhq.com/2013/03/05/the-anatomy-of-movement/ http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n10/fundamentos/pot2_i.htm http://jn.physiology.org/content/early/2014/09/24/jn.00386.2014 http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=a00200 http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/muscle-cramp/symptoms-causes/dxc-20186052 ",
        "id": 967,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Doing Sports while having Mono",
        "body": "I assume that you are speaking about infective mononucleosis. No big deal - since your physician encourages you to excercise, that means that you've recovered and that your blood parameters and liver/spleen sizes are normal and not sensitive to touch. So do not worry and adhere to your physicians advice.   I could think only of one reason why these \"claims\" can sound true (they are not, ofc.). The thing is that the virus that causes the disease remains in your body dormant (it sleeps there, like herpes), and it can be reactivated latter in life, but the latter manifestations are minor in comparison to the first presentation. Also, another fact - the vast majority of the population has EBV (the virus behind mono) and nobody suffers from that. ",
        "id": 1556,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Blood pressure monitoring and breast cancer",
        "body": "Many patients who have been diagnosed with breast cancer have their axillary lymph nodes removed.    One of the main roles of the lymphatic system is to assist in draining extra-cellular fluid to the thoracic duct and ultimately back into the blood stream.  Therefore, when axillary lymph nodes are removed, there is risk of developing lymphodema (swelling) in the corresponding arm.  This puts the arm at a greater risk of infection.  When a blood pressure cuff is applied to the arm, the pressure of the cuff may further inhibit the drainage of the extra-cellular fluid in the arm, further enhancing the risk of the patient developing lymphodema.  Therefore as a precuationary measure, it is not recommended to use a blood pressure cuff on the arm of the side effected by breast cancer.  It is also recommended that injections are not given, and blood not taken from the affected arm.  This is because the removal of axillary lymph nodes results in a higher risk of infection in that arm.  References:   Petrek JA, Pressman PI, Smith RA. Lymphedema: current issues in research and management. CA Cancer J Clin. 2000 Sep-Oct;50(5):292\u2013307. quiz 308-211. Loudon L, Petrek J. Lymphedema in women treated for breast cancer. Cancer Pract. 2000 Mar-Apr;8(2):65\u201371. Preventative measures for lymphedema: Separating fact from fiction ",
        "id": 122,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I get rid of toenail fungus?",
        "body": "I have experienced allergies to many medications, including antibiotics, and one of the treatments (aside from abstention) has been to simultaneously take an antihistamine such as Benadryl to force the immune system not to respond to the preconceived threat.  The best way to deal with this, however, is to ask your doctor how to proceed.  An infection can get worse with less treatment, the same as none.  Drug allergy - Mayo Clinic",
        "id": 379,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are dimples and cleft-chins (aka dimple chins, butt chins) genetic?",
        "body": "DIMPLES  Professor McDonald, citing limited research, concludes dimples have been mislabeled as genetically inherited and as a dominant trait. However, the University of Utah considers dimples an \"irregular\" dominant trait that is probably controlled mostly by one gene but is influenced by other genes.  The truth is that dimples are actually genetic defects that are caused by shortened facial muscles.  Dimples are caused by a fault in the subcutaneous connective tissue that develops in course of the embryonic development. A variation in the structure of the facial muscle may also cause dimples.  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimple  http://www.genetic.com.au/genetic-traits-dimples.html  CHINS  This is an inherited trait in humans, where the dominant gene causes the cleft chin, while the recessive genotype presents without a cleft. However, it is also a classic example for variable penetrance with environmental factors or a modifier gene possibly affecting the phenotypical expression of the actual genotype.  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin",
        "id": 1338,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Pentasa an immunosuppressive drug?",
        "body": "Pentasa is one brand name for a drug called mesalazine (or mesalamine). While immunosuppressant drugs are often used on the management of Crohn\u2019s disease, this is not one of them. It is in a group of drugs called aminosalicylates (somewhat similar to aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, but the mechanism of action is a little different).  It works through an anti-inflammatory effect on the walls of the bowel by inhibiting inflammatory compounds called prostaglandin E2 and leukotrienes. It can be administered orally or rectally, depending on the affected part of the bowel.  Here is a link to a useful advice leaflet about Crohn\u2019s disease and its treatments.  Source: British National Formulary",
        "id": 2406,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any risk to the fetus if alcohol consumption in only 1~2 month's pregnancy",
        "body": "First Trimester:     It's especially important to steer clear of alcohol in the first   trimester, because of the risk of miscarriage. Drinking at this time   has also been associated with a higher rate of premature birth.   The first trimester is week 1 to week 12.   ...........     Many women have a few drinks before realising they are pregnant.   Babies have a habit of turning up when they're least expected, and   many babies conceived around the time of a night out drinking have   been fine.     So some statements that can be made are:   First Semester alcohol can lead to premature births mostly.  Third Semester alcohol can lead to the symptoms that you described. Especially, due to the fact that the brain is developing.    Is there a safe time to drink alcohol in pregnancy?     No. There is no safe time in pregnancy to drink alcohol.  The baby\u2019s   brain develops the whole way through pregnancy and can be effected by   alcohol at any stage of its development.   Is there a safe amount of alcohol in pregnancy?     No. There is no safe amount of alcohol to drink in pregnancy. Some   babies can even be effected by a little bit of alcohol (1 or 2   standard drinks once a week) Small occasional alcohol use in pregnancy   = low risk to the developing baby Heavy frequent alcohol use in pregnancy = high risk to the developing baby No alcohol = no risk to   the developing baby   What effect does alcohol have on a fetus? - Any amount can harm a fetus, but more severe damage is related to heavy drinking. Heavy amounts depend on size of person and drink.   What can be done for drinking while pregnant:   Stop drinking if pregnant or trying to get pregnant. Contact healthcare provider if alcohol was consumed to know about the risks to your baby.  ",
        "id": 556,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pancreatic mass biopsy results",
        "body": "Doctors use the term \"mass\" for any abnormal concentrated mass of tissue when they notice it on an X-ray, CT or MRI, because at this point they do not know yet what the mass is: a cancer, some benign tumor, cyst or something else.  Your doctor, obviously, made a biopsy, so he got a piece of that mass out of your pancreas and sent it to the pathologist. The pathologist described how the tissue looked macroscopically (by the naked eye): as a \"piece of soft tissue.\"  The pathologist also commented that the specimen was \"suboptimal,\" because it contained only \"connective tissue,\" which is less likely affected by cancer, so he/she can neither confirm nor exclude cancer.  The text you have provided does not mention any cancer, but I'm not sure if you have written everything from the document you have.  If you can't find any text after \"Tiny fragment of connective tissue only (suboptimal)\"...you can ask a doctor, if you need to wait for the further results or--in case all tests have been completed--what is your exact diagnosis.",
        "id": 1467,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pulmonary diseases and oxygen therapy",
        "body": "The basic idea is that people with pulmonary diseases that involve chronic hypoventilation rely on mild hypoxia to stimulate respiration.  To understand this, consider a basic homeostatic feedback loop that controls respiratory drive. During a breath hold, carbon dioxide levels rise and oxygen levels fall. Carbon dioxide diffuses across the blood-brain barrier and causes a decrease in CSF pH sensed at central chemoreceptors in the brainstem. The peripheral serum pH may also be depressed, stimulating peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies. In normally ventilating people, these \"hypercarbic indicators\" are the primary mediators of the drive to breath.  In patients with chronic hypoventilation, PaCO2 is chronically elevated. Common hypo-ventilatory diseases include:   COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) obesity-hypoventilation syndrome neuro-muscular weakness syndromes (generally only in later phases when the diaphragm is affected: Becker/Duchenne muscular dystrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, etc.)   The old theory goes that because these folks have chronically elevated PaCO2*, the hypercarbic respiratory feedback loop described above \u201cacclimates\u201d and is no longer the primary driver of breathing. Instead, they rely on the hypoxic respiratory drive, which is secondary in normal people. These individuals may have a usual SpO2 ~88-90%. When a non-rebreather mask is applied and suddenly drives their SpO2 up to 100%, their respiratory drive decreases because their blunted hypercarbic response mechanisms do not respond normally to the progressive rise in PaCO2.   There are data in support of this theory. One study in COPD patients administered 100% oxygen to patients with COPD and observed a 18% decrease in ventilation after 15 minutes that returned to baseline when oxygen was removed (Aubier). However, these authors also showed that two other factors were at play explaining the observed rise in PaCO2:   About 30% of the  increase in PaCO2 associated with high-flow oxygen administration was attributable to the Haldane effect, which is basically an offloading of CO2 by hemoglobin (due to a rightward shift of the carboxyhemoglobin dissociation curve), increasing the CO2 dissolved in blood but not reflecting a true change in ventilation.  An additional 48% of the increase in hypercapnia was due to dead space ventilation. The simplified idea is that the vessels in the lung compensate for hypoxia by vaso-constricting areas with low oxygen tension, so-called ventilation-perfusing matching. When high-flow oxygen is administered, the vaso-constriction is released so perfusion of poorly ventilated areas increases. Now a higher percentage of the blood is not being cleared of CO2. This is called ventilation-perfusion  ​mis​matching.    Something similar has been demonstrated in patients with obesity-hypoventilation (Wijesinghe). In light of this, a recent study investigated the best strategy for oxygen administration in patients with chronic hypoventilation (Kim). They found that a strategy titrating oxygen administration to achieve SpO2 88% to 92% minimized the risk of worsening hypoventilation while achieving adequate relief of shortness of breath and adequate oxygenation.  A helpful review of these topics provides a bit more detail for those interested (Abdo).     Abdo WF and Heunks LM. Oxygen-induced hypercapnia in COPD: myths and facts. Crit Care. 2012;16(5):323.        Aubier M, Murciano D, Milic-Emili J, Touaty E, Daghfous J, Pariente R, Derenne JP. Effects of the administration of O2 on ventilation and blood gases in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease during acute respiratory failure. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980 Nov;122(5):747-54.      Kim V, Benditt JO, Wise RA, Sharafkhaneh A.Oxygen therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008 May 1;5(4):513-8.       Wijesinghe M, Williams M, Perrin K, Weatherall M, Beasley R. The effect of supplemental oxygen on hypercapnia in subjects with obesity-associated hypoventilation: a randomized, crossover, clinical study. Chest. 2011 May;139(5):1018-24. .        *normal PaCO2 = 40 mmHg; may be 50-80 mmHg in chronic retention, possibly higher ",
        "id": 77,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to use extremely diluted H2O2 (< 0.1%) On eyes regularly?",
        "body": "In this study regarding hydrogen peroxide and human cataract, hydrogen peroxide was shown to damage the proteins in the human lens, thereby leading to the formation of cataract (Spector and Garner, 1981). Using hydrogen peroxide for the eyes will probably result into eye damage.",
        "id": 1662,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What flour is best for diabetic person?",
        "body": "According to this article 20 Healthy Flours from Lowest to Highest Carbohydrates, whole grain or \"flour from nut and plant sources that are low in carbohydrates\".  The whole grain helps to lower the glycemic index (GI), meaning that sugars are released more slowly.  Whereas the non grain flours have are  lower in carbohydrate, meaning less will be converted to sugars.  Top 5 listed are    Walnut Flour     Almond Flour     Ground Flaxseed  Soy Flour    Spelt Flour ",
        "id": 2500,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Foods/Drinks to avoid before and during a flight",
        "body": "Foods that cause bloating in general will also cause bloating on a flight. Foods that can cause bloating from gas production include anything with certain artificial sweeteners (like maltitol, which cannot be properly digested by gut bacteria), fruits (due to fructose), beans, etc. Other foods can cause bloating due to water retention - basically anything with a high salt content, like french fries. The main issue with flying is dehydration: the recirculated air is kept quite dry, which can lead to reduced body water unless you make sure to drink plenty of water throughout the flight. (The only downside to drinking plenty of water is that you'll likely have to use the tiny airplane bathrooms, but you'll still feel better overall if you stay hydrated.) You're also sitting down for a long time, which can reduce circulation, so it can be helpful to wear compression stockings and to stand up occasionally to stretch your legs. Finally, you should avoid alcohol, because alcohol is dehydrating (e.g. see https://gastrolyte.com.au/dehydration/dehydration-and-alcohol/).   Summary - Eat foods that are low in salt and do not contain artificial sweeteners; Drink plenty of water; Wear compression stockings and be sure to move your legs / stand up and walk as much as possible; Avoid alcohol during the flight.",
        "id": 1233,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does consuming Creatine harm the kidneys, or does it artificially elevate serum Creatinine?",
        "body": "Can it be falsely elevated?  Yes: according to this study, creatine in the bloodstream peaks between 1 and 3 hours after consumption, depending on the form in which it is consumed.  Is it possible that taking creatine harms the kidneys?  Maybe.  There have been reports of kidney damage as a result of taking creatine, but small-scale controlled trials of typical performance-enhancing doses (1, 2) do not show problems.  If you want to know what sort of shape your kidneys are in, don't take creatine before a blood test.  The above-mentioned pharmokinetics study says that a 28-day waiting period will return your muscle creatine levels to baseline values; 8-24 hours is sufficient for your blood creatine levels.",
        "id": 1856,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does milk really affect sleep?",
        "body": "Milk contains two substances that are known to be related to sleep and relaxation: the hormone melatonin and the amino acid tryptophan. The amount of melatonin in a glass of milk is minute, much less than what would be taken in a supplement.  Although, according to scientific analysis, combining milk with a carbohydrate-rich food like oatmeal, granola, or toast makes it much more effective. Like bananas, milk contains the amino acid L-tryptophan, which turns to 5-HTP and releases relaxing serotonin. It\u2019s also high in calcium and other minerals, known to have a relaxing effect.  http://goaskalice.columbia.edu/answered-questions/does-warm-milk-really-lull-us-dreamland",
        "id": 1108,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Optimum / limit daily dose of Vitamin C?",
        "body": "Here are few aspects of high-dose vitamin C supplements.  The upper limit(UL) 2,000 mg for vitamin C is not some sort of recommendation, but a dose, which, if exceeded, can cause nausea and diarrhea, for example.  Does it make sense to take vitamin C supplements?  Vitamin C supplements can correct vitamin C deficiency and improve the absorption of iron from plant foods. But there is no convincing evidence that vitamin C would help to prevent or treat common cold, cancer, heart disease, stroke or age-related macular degeneration.  Are higher doses more effective?  Approximately 70%\u201390% of vitamin C is absorbed at moderate intakes of 30\u2013180 mg/day. However, at doses above 1 g/day, absorption falls to less than 50% and absorbed, unmetabolized ascorbic acid is excreted in the urine.  There is no convincing evidence that high-dose (oral) vitamin C would prevent or treat cancer or other diseases.  Can high-dose vitamin C be dangerous?  High-dose vitamin C might increase the risk of oxalate kidney stones in some individuals.  Reference: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/",
        "id": 2267,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to get cancer after taking iron supplement of 100mg for 4 days",
        "body": "Side effects of iron supplements can include:   Black stools Constipation Abdominal pain   So, these are common side effects that have nothing to do with cancer.  In the study described in Medical News Today, they did not confirmed the  cause-effect relationship between iron supplements and cancer, because they only found a substance (a marker) that could be associated with cancer, and it was a laboratory study and not a study on humans. ",
        "id": 2382,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is E. coli contagious?",
        "body": "Yes, E. coli  is definitely contagious through direct contact. In fact your girlfriend's pyelonephritis could have come from you after sexual intercourse.  The general mechanism for this would be that you had the pathogenic E. coli on your penis, and then it traveled up her urethra to the kidney.  This is why there is a recommendation for women to urinate after sex.  That very same E. coli on your penis is unlikely to cause you an infection.  Note that E. coli is common in the GI tract, and not uncommonly found on the skin.  Not all strains are pathogenic  and most aren't within the GI tract. Having a conversation as a couple with a health provider is a very good idea.  There is a lot of hygiene that everyone sexually active should consider, but is unfortunately not taught.",
        "id": 696,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can't Jane give blood?",
        "body": "I presume she is at risk for developing bowel malignancy at some time in the future.  So, unless she is screened very regularly, then if she is accepted as a blood donor, she might be donating blood while she is in a cancerous state.  Now, is there evidence of the ability to transfer cancer from one person to another via blood transfusion?  This has been looked at historically and     Despite the many millions of units transfused   since the advent of allogeneic blood transfusion,   there is no evidence to support the theoretical   concern that cancer could be transmitted via blood.   Apart from the United States and Australia, though,   most blood services still practice a precautionary   exclusion of donors with a history of cancer based   on experience in organ transplantation and, to a   lesser extent, HSCT   Can Blood Tranfusion Transmit Cancer? A Literature Review  So, the UK blood transfusion service is adopting the same precautionary approach.  But there is evidence that as yet unknown carcinogenic agents are transmitted by blood transfusion.     In a large cohort of UK women, transfusions in the 21st century were associated with long-term increased risks of liver cancer and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Some of these malignancies may have been caused by carcinogenic agents that are not currently screened for in transfused blood.   Cancer risk among 21st century blood transfusion recipients     A large study from Denmark and Sweden reported relative risks 5\u20139 years after blood transfusion in 1992\u20132002 of 1.86 for liver cancer and 1.20 for non-Hodgkin lymphoma    Cancer incidence in blood transfusion recipients.  The likely candidates are Epstein-Barr virus and hepatitis G both of which are not screened for in blood donors.",
        "id": 2144,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can consumer-oriented heart rate tracking devices/smartwatches be used for implementing Dr. Coca's food sensitivity test?",
        "body": "I've seen reports of the Fitbit HR being off by 25 BPM. I'm not familiar with the Dr. Coca pulse test, but the paper you link to mentions pulse rates that differ by only 10 BPM. It appears that consumer Photoplethysmogram monitors work best when the patient is inactive. I suspect the accuracy also depends on your physiology. I would recommend trying a wrist monitor such as the Fitbit HR, a chest strap monitor, and taking your pulse manually. Do this while you're inactive and compare the results. If the Fitbit HR is off from your manual measurement by 25 BPM, it sounds like it won't be useful for the Dr. Coca pulse test.  There are other options for monitoring heart rate that are very accurate:   A holter monitor. These are usually prescribed devices--the hospital or physician loans them to you (though it appears you can get them on eBay). An Implantable Cardiac Monitor (ICM) (also known as an Implantable Loop Recorder (ILR)). This is an implantable device similar to a pacemaker, however it only measures your heart activity--it doesn't provide therapy (electrical stimulus). Some examples are the Biotronik BioMonitor and the Medtronik Reveal LINQ. There are disposable holter monitor patches that are coming onto the market. Many of these are still in clinical trials, however. The advantage of these devices is that they don't have to be implanted and you don't have to wear a bulky unit on your belt.   All three of the options above are used for diagnosing heart conditions by looking at ECG signals--they're probably overkill for your application, but they would work.",
        "id": 271,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Multi-parameters monitors: pediatric vs. adult mode",
        "body": "Using this monitoring device on children in adult mode would not give wrong results.  I can see two reasons for using a different mode:   Normal values for pulse and BP are different between adult and pediatric patients (see Blood Pressure Tables for Children and Adolescents), so default alarms would be different The device measuring the blood pressure will probably function differently in adults and children: on the first attempt, the pressure will rise to a fixed value that is higher in adults and lower in children, because, on average, children have a lower blood pressure (using more pressure than necessary could provoke pain or discomfort in the arm, pain could then increase BP and heart rate). This British Medical Journal article explains how the device works: Oscillatory Blood Pressure Monitoring Devices   Initially, the pressure in the cuff must be higher than the patient's blood pressure, then, the pressure diminishes slowly to get a measurement. The device is guessing the pressure on the first trial, and then it goes higher for the second attempt if the first guess was incorrect, that is, if the patient's blood pressure was higher than the maximal pressure of the cuff.  You could probably get a more thorough and technical explanation by contacting the manufacturer.",
        "id": 134,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eradicating HIV",
        "body": "It's quite easy to be infected with HIV and not know it. HIV is notoriously stealthy, often producing no symptoms for months or even years, and in the meantime the person can transmit the disease. That scenario describes a large percentage of the people who have transmitted the disease.   Then there are the people who don't even know it exists, much less how to prevent it. A lot of the world isn't educated and doesn't have access to modern health care.   Intercourse isn't the only way to transmit it. Sharing needles is a common route of infection among drug addicts, and in third world countries where medical supplies are scarce, needles are sometimes reused. Infections have also occurred via organ donations, accidental exposure to body fluids (usually medical personnel), and from mother to child both in vitro and via breast milk.   Thousands of people died of AIDS due to HIV infections they acquired from blood transfusions and organ donations before HIV was recognized and screened for. That probably still happens in third world countries where they don't have the money or facilities to screen adequately.  And of course, there are the sociopaths who just don't care. There are people who know they are HIV+ and will still go out and have unprotected sex without informing their partners.   And finally, you might want to consult a few religions about convincing people not to have sex. Several of them have been trying to do that for thousands of years and every one of them has failed miserably.  So it's a nice idea, but it would take a large coordinated effort by most countries around the world (lasting many years and costing many billions) to eradicate it entirely. As you might imagine, the political, financial and logistical difficulties such a program faces are rather large.  https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/",
        "id": 1710,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the optimal dosage of zinc within 24 hours of onset of cold symptoms?",
        "body": "As the study says:     Zinc administered within 24 hours of onset of symptoms reduces the   duration of common cold symptoms in healthy people but some caution is   needed due to the heterogeneity of the data. As the zinc lozenges   formulation has been widely studied and there is a significant   reduction in the duration of cold at a dose of \u2265 75 mg/day   Examine.com states;     Superloading zinc by taking up to 100mg zinc a day is confirmed to be   safe in the short term (2-4 months), but because this dose is higher   than the 40mg Tolerable Upper Limit (TUL) of zinc, prolonged   superloading is not advised.   However, as can be seen in the PubMed comments here there are significant criticisms of the summary made. This lead to the withdrawal of the publication in 2015  Zinc Supplementation Decreases Incidence Of Infections In The Elderly: Effect Of Zinc On Generation Of Cytokines And Oxidative Stress found:      Supplementation of 45mg elemental zinc for a period of 12 months in   elderly persons who had low baseline zinc levels, the infection rate   seen with supplementation (29%) was lower than placebo (88%) although   upper respiratory tract infection rates trended to be less common (50%   reduction) but this failed to reach significance.   In summary:  The 2013 Cochrane study was trashed by one reviewer and got taken down. There is no significant evidence that it reduces the common cold symptoms in adults if taken as one is starting.",
        "id": 1077,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does auto-brewery-syndrome work exactly? Their bodies somehow produce alcohol without even consuming it? When was it discovered?",
        "body": "My husband was diagnosed with Autobrewery Syndrome in Sept 2015 by the leading ABS clinical doctor Dr. Anup Kanodia as a direct result of a motor vehicle accident while at work in December 2014.  He was taken to the hospital immediately after the accident where his blood draw was 0.29 BAC EVEN THOUGH HE WAS NOT OBSERVED TO BE INTOXICATED BY THE LAW OFFICER OR THE ER MEDICAL STAFF. I observed him prior to this accident showing signs of intestinal distress, an altered mental state, memory problems, severe bloating, and general flu-like symptoms.  Just like several other confirmed ABS patients, he took a course of antibiotics in 2013 as prescribed by his Primary Healthcare Physician.  Autobrewery Syndrome is believed to be caused by common opportunistic yeast and bacteria found in the intestines of most humans.  Carbohydrates (sugars and starches) are consumed normally and after they leave the stomach, the yeast and bacteria in the small intestine begin using that energy to ferment and create ethanol.  At some point, the population of yeast and bacteria go into ethanol overdrive and make the person intoxicated - without that person having had a single sip of alcohol.  The earliest scientific literature I could find on the syndrome is from Japan in the 1930s.  It has popped up occasionally since then as a medical oddity article.  In 2013, Dr. Barbara Cordell published a new paper describing the timeline and symptoms of a person eventually diagnosed with Autobrewery Syndrome.  My husband is now a regular patient of Dr. Kanodia's and we consult regularly with Dr. Cordell to discuss dietary issues specific to ABS sufferers.  As a direct result of Autobrewery Syndrome, my husband was convicted of a DUII, reckless driving, and criminal negligence by the State of Oregon in January 2016.  The mandatory restitution we now owe to the State of Oregon exceeds $ 382,000 dollars (USD).  We are appealing this original conviction based upon the fact that the State of Oregon violated his Civil Rights during the trial.  He was not allowed to use his medical diagnosis in his own legal defense - per the judge's orders issued the night before his trial.  We have created a website regarding our story and the impact ABS has had on our lives.  We also have a Facebook page if you'd like to communicate further with either of us.  Sierra &amp; Ray Lewis https://www.facebook.com/Autobreweryawareness/ http://www.autobreweryawareness.com/",
        "id": 1370,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health benefits of consuming oligonol?",
        "body": "Possible Risks  This study suggests that Oligonol is safe for consumption and does not pose any proven threats or harmful consequences to health (1 &amp; 2).  Possible Benefits:   Other studies suggest that its benefits may include reducing: visceral fat (5), the risk of mental degenerative diseases such as dementia and Alzheimer's (6), stress-induced inflammation (7), and excessive sweating (8).  There's also possible correlation with strengthening the immune system (9).  Disclaimers (Thanks JohnP!)   These studies don't suggest that Oligonol is a panacea, but rather indicate possible benefits. In many of them, there are the same scientists cited as authors. (Sources 1 &amp; 2) Conflict of Interest Statement: [The authors] are employees of Amino Up Chemical Co., Ltd. and BAM and AR are consultants to Amino Up Chemical Co., Ltd. - (A biotechnology company that produces nutraceuticals and functional food ingredients.)      Oligonol is a particularly promising source of   polyphenols since it provides higher concentration of phenolic   monomers and oligomers, and thus the bioavailability of these   polyphenols are higher, with potential for enhanced beneficial health   effects.   ...     The use of Oligonol to produce an antioxidant benefit in human beings   needs to be studied in future clinical trials.   (See more: Links 3 and 4)    Sources:   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17081671 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691508002949 http://oligonol-net.com/e/publication/conference.html http://oligonol-net.com/e/applications/circulate.html http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1756464609000565 Oligomerised lychee fruit-derived polyphenol attenuates cognitive impairment in senescence-accelerated mice and endoplasmic reticulum stress in neuronal cells. Protective role of oligonol from oxidative stress-induced inflammation in C6 glial cell. Oligonol Supplementation Modulates Plasma Volume and Osmolality and Sweating After Heat Load in Humans. Oligonol supplementation affects leukocyte and immune cell counts after heat loading in humans. ",
        "id": 107,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Vitamin supplements with a balanced diet",
        "body": "Vitamins and minerals from foods an supplements taken simultaneously can be absorbed normally, because their absorption is usually not regulated by the amounts you take. However, the absorption of iron depends on your body iron stores: the more stores, the less efficient absorption. Still, both acute and chronic iron poisoning is possible with large amounts of iron supplements.  The absorption of selenium is not regulated like iron, so overdose is possible, but not with balanced diet and supplements within recommended limits. Note, that selenium toxicity can occur if you eat too many Brazil nuts (ODS).  To know, if it is better to take a supplement on an empty stomach or with food, read the instructions on the information leaflet provided. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are better absorbed if taken with fatty food (PubMed).    NHS Inform about taking higher than normal amount of supplements:  If you get too much water soluble vitamins (B complex and C) and minerals, the excessive amount will be usually excreted by the urine within hours. Overdose can occur when you exceed the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for these vitamins.  If you get too much fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), they will be stored in the liver and other body fat stores and used later at any time if needed. Taking these supplements within recommended doses even in addition to balanced diet and fortified foods, does not result in an overdose (PubMed).    Good to know: Vitamin and Mineral Supplements: Do We Really Need Them? (PubMed Central, 2012)     The results of large-scale randomized trials show that, for the   majority of the population, there is no overall benefit from taking   Multivitamin supplements.  ",
        "id": 2330,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Reddened in the face / red skin in the face",
        "body": "There are many possibilities here, but my first thought upon seeing the pictures and reading that it occurred after you increased your alcohol consumption was rosacea. It can be triggered by alcohol consumption. Certain foods can trigger it as well. You'll want to google \"rosacea\" and \"rosacea triggers\" because there's much more info out there than I can easily summarize here.   Another big possibility is allergies/atopic dermatitis/eczema. Did you change any product usage like soaps, detergents, shampoo, or conditioner which come into contact with the skin? Have you started eating any new foods that you now eat frequently? Any other recent environmental changes?  Follow up with your dermatologist. It may take several visits to narrow down and pinpoint some diagnoses that have nonspecific symptoms, and sometimes it even comes down to trial and error with several treatment options. If you don't get anywhere after that, perhaps seek another opinion. ",
        "id": 1663,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Inferring vitamin D level from levels of parathyroid hormone, vitamin B6 and calcium",
        "body": "Exposure to adequate sunlight is a better predictor of vitamin D levels than PTH, B6, and calcium.  It's unlikely that a solid enough correlation exists between those and D.  If you're rarely exposed to sunlight wearing bathing suit attire during peak UVB hours (11am - 1pm in most of North America), and you also don't take a supplemental form, you're very likely to be on the low side, if not outright deficient.    The only way to know for sure is to have your 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels checked via bloodworm.  If you like, you can go here to participate in a study that will let you measure your levels a couple times a year for 60 dollars.    Vitamin D is arguably the most important vitamin to supplement with for most people in developed countries.  Now being called a 'master hormone' by some researchers, it controls over 10% of the human genome through epigenetic influences.  Correction of vitamin D levels has been associated with improvements in a wide variety of illnesses, from depression to autoimmune disorders to hormonal imbalances.    Optimal dosage is anywhere from 5,000 ius per day to as high as 20,000 ius for some people, though this is excessive for most.  ",
        "id": 406,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "ECT and retrograde amnesia",
        "body": "Permanent loss of memory seems only occur in the memory of the treatment and events leading up to the treatment.     The results indicated that ECT can initially disrupt recall of events that occurred many years previously, but recovery of these memories was virtually complete by seven months after treatment. It was also clear that persisting memory loss for information acquired only a few days before treatment can occur. For information acquired one to two years prior to treatment, recovery was substantial, but the results suggested that some memory problems might persist for events that occurred during this time period.      Squire LR, Slater PC, Miller PL. Retrograde amnesia and bilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Long-term follow-up. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1981   This study comes to the same conclusion:     Our results are consistent with the possibility that ECT as currently practiced does not cause significant lasting retrograde amnesia, but that amnesia is mostly temporary and related to the period of impairment immediately following ECT.      Martijn Meeter, Jaap M.J. Murre, Steve M.J. Janssen, Tom Birkenhager, W.W. van den Broek,   Retrograde amnesia after electroconvulsive therapy: A temporary effect?,   Journal of Affective Disorders,   Volume 132, Issues 1\u20132,   2011   The following extract from The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Recommendations for Treatment, Training and Privileging suggests that almost all patients in fact do experience retrograde amnesia, but the severity differs and can be assessed with a Mental State Exam which should be conducted prior:     Following ECT, patients also display retrograde amnesia. Deficits in the recall of both personal (autobiographical) and public information are usually evident, and the deficits are typically greatest for events that occurred temporally closest to the treatment   Below is a link to the full text.     The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy:   Recommendations for Treatment, Training and Privileging   Second Edition (Completely Revised), Section 5 ",
        "id": 2327,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much damage is caused by smoking 2-3 cigarettes on a healthy body?",
        "body": "The moment you start smoking a cigarette, the damage to your body begins.  Not only physical, but mental health also begins to decline.  Here are a few things that happen inside a human body once smoking begins...   Apart from nicotine, some 3000+ harmful chemicals enter your body and stir up chemical reactions! The blood in your body starts to clot. Nicotine makes your brain to change its functions without you realizing it! The ability of your lungs to filter bad substances gets reduced and well, over time, it helps you achieve lung cancer. Over time, low libido, erectile problems will occur. Women who smoke may invite cervical cancer apart from, pregnancy issues, premature delivery. Invitation to various types of cancers such as, throat, lips, voice box, tongue besides damage to your nails, hair, skin, you name it!   According to American Academy of Dermatology, smoking contributes in premature ageing.  Ref link: https://www.aad.org/public/skin-hair-nails/anti-aging-skin-care/causes-of-aging-skin  The natural ageing process gets momentum due to chemicals in the cigarette and helps you get wrinkles and stained skin at an early age!  Here are a few things you need to know, if you're going to smoke 2-3 cigarettes/day:  Physical Damage:   Threat to cardiovascular system Respiratory damage Brain damage Damage to reproductive system Damage to skin, hair, nails Bad breath   and so on!  Your body does recover initially as its immune system is strong!  As the time passes, and so does the smoke, it also begins to deteriorate and over time, you become eligible to the above mentioned conditions!  So it's upto you to decide whether to let go of your own healthy body into smoke or make it count.  Quit smoking my friend.",
        "id": 2070,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does CRP decreased result means within 2 months",
        "body": "CRP is sometimes used as a marker of infection or inflammation, yes, but (1) it's nonspecific and (2) to say an infection is present or absent requires a LOT more information and most often a clinical examination.  By itself without any clinical context those values don't tell us nearly enough to comment.  Ask whomever ordered the test, they're the ones evaluating you, and obviously doing so for a reason.  We can't give medical advice here on SE.",
        "id": 1849,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Meaning of \"sib of 20\" in a by-patient case description table",
        "body": "21 (sib of 20) means that the person No 21 is a sibling of the person No 20 (a row before him).  You can check this article:     These patients were members of 28 unrelated kindreds with subjects 5   and 27, 9 and 13, 10 and 12, 11 and 15 and 19 and 21, being full   siblings (Table 1).   In the table 1, you can see that the person No 5 is a sib of the person No 27, and the person No 27 is a sib of a person No 5.",
        "id": 2708,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I donate a kidney later and recieve one now?",
        "body": "\"for someone else, of course\"  Of course not. You haven't read or understood the rules. The point is that you donate a kidney and then the intended recipient gets a voucher to redeem your kidney in the future. The vouchers are not transferrable and only exist to enable someone to donate a kidney for someone else at a time that suits them but not have the recipient immediately take it. i.e. You know someone who will lose kidney function in the future and are happy to donate now, rather than in the future emergency situation when they need it.  Even if you were right about the transferability of the voucher, what you are asking is very unethical. Take a good hard look at your moral compass.         A renal allograft can only be provided to the pre-determined intended recipient(s) identified in the consent forms.    The 'voucher' expires when the intended recipient is no longer living.    The 'voucher' may not be reassigned.    The donor may not withdraw the 'voucher' from the intended recipient after kidney donation.    The intended recipient may only redeem the 'voucher' when transplantation is indicated as a therapeutic modality for end-stage   kidney disease (ESKD).   If the NKR was to undergo a change of control, the surviving organization must honor all 'voucher' liabilities with the same or   better capacity to fulfill all outstanding 'voucher' obligations.         In order to avoid the transfer of \u2018vouchers\u2019 for monetary gain,   redemption must be limited to the intended recipient as identified in   the informed consent document. The intended recipient is required to   have government photo identification. To further insure that the   patient receiving the \u2018voucher\u2019 kidney is the same person identified   on the original consent forms, blood typing and tissue typing is   confirmed before the \u2018voucher\u2019 is redeemed ",
        "id": 1234,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to check if condoms are good to use?",
        "body": "Fill them with water. If they leak, they're bad. Just keep in mind they're not meant to withstand pressure, so don't fill them to bursting. Use just enough water to show if there are any leaks.",
        "id": 1745,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it recommended to drink water during meals?",
        "body": "Drinking water during or after a meal actually aids digestion. Water and other liquids help break down food so that your body can absorb the nutrients. Water also softens stools, which helps prevent constipation.  Despite the fact that it aids digestion, it also has its down-side such as the fact that it would slow the digestion process and reduce the body\u2019s ability to produce enough digestive enzymes to digest foods properly. Without proper digestion, a build up of toxic waste can occur no matter what you are eating.  It is important to note that drinking water during a meal would be more beneficial than not drinking while eating if you are not properly hydrated before hand. Eating while dehydrated can cause the body to have a very tough time digesting food.  Based on the information presented, when thinking about how to approach eating meals yourself, there are several tips we can apply. It appears most beneficial to stay hydrated throughout the day and if you must drink while you eat, avoid drinking too much, as well as alcohol and acidic drinks. Drink warm water and drink it sparingly. A small glass will likely not interfere with digestion and by adding a dash of apple cider vinegar or lemon, you can aid in the digestive process further. If you can, you might want to try drinking 30 minutes before and 30 minutes after a meal with no drinking during, see how you feel. If it works for you, then stick with what works, if not, adjust accordingly.  http://www.collective-evolution.com/2013/07/02/is-drinking-water-while-eating-good-for-you/",
        "id": 1385,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possible reason/s for increases in neutrophil, platelet, and WBC levels at the same time?",
        "body": "The increased WBC, platelet, and Neutroplil count suggests that your body may be trying to fight off an infection. When the body is under attack, it increases it's white blood cell production to combat the infection. The platelets also suggest an infection, as well as the Neutrophil count, which are a type of white blood cell. The possibility of illness is one out of many, though the most likeley. Though an examination or more blood work can rule out any other causes which may be more severe. If I were in your shoes, I'd consult a doctor who can examine you and do proper tests.",
        "id": 1326,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can blood transfusion help in case of scleroderma?",
        "body": "I'm not aware of any work done in this area. A whole blood transfusion is not going replace circulating defective lymphocytes.  On the other hand Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation has some promise in patients with deteriorating lung function.     Autologous HSCT could \u201creset\u201d the host immune system to a point in time when the antigenic triggers of autoimmunity were not present (41). Illustrative of this point, is the fact that pre-HSCT immunity wanes and often disappears after autologous HSCT. In recipients of TBI conditioning and autologous HSCT, the T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire diversity was shown to normalize after lymphoablation and autologous transplant (42).    ...     But do the benefits of autologous HSCT outweigh the risks? Likely not in autoimmune diseases with low associated mortality, but for scleroderma lung disease the benefits appear compelling. Replicated in multiple phase II reports from Europe and the US, dramatic and durable improvements in skin fibrosis and quality of life measures have been observed along with stabilization of PFTs. Three prospective, randomized clinical trials in patients with SSc and internal organ involvement have compared autologous HSCT treatment to high-dose IV pulse CYC given for up to 12 months. The SCOT trial is still following all subjects through the 54th month primary endpoint, but as detailed above the ASSIST and ASTIS randomized trials have been completed and both report statistically significant clinical benefits after stem cell transplantation.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/mid/NIHMS787239/",
        "id": 752,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Infectious chicken pox",
        "body": "You can continue to work as long as you take the usual common-sense precautions: wear clean clothes and wash your hands.  While varicella is one of the most contagious viruses we know of, the primary route of spread is droplets expressed when an infected person coughs or sneezes. It can also be spread by touching virus from varicella lesions. The virus is believed to have a \"short\" survival time in the environment (pinning down exactly how short is harder, but this should still be comforting.)     Labile outside host cell. It survives in the external environment for a few hours and occasionally for a day or two.1    As regards your son,     A person with varicella is contagious from 1-2 days before rash onset until the lesions have crusted.2   Your son is no longer contagious, and if you've had chicken pox, you are not contagious unless you develop breakthrough varicella, which is not as rare as people might think.     Approximately 15-20% of 1-dose vaccinated persons may develop varicella if exposed to VZV.3   People with breakthrough varicella are contagious. Breakthrough varicella is usually milder than first infections, and the rash is usually maculopapular (little red bumps) rather than the typical blistery lesions.       One study ...found that persons with mild breakthrough varicella (&lt; 50 lesions) were one third as contagious as unvaccinated persons with varicella. However, persons with breakthrough varicella with 50 or more lesions can be just as contagious as unvaccinated persons.3   The take-home message here is you're fine as long as you don't have breakthrough varicella yourself, wash your hands before entering the building, and aren't rubbing your patients with your son's shirt.  As an aside, most of your patients have already had chicken pox; that's why they can get shingles. If they were so immune-compromised that your son's illness could affect them, they would probably break out with shingles before you could carry it to them.  1 VARICELLA-ZOSTER VIRUS, Section IV 2 Chickenpox (Varicella) 3 Slide set: Overview of VZV Disease &amp; Vaccination for Healthcare Professionals available by clicking on link in 2  ",
        "id": 542,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the healthiest way to drink alcohol excessively and chronically?",
        "body": "Basically, most of what you suggested.   One of the big risks of alcohol consumption is damage to the liver. Thus, if drinking a lot, don't do anything else that damages the liver, like taking medication that can itself lead to liver damage. The most common drug that this includes is acetaminophen (paracetamol).   The next important thing is to get the alcohol to be delivered into the blood (and liver) slowly. That means eating before drinking, drinking slowly, and not taking any medication that worsens the effect of alcohol.   And then comes reducing its effects and speeding up recovery. Drink enough additional fluids (water, juices, etc) before, during and after drinking alcohol. Get enough sleep and give your body time to recover.   With regular alcohol consumption comes vitamin deficiencies. A multivitamin with folate, vitamin B6, thiamine, and vitamin A might help. Iron deficiency and anemia are common, getting enough iron in the diet or through a multivitamin can help with that.   There are lots of things long-term alcohol abuse can cause that can't be treated like this, though. Seizures, nerve damage, pancreatitis, etc.   All in all, I really, really recommend against it, but in this hypothetical scenario, the steps above might reduce the damage done to the body.   Sources  How to Protect Your Liver if You Drink Alcohol  Absorption Rate Factors  NHS hangover cures  Mechanisms of vitamin deficiencies in alcoholism  Risks of alcohol misuse  Health Risks of Alcohol",
        "id": 599,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can early exposure to stimulates, like ritalin, result in higher tolerance to them?",
        "body": "Yes, unfortunately, Ritalin produces a tolerance in individuals who take it.  In the conclusion of this double blind trial, the author notes,      Acute tolerance to methylphenidate appears to exist. This should be   considered in the design of an optimal dosing regimen for the   treatment of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.   Acute tolerance to methylphenidate in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children.  Addendum:  This might be a useful reference for ADHD in general: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults.",
        "id": 773,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the amount of allergen in an allergy shot compare to a 6X homeopathic dilution",
        "body": "A quick, non-comprehensive google search turned up a couple of publications targeted at doctors indicating that maintenance doses of allergens are in the range of 5-20 micrograms:  http://www.greerlabs.com/files/Grier_Tom_HowsMyDosing_Publication_3_2012.pdf http://www.aafp.org/afp/2004/0815/p689.html  This obviously varies a great deal depending on the allergen, the patient, and the progress of therapy, but it sounds like you could use it as an order-of-magnitude estimate. Some issues to note:   I believe that 6X means the solution has been diluted to one millionth of the original concentration, but to find out the amount of pollen present you would need to know what the original concentration was.  I don't know whether immunotherapy uses whole pollen, or some kind of isolated protein. If it's an isolate, 1mcg of allergen used in shots could be much more potent than 1mcg of solute in the homeopathic solution.   I don't know how comparable sublingual and injected allergen doses are.  Homeopathic remedies are unregulated and could contain basically anything.  ",
        "id": 720,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can adults get new gut bacteria from external exposure?",
        "body": "In principle: yes, the gut microbiome can be altered by external exposures. It is the large but and a large range of buts that follow.  The newborns indeed get their initial \"seeding\" by birth, vaginally preferred and from the surface of the mother's body, and everyone and everything else in the surroundings. This is facilitated by two main factors: 1. in the womb the little person is sterile 2. when born the immune system isn't fully developed. Both factors making it way more easy for bacteria \u2013 any bacteria \u2013 to take a hold.     Under physiological conditions, the fetus is protected from exposure to viable microorganisms. With rupture of membranes and passage through the birth canal, the neonate becomes exposed to bacteria that colonize maternal body surfaces and the environment. These bacteria start to establish the enteric microbiota initially characterized by low bacterial diversity and high interindividual variation. This makes the neonatal and early infant microbiota particularly vulnerable to exogenous interference. On the other hand, the low colonization resistance allows the interventional modification of the early microbiota by oral administration of beneficial bacteria. With time, additional bacterial species colonize the intestine and increase the diversity of the microbiota composition. In combination with the influence of genetic determinants and environmental factors, this ultimately leads to the generation of a mature and highly diverse enteric microbiota that remains relatively stable throughout life.   That means in later life the immune system improves its effectiveness and the ecosystem that initially develops within the gut claims all the niches that are there and defend their own existence against newly arriving species (Hornef, 2018).  We observe three very different things that make an exception to this \"stability in adult life\":   Commensal and symbiotic bacteria (\"beneficial\") , as well as unwanted and detrimental ones (\"pathogens\"), do not exist in a vacuum but under specific, individual conditions. They feed off of your food. Altering the food composition or introducing antibiotics, natural or pharmacologically chosen, alters these conditions and can select in different directions. Antibiotics can even almost erase the ecosystem to point that makes it relatively easy for nasty bugs to spread. (For example until 1978 we called it just \"antibiotic associated colitis\", but then identified an infection/dominance with Clostridium difficile as the source for that condition.) In school we were told that stomach acids destroys bacteria and that therefore bacteria will not enter the body via food. For most of the bacteria this is the case. Obviously, we have to keep certain standards of hygiene when eating or preparing food, as E.coli or salmonella for example can make you sick, not only via their toxins, but by multiplying in your gut and replacing the previous owners of that place. This leads to factor 3: one or two very resilient pathogens might not cause trouble, but if they arrive in large enough numbers that chances for trouble increases. Conversely, the exact same principle is true for 'wanted' bacteria, like Mutaflor Nissle, S. boulardii, Lactobacilli etc. from fermented foods, sour milk/yoghurt drinks or fecal microbiota transplants.    New bacteria arrive all the time in your gut from all sides and sources and they all try very hard to survive. Many of them do not succeed. They have to arrive in sufficiently large numbers, reach the right place and 'fit in' to the existing neighbours and other conditions.  The extent to which these interactions and alterations occur are hardly predictable. In terms of 'healthy diversity' of the ecosystem in a human gut it may be more beneficial to not wash hands (or even directly ingesting feces) in otherwise unsanitary conditions compared to constantly bombarding the intestines with one single industrialised strain from 'pro-biotic yoghurt drinks'. But in most cases this is decidedly not a good idea. As you can get a really big range of really nasty infections via that 'nowash' way alone as well, it is currently advisable to look really closely at a large range of 'donor' characteristics, if this is indeed to be done as some kind of intervention. Obviously, this cannot apply to the bathroom scenario at all.      From a microbiological point of view, the human GIT can be regarded as the best investigated ecological niche of the human body, although some difficulties exist in obtaining representative samples from various parts of the GIT. Moreover, the human GIT probably represents one of the best investigated microbial ecosystems on earth. This fact can be explained due to the great importance of the GIT microbiota in maintaining and driving human health, disease and well-being: on a quantitative basis, humans can be regarded as a super-organism, consisting of 90% microbial cells and even 99% microbial genes, and the vast majority of the microbial diversity is located in the human GIT (Wilson, 2008).   (Riedel, 2014)   Despite the above, we still do not know nearly enough. 7 billion people, all with unique microbiomes consisting of myriads of species and strains are just too many conditions to analyse. Some of the patterns we think are emerging might be spurious. Just the very general wisdom seems to be certain by now: these mircobiomes are to be viewed as ecosystems that benefit themselves from diversity to gain stability.  References  Hornef, M. (2018). \"Microbiome and Early Life\" In:\u00a0The Gut Microbiome in Health and Disease\u00a0(pp. 31-47). Springer, Cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-90545-7_3  Rosamond Rhodes &amp; Nada Gligorov &amp; Abraham Paul Schwab: \"The Human Microbiome. Ethical, Legal and Social Concerns\", Oxford University Press: Oxford, New York, 2013.  Christian U. Riedel et al.: \"The Stomach and Small and Large Intestinal Microbiomes\", in: Julian R. Marchesi: \"The Human Microbiota and Microbiome\", Advances in Molecular and Cellular Microbiology, CABI: Wallingford, Boston, 2014.",
        "id": 2556,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you cauterize a wound with gunpowder?",
        "body": "So this was an interesting one for me, because I never seriously tried to consider it.  Most online sources that claim this say it's an \"old army trick,\" but after reading several perspectives on wound care in the military, I don't know that is true.  The actual historical roots on this idea I could find actually go back to reference a slave owner using it as a form of abuse to over work his slave, or a short fiction story from 1915.  The problem is one of timing.  As wars started to utilize gun powder more, tourniquets were realized to be superior to cauterization (first ideas of tourniquets go back to ~1500's, serious implantation with Jean Petit in early 1700's).  By the time we get to something like Vietnam, not only would the solders have had tourniquets, if they were going to cauterize the wound they would have done it chemically.  Another problem is the gas and force released from igniting gun powder.  It doesn't just burn hot, it propels.  That's why it's useful for moving bullets.  I think this would likely further distort the tissue, and if applied in large amounts in to major arteries/veins, a good deal of toxicity problems.  I just honestly think this would cause more harm than good.  I'd be very interested if someone can find a documented example of where this was actually tried in the field (and I missed it).  Considering you can't readily treat your own neck, the appropriate thing to do would be to apply direct pressure with your hands to the places that are bleeding the most (or if you're the one helping, then the same to the other person's neck).    Oddly enough I have a more detailed SE answer written up in Bio, for those interested in proper wound care in the neck.    Edit:  I was made aware the \"Dual Survival\" episode where one of the characters cauterizes a wound (YouTube Video Here and then here).  You will note that even the survivalist unequivocally rejected this method as valid before he did it to himself (presumably for considerable compensation from Discovery Channel).  I reject this as a valid example for the following reasons:   That was a shallow wound where the bleeding was mostly controlled, (from the video you can see that it is hardly bleeding), and as a wound caused by a clean cut, could and should be controlled with pressure and binding. You can see that the initial load of gun powder did not ignite, some initial cauterization probably occurred by dropping whatever was on fire onto the cut (looked like moss).  Further, as mentioned in the video, the gunpowder was mixing with his blood and stinging, a pretty good sign it was being introduced into his blood stream, which could cause toxicity problems. Because of the shallow nature of this cut, much of the gas released was able to burst out and away from his arm.  In a wound actually calling for cauterization, the powder would have had to been placed much deeper.  Think of this problem as the difference between igniting black powder on the top of a rock vs packing it into a deep crack.  Only one of those leads to an exploding rock.  Further, this brings up the problem of technology again.  If they had a knife to heat, and were dead set on cauterization, they should have used the heated knife.  No additional benefit of gunpowder would be had, and there are several clear drawbacks.  As someone who hunts and hikes often, how many times will you be walking around with black powder (not newer gunpowder formulations) without a good knife?  Or for that matter, a belt and cloth and the ability to make a tourniquet (even a make-shift one).   Again, the wound in the video doesn't even call for a tourniquet, to say nothing of cauterization.  This is an example of something that makes sensational TV does not make good medical sense, and probably helps spread medical misconceptions and ignorance (as the premise of the show is to help demonstrate survivalist techniques).",
        "id": 695,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is menstruation manageable?",
        "body": "Heave menstruation can be a pathology, which is called menorrhagia.  There is a multitude of medication available:   NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) or naproxen sodium (Aleve), help reduce menstrual blood loss. NSAIDs have the added benefit of relieving painful menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). Tranexamic acid (Lysteda) only needs to be taken during the menstrual phase. Oral contraceptives can help regulate menstrual cycles apart from being birth control. The hormone progesterone can help correct hormone imbalance and thus reduce menorrhagia. Intrauterine devices can release a type of progestin called levonorgestrel, which makes the uterine lining thin and decreases menstrual blood flow and cramping.   Source: MayoClinic.org, MedScpae.com  However, this is something to consult a gynaecologist with. Menorrhagia can also lead to anaemia (a decrease of red blood cells in the blood), if the body can't keep up with the heavy bleeding. ",
        "id": 2373,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is avocado leaf tea potentially harmful to humans?",
        "body": "That wikipedia page seems to blame the toxicity of some avacado parts to their content of persin. According to the page on persin:     Persin is a fungicidal toxin present in the avocado. It is generally   harmless to humans, but when consumed by domestic animals in large   quantities it is dangerous.   Even in the case of animals, wikipedia suggests that it is the Guatemalan variety which is responsible for the reports of poisoning, not the Mexican variety. This is corroborated by an article which explains that the concern over the toxicity of avacado leaves originated with a 1984 study at the University of California at Davis. This study found that the consumption of very large amounts of avacado leaves was toxic to goats. However, an author of the atudy (Dr. Arthur Craigmill) clarified that the leaves in question were those of the Guatemalan avacado (Persea american), and that the toxic effects were not observed when goats were fed Mexican avacado leaves (Persea dryminfolia).",
        "id": 164,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is tomato paste more healthy than fresh tomatos?",
        "body": "This is because lycopene (red carotenoid pigment found in tomatoes that is responsible for most of their cancer fighting properties) becomes more easily absorbed by the human body when the tomatoes are cooked! On top of that, tomato paste is a form of concentrated cooked tomatoes, which means there's more lycopene per gram of the paste than per gram of raw tomato. Those two factors combined make tomato paste the healthiest form for consuming tomatoes!",
        "id": 507,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the use of quinolones increase the risk of tendinopathies?",
        "body": "\"FQs have chelating properties against several metal ions (e.g., calcium, magnesium, aluminum), and have been known to cause direct toxicity to type 1 collagen synthesis and promote collagen degradation\"  We aren't for certain as to why FQ's have this effect yet, but this fact would be the leading candidate in my opinion as to why.",
        "id": 1145,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Checking nutrition balance",
        "body": "1) Blood tests alone can, in most cases, reveal if your nutritional status is normal or not. If the results are normal and you have no symptoms of disease, there are usually no other tests needed. Only when you are deficient in certain nutrients, other tests may be needed: blood hemoglobin in iron deficiency, bone scanning in calcium deficiency, etc.  2) Blood tests can still show normal vitamin/mineral status after a week or two of complete fasting (drinking only water) or, in case of vitamin A, B12, D or E, even after months or years of insufficient intake, because these nutrients can be obtained from your body stores.    ",
        "id": 2391,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What VR app that cure myopia?",
        "body": "There isn't an app that 'cures' myopia  There is at least one 'eye training' VR app for things like amblyopia (which I make no claim about the benefits or drawbacks of); and reports from 2015 of a company set up to do something similar:     But the company is about a third of the way through an extensive nine-month trial involving 50 to 60 participants at the University of California San Francisco to study the effects of See Vividly\u2019s software, Vivid Vision. [...] Earlier this year, a small trial in Slovakia saw improvement in nine of 15 participants with amblyopia.   However, there doesn't seem to be an app for myopia specifically. The closes thing is a proposed solution to adjust a VR headset's projection so that someone with myopia can see the images projected clearly (PDF).",
        "id": 2166,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the bioavailability of collagen?",
        "body": "Gelatin is made up of proteins derived from collagen, a protein that is heavily used in our bones and joints, among other things.  According to this study, which was done in rats:     The relative and absolute bioavailability of gelatin were 74.12% and   85.97%, respectively.   It goes on to say that about 42% of gelatin was absorbed from the intestine as peptides (chains of amino acids that are smaller than proteins). Because these peptides are susceptible to proteases (the proteins in our body that break down peptide bonds), it is likely that these peptides are broken down into amino acids, which are then used to make different proteins, rather than that re-used to make more collagen (though I could not find data on this specifically).  Similar studies have not been done in humans, so it is not known if these numbers are generalizable, but Canada has approved a nutritional label stating that gelatin can be a nutritional source of protein.",
        "id": 2114,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are \"data cut off\" and \"data lock\" the same thing in a clinical trial?",
        "body": "I don't think they are both specific terms that will apply consistently across all studies, you will have to use the surrounding context.  \"Data lock\" typically means that the data themselves in some sort of database are no longer being edited and are ready to be analyzed: that is, they have been recorded, checked for accuracy, etc. to create a \"final\" version. A synonym is \"data freeze\". It is usually referring more to the database itself, though, rather than data collection for the study. Indeed, in this passage, it seems like they finished collecting data in Feb 2017, but finalized the database in Oct 2017.  The purpose of a data lock/data freeze is to prevent statistical \"fishing\" in the data, for example by re-analyzing data until some significance threshold is reached, or making decisions about exclusion criteria after preliminary statistical analyses have been completed. The proper procedure is to get your data in the best condition they can be in, and then begin analysis.  The only sensible interpretation of their meaning of \"data cut-off\" in this context is that it refers to the end of the follow-up period in Feb 2017: since follow-up stopped then, they wouldn't know reasons for discontinuation past then. The study is frozen in time at the time they stopped recording data. I am not aware of this phrase being used as a specific term (unlike data lock or data freeze), I think they are just using the general English meaning of those words to describe \"the time after which we didn't collect any more data.\"",
        "id": 2598,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Permanent lice prevention",
        "body": "Ok so the semi-permanent solution that I have found is to cover school uniforms with Permethrin.  Permethrin is neurotoxin that is used to repel/kill ticks, fleas, and other insects and is used by US and UK militaries in jungle warfare. It is considered not to be harmful to humans, but might irritate skin for some.  One can buy it on Amazon in US or UK, simply spray it on clothes after washing it should last for about 4-5 washes.",
        "id": 979,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical professionals referring to 'left' and 'right': are they referring to my relative directions or theirs?",
        "body": "In medical documentation, being an X-ray, MRI, description of physical examination or other, the sides \"right\" and \"left\" should be always used as they appear in your body. So, the \"left neural foramen\" is on your left-hand side.  Below is an X-ray image of the chest cavity. You can see the big letter \"L\" and all the \"left\" terms on the right side of the image, because this is a view from the front, so they are all point to the left parts of the body. The confusion could occur when someone points to the image and just says \"here on the left,\" without saying \"side of the body \" or \"image.\" Anyway , when a doctor says something is on the left side, it should be always on your left.   (Source: Lifeinthefastline, CC licence)",
        "id": 1493,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to determine between a Baker's Cyst and a Deep-Vein-Thrombosis (DVT) behind knee?",
        "body": "Baker's cyst typically appears as a single or multiple lump with clearly defined borders, covered by normal skin without discoloration (Google photos of Baker's cysts).  Varicose veins behind the knee appear as a net of knotted bluish threads (Photo).  Superficial thrombophlebitis can appear as a vague red discoloration without swelling on the lower leg rather than behind the knee (2 photos).  Deep vein thrombosis typically appears as a bluish patchy discoloration (not net-like like in varicose veins) and swelling in the lower leg (not likely behind the knee) (scroll to the image 4). Google search for \"deep vein thrombosis behind knee\" gives this misleading result, because most of those photos actually show varicose veins.",
        "id": 1525,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does looking at a computer can be good for your eyes?",
        "body": "People who look at computers frequently, (in particular those that look at a computer for more than three hours a day),  may experience symptoms such as:  Eye discomfort  Headaches  Itchy eyes  Dry or watering eyes  Burning sensations  Changes in color perception  Blurred vision  Difficulty focussing   Despite the potential eye problems caused by looking at a screen too frequently, research carried out in the US has actually found that some screen viewing can be of benefit to the eyes.  Specifically, they found that playing video games can improve vision.  This is because playing video games gives the users chance to improve their contrast sensitivity.   Contrast sensitivity refers to how faded an object can be before it is impossible to differentiate it from the same field of view. It is something that is affected by ageing.   Contrast sensitivity is particularly important for activities such as driving in poor visibility, like in fog or at night.",
        "id": 1855,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the benefits of quick weight loss?",
        "body": " Better sleep: Research shows that losing 5 percent of your body weight can help you sleep better and longer throughout the night. Better hormonal balance: When you rid your body of excess fat, your hormones steady and as a result it's easier for you to maintain or even further your weight loss. Improved sex drive: According to experts, weight loss has been linked to boosted testosterone levels and an increased libido, and dropping just 10 pounds is enough to stimulate sex hormones  Increased sexual performance: Between the energy boost you get from loosing weight and the uptick in stamina from hours spent at the gym, if you really wanted to go all night, you could. Increased physical fitness has been associated with greater satisfaction in the bedroom, according to Smith. Better mood: Working out releases feel good chemicals called endorphins. Endorphins are responsible for that high you feel post workout. They interact with the receptors in your brain, reducing your perception of pain and deliver a positive feeling in the body similar to that of morphine.   http://www.mensfitness.com/weight-loss/burn-fat-fast/25-surprising-benefits-weight-loss",
        "id": 1323,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it better to sleep without a pillow?",
        "body": "For most people, it is better to sleep with a pillow according to the latest research.   Sleeping without a pillow increases interocular pressure which is considered a risk for glaucoma patients.  Sleeping on your side without a pillow increases your risk of osteoarthritis in the neck. If you sleep on your side, your cervical spine bends to the bed. This pinches the openings of the spine (the foramina) and causes bones to push and rub against each other. That friction and pressure causes bone to erode and grow which can create the bone spurs you can often see on cervical x-rays of patients. A pillow raises the head and straightens the spine.  Sleeping on your back without a pillow changes your neck angle from its normal daily position. When standing, your neck also has a certain curve to it. If you sleep on your back, that curve is also distorted. To simulate the natural curve of the neck, researchers found that about 10cm of pillow is needed.    In general, studies suggest that sleeping with a pillow improves sleep quality and fits more physiologically and mechanically with the natural curve of the cervical spine. Even the Egyptians over 3,000 years ago used pillows. Here is King Tutankhamen's headrest around which his pillow linens were wrapped.    You can read additional studies here through PubMed.",
        "id": 818,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Switching hot and and cold water while taking bath",
        "body": "Skin wrinkles are generally caused by a breakdown of the collagen framework within the skin.     Collagen is a key part of your skin's structure. It forms a network of fibers within your skin that acts like a framework.      In young skin, the collagen framework is intact and the skin remains moisturized and elastic. Over time, the support structure weakens and the skin loses its elasticity. The skin begins to lose its tone as the collagen support wears down.   Wrinkles and other signs of skin ageing can be influenced by habits and behaviours during a person's life. Avoiding some risk factors for premature skin ageing can help keep skin looking younger for longer.  As well as smoking causing premature skin aging,     Wrinkles at the corners of the eyes (crow's feet) or between the eyebrows (frown lines) are thought to be caused by small muscle contractions. Over a lifetime, habitual facial expressions like frowning, smiling or squinting leave their mark on our skin.   The first link states that     Using your facial muscles -- smiling, frowning, or squinting, for instance -- is part of expressing yourself. That's normal, but it does stress the collagen in your skin. Over time, that stress adds up and contributes to facial lines and wrinkles.   To answer your question concerning hot and cold showers or baths, the processes within the body which help with homeostasis could have an effect on the collagen framework.  Vasoconstriction and vasodilation are the processes which take place to alter the amount of blood flow throught the capilliaries of the skin.     Blood vessels leading to the skin capillaries become narrower \u2014 they constrict \u2014 letting less blood flow through the skin and conserving heat in the body.   My question would be would vasoconstriction and vasodilation have such a big impact on the collagen framework?  I cannot find any articles which answer this and therefore I would say that this is open to opinion.  On the other hand, another aspect of bathing is that the skin wrinkles in baths, and in the shower if you're in there long enough.  The epidermis, or outer layer of the skin, is made up of cells called keratinocytes,     which form a very strong intracellular skeleton made up of a protein called keratin. These cells divide rapidly at the bottom of epidermis, pushing the higher cells upward. After migrating about halfway from the bottom of this layer to the top, the cells undergo a programmed death. The nucleus involutes, leaving alternating layers of the cell membrane, made of lipids, and the inside, made largely of water-loving keratin. The outer layer of the epidermis, called the stratum corneum, is thus composed of these alternating bands.      When hands are soaked in water, the keratin absorbs it and swells. The inside of the fingers, however, does not swell. As a result, there is relatively too much stratum corneum and it wrinkles, just like a gathered skirt. This bunching up occurs on fingers and toes because the epidermis is much thicker on the hands and feet than elsewhere on the body. (The hair and nails, which contain different types of keratin, also absorb some water. This is why the nails get softer after bathing or doing the dishes.)   This skin bunching happens in hot and cold water, and it can lead to damage to the collagen framework just like any other skin movement through frowning, smiling etc.",
        "id": 1754,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to doctors test for eye damage from a solar eclipse?",
        "body": "No, it's not. Solar retinopathy commonly presents with blurred vision the day after gazing at an eclipse so the diagnosis can be made on the history. Other symptoms that might present include     a central or paracentral scotoma, chromotopsia, metamorphopsia, photophobia, and headache   You don't need to dilate the pupil to examine the fovea, or to examine the macula, or to test visual acuity. However, pupillary dilatation might be of help in other investigations to confirm the diagnosis such as     fundus autofluorescence (FAF), fluorescein angiography (FA), multifocal electroretinography (mfERG), and OCT   https://www.retinalphysician.com/issues/2013/october-2013/solar-retinopathy-etiology,-diagnosis,-and-treatm",
        "id": 2027,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long can a baby survive without water?",
        "body": "No.  medscape.com     Infants' and children\u2019s higher body water content, along with their   higher metabolic rates and increased body surface area to mass index,   contribute to their higher turnover of fluids and solute. Therefore,   infants and children require proportionally greater volumes of water   than adults to maintain their fluid equilibrium and are more   susceptible to volume depletion. Significant fluid losses may occur   rapidly, leading to depletion of the intravascular volume.   Babies cannot survive longer than their parents, due to one factor being that they utilize fluids faster. How long they survive depends on factor such as current fluid balance, body specific factors and diseases and environmental factors. ",
        "id": 1028,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Other than complications related to pregnancy, does zika pose any adult health risks?",
        "body": "For adults, Zika virus is like flu. Apart from fever and maybe nausea, you shouldn't have to worry.  Edit: since it seems sources are of bad need, here is one confirmation from a very recent study (Petersen 2016).  Source : http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971216000217",
        "id": 972,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Infectious risk associated with cat bites",
        "body": "Here some info regarding of the pathogens which could be transmitted by saliva of cats (and hence by skin abrasions and bites):  Saliva of cats can be transmitted through bite wounds, skin abrasions, or mucous membranes. Teeth can penetrate deeply leading to contamination of bone and joint (osteomyelitis or septic arthritis). Infection complicates cat bites in about 50 percent of cases.  Some decades ago, a prospective study 1 incuding 186 patients with cat bite wounds reported following risk factors for wound infections: older age, longer time intervals until ED treatment, wounds inflicted by \"pet\" cats, attempting wound care at home, having a more severe wound and having a deeper wound.  The pathogens which can be transmitted through saliva of cats are:   bartonella henselae (causing cat scratch disease) pasteurella multocida (can cause serious soft-tissue infections and less commonly septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, sepsis, and meningitis particularly in infants or immunocompromised hosts) rabies capnocytophaga (can cause sepsis or meningitis and if following an eye trauma due to a cat bite it can cause corneal infection) tularemia (patient present with fever, chills, headache, and malaise, after an incubation period of 2 to 10 days) cowpox (which can mimic anthrax, i.e. painful hemorrhagic pustule or black eschars)   A recent study 2 reported the frequency of pathogens found in cat bite wounds:    There are vaccination against rabies. For laboratory workers, a vaccine against Francisella tularensis has been developed but is not yet widely available.  References:   Kotton CN. Zoonoses from cats. UpToDate. Jun 2016. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/zoonoses-from-cats?source=machineLearning&amp;search=zoonoses+cat&amp;selectedTitle=1%7E150&amp;sectionRank=1&amp;anchor=H5#H5  For infos regarding vaccination: www.cdc.gov",
        "id": 1210,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why sneezing occurs when suddenly exposed to bright lights?",
        "body": "To answer this question as to why some 35% of people may experience the photic sneeze reflex requires knowledge of how the photic reflex occurs and its function, and both are currently unknown.  It may be a neutral trait, or it may even have some evolutionary advantage.  It's known now that simulating a sneeze by passing fast moving air over nasal cilia increases the ciliary beat frequency and it has been hypothesized that this resets the nasal airways by clearing out debris and other particles. One could theorise that this might temporarily improve the sense of smell which might be advantageous in a hunter gatherer society.",
        "id": 1689,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of Modafinil",
        "body": "You're asking for subjective opinion, so that's what you're going to get. I've taken it a few times and here are my answers to your questions:   Mentally alert and awake. A mental energy boost, yes. Physical, not so much. No, it's not a general stimulant like amphetamines. It makes you mentally alert and wakeful, but there is no cardiac stimulation, nervousness, etc.   You can find full drug info including effects, side effects and precautions here.",
        "id": 1315,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Isometric contraction in PNF",
        "body": "TL; DR: It reduces the inhibitions of the muscle that produce the resistance to the stretch, allowing a further range of motion (ROM) than previously. So it doesn't really stretch the muscle, it reduces the tendency of the body to resist the stretch.  Expansion: PNF stretching is a fairly advanced, intense stretching technique that uses isometric contractions while the muscle is in a near maximal stretched state. This contraction is held for anywhere from 3-20 seconds, although one study suggests that there isn't really any difference between shorter and longer intervals in the stretch.  The mechanism is not really understood, the main theories currently is that if affects the stretch reflex, reciprocal inhibition and autogenic inhibition.  The stretch reflex is due to a muscle spindle (nerve receptor), that when a muscle is stretched suddenly, it sends a signal to the brain to contract the muscle. The greater the stretch, the more forceful the contraction. If you increase the ROM of the muscle, you are less likely to fire the stretch reflex. (As an aside, when the doctor whacks your knee with the hammer to see it twitch, that's the stretch reflex in action).  Reciprocal inhibition - Agonist/antagonist muscles are muscles in opposition to each other such as biceps/triceps, hamstrings/quadriceps, etc. When an agonist muscle contracts, the spindle sends a message to the brain for the antagonist to relax. It is suggested that this mechanism is altered by PNF stretching.  Autogenic inhibition - The golgi tendon organ fires when tension increases in the muscle, either due to contraction or to stretch, causing the agonist muscle to relax. This would override the tendency of the muscle to tighten under stress and relax, enabling a further ROM.  For additional reading, here is an writeup on PNF stretching discussing the various possible mechanisms of action, along with varying techniques of PNF (Contract/Relax, and Contract/Relax/Antagonist/Contract). It also has quite a few cited studies that are good reading. The writeup also addresses the gate-control theory which I am not familiar with. ",
        "id": 1617,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Reliable sites that list the purine content of most foods for gout diet?",
        "body": "On J-Stage, you have extensive lists of foods (by food groups) high in purines (mg/100 g).  Such lists can be misleading, because it is not only the amount of purines in the food but also a type of food that can be associated with gout risk.  Mayo Clinic:        Studies have shown that vegetables high in purines do not increase the risk of gout or recurring gout attacks. A healthy diet based on   lots of fruits and vegetables can include high-purine vegetables, such   as asparagus, spinach, peas, cauliflower or mushrooms. You can also   eat beans or lentils, which are moderately high in purines but are   also a good source of protein.   Avoid meats such as liver, kidney and sweetbreads, which have high purine levels and contribute to high blood levels of uric acid.    Avoid the following types of seafood, which are higher in purines than others: anchovies, herring, sardines, mussels, scallops,   trout, haddock, mackerel and tuna.      Other sources with similar claims:   Gout: a review of non-modifiable and modifiable risk factors PubMed Central What can I do on my own to prevent gout attacks? PubMed Health   Other possible dietary risk factors for gout: high consumption of alcohol, sugary drinks and foods high in fructose. PubMed Central",
        "id": 1433,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to calculate survivability of extremely harsh cold conditions?",
        "body": "Search on windchill frostbite.  NWS  About 30 minutes to frostbite in windchill of -20.  You would likely die of hypothermia before you would die from frost bite.    Calculate windchill     Calculate the wind chill using the National Weather Service's new   formula. Multiply the temperature by 0.6215 and then add 35.74.   Subtract 35.75 multiplied by the wind speed calculated to the 0.16   power. Finally, add 0.4275 multiplied by temperature, multiplied by   wind speed calculated to the 0.16 power. Your result is defined as   T(wc), which equals the current local wind chill factor. ",
        "id": 2475,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can't surgeons operate on nerves?",
        "body": "Well, you can do do various surgical procedures on nerves. You can suture a macroscopic nerve (i.e. a nerve that you can see) that has been injured. However, there are various problems that come with suturing an injured nerve.   One of the main problems is that nerves are pretty unique histologically. Nerves comprise of the longest cells in the body with many of them spanning the distance from the spinal cord out to the fingers or toes. Although these cells are long they are extremely thin. These thin and long cells come together to form a nerve. Each cell is connected to their respective muscle fibers and control their contraction.   When a nerve is injured or ruptured these cells break, and these connections break too. You don't have a lot of time to connect them back together and if you do it is impossible to connect the nerves absolutely correctly together. So although some function of the nerve might be retained it might, at least at first, be severely impaired. This might be somewhat improved with rehabilitation.  For an analogy you could imagine a doorbell with the wires joined into one big cable and then branching out to a bunch of different apartments. If you cut on the big common cable and join it randomly together most of the doorbells might work but would ring in the wrong apartment.  Reference: Trehan, S. K., Model, Z., &amp; Lee, S. K. (2016). Nerve repair and nerve grafting.\u00a0Hand clinics,\u00a032(2), 119-125. doi: 10.1016/j.hcl.2015.12.002 PMID:\u00a027094885  PS: With regard to why surgeons try to avoid injuring nerves that also has to do with avoiding injury to important structures, not just nerves, but also blood vessels, ureters etc.",
        "id": 2509,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dental cleaning and Bleeding",
        "body": "It may depend on the pH of your mouth and saliva. Some people get more plaque and tartar than other people and it's inevitable to need more work during the bi-annual cleaning. If you are lucky and your pH and composition of saliva lead to less plaque, then it's also easier to avoid bleeding.  In any case, the dentist needs to go below the gum line and this may easily bring some limited bleeding. It doesn't mean you are not cleaning your teeth well enough.  Source for the first paragraph: common sense but also http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-051X.2010.01673.x/abstract \"The composition of the oral microbiota is influenced by temperature, pH, and atmosphere, as well as by the host defences and host genetics. In addition, the host supplies endogenous nutrients and a variety of surfaces for biofilm formation. In health, the resident oral microbiota forms a symbiotic relationship with the host, regulated by active host\u2013microbe cross talk.\"  Source for the second paragraph: none official.",
        "id": 307,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How a person with high eye pressure see? Would you give me pictures?",
        "body": "Since most cases of high eye pressure leads to glaucoma, the picture below shows how someone with glaucoma sees the world  ",
        "id": 1420,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Baking Soda & Hydrogen Peroxide washes effective home remedies for yeast infections? Safe?",
        "body": "One systematic review (1) conducted in 2003 examined the efficacy of several complementary and alternative therapies (including douching with sodium bicarbonate) for yeast vaginitis and bacterial vaginosis  Here an extract of their abstract:     Inconsistencies in definition of vaginitis, type of intervention,   control groups, and outcomes prevented performance of a meta-analysis,   and paucity of high-quality studies made ranking by evidence-based   scales unsuitable. Lactobacillus recolonization (via yogurt or   capsules) shows promise for the treatment of both yeast vaginitis and   bacterial vaginosis with little potential for harm. Boric acid can be   recommended to women with recurrent vulvovaginal Candidal infections   who are resistant to conventional therapies, but can occasionally   cause vaginal burning. Because of associated risks in the absence of   well-documented clinical benefits, douching remains a practice that   should not be recommended for the treatment of vaginitis. Finally, tea   tree oil and garlic show some in vitro potential for the treatment of   vaginitis, but the lack of in vivo studies preclude their   recommendation to patients for the time-being.   The second (2) was conducted in 2009 and examined the efficacy of probiotics (incl lactobacilli) for the prevention or treatment of three major urogenital infections: bacterial vaginosis,  vulvovaginal candidiasis, and urinary tract infection.  Here the conclusion:     Overall, lactobacilli were beneficial for the treatment of patients   with bacterial vaginosis. No clear benefit was seen for candidiasis or   urinary tract infection. Studies were heterogeneous, with some limited   by a small population size. In conclusion, the use of certain   lactobacillus strains such as L. rhamnosus GR-1 and L. reuteri for   prevention and treatment of recurrent urogenital infection is   promising, especially for recurrent bacterial vaginosis   So to summarise, data suggests that probiotics (yoghurts with lacotbacillus) might be useful but larger studies are needed. Concerning douching with baking soda (ie sodium bicarbonate) or the use of hydroxide peroxide, evidence is sparse and their use is currently not recommended.  Here the summary of recommendations on UpToDate (a resource for health professionals)     There is no evidence from randomized trials that garlic, tea tree   oil, yogurt (or other products containing live Lactobacillus species), or   douching is effective for treatment or prevention of vulvovaginal   candidiasis due to Candida albicans.   As a side note, here an extensive review on the use on the risk of benefits of vaginal douching for women\u2019s health. Martino JL, Vermund SH. Vaginal Douching: Evidence for Risks or Benefits to Women\u2019s Health. Epidemiologic reviews. 2002;24(2):109-124.  Sources:  (1) Van Kessel et al.Common complementary and alternative therapies for yeast vaginitis and bacterial vaginosis: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2003 May;58(5):351-8.  (2) Abad et al. The role of lactobacillus probiotics in the treatment or prevention of urogenital infections--a systematic review. J Chemother. 2009 Jun;21(3):243-52.  Sobel. Candida vulvovaginitis. Uptodate.com. August 2016",
        "id": 1228,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do probiotics work?",
        "body": "The internet is overflowing with information regarding probiotics, and since these products are not registered as drugs and are widely sold as nutritional supplements, it might be hard to \"separate the wheat from the chaff\".  I found this review which seems pretty comprehensive, and extracted some key concepts that may answer your question (they will be italicized hereinafter). First, some basic terminology is in order:   Microbiota - this is a general name for a \"community\" (for lack of a better word) of different types of microorganisms. Specifically, the human microbiota is the entire community of microbial organisms that inhabit the human body. See this text for elaboration. Microbiome - this is a general name for the collection of genes of a certain microbial community. The human microbiome is the collection of genes of the human microbiota, and is the subject of an extensive study due to the potential health benefits its manipulation may provide. Gut microbiota - this should be clear already... this is the entire microbial community that resides in the digestive system. It is also called 'gut flora'. This concept is not unique to humans, so we will refer to the human gut microbiota from now on. Probiotics - as ProfK correctly noted in his comment, probiotics is the commonly used name for the content of \"good bacteria\", which are essentially the same bacteria that naturally inhabit our digestive system (specifically the colon), in the form of a commercial product.   Regarding your first question - What are the bacteria in your large intestine doing that benefits health/immunity?:  Gut bacteria use mostly fermentation to generate energy, converting sugars in part to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) that are used by the host as an energy source. The main end-products are acetate, propionate, and butyrate. SCFA help increase gut motility, decrease gut pH, and provide energy for commensal bacteria. Besides SCFA, a number of amino acids that are indispensable to humans are provided by commensal bacteria. It has been well established that some microbial species may be responsible for the synthesis of vitamins like biotin, phylloquinone, and vitamin K, and deficiencies may directly or indirectly be associated with reduction in abundance of specific components of the gut microbiome. The gut microbiota also plays an important role in preventing comorbidities and infection in addition to influencing mood regulation, obesity, diabetes, insulin resistance, and cognition.  Regarding your title question - How do probiotics work? - I will only cite this short paragraph: Probiotics can act through multiple mechanisms to affect the health of the host. They can transform dietary components into bioactive molecules, modulate the microbiota, or interact directly with the host immune or nervous system. Please see the section on mechanism for a deeper explanation and specific examples for probiotic mechanisms.  Final point: many studies show all kinds of health benefits associated with probiotics in different states of disease. They cannot be covered here, but the review I cited can be a pretty good starting point. One of the main uses of probiotics is following (or together with) an antibiotic treatment, in order to replace some of the gut flora that might be destroyed by the antibiotics - antibiotics do not differentiate between \"good\" and \"bad\" bacteria, and some research (e.g. this study and this study) indicates that taking probiotics close to an antibiotic treatment may help to restore the gut flora (which has a significant role in the human body as discussed earlier) faster and help to overcome the bacterial infection better and faster.",
        "id": 528,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do doxycycline and ciprofloxacin decrease each others effectiveness?",
        "body": "I searched for an answer on several different levels and here's what I found:   FDA's presrcibing information for CIPRO(R) and for DORYX(R). Neither document mentions an interaction between these two drugs, nor for their classes. These sources should be considered first as they are medicolegally binding and should include clinically relevant information. Interactions checkers such as rxlist and DrugBank. Rxlist's interaction checker returned nothing, and DrugBank's checker says that: \"Doxycycline may decrease the excretion rate of Ciprofloxacin which could result in a higher serum level.\" This means that taking them together MAY increase ciprofloxacin effect through higher serum levels, but it doesn't say there how much higher and if it is clinically relevant. I am not sure how reliable those databases are, because good interactions checkers are usually not publicly and freely available, since much time and energy are put into them, making them a commercial product that requires subscription or some other form of paid use. I found this paper titled \"Interactions of the 4-quinolones with other antibacterials\". Doxycycline was not used in this study, but tetracycline (which belongs to the same class) was, and according to the results, tetracycline at sub-inhibitory concentrations did antagonize the activity of ciprofloxacin (p. 223). Note, however, that this was an in-vitro study.   Taking all this information into account, I would conclude that no CLINICAL antagonistic interaction exists, i.e. it is possible to take them together if the treating doctor believes the combination has a therapeutic advantage. There might be some antagonism still, but again, this evidence is from an in-vitro study, and it is unknown if it is clinically relevant.",
        "id": 2553,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How exactly can/do antidepressants treat ADHD?",
        "body": "An overview of the monoamine neurotransmitters  Dopamine (DA) is a catecholamine neurotransmitter associated with attention and motivation (9). It is implicated in various other conditions such as psychosis, and Parkinson's disease (9).  Noradrenaline (NE - norepinephrine in North America) is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that plays a role in attention and arousal (9). NE is produced from DA. (5)  Serotonin (5-HT) in an indolamine. 5-HT modulates mood, aggression, dominance, appetite, and sleep (9).   The pathogenesis of ADHD  The most prevalent theory of the pathogenesis of ADHD is that it results from an \"deficiency\" of some of the various monoamine neurotransmitters. DA, NE, and to a lesser degree 5-HT, are all implicated (5)(6). DA is the neurotransmitter most heavily associated with ADHD, and its role in the mediation of the disease was primarily elucidated by methylphenidate's effect on dopaminergic neurotransmission (6).  Pharmacodynamics of antidepressants  Different antidepressants work through different mechanisms. The major  antidepressants are segregated into three classes: Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs), TCAs, and SSRIs.   MAOIs \"increase\" the levels of all of the monoamine (DA, NE, and 5-HT, among others) neurotransmitters by preventing the deamination of these neurotransmitters by inhibiting the activity of the monoamine oxidase (8).  The affinities for different transporter proteins varies widely in the TCA class. TCAs are generally considered to inhibit the reuptake of NE and 5-HT, although this varies greatly from TCA to TCA. Clomipramine, for instance, has a much higher affinity for the serotonin transporter (SERT) than the noradrenaline transporter (NET) (7). Amitriptyline has relatively balanced 5-HT and NE action, whereas desipramine and nortriptyline very selective for NET. (7)  SSRIs (as the name suggests) are most potent at inhibiting SERT.   The role of antidepressants in the treatment of ADHD  Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs) are the main class of antidepressants used to treat ADHD typically in conjunction with a stimulant. Most TCAs inhibit the reuptake of NE into the presynaptic clef. This is a mode of action shared with stimulant medications. Their efficacy in the remediation of ADHD symptoms is inferior to that of the stimulants (3). Due to the lack of action on dopamine neurotransmission, TCAs only treat the hyperactive element of ADHD - in other words, they often fail to improve concentration (3). Desipramine, because of its selectivity for NE reuptake inhibition, is the TCA most frequently used for ADHD (2).   Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors  (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine are occasionally used in conjuction with stimulants (3). Contaminant use of fluoxetine with a stimulant results in a significant increase in school performance, and attenuation of irritability: \"things that used to bother me a whole don't seem to bother me much anymore\" (3). Low serotonin is associated with impulsivity and aggression (3). It's hypothesized in (3) that fluoxetine may influence the brain's response to DA.   References   Treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1938791 Tricyclic antidepressants for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25238582 Fluoxetine and methylphenidate in combination for treatment of attention deficit disorder and comorbid depressive disorder, http://www.drthomasebrown.com/pdfs/fluoxetine.pdf Treatment of ADHD with fluoxetine: a preliminary trial, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1938791 Functional Roles of Norepinephrine and Dopamine in ADHD http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/523887 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):an updated review of the essential facts Tricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2014120/ The Role of Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in Current Psychiatric Practice Chapter 12: Biogenic Amine Neurotransmitters http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s1/chapter12.html ",
        "id": 437,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wearing under corrected diopter diving mask (hyperopia)",
        "body": "Since nobody answered, I tested it and it does help. If you have hyperopia with +5 diopter and use lenses with diopter +3.5, it effectively lowers your eye diopter error to +1.5 (with some difference due to water refraction index, depending on where the lens is).   In practical terms, with +1.5 diopter you will see things very close to you somewhat blurry, but other things reasonably sharp, so it can be good enough for snorkeling.  If you are in doubt, use for example this application: http://www.mediawebtool.com/tablet/optos_vs/diseases/hyperopia/  Take diopter error of your eye, subtract the diopter of the lens you want to use and you will get error of your eye after correction. See, if it is good enough for you.",
        "id": 1731,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any sustainable alternatives to eating food?",
        "body": "There's Soylent, which is designed for exactly what you describe.   But even without considerations of taste, I'm very suspicious of this approach, because it's based on some assumptions that I would question. One is that we know exactly what the human body needs and can just put it in a shake. But what if there are micronutrients in real food that we just haven't discovered yet? Or what if the nutrient in the shake simply doesn't work when distilled into pure form, without the natural packaging provided by, say, the apple it came from. We evolved to eat food, and assuming that we can eat a processed version may be misguided.",
        "id": 234,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how electromagnetic fields affect brain activity?",
        "body": "Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) produces electrical currents in the brain through EM induction. It can do all sorts of temporary things to the brain including inducing hallucinations. See for example https://www.technologyreview.com/s/418887/magnetically-induced-hallucinations-explain-ball-lightning-say-physicists/",
        "id": 1460,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "At what rate do extended-release tablets release the medication?",
        "body": "10 mg is the entire quantity of drug present. It wouldn't really be possible to describe the rate at which the drug is released in just 1 number, and if so, it would have to be in units of \"mass per time\" rather than just \"mass.\"  The time course of extended release depends on the formulation. Typically the release will be faster early on, however the result of extended release is to a) reduce the peak plasma concentration, b) increase the time to peak, and c) increase the length of time at effective doses.  For oral morphine, I quickly found the Collins et al 1998 paper, which might be a bit outdated, but it reviews many prior papers and compares peak plasma concentrations for various oral morphine formulations. In general, the total dose-corrected peak was ~50% for controlled vs immediate release, and the time of peak was around 3 hours rather than around 1.5 hours. There is a lot of variance between formulations, however, so these numbers may not apply to any particular formulation, just a general ballpark idea.    Collins, S., Faura, C., Moore, R. A., &amp; McQuay, H. (1998). Peak plasma concentrations after oral morphine: a systematic review. Journal of pain and symptom management, 16(6), 388-402.",
        "id": 2707,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can crossing my eyes damage them?",
        "body": "It is actually a pretty common myth that crossing your eyes too much or for too long  will make them get stuck that way. Crossing your eyes does look very similar to strabismus which is an actual medical disorder where the eyes are crossed and it does need to be treated. Strabismus is not voluntary, compared to what you are talking about, which is voluntary.   Why doesn't crossing your eyes cause any damage?  Now, that I've gone over the what, I'll go over the why. Many times throughout the day, you will cross your eyes on purpose, but won't actually think of it as crossing your eyes. Crossing your eyes is the natural reaction to looking at something very close to your face. We need to angle our eyes so we can see objects clearly at a close range. This is essentially the same exact movement you would make when crossing your eyes. Our eyes are designed to be able to move up, down, left, and right, and, while it may not seem like the most natural eye movement, crossing your eyes voluntarily is completely normal.  There is a potential for temporary disorientation, pain, or possible blurring if you cross your eyes for too long, but it would only last a short amount of time. This is because you would be putting more strain on the muscles in your eyes, in this case it would mostly be your medial rectus muscles. All you need to recover from this is to just rest your eye muscles, just as you would after a workout.    Don't Cross Your Eyes...They'll Get Stuck That Way!: And 75 Other Health Myths Debunked  Ophthalmology: Eye Myths and Facts",
        "id": 570,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Limited amount for drinking water?",
        "body": "Drinking too much water can lead to water intoxication, but     For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water   (according to Wikipedia). Another article has information about the exact amount:     Healthy kidneys are able to excrete approximately 800 millilitres to 1 litre of fluid water (0.84 - 1.04 quarts) per hour.[12] However, stress (from prolonged physical exertion), as well as disease states, can greatly reduce this amount.   Water intoxication may lead to     headache, personality changes, changes in behavior, confusion, irritability, and drowsiness.   and in the end, it even     is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions   Every substance is potential poisonous, it just depends on the amount. It's not likely you will get water intoxication from combating a toothache.    Water probably helped for you because it cools your teeth; an alternative could be  using an ice pack. Even though you're not likely to suffer from water intoxication, it might save you a few trips to the restroom.",
        "id": 2098,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In an emergency situation, how does the medical doctor determine that an unconscious patient is pregnant?",
        "body": "While the blood pregnancy test is one option, urine pregnancy tests are still possible in an unconscious patient via a Foley catheter, which is a tube inserted up the urethra into the bladder. These catheters are commonly placed in trauma patients (2).  There are several things that can be done during emergency management of a patient that can potentially cause harm to a fetus. One of these is imaging involving radiation, such as X-rays or CT scans. However, after 16 weeks of pregnancy imaging is unlikely to cause harm to a fetus (1). There are a number of drugs that can cause harm to a fetus (teratogenic drugs), however many safe alternatives exist, and emergency medical personnel are trained to treat you as though you are pregnant until proven otherwise (3,4)  References:  Effects of Radiation on Fetus  Indications for a Foley Catheter  Teratogenic Medications in Pregnancy  Management of a Potentially Pregnant Trauma Patient",
        "id": 2036,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What foods can increase penis length and girth?",
        "body": "After full sexual development is complete (usually the teens for most males), penis enlargement is impossible. Anyone who tells you otherwise is a liar and is probably trying to sell you something.  http://www.webmd.com/men/guide/penis-enlargement-does-it-work#1     \"I think there isn't a guy in the world who hasn't wished his penis   were an inch or two longer,\" says Michael O'Leary, MD, professor of   urologic surgery at Harvard Medical School and a urologist at Brigham   and Women's Hospital in Boston.      However, after more than a century of generally dubious and sometimes   lunatic penis enlargement attempts, there's still not much you can do.   Sure, there are lots and lots of supposed options out there -- penis   pills, creams, brutal stretching exercises, horrific-looking devices,   and penis surgery. Almost none of it works. The few approaches that   can work often have modest benefits and serious side effects. How   serious? In some cases, erectile dysfunction-serious.      \"Trust me, if I knew of a way to safely and effectively increase penis   size, I'd be a billionaire,\" O'Leary tells WebMD. \"But I don't. Nobody   does.\" ",
        "id": 1807,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Nutritional Guidelines",
        "body": "National Institutes of Health  Daily Values for nutrients in a 2,000 Calorie diet:   Total fat = 65 g Sat fat = 20 g Cholesteral = 300 mg Sodium = 2,400 mg Carbohydrate = 300 g Protein = 50 g ",
        "id": 2038,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is Pramolan, is it an Opioid?",
        "body": "Opipramol (the molecule that is being sold under multiple names including Pramolan) is a nonselective monoamine reputake inhibitor with ATC code N06AA05  Opioids have the leading ATC number N02A..., hence Opipramol is not an opioid.",
        "id": 2229,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Exercise Ball Vs. Desk Chair",
        "body": "There are actually studies about sitting in a regular chair vs. an exercise ball. Here and here for example. Neither seems to show net benefits. The limitations of both studies are small sample size and short time period of observation.  Anecdotally, I know at least two people who both have done it and they seem happy with it (but this is recent, so I can't speak for long term use).  A few considerations:  Height - With an exercise ball, you will not be able to vary its height. So if it's fairly low relative to your desk, you might be forced to straighten your back. If it's too high you might end up curving your spine.  Arm rests - Just from experience, I find that in chairs without arm rests, my shoulders are less slouchy, and my back is a bit straighter. I don't know to what extent this makes a difference for you or others, but keep it in mind.  Soft vs. hard seat - I wonder how this influences blood flow to your legs, other parts of the body, and if it also affects posture.",
        "id": 140,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to know whether an inflammation is present in a tendinopathy?",
        "body": "You can use an ultrasound probe with power doppler to look at blood flow to see if there is increased blood flow present that would be compatible with an inflammatory process.  And, neovascularization demonstrated by power Doppler may be present in more painful lesions   http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2272012069 but currently it's not possible to distinguish between tendinitis and tendinosis as the distinction may not exist. Cell activation studies suggests inflammation occurs in what was thought to be microscopically non inflammatory tendon lesions. http://m.bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2013/03/08/bjsports-2012-091957.full    References:  Wakefield, Richard J., Andrew K. Brown, Philip J. O'Connor, and Paul Emery. \"Power Doppler sonography: improving disease activity assessment in inflammatory musculoskeletal disease.\" Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism 48, no. 2 (2003): 285-288.     Traditional gray-scale US has been successfully   used for some time for the detection of joint and soft   tissue inflammation (1\u201315). More recently, additional   US techniques, including Doppler, have been introduced,   offering the potential for improving the accuracy   of a US assessment. Doppler US is a technique for   making noninvasive measurements of blood flow and   was developed from the principles first described by   Austrian physicist Christian Doppler in 1842 (16). He   was the first to observe the effect of motion on sound   when he detected a change in the frequency of a sound   wave as a result of movement of either its source or   receiver.      [...] US has a number of advantages over other imaging   techniques. It is safe, noninvasive, and emits no   ionizing radiation. The equipment can be situated in the   rheumatology outpatient clinic, improving patient access   and enabling rapid, \u201creal-time\u201d dynamic examinations of   multiple joints in multiple planes at one sitting. In   addition, both the capital and running costs of US are   significantly lower than those of other imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and   computed tomography (CT). ",
        "id": 886,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fish Oil: How much is too much?",
        "body": "Many people are quite gullible.  (Just general observation, not a a comment on the question or the asker.)  Whatever the marketing section of the industries' propaganda unit tells the public, supplements can only augment so much in a good diet.  The FDA once said that 3g of fish oil daily is generally recognised as safe (GRAS) and there is a number of studies out there with differing dosages tried.  But that is misleading, not in the least because of the \"let's assume\" part in the question above. These supplements have side-effects, even if 'pure' and manufactured to the highest standards. No single nutrient can be assayed in complete isolation. They interact on multiple levels and the rest of the diet is as much an influence on outcomes, as are genetics, the microbiome and other environmental or lifestyle factors.  \"The virtues of fish oil: \"For what would anyone need this supplement?     Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults?    At present, we do not have sufficient high quality evidence to determine the effects of n-3PUFAs as a treatment for MDD. Our primary analyses suggest a small-to-modest, non-clinically beneficial effect of n-3PUFAs on depressive symptomology compared to placebo; however the estimate is imprecise, and we judged the quality of the evidence on which this result is based to be low/very low.       Poly-unsaturated fatty acid supplementation for drug-resistant epilepsy?   The existing evidence, which consists of only three small studies, is not enough to support the use of PUFA supplementation in addition to routine antiepileptic medications to improve seizure control or quality of life in people with drug-resistant epilepsy.      Omega 3 fatty acids for prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease?   There is not enough evidence to say that people should stop taking rich sources of omega 3 fats, but further high quality trials are needed to confirm the previously suggested protective effect of omega 3 fats for those at increased cardiovascular risk      The review shows that it is not clear whether dietary or supplemental omega 3 fats (found in oily fish and some vegetable oils) alter total deaths, cardiovascular events (such as heart attacks and strokes) or cancers in the general population, or in people at risk of, or with, cardiovascular disease. When the analysis was limited to fish-based or plant-based, dietary or supplemental omega 3 fats there was still no evidence of reduction in deaths or cardiovascular events in any group.   These are just a few examples. Fish oil is not just a magic pill that is equally beneficial for anyone in every circumstance. And as so often \"taking much will do much good\" does simply not apply.  Why is this the case? Randomised clinical control trials have shown\u2026   That things are a bit more complicated when in comes to humans and their nutrition as to arrive at a meaningful result in these trials when the focus is on isolated substances, components, or ingredients.   Take Lipid peroxidation during n-3 fatty acid and vitamin E supplementation in humans:      The results demonstrate that supplementing the diet with n-3 fatty acids resulted in an increase in lipid peroxidation, as measured by plasma MDA release and lipid peroxide products, which was not suppressed by vitamin E supplementation.   Reductionist nutrition studies are valuable tools to find, explore, or explain basic mechanisms. But it is inappropriate to grab every one such study and start selling stuff based on these findings:     Estimated macronutrient and fatty acid intakes from an East African Paleolithic diet:   Our genome adapts slowly to changing conditions of existence. Many diseases of civilisation result from mismatches between our Paleolithic genome and the rapidly changing environment, including our diet. The objective of the present study was to reconstruct multiple Paleolithic diets to estimate the ranges of nutrient intakes upon which humanity evolved. A database of, predominantly East African, plant and animal foods (meat/fish) was used to model multiple Paleolithic diets, using two pathophysiological constraints (i.e. protein &lt; 35 energy % (en%) and linoleic acid (LA) >1\u00b70 en%), at known hunter\u2013gatherer plant/animal food intake ratios (range 70/30\u201330/70 en%/en%). We investigated selective and non-selective savannah, savannah/aquatic and aquatic hunter\u2013gatherer/scavenger foraging strategies. We found (range of medians in en%) intakes of moderate-to-high protein (25\u201329), moderate-to-high fat (30\u201339) and moderate carbohydrates (39\u201340). The fatty acid composition was SFA (11\u00b74\u201312\u00b70), MUFA (5\u00b76\u201318\u00b75) and PUFA (8\u00b76\u201315\u00b72). The latter was high in \u03b1-linolenic acid (ALA) (3\u00b77\u20134\u00b77 en%), low in LA (2\u00b73\u20133\u00b76 en%), and high in long-chain PUFA (LCP; 4\u00b775\u201325\u00b78 g/d), LCP n-3 (2\u00b726\u201317\u00b70 g/d), LCP n-6 (2\u00b754\u20138\u00b784 g/d), ALA/LA ratio (1\u00b712\u20131\u00b764 g/g) and LCP n-3/LCP n-6 ratio (0\u00b784\u20131\u00b792 g/g). Consistent with the wide range of employed variables, nutrient intakes showed wide ranges. We conclude that compared with Western diets, Paleolithic diets contained consistently higher protein and LCP, and lower LA. These are likely to contribute to the known beneficial effects of Paleolithic-like diets, e.g. through increased satiety/satiation. Disparities between Paleolithic, contemporary and recommended intakes might be important factors underlying the aetiology of common Western diseases. Data on Paleolithic diets and lifestyle, rather than the investigation of single nutrients, might be useful for the rational design of clinical trials. [\u2026]   The fish oil fatty acids EPA and DHA (and their derivatives), vitamin D (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D) and vitamin A (retinoic acid) are examples of nutrients that act in concert, while each of these has multiple actions(7,8).      Consequently, the criteria for establishing optimum nutrient intakes via randomised controlled trials (RCT) with single nutrients at a given dose and with a single end point have serious limitations. They are usually based upon poorly researched dose\u2013response relationships, and typically ignore many possible nutrient interactions and metabolic interrelationships.      For instance, the adequate intake of linoleic acid (LA) to prevent LA deficiency depends on the concurrent intakes of \u03b1-linolenic acid (ALA), \u03b3-LA and arachidonic acid (AA). Consequently, the nutritional balance on which our genome evolved is virtually impossible to determine using the reigning paradigm of \u2018evidence-based medicine\u2019 with RCT.   The last sentence is a bit extreme in its wording but highlights very well the almost fraudulent 'jumping onto a soap box' attitude that the supplement industry apparently cannot resist since its creation.  The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment reached in 2009 the point to issues a warning and called for a maximum dosage of around 1-2g daily equivalent of 100g salmon. Overdosing on these pharmakons would increase multiple risks, like increased bleeding, decreased immune system function, premature death for patients with pre-existing heart disease etc.  Giving one single number to avoid overdoing it seems more than difficult. In this case it is not only the total dose response relationship to consider. This also about the ratio (mainly of fatty acids) and unavoidable interactions with other supplements, medications and normal food, which is now also sometimes fortified. As a general rule of thumb: consider an Inuit or Japanese gut and body, trained or habituated to large amounts of sea fish, whose owner also really likes eating fish. The equivalent amount of fish oil in supplements might be a good orientation for staying in the 'not detrimental' range.   There is no reason to abstain from fish. There is no doubt we do not eat enough omega-3 fatty acids \u2013 compared to the ratio of omega 6. Just lowering omega-6 PUFAs seems to be a much safer and cheaper way to achieve what the extolers want to achieve. Staying away from the industry's omega-6 rich food abolishes the perceived or real need for the industry's supplements?   This is not to say that (even supplemented) omega-3, whether from fish oil or from elsewhere is totally useless, ineffective or wholly dangerous. In a clinical setting under good supervision and control of the individual and his lab results even high doses of fish oil will likely prove to be of substantial value in a wide range of applications. Everyone should be able to decide this for himself. But the industry has to be kept under the strictest regulation and harshly enforced quality control. The primary target for improving health has to be a sensible diet. We just don't know it any better.  ",
        "id": 2072,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Late taking birth control pill",
        "body": "Birth control pills omitted for one day and having unprotected sex will not result in pregnancy if you have taken missed pill and the pill you  should been taking on Wednesday.  Birth control pills are comprised of sex hormones and work by suppressing ovulation. One day missing dosage of birth control pills is not enough for ovulation recovery as shown by researches.   Here is one of the researches that looks at omission of birth control pills for three days and more and its effect on ovulation:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/9704763/  However there may be the psychological moment overcoming the fear of getting pregnant then having protected sex can be an option to be worry free. ",
        "id": 1464,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why doctors have different opinions and diagnosis for the same patient?",
        "body": "People are more complicated than machines. First, imagine a condition like \"high blood pressure\" or \"underactive thyroid.\" It's not just a case of measuring one number about you and comparing it to one \"correct\" number. There is a normal range for healthy people. Imagine some measurement that for normal people is between 10 and 12. Imagine that you genuinely have a shortfall in this number; and you vary between 8 and 10. One doctor sees you on the day you measure 10 and tells you that you're fine. Another doctor sees you on the day you measure 8 and tells you there is a shortfall. So that's one explanation.  But life is actually more complicated than that. Some doctors might think 9-13 is actually normal for that number, so if you measure 9 they'll say you're fine. Others might think that it depends on some other reading, so if you measure 10 but the other number is low, they'll say you're ill, while another will insist that a reading of 10 means you're fine.  And doctors vary on how urgent they think certain conditions are: some think they can advise you to change your diet or to exercise, while others want to start you on medications, even when they both agree you have a particular condition.  Then on top of all of that there's the matter of how the doctors get paid. Some want to recommend particular treatments or tests as much to ensure an income for themselves as to actually fix you. We of course all hope that such people are few and far between, but they do exist, and you may have met a few of them in your time, or your relatives may have.  How should you behave? You have two choices. One is to focus on your symptoms: you're tired, or your eye hurts, or whatever, and ask your doctor to help you learn why and help you fix that so you feel better. If they do a measurement and say that it's fine, you ask them to do some other measurement or test so that they can suggest things to do that will help with your symptom. The other approach is to learn more about the condition you think you may have. Say you think you have high blood pressure. Learn what a normal range for each number is. When your doctor measures yours, ask what the measurement was. Learn the things you can do - how you sit, for example, that can affect the measurement. Ask the doctor's conclusion about the measurement - is it high? is it fine? - and if your conclusion is different, ask why. Why is that high? Don't people normally vary between x and y over the course of a day? Or why is that fine? Learn some of the thought processes your doctor is going through.  Getting a second opinion is a fine strategy. But \"Dr A says I need a medication and Dr B says I do not\" is nowhere near as valuable as \"Dr A measured 8 and says normal is 10-12 so I need this medication to raise it, but Dr B measured 10 and says normal is 9-13 so I don't.\"  You can now go and learn more about what a normal range is, the consequences of being low, the side effects of the medication, and so on, then make an informed decision, including which doctor you want to work with over time to maintain your health. ",
        "id": 1505,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is eating one's dinner right before going to sleep bad for health?",
        "body": "If you eat a lot of food, your stomach will be full. And if you lie down immediately after that, your horizontal posture would put the food (and the acid) in such a way that it puts lot more pressure on the lower esophageal sphincter. If you are a patient of acid reflux disease (or if you have a comparitively weak sphincter and are pre-disposed to develop acid reflux disease), then doing this would greatly increase your chances of developing it. So lifestyle modifications doctors prescribe to patients of acid reflux disease is that:   Eat in small quantities, and in multiple meals Give a time gap between dinner and sleep Elevate head end of your bed when you go to sleep.    Acid reflux during sleep is notorious because   It damages the mucosa (from below upwards, all of it) making the patient susceptible to Barrett's oesophagus and Oesophageal Ca Acid refluxing into the mouth would mean poor oral hygiene, bad breath in the morning, slowly degrading tooth Aspiration of acid can damage the larynx and can cause Ca Larynx, and can even cause chemical pneumonitis.    References:    What Causes Acid Reflux Disease? GERD Complications ",
        "id": 57,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Air flossers vs. water flossers: which cleans teeth better?",
        "body": "Looking at the studies, using a water flosser in combination with a manual toothbrush is more effective than using string floss (Goyal, et al. 2013).  It seems however, that there have been no studies on comparisons between water flossers and air flossers since Sarma, et al. (2012) which you posted in your question, which states     The use of the Waterpik Water Flosser removes significantly more plaque from tooth surfaces (whole mouth, marginal, approximal, facial, and lingual) than the Sonicare Air Floss when used with a manual toothbrush.   On top of that, the ADA Council On Scientific Affairs awarded the ADA Seal of Acceptance to five Waterpik Water Flosser product lines based on its finding that they are safe and have shown efficacy for removing plaque along the gumline and between teeth and for helping to prevent and reduce gingivitis (ADA, 2017).     \u201cThis product was shown to reduce plaque and gingivitis in areas between the teeth, often the most difficult areas for patients to effectively clean,\u201d said Dr. John Dmytryk, chair of the ADA Council on Scientific Affairs\u2019 Seal Subcommittee. \u201cBy granting the ADA Seal of Acceptance to the Waterpik Water Flosser, consumers for whom these devices are appropriate can be confident that they can be a safe and effective component of their daily oral care when used as directed.\u201d   References  ADA (2017). ADA News: Waterpik Water Flosser first in its class to earn ADA Seal Retrieved from: https://www.ada.org/en/publications/ada-news/2017-archive/february/waterpik-water-flosser-first-in-its-class-to-earn-ada-seal  Goyal, C. R., Lyle, D. M., Qaqish, J. G., &amp; Schuller, R. (2013). Evaluation of the plaque removal efficacy of a water flosser compared to string floss in adults after a single use.\u00a0The Journal of Clinical Dentistry,\u00a024 (2), 37-42. PMID:\u00a024282867 Free PDF: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2fd8/4bd02e3ceb21d6faae988109a74a95c054a0.pdf  Sharma, N. C., Lyle, D. M., Qaqish, J. G., &amp; Schuller, R. (2012). Comparison of two power interdental cleaning devices on plaque removal.\u00a0The Journal of Clinical Dentistry,\u00a023(1), 17. PMID:\u00a022435320 Free PDF: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Naresh_Sharma18/publication/221902011_Comparison_of_two_power_interdental_cleaning_devices_on_plaque_removal/links/541d09d00cf241a65a15ce3b/Comparison-of-two-power-interdental-cleaning-devices-on-plaque-removal.pdf",
        "id": 2484,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can wisdom tooth cause hip ache?",
        "body": "According to human kinetics, the movements of hip muscles in hip joint are performed by a series of muscles.  For example, when hip is doing external rotation (30\u00b0 with the hip extended, 50\u00b0 with the hip flexed), it's using the gluteal muscles including iliopsoas (combination of the psoas major and the iliacus at their inferior ends).  According to Meridian system, these muscles help keep the lumbar curve in the spine and weakness on one side can cause the hip to drop or the foot to turn in on the affected side causing low back/pelvic pain or a problem with the ileocaecal valve.  For example, when a wisdom tooth is extracted (or possibly when it's in the wrong position), it usually forms a cavitation within the jawbone leaching toxins and causing a variety of chronic health consequences which can adversely affect the heart, small intestine, hormone production and further forming cavitations may cause problems with the large intestine or lung (See: Dental Cavitations, video 1 &amp; 2). This may also relate to persistent or recurrent shoulder pain or weakness (due to subscapularis tension or laxity) which may be indirectly associated with the extraction site and an indicator of a heart issue.  Traditional Asian medicine has long maintained that every body part (ie: organs, tissues, glands, etc) is animated by a specific acupuncture meridians (pathways). All the meridians run through the teeth or their sockets and in this way each tooth is related to the rest of the body. The following chart explains that relationship:    Which can help you to establish potential links between dental and systemic health issues.  This short video explains how there is a two-way relationship such that stresses within the body can manifest in the mouth as toothache.  See also: Muscles Associated With Meridians and The meridian system at Wikipedia.  I hope that helps. ",
        "id": 32,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does melatonin have an effect on the treatment of type 1 diabetes?",
        "body": "It appears that melatonin decreases blood pressure in a way that occurs nocturnally in normal persons. Interestingly, it is being investigated as a possible anti-hypertensive in Type 2 diabetics. It doesn't seem to have any undesirable side effects, making it an ideal anti-hypertensive.     In patients with diabetes the mean BP during sleep was lower on melatonin than before treatment... In controls there was no significant effect of melatonin on BP. There was no significant effect of sleep duration or number of awakenings on the BP responses.    It appears to have other effects on T2DM, but that is primarily on beta-cells, which should not affect someone with T1DM.  Blood pressure-lowering effect of melatonin in type 1 diabetes.",
        "id": 56,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medications for asthma",
        "body": "There are long-term medications, those that will get asthma under control:   long-acting beta-agonists: bronchodilators, they open the airways leukotriene modifiers: they block the components that cause inflammation mast cell stabilizers: they prevent / reduce the release of chemicals (from your body) that cause inflammation theophylline: is a bronchodilator, used to prevent nighttime attacks immunomodulator: when you have asthma that is allergy-related and hasn't respond to inhaled medications   Each kind has one or more available drugs, and each one can have different side effects, specially on the long term.  (Sources: http://www.webmd.com/asthma/guide/asthma-medications#1 , http://www.drugs.com/condition/asthma.html , http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/asthma/in-depth/asthma-medications/art-20045557)",
        "id": 103,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is predicted FVC calculated on height only (and not weight)?",
        "body": "   Predicted Normal Values      Many studies have published lung function reference values for a variety of race/ ethnic groups, countries, and age ranges. Populations of interest are sampled and spriometric studies were done and statistical analyis was used to determine \"normal\" results for each parameter of interest.       It was found that general equations could be made to describe the variation of each predicted value by e.g., age, sex, etc.    http://dynamicmt.com/dataform3  So, some calculators may use weight and you can experiment with them to see the effect if any on the predicted lung capacity. But you may find little difference indicating that weight is not a major variable, and is adequately accounted for in the standard deviation of the result.",
        "id": 882,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to reach an orgasm without physical stimulation (masturbation)?",
        "body": "It shouldn't be such a surprise that both sexes can experience the behaviour described in the question at night, \"involuntarily\".  During waking hours there are mainly several distractions in your mind that counteract (previously this would have been \"control\") these processes.  But since this rather complex yet basic behaviour is a combination of \"mind and matter\", that is the brain and other organs, this question is primarily to be broken down into: Are Orgasms in the Mind or the Body? Psychosocial Versus Physiological Correlates of Orgasmic Pleasure and Satisfaction?  There are not only those legends, fairy tales or \"reports\" from guru like figures or their followers. It seems at least not wholly uncommon to just engage your mind in very pleasurable thoughts and images to achieve something you desire.   So, that part of your question seems to have to be answered with a \"yes!\" And if it is not physical, then yes again, hm, by definition it has to be psychological. There has to be a reason.  But now, I have to be afraid, a manual for non-manpulation achievements is unknown to me. I guess you just have to use your own imagination.  Have fun.",
        "id": 1829,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fibromyalgia and Neuroplasticity",
        "body": "In general, for various kinds of pain, you can re-train your brain to block some of the pain signals coming from your body in various ways: TENS, biofeedback, meditation, massage, guided imagery are some methods.1 Most use mental and physical distraction. Listening to music is an example of mental distraction; TENS is a physical distraction. Some you can learn or use on your own. Others, eg, meditation, TENS, will need an instructor until you can do it on your own.2 Coping with pain is a vast and dynamic field of study these days. ",
        "id": 880,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name of this medical item?",
        "body": "It appears that you are describing gel tube toe/finger bandage which can be cut to size.  Medipaq and Dykook are 2 brands I know of.",
        "id": 2471,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is using ear buds harmful?",
        "body": "The use of ear buds in it of itself is probably not harmful.  The physical shape and the effort used to place the ear buds can be potential areas of abuse. However, what has the most real-world potential of being harmful to your ear is most likely what comes out of those ear buds.  E.g. ear buds are being used to listen to very loud music/sounds.     With extended exposure, noises that reach a decibel level of 85 can   cause permanent damage to the hair cells in the inner ear, leading to   hearing loss. Many common sounds may be louder than you think\u2026         A typical conversation occurs at 60 dB \u2013 not loud enough to cause damage.    A bulldozer that is idling (note that this is idling, not actively bulldozing) is loud enough at 85 dB that it can cause permanent damage   after only 1 work day (8 hours).    When listening to a personal music system with stock earphones at a maximum volume, the sound generated can reach a level of over 100 dBA,   loud enough to begin causing permanent damage after just 15 minutes   per day!    A clap of thunder from a nearby storm (120 dB) or a gunshot (140-190 dB, depending on weapon), can both cause immediate damage.      Long term use of ear buds can also cause sensitivity in and around your ear, causing some pain when touched or upon pressure. The size and shape of the ear buds would help to mitigate this, but not everyone's ears are the same exact size and shape.",
        "id": 352,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does an orthotic work instead of an exercise for hammertoe?",
        "body": "It depends on whether the hammer toes are due to functional problems or are fixed.  If the proximal interphalangeal joint can be passively extended, then an orthotic can help. If the passive issue is neurological then exercises won't help as they won't be able to maintain the joint in the correct position when you're not doing the exercise, and you're not correcting the underlying problem.  A tendon transfer operation can be used for passive problems.  But if it's due to a contracture of the joint when you can no longer extend the joint then you'll need surgery.  http://www.joint-pain-expert.net/hammer-toe.html",
        "id": 2178,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is asthma a disease?",
        "body": "This is very dependent on what one defines as a disease. There are people who only count acute conditions and/or infections as \"diseases\" though I wouldn't have expected a doctor to make this distinction. Under this definition, asthma would not be a disease, but a \"chronic condition\", for example.   I found an interesting article  What is a disease which while mostly applicable to your question about asthma  discusses the classification of osteoporosis     One example is osteoporosis, which after being officially recognized as a disease by the WHO in 1994 switched from being an unavoidable part of normal ageing to a pathology\u00a0   So that used to be not counted as a disease to being called one. I recommend asking your doctor about it if you are curious about their reasoning - it might just be that they meant it isn't an infectious disease. If, however, they think asthma is really not a disease that needs to be managed, consider switching doctors - untreated asthma can lead to serious problems. ",
        "id": 518,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a way to monitor the quality of healthcare and dental care I am receiving?",
        "body": "Yes.  Quality can be monitored by clinical decision support (CDS) modules. Most CDS logic is implemented inside a software used by clinicians. Patient facing CDS is included in some personal heatlh record (PHR) platforms. (e.g., reminders to get vaccination). See https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25243350  So you might try to have a computer logic check your past health record and provide reminders and generated comments. (a machine-based second opinion) but not super comprehensive. But in  future, more patient facing CDS is coming.  For dental care, there is much fewer CDS modules.",
        "id": 1577,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which impacts one's sleep more - waking up towards the beginning of a sleep cycle, or the end?",
        "body": "Generally, NREM phase 3 (N3) also known as deep sleep, is considered to be the sleep phase in which the body rests the most and people suddenly awakened during this phase may have unpleasant sensations and feel confused inmediately after waking up as noted by the National Sleep Foundation.  A typical sleep cycle may range between 70 to 100 minutes and N3 happens approximately about 30 minutes after the person falls asleep (after about 5 mins in phase N1 and 25 mins in phase N2). N3 itself only lasts for about 3 to 8% of the total time of all the sleep cycle. Another important note is that as the night progresses, the phases of sleep cycles shift a little bit in terms of the time they last: N3 progressively becomes shorter while N2 and REM phases become larger.  Given the latter, the answer to your question would be neither. The most detrimental case in the long term would be if the person keeps being woken up while in N3, that is about 30 mins into one of the first sleep cycles of the night and a bit more than that in the last cycles of the night due to N2 increasing. From the two scenarios you propose, you could argue that one would probably make a \"smoother\" transition between sleep and alert if the person is woken up while in N1 (start of the sleep cycle) since that is the phase in which it takes the least effort to wake up someone compared to all the other phases including REM.  Reference: Sleep physiology chapter in Sleep disorders and Sleep Deprivation: An Unmet Public Health Problem",
        "id": 2589,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a disease that involves progressive loss of feeling, a tremor, and muscle twitches?",
        "body": "Few things that may help you discuss this with a neurologist:  1. Lamotrigine side effects (Drugs.com)     Commonly reported side effects of lamotrigine include: tremor,   blurred vision, skin rash...          Frequent: paresthesia [numbness/tingling]   Infrequent: leg cramps, myasthenia, twitching...      2. Lamotrigine withdrawal (Drugs.com)     In the clinical development program in adults with bipolar disorder, 2   patients experienced seizures shortly after abrupt withdrawal of   lamotrigine.   3. Psychological problems (anxiety, depression, panic attack) themselves can be associated with numbness, tremor and muscle twitching. (Anxiety and Depression Association of America)  4. Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome may appear with similar progressing symptoms starting in the legs or arms. (Mayo Clinic)",
        "id": 1268,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What factors affect exercise induced nausea?",
        "body": "The simple answer is \"metabolic lactic acidosis\".      According to Wikipedia, the duration of exercise and intensity (aerobic vs anaerobic) and prior food or drink consumption are the main factors contributing to this effect.   Actually, the Wiki articles doesn't quite say that (?).  Prior food/drink would determine the glucose and glycogen - the stored form of glucose - available. Also, hydration is important.  The very, very, very small study (12 volunteers) linked by Wikipedia concludes that      nausea [was] greater during exercise at fasting state and immediately after eating [a hamburger patty] than those without exercise (p&lt;0.05 during low-intensity exercise, and p&lt;0.01 during high-intensity exercise). Immediately after eating, scores for nausea were greater during high-intensity exercise than during low-intensity exercise (p&lt;0.05). During high-intensity exercise, scores for nausea were greater immediately after eating than without eating (p&lt;0.05).   Normally, muscles using glucose as an energy source produce a 3-carbon molecule called pyruvic acid (or pyruvate). In the presence of oxygen, the pyruvate is further metabolized into CO2, which is carried by the blood and exhaled from the lungs.   Exercising beyond a certain point causes muscles to burn glucose under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions (the blood cannot deliver oxygen to the muscles quickly enough.) The result is that pyruvate is converted into lactate (lactic acid) instead of CO2 which is released from the muscle cells into the bloodstream, where it accumulates over time. Since lactate is a relatively strong acid, it results in a decreased pH (an increase in free hydrogen ions, or H+) of the blood. This is called lactic acidosis.  Normally, H+ in the blood is efficiently handled by a buffer, bicarbonate.    The direction of the equation in the case of acidosis is driven to the left by the concentration of hydrogen ions. Normally, the CO2 that is formed is simply exhaled by increasing the respiratory rate. This decreases the H* concentration and is called compensatory respiratory alkalosis.  There is respiratory compensation whereby the body increases breathing to expel H+ in the form of CO2.   In the presence of excess H+, the body tries to compensate metabolically by increasing HCO3-, which takes time. With continued exercise, the body cannot 'make' enough HCO3- to handle all the H+, and the blood's pH falls.  This is the situation which results in nausea and vomiting if serious enough.  Introduction to Acid-Base Disorders &lt;- click through  ",
        "id": 204,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to clean a second-hand electrical shaver to avoid infections?",
        "body": "That might need a disclaimer first: a shaver is a personal hygiene product. Those should just never be shared or bought \"used\". First in my opinion just for the yuck factor and then only secondary because this sanitary concerns thing.  You would not want to buy toothbrushes second hand and when surgical equipment is re-used the steps to ensure complete sterility are quite rigorous. So this needs to be put into perspective and a cost-benefit analysis has to be made.  Then in the case of an electric shaver, those blades on a cutting head will not last forever and eventually loose their edge. Some newer models seem to embrace planned obsolesence quite rigorously with a their one-blade design. That means that any cost or environmental benefit from a used razor is smaller than often imagined from the start. For shaving this is especially true: a sharp knife leads to less cutting. But blade egdes dull with use!  Even electric razors are neither fool proof nor the top solution for avoiding skin problems compared to regular, mechanical  wet shave blades. (Prevalence of acne keloidalis nuchae in Nigerians, 2007: The common etiologic factor was secondary to trauma from an electric razor whilst having a haircut, followed by spread of keloid from the beard area.) Those machines often grab and tear hair out instead of cutting it. They can also get hold of skin and rip very uncomfortable wounds.   Anyone choosing an electric shaver has to try them out to see if their skin and hair agree with them. But that cannot answer how well these questions were answered for the previous owner of that particular model. The previous owner sold it for a reason and if that includes lacerations than any such device should be considered a biohazard and treated as such. If you are concerned about a possible virus infection: do not buy used. (Just for completeness: you might consider applying steam, dry heat above 160\u00b0C, ethylene oxide, sporicidals, glass plasma or gamma rays)  Therefore it seems to be a bad idea to use electric shavers at all? Not really and necessarily for all.   Do not buy used personal hygiene products. If you do buy a used electric shaver, try to exchange the screen and blades of the cutting head, effectively just reusing the motor and battery and plastic wrapping for the device. Clean the device thoroughly in any case. These cases include \"you bought it first hand and keep using it\".   How do you clean that device?  Unfortunately, that depends a bit on the device and how it is constructed.   Manual tear-down, brushing and regular soap-water cleaning are a great start. But using the regular disinfectants like boiling water, rubbing alcohol, hydrogenperoxide or appropriately diluted bleach followed by thorough rinse and quick drying are even better. Alternatively you might also soak the screens and blades in commercially available dedicated disinfectants. These likely cost more but are not that much more effective to justify the cost. None of the methods mentioned so far are perfect though, anyway. Just try out what you already know is working as a sanitiser, then test that on your device. That is largely for material science. Usually those things are plastic and metal and quite resistant to those primitive chemicals you are about to use. If the device is one of the newer just wash it with water designs it will take quite some abuse in this direction without harm.   The first step reduces grime, builtup and that keeps the shaver in good operational conditions as well as diluting the bacterial load that might cause problems. The second step really kills of the bugs. The quick dry is necessary to reduce the chance of rust counteracting all your eforts and investment. Depending on construction and methods used it might also be a good idea to keep an eye on the lubrication of the mechanical parts. Washing away all the machine's oils will shorten its lifetime and your pleasure.  Things to consider: The male beard hair and facial skin - challenges for shaving. 2016  Advice to try out: Electric Shaver Maintenance 101 or  How to Sanitize an Electric Razor or Proper Sanitizing of Electric Razors or how to sterilize an electric razor head.",
        "id": 2384,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Venous PO2 and anemic hypoxia",
        "body": "Assuming oxygen consumption remains constant, getting the same amount of O2 from less haemoglobin drops the venous spO2 even further than usual. O2 attached to Hb and dissolved in water are in equilibrium, so lower spO2 = lower pO2.  This principle is sometimes used in critical illness, where mixed venous spO2 from the pulmonary artery is compared to arterial spO2 to give a measure of O2 extraction.",
        "id": 1842,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lacto Vegetarian sources of BCAAs - Branch Chain Amino Acids?",
        "body": "Branch chain amino acids is a term used for three of the essential amino acids. They are not something exotic, but something humans need to survive, and contained in most human foods. In fact, if they were missing from your diet, you'd have a protein deficiency, something practically unheard of in the Western world in our times.   As long as you are eating protein from sufficiently varied sources, avoiding these amino acids would be almost impossible even if you tried to do it on purpose. So listing the foods which contain BCAA makes no sense, the list is almost as long as the foods you can eat.   If looking at main food groups, you will get them from   dairy  grains  legumes nuts    You won't be able to get them from fruit and vegetables, because they are almost all water and no protein, or from honey or maple syrup, because these are sugars, and have no protein. For the food groups listed above, assume unprocessed variants. That is, whole wheat berries will contain them, wheat starch won't, and for any other product \"in the middle\" you'll need to know the exact type of processing, or just look it up in a standard nutrition database. Dairy is the exception, it will keep them when processed into cheese or yoghurt (but not butter).   If you buy labelled food, the amount of BCAA will correlate well with the amount of protein given on the label, with variance between foods being leveled out by a varied diet. ",
        "id": 690,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why Do Ears Ache After Using Earmuffs",
        "body": "The problem can be down to the hearing protection level of the earmuffs compared to the earplugs and the pain is the result of the noise hurting your ears.  Different hearing protective devices can have different protection levels.  To select the right hearing protection for you, you may want to look at Cooper Safety's Webpage and read up on the information on NRR values. Specifically, the section on How does NRR change decibels of exposure? They also list on the page, typical sound levels in decibels (dB) of various sounds in order for you to estimate the dB levels you want to cancel out.  You said your earmuffs have a NRR of 25dB.  Looking at what Cooper Safety highlights, that means they will reduce the noise level by 9dB (not 25dB) and a lawnmower or blower will have a noise level of around 90-100dB so NRR of 25dB is nowhere near enough.  I wish you luck in your search for something which is right for you.",
        "id": 284,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hospital says their blood test caused sepsis. How serious is this?",
        "body": "Infection control protocols are in place to prevent as much harm as possible.  First, your title is inaccurate     Hospital says their blood test caused sepsis.    You misinterpreted what they said.  I will explain contamination more thoroughly below, but additionally, bacteria in the blood stream (bacteremia) and Sepsis are not the same thing.  You get a transisent bacteremia just brushing your teeth, but you don't get sepsis from it (except in rare rare circumstances).    Second, I will preface this by saying that by explaining why medical errors happen doesn't justify them.  My opinion (and to qualify my opinion, I've spent months of my training in infection control quality improvement) is that infection control is an area in which we have a lot of work to do, as there remain many unacceptable events and outcomes, and failings occur at all steps in the processes.  But that's another discussion.  Third, adverse events like lab errors, contamination, medical errors, hospital acquired infections, etc are generally tracked by hospital committees like Infection Control.  I'm not sure if contaminated vials are always watched, but I have seen them discussed in such committees.  Fourth, I will address contamination.   Contamination of blood cultures does happen sometimes.  It results when a small amount of normal skin bacteria is pushed into the vials when blood is added to the vials, making it unclear whether it was in the blood to begin with.  It can happen at the needle insertion or at the hub insertion into the bottle diaphragm.   In a blood culture, low levels of a normal skin bacteria is usually a flag for clinicians to suspect contamination rather than actual bacteremia. In that case, depending on our suspicion for bacteremia, the severity of the patient's condition, and condition-specific recommendations, we might repeat it to ensure it was contamination.  But we may, based on clinical picture, decide that the likelihood is so low that there is no benefit to repeating the test.   Is bacteria introduced into the bloodstream? Does that mean the patient now has bacteremia or sepsis?   If the point of bacteria contamination was during needle insertion into the skin, then yes some bacteria was likely introduced to the patient's blood stream at that time.  That would most likely be a very, very small amount of bacteria; nonetheless, it is not entirely impossible to get an infection from that.  (After all, blood infections and endocarditis can result from reusing IV drug needles, right?)  But bloodstream infections from venipunctures in hospitals is not common.  (I will try to find some specific stats on that.)   When you brush your teeth, you are pushing oral bacteria into your bloodstream, and have a transient bacteremia that your body eliminates and you never know it happened.  If it was just present on the diaphragm of the culture bottle, then no it was not introduced to the blood stream. It does not mean the bacteria was pushed into the bloodstream and then infected blood was drawn out.   The bacteria hitched a ride on the blood flowing into the bottle, somewhere along the way.   Now to answer directly, yes this only happens when proper infection control protocols are broken.  There are many reasons this might occur.   And yes, sometimes this is due to people forgetting or being careless.  Healthcare providers are always busy and sometimes rushed; being humans, that is when errors are more likely to occur.   But another very important reason to understand, sometimes it is due to the system or environment or equipment not being set up for success.  Swiss cheese model of medical errors is a very interesting concept, I recommend looking it up. Sometimes it is due to emergency speed of the test and protocol steps are knowingly hasty or skipped.  If it is about saving a life, the route of least harm is often chosen. Sometimes if a vein cannot easily be located, the skin needs to be touched to find an accurate site, and they may not have used a sterile glove to do so or reswabbed.   Your question of whether this was a serious breech of protocol is unfortunately subjective.  It all depends on your expectations for human errors/attention/neglect/memory and system errors... and would be a great discussion on PhilosophySE perhaps.  My expectations are perhaps higher than most, and these sort of things upset me, which is why I'm in administrative positions doing things about it.  But the question of whether this is not all that uncommon can be answered: correct, it is not uncommon.  Would the hospital consider this a serious breech of protocol?  Not likely, although it may be tracked like other errors.  But I do not think it is inappropriate to bring your concern about contamination to the hospital, actually.  Reminding them and encouraging raising standards is important, IMHO.  All this said, if she feels sick or develops a fever, regardless of what they said, she should be re-evaluated by a clinician to say whether anything more should be done.  Hopefully this is all in the past at this point.",
        "id": 1836,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name of term for series of studies for the same patient?",
        "body": "According to Collins Dictionary:     Workup is a complete medical study of a patient, including a thorough examination, laboratory tests, a survey of the patient's case   history, etc.   On eMedicine you can see an example of a workup for gallstones.",
        "id": 2493,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I am 15 and 163 cm tall - will I grow taller?",
        "body": "The only way to tell if you are going to grow taller or not is to have an x-ray done of the epiphyseal plates. These are segments at each end of the long bones in your body where bone growth (and thus height increase) occur. They are cartilaginous plates that gradually increase the length of the bone by laying down new matrix. When they are fully closed and turned to bone themselves, growth has stopped.  If the plates are not yet closed, then yes, you will probably grow some more. How much, that's not something that can really be determined. They can make predictions based on the xrays, but that is not a guarantee. If they are closed, then no, you won't grow any taller.  Height is genetically determined, your body knows at birth how tall it's going to be. The only things that will affect this are hormone/growth disorders (Such as hypo or hyperpituitarism for example), or other environmental factors such as chronic malnutrition.",
        "id": 755,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Urine analysis, the baking soda myth",
        "body": "Let us start by saying that it is not recommended to use home-made remedies off of some internet website, as the information may be inaccurate and misleading. You should always consult with a healthcare professional in order to avoid adverse outcomes.  The concept of manipulating urine pH in order to accelerate the excretion of certain drugs is well-known. It is related to acid-base properties of drugs, as most drugs are weak acids or bases (I will not go into detail about this here, as it is a very basic concept in pharmacology, and can be looked up in most textbooks. You can also read a bit about it here).  The mechanism of increasing excretion rate of certain drugs is related to a phenomenon called \"ion trapping\". Basically it means that since acids will be ionized (become charged) in basic pH and bases will be ionized in acidic pH, and ionized species have difficulties passing through membranes, changing urine pH can eventually cause a certain drug to concentrate in the urine. (drugs pass from blood to urine according to their ability to pass membranes. In general, if a drug is uncharged it can go back and forth, but if it becomes charged, it would be more difficult for it to move across membranes, so it is essentially \"stuck\" where it became charged, which is preferably the urine).    In other words, the normal range of urine pH is 4.6-8 (see here), which means that it fluctuates between acidic and basic values (pH value of 7 is neutral). When the urine is acidic, basic molecules that pass from the blood to the urine become ionized (charged), and then cannot go back into the blood (i.e. they are trapped in the urine and are excreted from the body more quickly). When the urine is basic, acidic molecules that pass from the blood to the urine become ionized and are excreted from the body more quickly.  To address your specific question: The commonly accepted method for making the urine more basic (i.e. alkalinization) is to administer sodium bicarbonate intravenously. I found a study about administering sodium bicarbonate orally, but it is not the common practice. Also note that methamphetamine is a weak base (pKa = 9.87, according to DrugBank), so it will be excreted more quickly by acidification of the urine, and not alkalinization (acidification is usually done with vitamin C).    Finally, I would like to point out that one tablespoon of baking soda in 8 oz of water is not very precise and has a relatively high potential for error, which may lead to too high urine pH. I repeat my warning: stay away from this kind of practice, as unsupervised manipulation of blood/urine pH may have adverse and even fatal reactions.",
        "id": 1580,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What type of exercises should a person do if he/she is suffering from osteoporosis?",
        "body": "Source  Osteoporosis exercises are encouraged for a number of reasons. First and foremost exercise is good in a general sense, but building muscle strength can be really beneficial to people who may be at risk of losing bone mass.  Stronger muscles can help improve balance, which can prevent falls.   Balancing exercises are therefore a good addition to any workout routine. Regular exercise that includes muscle strength or resistance training, as well as weight-bearing aerobic activity can help prevent bone loss, as we get older.  You don\u2019t have to get overly aggressive, especially if you have already had a fall and are nervous about exercise. Nonimpact activities such as balance and posture exercises can benefit people with osteoporosis even though they don\u2019t build bone density. These non-impact approaches can still increase muscle strength and decrease your risk of falling and potentially breaking bones.  If you are at risk of osteoporosis or you have already been diagnosed with osteoporosis, most doctors agree that supervised weight-bearing exercise is the safest.  Exercises which strengthen bones and reduce fractures risk  Exercises which strengthen bones and reduce fractures risk If you want to experience the benefits of exercise and reduce fracture risk there are four different areas you should consider.  Strength training \u2013 This area of exercise focuses on free weights, such as dumbbells, weight machines or exercise bands. They can make muscles and bones work by lifting, pushing and pulling.  Balance training \u2013 These exercises reduce your base of support. For example, instead of standing on two legs, you stand on one. Challenging your balance can actually strengthen your balance.  Posture training \u2013 This involves paying attention to how different parts of your body are aligned. The alignment of the spine can become a concern for people with osteoporosis.  Weight bearing aerobic activity \u2013 This can be rhythmic activity that you do for at least 10 minutes at a time. Jumping rope, tennis or dancing are good examples.  Yoga and Pilates are two very popular forms of exercise today. They can improve strength, balance and flexibility. While they may sound enticing, certain positions may not be safe for people with osteoporosis. As an example, movements that require you to bend forward could increase your chance of breaking a bone in your spine.  Here are some of the exercises that fall into the above categories and that osteoporosis sufferers say they have had success with.   Functional movements, such as standing and rising up on toes  Doing low-impact aerobics Using stair-step machines Fast walking on a treadmill Hiking Dancing Tai Chi      ",
        "id": 1358,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is possible that pain will start epileptic seizure?",
        "body": "There are several parts in your question.     Does pain trigger epileptic seizure?   To answer this question, it is essential to understand what is an epilepsy. An epilepsy arises when the normal pattern of neuronal activity is disturbed (ie the epileptogenic threshold is altered). This involves different cellular and molecular alterations: change in neuronal connections (lesions in the neuronal pathways), neuronal signalling (alteration in neurotransmitter availability or in neurotransmitter receptors), etc...  In the literature, some describe internal factors (such as hormones, electrolytes, state of consciousness and body temperature) and external factors (sensory or electrical) that may reduce the epileptogenic threshold and hence trigger a seizure.  One study, including more than 400 patients which were asked to describe the triggering factors of their last seizures, identified missing medication (40.9%), emotional stress (31.3%), sleep deprivation (19.7%), fatigue (15.3%), missing meals (9.1%), fever (6.4%), and smoking (6.4%) as the most common triggering factors. However, pain was also reported as a possible triggering factors, altough less common compared to the above mentionned factors. Considering that pain is associated with different molecular (neurotransmitter concentration alteration) and cellular alterations in the brain, it is understandable that pain can be a trigger for seizure.  Now to your second question     I would not like to question if doctor on neurology ward was right   that it was not epileptic seizure (I have not reason to don't believe   her).   Loss of consciousness is not always due to a seizure. You could also have experienced a vasovagal syncope in response to the ongoing procedure (and the pain associated with it). Indeed, syncope is defined as a transient and self-terminating loss of consciousness (LOC) with rapid onset, short duration combined with spontaneous, prompt and complete recovery. Pain is a known triggering factor for vasovagal syncope (a subtype of reflex syncope). The fact that your EEG did not show any evidence for an epileptic seizure (and your CT did not find any structural anomaly which would trigger a seizure) further suggests a possible vasovagal syncope. Of course, this comment is only based on the description you provided and should not be taken for a \"final diagnosis\".  Sources:  Epilepsy. Pubmed Health Library. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0023036/  Reflex Seizures and Reflex Epilepsies. Chapter 13. The Epilepsies: Seizures, Syndromes and Management. Panayiotopoulos CP. Oxfordshire (UK): Bladon Medical Publishing; 2005.  Balamurugan E et al. Perceived trigger factors of seizures in persons with epilepsy. Seizure. Volume 22, Issue 9, November 2013, Pages 743\u2013747  Aydin MA et al. Management and therapy of vasovagal syncope: A review. World Journal of Cardiology. 2010;2(10):308-315. doi:10.4330/wjc.v2.i10.308.",
        "id": 744,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much pesticide remains on a harvested organic fruit?",
        "body": "Washing and peeling conventional fruits and vegetables only helps to reduce the levels of pesticides that may be on the surface as reflected by USDA test data1999. As we know the pesticides needs to be toxic to kill pests, therefore potential long-term health effects of exposure to pesticides can include: cancer, neurotoxic effects and many morewiki.  Under the FQPA, EPA has the authority to ensure that all pesticides meet the safety standards. They estimates the exposure to a pesticide from different sources such as food, determine the health risks and set the limits of tolerance which is maximum amount of pesticides that is permitted in/on the food. This is systemically tested as part of the Carcinogenic Potency Project.  The recent meta-analysis of 343 studies from 2014 shown that organic food has 4 times less pesticide residues, toxic/heavy metals (e.g. Cd and Pb) and other chemicals than in conventional crops which can bioaccumulate in the body over time 2014.  According to EWG, buying certain organic food can significantly lower residue exposurewiki, because organic crop production standards prohibit the use of synthetic chemical products and certain mineral fertilisers.     How much pesticide residue remains on organic food?   The toxicology of natural and synthetic chemicals is similar, so it's probable that almost every fruit and vegetable contains natural pesticides1992.  One scientific literature notes:     What does not follow from this, however, is that chronic exposure to the trace amounts of pesticides found in food results in demonstrable toxicity. This possibility is practically impossible to study and quantifywiki.   Therefore it's not possible to determine health benefits of eating organic food by measuring how much pesticides remain on food as it really depends on agronomic practices/protocols and soil pollution which can affect crop composition.  Therefore eating organic fruits in general is safe and you shouldn't worry about pesticides too much.  See also: Are organic foods more healthy than conventional foods?",
        "id": 87,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health benefits of consuming smaller meals more often throughout the day?",
        "body": "Both these schedules, ie., 3 meals a day and 6 meals a day, can work well for different type of people.  Let\u2019s look at the benefits of eating 3 meals a day first  This schedule often works well for most of us in the long term as we are used to the breakfast-lunch-dinner that we eat at home. Mostly, people do not want to eat immediately upon waking up (generally it\u2019s a couple of hours after waking up). More often than not, most of us do not feel like eating after breakfast till it is lunchtime. Three-meal schedule allows you to eat bigger meals and this is where six meals a day theory becomes a problem for those who love to eat big and are trying to lose weight. Six small meals will never make you feel that you have eaten enough; you might feel like you are just snacking and it makes you crave for more. So, three-meal schedule teaches you to take control of your hunger better whereas eating six times a day tends to make you eat more, as you end up eating every 2-3 hours irrespective of the fact that you are hungry or not.   Now, let\u2019s look at the benefits of 6-meals-a-day schedule   It could be an ideal plan when you are required to a lot of calories to gain weight or if you are a sports person who burns a lot of calories. Also, it\u2019s something you want to follow if you are someone who needs to consume high amounts of protein as our body can only assimilate and absorb between 30-40 grams of quality protein per meal. Therefore, this schedule is ideal for people who want to limit protein intake to about 15-40 grams per meal. Another benefit of 6-meal-a-day plan is when you are required to consume large amounts of carbs. It can also help you to maintain your sugar levels. For some, especially diabetics, it could be a tough ask to go on for more than 3-4 hours without eating anything and smaller frequent servings would work well to maintain stable energy/sugar levels.  Ref: http://www.medicaldaily.com/how-3-meals-day-became-rule-and-why-we-should-be-eating-whenever-we-get-hungry-324892  http://www.barriespiritsoccer.com/carbohydrates.html",
        "id": 674,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are antibiotics and ear tubes the primary treatment for chronic ear infections rather than improving normal drainage through the Eustachian tube?",
        "body": "I think you are having difficulty finding the answer because you are perhaps not asking the right question(s).     ...why are more efforts not made to improve their function?   How would you support the assertion that more isn't being done to \"improve their function\"? The fact that you don't know about something doesn't mean it's not being investigated.      ...knowing that the body already has a tube designed to do the same thing without the risks why are more efforts not made to improve [e.g. by stenting] their function?   You will not find any support for your proposal because stenting is not a benign procedure, and the risks of stenting the Eustachian tube far, far outweigh the benefits, as well as the risks of the alternatives. At least tympanostomy tubes have a physiological comparison in ruptured tympanic membranes.   First, the Eustacian tube (ET) is normally closed in people of all ages.      It was Toynbee, in 1853, who concluded from experiments on himself and from the tendency to swallow while descending in a diving bell that the eustachian tube is normally closed and opens only during swallowing.   The ET also opens with yawning. Compare how much time is spent in the resting phase of ET function (all the seconds or minutes spent between swallows and yawns.) This normally non-patent state prevents the migration of bacteria-laden fluids from the posterior pharynx into the sterile middle ear.  Eustachian tube function is a complex affair; it's not easily tampered with. The following details what occurs normally with swallowing (please keep in mind that the pharyngeal end of the ET is above where a bolus of food or saliva passes during swallowing):     Normal ETs had four consistent sequential movements: (1) palatal elevation causing passive, then active, rotation of the medial cartilaginous lamina; (2) lateral excursion of the lateral pharyngeal wall; (3) dilation of the lumen, caused primarily by tensor veli palatini muscle movement beginning distally and inferiorly, then opening proximally and superiorly; and (4) opening of the tubal valve at the isthmus caused by dilator tubae muscle contraction.    A chronically patent ET is pathological (it's called a Patulous ET or PET), and is quite uncomfortable, so much so that ENT's try plugging the tube shut:     Trans-tympanic insertion of a new silicone plug seems to be useful for controlling the distressing symptoms of patients with a chronic patulous Eustachian tube (PET).    It should be obvious that on a purely physiological basis, a stented ET is not a good idea. In addition to migration of bacteria-laden fluids into the middle ear, there is a problem with sound conduction, inappropriate air movement with even minor activities such as whistling, making certain consonant sounds, the difficulty of something as simple as swimming, etc. God help the kid who would start laughing with a mouth full of partially masticated food (have you ever been so caught off guard by something funny while eating or drinking that it comes out the nose?) Imagine the mess that would make if the ET were continuously patent. It's a recipe for disaster.  Add to that the surgical complications, which would be considerably more substantial than with simple (yes, simple) myringotomy tube placement. Finally, those structures allowing ET function are delicate cartilagenous structures, and can easily be damaged by a foreign body (the reason even temporary, dissolvable ET stent use is not recommended). In the 80's, this was done in animal studies. Why you don't find papers of its use in humans is easy to deduce.**  Finally, you are mistaken that there are no attempts to treat (improve) ET dysfunction. There are surgical procedures available for those with severe ETD.  For millions of years, ear infections either resolved on their own, killed the host, or resulted in tympanic membrane (TM, eardrum) perforation. It was very, very common when I was first practicing to look at an adult's TM and see a healed perforation.   Yes, antibiotic resistance developed with overuse of antibiotics. But fewer cases of deafness, mastoiditis, and death from meningitis and brain abscesses occurred as well. We live and we learn.  **Not to mention that mucous can - and did in animal studies in the 80's - block the stent, alone rendering it more harmful than doing nothing at all.  THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE ABNORMAL PATENCY AND NORMAL PHYSIOLOGIC STATE Analysis of Eustachian Tube Function by Video Endoscopy Ballenger's Otorhinolaryngology: Head and Neck Surgery, Volume 1, John Jacob Ballenger, James Byron Snow, Eustacian Tube Dysfunction, pp. 201-208 The complications of chronic otitis media: report of 93 cases",
        "id": 427,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are tobacco packaging warning messages improving health of society?",
        "body": "There are some studied done about it. Here is the list of them   Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels Perceived Believability of Warning Label Information Do Cigarette Warning Labels Reduce Smoking?   Another study came up with      Approximately one fifth of participants [by the way there are 616 adult smokers] reported smoking less as a result of the labels; only 1% reported smoking more. Although participants reported negative emotional responses to the warnings including fear (44%) and disgust (58%), smokers who reported greater negative emotion were more likely to have quit, attempted to quit, or reduced their smoking 3 months later. Participants who attempted to avoid the warnings (30%) were no less likely to think about the warnings or engage in cessation behavior at follow-up. ",
        "id": 830,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "White color on clothes after sweating?",
        "body": "Sweat contains a concentration of salt:     Composition:   Sweat is mostly water. A microfluidic model of the eccrine sweat gland provides details on what solutes partition into sweat, their mechanisms of partitioning, and their fluidic transport to the skin surface. Dissolved in the water are trace amounts of minerals, lactic acid, and urea. Although the mineral content varies, some measured concentrations are: sodium (0.9 gram/liter), potassium (0.2 g/l), calcium (0.015 g/l), and magnesium (0.0013 g/l).      Relative to the plasma and extracellular fluid, the concentration of Na+ ions is much lower in sweat (~40 mM in sweat versus ~150 mM in plasma and extracellular fluid). Initially, within eccrine glands sweat has a high concentration of Na+ ions. In the sweat ducts, the Na+ ions are re-absorbed into tissue by epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) that are located on the apical membrane of epithelial cells that form the duct.      Many other trace elements are also excreted in sweat, again an indication of their concentration is (although measurements can vary fifteenfold) zinc (0.4 milligrams/liter), copper (0.3\u20130.8 mg/l), iron (1 mg/l), chromium (0.1 mg/l), nickel (0.05 mg/l), and lead (0.05 mg/l). Probably many other less-abundant trace minerals leave the body through sweating with correspondingly lower concentrations. Some exogenous organic compounds make their way into sweat as exemplified by an unidentified odiferous \"maple syrup\" scented compound in several of the species in the mushroom genus Lactarius. In humans, sweat is hypoosmotic relative to plasma (i.e. less concentrated). Sweat is found at moderately acidic to neutral pH levels, typically between 4.5 and 7.0.   Just as the salt from antiperspirants can stain dark clothing, excessive sweating can leave a ring of white salt on dark clothes. Often you'll notice dark colored shirts with white rings around the collar after profuse sweating. Usually this salt will wash out during a normal wash cycle, but you may wish to soak the material is cold water to dissolve the salt if the stains are tough to remove.",
        "id": 2312,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Coworker regularly takes 30-45 minutes on the toilet - is this normal?",
        "body": "You didn't say which country you work in, so let's take the US as an example:         Do I have a right to have my medical information kept private in the workplace?         Your employer has a number of ways to obtain medical information about you, whether it's because you volunteer it when you call in sick or tell co-workers, or because you provide requested information on health insurance application or workers compensation claim forms. However, just because your employer has the information does not mean that it should be shared with everyone in the workplace, especially when you have not chosen to do so.      The basic legal principle that employers should follow is not to reveal medical information about you unless there is a legitimate business reason to do so. But because that standard is fairly vague, there are laws which more specifically protect the privacy of your medical records, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, the law which makes it illegal to discriminate on the basis of an employee's disability. State laws may also provide additional protection.   From: Workplace Fairness (emphasis mine)  If you would like more reliable resources, I recommend the documents that WF refers to:   http://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/index.html   Or if you would prefer the European approach:        Member States shall prohibit the processing of personal data revealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, trade-union membership, and the processing of data concerning health or sex life.      From: Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (Article 8(1), emphasis mine)   Hence, the bottom line is that it is utterly irrelevant whether your coworker does or does not have an underlying medical condition that you don't know about, because people have the right to health information privacy worldwide. In other words: your coworker's potential medical condition is none of your business.  The right to privacy has been around for a while and as such should be understandable to any civilized human being. To be consistent with meeting health SE's reference requirements:     Privacy addresses the question of who has access to personal information and under what conditions. [...]      There are a variety of reasons for placing a high value on protecting the privacy, confidentiality, and security of health information (reviewed by Pritts, 2008). Some theorists depict privacy as a basic human good or right with intrinsic value (Fried, 1968; Moore, 2005; NRC, 2007a; Terry and Francis, 2007). They see privacy as being objectively valuable in itself, as an essential component of human well-being. They believe that respecting privacy (and autonomy) is a form of recognition of the attributes that give humans their moral uniqueness.      The more common view is that privacy is valuable because it facilitates or promotes other fundamental values, including ideals of personhood (Bloustein, 1967; Gavison, 1980; Post, 2001; Solove, 2006; Taylor, 1989; Westin, 1966) such as:         Personal autonomy (the ability to make personal decisions)   Individuality   Respect   Dignity and worth as human beings      From: Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research..  Although the linked text refers to privacy of information of health research participants, the introductory part (Definitions, Importance of Privacy) is about the general principle. ",
        "id": 447,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are good ways to lose weight for people being mentally active?",
        "body": "Let's assume that you have been given a clean bill of health from your doctor (e.g. metabolic problems such as diabetes, thyroid problems etc. have been ruled out), except that you are overweight. The medical advice given to you is that you should lose weight via dieting and exercise. The problem now is that if you attempt to do that, you feel tired, have a lack of energy that is interfering with your ability to concentrate at work.  The best thing you can do is to visit your doctor again, but this time stick to this advice, which in this case means that you should write up what you are eating, how much exercise you get, what your sleep habits are, and what your energy levels are day by day. Make clear that things are not going well and that this is a persistent problem as demonstrated by your records. The doctor can then assess whether new tests are necessary, because a clean bill of health may only refer to having ruled out the most common metabolic disorders, there may well be other not so common medical problems that have not yet been ruled out. The more detailed information you can provide your doctor, the better that assessment can be made.   If the doctor still thinks there is nothing wrong, he/she could refer you to a dietitian.",
        "id": 863,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does ideal range pulse rate and blood pressure always indicate no serious illness",
        "body": "Absolutely, uniquiviquly, NO you can not assume that if you have normal blood pressure and pulse range that you are otherwise healthy.  Periodic physical exams are recommend for all persons, even if they seem otherwise healthy (this provides a good guide to determine frequencies).  But there are some clear exceptions to this.  AIDS is caused by HIV infection, and can be diagnosed without abnormalities in pulse or blood pressure.  More pressingly, HIV infected patients often live several years with little to no symptoms what so ever (before the development of AIDS, during the clinical latency period).  Further, HIV treatment has the best outcomes if it is begun prior to the development of AIDS.  If you believe that you have been exposed to HIV, (a good summary of transmission information for the public can be found from the CDC) you need to be screened for HIV.  If you are unsure if you should be screened, then you should consult with your primary care physician (which if you don't have one, it is best to try and obtain one).  World wide, it can be difficult to obtain primary care, and several agencies, NGOs, and charities are trying to fill that gap.  Medical conditions missed by normal vitals are not limited to infectious diseases.  Anemia is just an easy, common, example of a problem that can present with normal heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) (and temp/respiratory rate).  The short answer to your question: HR and BP are NOT assurances of good health, just a good place to begin looking for problems.",
        "id": 1384,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "White Fingernail?",
        "body": "  If the picture above describes your question, then the condition is called leukonychia. Skin diseases such as psoriasis and vitiligo can cause white spots on your nails. The skin around your nails also whitens in response to vitiligo; your nails might be deformed and pitted in the case of psoriasis.   Chronic kidney or liver disease can also manifest itself through your nails. Patients with severe cirrhosis or renal failure might notice the bottom half of their nails turn white, while the upper areas remain pink-to-clear.  COMMON CAUSES  The most common cause is injury to the base of the nail (the matrix) where the nail is formed.  It is harmless and most commonly caused by minor injuries, such as nail biting, that occur while the nail is growing. Leukonychia occurs most commonly in healthy individuals, unrelated to any known nutritional or physiological deficiency. When caused by injury the marks will disappear as the nail grows outwards, however a dietary deficiency will cause recurrent leukonychia.  And as to what your mom said, it is slightly correct, certain deficiencies could cause this problem of nail color. Such as   Vitamin deficiency Protein deficiency, etc.   but not calcium deficiency. It is simply a myth.  SOLUTION  Whatever the cause, white spots on fingernails are temporary and will grow out as your nails grow. However, it can take more than eight months for nails to grow out completely so the spots may be around for a while.",
        "id": 1537,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "UK - Doctor's access to family info",
        "body": "Let's assume or pretend for a moment that a system such as the one you suggest exists. I see two immediate problems, both related to medical privacy:   your doctor is not necessarily your mother or grandfather's doctor. Why should a doctor be able to look at the medical records of someone they're not treating? Have your family members all consented to let any and all future doctors read through their records? Have you? as you mention, you may not know all the illnesses in your family. Imagine if one day your doctor said to you, \"because your mother has X, I think we should check you for it also\" and this is how you learned some shocking news about your mother. If the only information your doctor has comes from you, there's no chance of telling you something you don't already know. If the doctor were to try being vague and just suggest checking you for X, that won't always work - many people would think \"why test for that so young? Someone in my family must have it. I wonder who?\" and start the detective process.   Then there's adoption. If you were adopted and don't know who your birth parents were, is it ok with you if your doctor knows? And gives you nuggets of information about illnesses they've acquired since you were born? If not, then this too will be a giant blank spot since whether or not your adoptive parents (your real parents) have heart trouble isn't interesting from a medical point of view.  Then there's the matter of UK residents whose parents or grandparents are not UK residents and therefore have no records with the NHS. Even if a system existed and the legal and privacy issues could be overcome, your doctor isn't going to get access to any family members who live elsewhere. I live in Canada and have relatives in England, so I know this is a real thing.  A system that correlated and cross referenced everyone into families, using birth, marriage, and adoption records, so that a doctor could just click \"see family history\" would be expensive to build and a privacy nightmare if it was hacked. And at the end of it all, it would have blank spots and missing information. It would leave the doctor at risk of telling you things you weren't supposed to know. So all that money would create a flawed and possible even harmful system.  Better by far to ask you. You might not know, it's true. But then again, you might. I know what my grandparents died of and the one parent I have lost. Diseases mild enough to be kept from an adult child are also mild enough not to be interesting medically. The \"ask the patient\" technique may not be perfect, but it's cheap, portable, privacy-respecting, and overall - good enough.",
        "id": 1432,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is there no toxoplasmosis vaccine?",
        "body": "Short answer, loaded with opinion: Inherent difficulties present but mainly not enough resources allocated to this problem until now.  Longer version, based on other expert opinions and research results \u2013\u2013 or really: challenges:   The reasoning in the question is indeed plausible and puzzling. It should be easy, on the face of it. Only that this pathogen is widespread and comparatively mild, making other venues seemingly more pressing. But there were attempts, illustrating some problems along the way:     Toxoplasmosis, caused by an intracellular protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, is widespread throughout the world. The disease is of major medical and veterinary importance, being a cause of congenital disease and abortion in humans and domestic animals. In addition, recently it has gained importance owing to toxoplasma encephalitis in AIDS patients. In the last few years, there has been considerable progress towards the development of a vaccine for toxoplasmosis, and a vaccine based on the live-attenuated S48 strain was developed for veterinary uses. However, this vaccine is expensive, causes side effects and has a short shelf life. Furthermore, this vaccine may revert to a pathogenic strain and, therefore, is not suitable for human use. Various experimental studies have shown that it may be possible to develop a vaccine against human toxoplasmosis. Recent progress in knowledge of the protective immune response generated by T. gondii and the current status of development of a vaccine for toxoplasmosis are highlighted.      Kur J, Holec-Gasior L, Hiszczy\u0144ska-Sawicka E.: \"Current status of toxoplasmosis vaccine development.\", Expert Rev Vaccines. 2009 Jun;8(6):791-808. doi: 10.1586/erv.09.27.   Even if relatively mild, introducing pathogenic elements is unethical. And may not sell that well?  Among the reasons for the difficulties encountered were:        Lack of efficacious protective antigen candidates   Lack of detailed understanding of pathogenic, immune and host cell invasion mechanisms   Insufficient advanced research techniques and theories of immunology or vaccinology   Can DNA vaccines fulfill their promise?   Biosafety of DNA vaccines   Immune tolerance and allergy problems of DNA vaccines   The efficacy of DNA vaccines         Qi Liu, Lachhman Das Singla, and Huaiyu Zhou: \"Vaccines against Toxoplasma gondii: Status, challenges and future directions\", Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2012 Sep 1; 8(9): 1305\u20131308. doi:  10.4161/hv.21006   Research is not standing still on this front. Especially DNS vaccines seem to have made some progress:     Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that infects all warm-blooded animals including humans and causes toxoplasmosis. An effective vaccine could be an ideal choice for preventing and controlling toxoplasmosis. T. gondii Superoxide dismutase (TgSOD) might participate in affecting the intracellular growth of both bradyzoite and tachyzoite forms. In the present study, the TgSOD gene was used to construct a DNA vaccine (pEGFP-SOD).      The present study revealed that the DNA vaccine triggered strong humoral and cellular immune responses, and aroused partial protective immunity against acute T. gondii infection in BALB/c mice. The collective data suggests the SOD may be a potential vaccine candidate for further development.      Yuan Liu et al.: \"Immunization with a DNA vaccine encoding Toxoplasma gondii Superoxide dismutase (TgSOD) induces partial immune protection against acute toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice\", BMC Infect Dis. 2017; 17: 403.   Published online 2017 Jun 7. doi:  10.1186/s12879-017-2507-5   These are promising but still quite preliminary. Whether looking at live or live-attenuated vaccines, protein vaccines, DNS vaccines, epitope vaccines, carbohydrate vaccines, exosome vaccines, RNA vaccines or possible adjuvants, a big bunch of ideas is considered, developed and tested for. Only that they really lack a base of attack.  One of the latest reviews in the field summarises it:     Despite continuous research efforts, there are still very few effective strategies against toxoplasmosis. In the past few years, numerous vaccination experiments have been performed to control T. gondii infection.      In this review, the authors summarize the development of T. gondii vaccines with proper adjuvants, ranging from live or live-attenuated vaccines to protein vaccines, DNA vaccines, epitope vaccines and novel vaccines. They also highlight the challenges involved in the development of T. gondii vaccines, including specific impediments and shortcomings.      Expert opinion: Moving towards the development of effective vaccines against T. gondii is not only a tedious mission but also a difficult challenge. Future studies should consider new approaches and strategies for vaccine development, particularly novel vaccines and genetic adjuvants, as well as optimizing immunization protocols and evaluation criteria.      Yawen Li &amp; Huaiyu Zhou: \"Moving towards improved vaccines for Toxoplasma gondii\", Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy,  Volume 18, 2018 - Issue 3, https://doi.org/10.1080/14712598.2018.1413086   The unsound base from which most of this research is fishing in the dark is that neither the life cycle nor the actual most of invasion/infection are fully understood. Not in the least because there are quite a few strains in the wild, some much more pathogenic than others.  The last cited review opinion closes with:     In our view, directions for future research should focus on the development of an effective cat vaccine. Such a vaccine would prevent oocyst shedding by cats and reduce oocyst contamination of the environment and risk to animals and humans. The priority is to develop a live-attenuated vaccine using non-reverting mutants. With the wide use of CRISPR technology, generating gene deletion mutants as live vaccines has become feasible and provides a novel approach for the control of toxoplasmosis. Therefore, it is expected that several years will be required before an effective vaccine against T. gondii is ready and available. ",
        "id": 2401,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are some viruses harder to make vaccines for?",
        "body": "This is a very broad question. Addressing all aspects may result in an answer that is too long. Therefore only some examples can be looked at.  Since the premise starts with chicken pox vaccine as an example for a successful vaccine this answer starts with an even more successful vaccine:     Smallpox was the most dreaded of infections, especially in the 18th century when it seemed to be particularly virulent. The smallpox virus is very large and complex as viruses go and there are numerous related viruses which infect animals and are more or less analogous to the smallpox, the symptoms of which are characterised by the eruption of pimples, blisters and pustules. The smallpox virus itself can be classified into two distinct types, one of normal virulence (Variola major) and the other an attenuated form (Variola minor). This last point is important because it explains, at least partly, the apparent confusion over the years between the smallpox virus and the vaccine (vaccinia or cowpox virus), at a time when the distinction was made solely on the basis of clinical symptoms observed in patients or on attempts to transmit it between species; for example, between man and cow for the smallpox virus. At that time, the \"germ\" of smallpox was considered to be innate among humans, or almost so, and manifested itself in a so-called crisis by its \"evacuation\" from the human organism.   From Herv\u00e9 Bazin: \"The Eradication of Smallpox: Edward Jenner and the First and Only Eradication of a Human Infectious Disease\", Academic Press: Cambridge, 1999, p4.    This passage about the history of the smallpox vaccine illustrates some points necessary for a vaccine to be developed. We need to understand the viral agent, the human immune response, and we need to find a \"form of the viral agent\" that elicits a reliable but comparatively mild immune response that leads to immunity later.   There are different methods to arrive at such a vaccine:     Live attenuated (smallpox) \u2013 killed whole organisms (cholera) \u2013 Purified proteins of organisms or polysaccharides (tetanus) \u2013 reassortants (influenza, live and killed) \u2013 Genetically engineered (hepatitis B recombinant).   Cf. Stanley A. Plotkin: \"History of Vaccine Development\", Springer: New York, Dordrecht, 2011, p3.    Not all of these methods are suitable for all viruses. Some viruses are difficult to attenuate, some difficult to grow in cultivation, some are changing so fast that a successful immune response does lead to immunity but only to the agent used and not for the agents encountered later on, almost nullifying the results obtained.  Smallpox is not only large but also quite stable over time and between hosts so that a human immune system can acquire immunity, even if the very similar and easy to obtain cowpox is used as the source to get the required antigens \u2013 all four variants of orthopoxviruses confer cross-immunity.  Looking at the \"unsuccessful\" side of the table, the rhinoviruses     are currently around 160 recognized types of human rhinoviruses that differ according to their surface proteins (serotypes). They are lytic in nature and are among the smallest viruses, with diameters of about 30 nanometers. [\u2026]   There are no vaccines against these viruses as there is little-to-no cross-protection between serotypes. At least 99 serotypes of Human rhinoviruses affecting humans have been sequenced\u2026   Meaning that if an immunity develops to one type, at least theoretically 160 more infections are left for a single human on the menu.   With HIV the story is similar but different in that the virus can almost be called 'unstable':     The environment of HIV in vivo is not static, but dynamic and reactive, so topographical imagery is dubious. Also unlike clas- sical genetics, we must distinguish two contributions to viral fitness: one relating to the ability of HIV to grow in its target cells, independent of any immune response, and another reflecting immune pressure.[\u2026]   Perhaps the most striking fact about HIV in vivo is its extraordinary repli- cation rate. Unlike some viruses (such as chickenpox or herpes), HIV never enters a dormant or \u201clatent\u201d stage, but reproduces continuously in the body over the whole time-course of infection. The number of PITs in the chronic phase is in the range 10\u2013100 million, and the turnover time is 2\u20134 days. HIV\u2019s mutation rate is also remarkable: it is at least five orders-of-magnitude higher than for DNA-bearing, eukaryotic organisms. The rate was measured in the early 1990s in the test tube, with HIV propagating in immortalized T-cell lines (again, biologists prefer the Latin, and refer to the observation as \u201cin vitro\u201d, literally in glass) and yielded the average figure: about 0.3 changes per genome per replication cycle.      W. David Wick &amp; Otto O. Yang: \"War in the Body: The Evolutionary Race Between HIV and the Human Immune System and the Implications for Vaccines\", Springer: New York: Heidelberg, 2013.   That is a very fast moving target! But he outlook is not as grim as these above numbers might suggest:      We believe that every major disease will eventually have its vaccine. However, if we consider major infectious agents, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and Malaria, despite many years of effort, billions of dollars spent and countless animal lives sacrificed, no vaccine is available to protect against these infections. What prevents us from being victorious?           The genetic diversity of the target pathogen. (In RNA viruses such as HIV and HCV, the error prone RNA dependent polymerase generates quasispecies. In addition, influenza vaccines need to be reformulated annually, due to antigenic drift)   The discrepancy between immunogenicity and protection (many HIV vaccine candidates induce strong T and B cell responses in pre-clinical and Phase-I trials, these responses have thus far failed to correlate with protection in larger scale trials.)   Vector or Immunogen, which one matters? (While an effective vaccine may need to be multivalent, comprising multiple alleles for a given polymorphic antigen, and/or the antigen derived from conserved regions, the delivery vectors are at least as important as the immunogen itself. The vectors modulate innate and adaptive immunity, hopefully enabling the vaccine antigen to elicit the right response.)   The discrepancy between local and systemic responses. (\u2026of the vectors used in HIV vaccine design, viral vectors with mucosal tropism, e.g., adenoviruses and influenza viruses, are particularly interesting, given that genitorectal mucosa is the first site of contact in HIV transmission. Most systemic vaccines do not elicit mucosal responses, and it is uncertain if mucosal delivery of antigen can induce systemic immunity.)   Infant vaccination, how much do we know? (The innate immune system does not reach full capacity until the teenage years, and as adaptive immunity in newborns is intrinsically skewed to a Th2-type, the neonatal and infant immune responses to many vaccines are suboptimal.)   Immune subversion and immunosuppression. (Malaria-infected red blood cells have an amazing capacity to induce FOXP3+ expression, a marker of highly suppressive regulatory T cells (Treg), on co-cultured autologous T cells, suggesting that widespread induction in vivo would not require direct contact with the parasite.)         Shuo Li, Magdalena Plebanski et al.: \"Why vaccines to HIV, HCV and Malaria have so far failed - challenges to developing vaccines against immunoregulating pathogens\", Frontiers in Microbiolog and Frontiers in Immunology, 2016, DOI:10.3389/fmicb.2015.01318 ",
        "id": 2264,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do vitamin supplements often have quantities way in excess of RDAs?",
        "body": "I don't know why your taking vitamin C supplements when you are ill. Vitamin supplements are usually prescribed when the vitamins in the said person is known to be deficient. They are not prescribed for illness and shouldn't be taken as such as over-dosage causes hyper-vitaminosis or vitamin toxicity. Having said that, I think you meant to say that the RDA is 90mg(as 90g is way too high). I'm aware that this value is different depending on the country as well as the type of person.  The reason why vitamin supplements are available in high doses is because these are meant to be used for deficiency syndromes(sometimes they're used as placebos as well). They are meant to replenish the lost stores of vitamins in the body. Also note that 1000mg of oral vitamin C does not mean that your body will absorb 100% of it. Infact in 1000mg of oral vitamin C, only about 50% is absorbed by the body. This is what is referred to as \"bio-availability.\" This is because a series of metabolic activities take place in the body, and about 50% is absorbed and 50% is excreted [please note that bioavailability of different drugs will be different].  There is also no point in making vitamin supplements to contain the exact RDA as required as  (a) You would have consumed the RDA equivalent if you are eating a balanced diet  (b) Hence there is no need to create a supplement as such  (c)  For 90mg of vitamin C to be absorbed by the body, the dosage of the supplement should around 125mg(here at lower doses bioavailability of vitamin C is around 70-80%). This does not help people will deficiency syndromes",
        "id": 1747,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Examination: sonographic evaluation of abdomen and pelvis - report",
        "body": "\"Menorrhagia\" = excessive menstrual bleeding, possibly associated with uterine fibroids.  \"Hepatomegaly\" = liver enlargement (mild in this case).  \"Fatty infiltration\" probably refers to \"fatty liver.\"  \"Uterine fibroid\" = a benign (non-cancerous) tumor in the uterus.  \"PUJ obstruction\" (sometimes called \"UPJ obstruction\") refers to a congenital abnormality that causes blockage of the urine flow in the kidney at the level of pelvico-ureteric junction (between the kidney and ureter). In this case it is in the right kidney.   At the end of the report there is a suggestion to have an X-ray of the right kidney to check for eventual stones or other problems.  You can get much more info if you read something about \"PUJ obstruction\" (or \"UPJ obstruction\") and \"uterine fibroids.\" It is then a doctor who can tell how serious these conditions are and what can be done.",
        "id": 2481,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do humans meet the brain\u2019s glucose demand of 420kcal (105g sugar) per day on a healthy diet?",
        "body": "Most of your diet is carbohydrates, which are or can be directly converted into sugars, Vegetables, fruits, and grains are all primarily carbohydrates. Unless you are eating a exclusively animal based diet getting glucose for the brain is not difficult.   Contrary to what fad diets claim a healthy diet contains a lot of carbohydrates. What is unhealthy is when your diet contains only refined pure carbohydrates and not the vitamins fiber and other nutrients. ",
        "id": 2282,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What vitamins are useful for restoring the skin after an injury?",
        "body": "Buy a bottle of vitamin E in liquid form, and massage the scar a minimum of twice daily for at least 3-6+ months. Everyone's skin will heal differently, but consistency provides for the best results your skin can obtain. Also, keeping your scar out of the sun as much as possible will help significantly. If you go outside wear a high SPF sunscreen to keep your scar from darkening.   Diet can accelerate any form of healing in general, especially high vitamin c foods. Vitamin C helps to heal skin blemishes, and is also a super antioxidant. Fruits and vegetables to look for are blueberries, broccoli, guava, kiwi,\u00a0oranges,\u00a0papaya, strawberries, and\u00a0sweet potatoes. In many beauty stores or online you can find vitamin c oils/serums meant to put on your skin and promote healing.  Side note: if the scar is still visible after a year or so, a dermatologist may suggest laser treatment or other options.   Wishing you a speedy recovery!",
        "id": 1959,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does hyperthyroidism affect serotonin levels?",
        "body": "Thyroid function and serotonin activity are highly linked. Serotonin stimulates hypothalamic TRH (Thyroid Releasing Hormone) production, leading to an increase in TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) production from the pituitary.  Serotonin stimulates hypothalamic TRH production which leads to an increase in TSH production from the pituitary. Adequate serotonin production is necessary to maintain thyroid hormone levels. Theoretically, an excess of serotonin may lead to the opposite reaction. For example, excess serotonin can lead to a reduction in dopamine production, which can then lead to an increase in norepinephrine production, leading to an increased stress response and cortisol production.  When your serotonin levels are low, you feel anxious, depressed, and pessimistic, and you might also struggle with sleep problems \u2014 all common symptoms associated with hyperthyroidism.   Sources: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11840307 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18208678",
        "id": 718,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do Fiber Powders (to relieve Constipation) Emphasize Soluble Fiber rather than Insoluble Fiber",
        "body": "If you use insoluble fibers you're just adding to the bulk of your meal.  Soluble fibers mean that they can be dissolved ( soluble ) which can then be taken as a drink.  And as they pass through the colon they absorb more water increasing the stool bulk.  And of course we advise people to increase their insoluble fiber intake, but that's usually in the form of food.  https://www.webmd.com/diet/features/insoluble-soluble-fiber",
        "id": 2192,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If a patient has dentine hypersensitivity, can thermal stimuli damage the dentine?",
        "body": "No, the hot or cold stimuli do not cause damage to the dentine, unless the cold or the heat is truly extream and prolonged.   To understand what is going on, one has to know that dentine is a highly organised structure composed of thousands of tubules (microscopic channels). These spaces are occupied by air, fluid or the extremities of odontoblasts, cells that produced the dentin, which are at the periphery of the pulp chamber, the center of the tooth. The nerves in the middle of the tooth are only capable of transmitting information about pain and are unable to discriminate between the various causes.  One of the most accepted theories to explain dentine sensitivity was the hydromechanical theory by Dr. Martin Bra\u0308nnstro\u0308m. The pain is caused by the movement of fluid in the tubules due to changes in temperature and pressure. Pressure on the tooth or a hot stimulus cause the fluid to expand inwards and compress the odontoblasts and nerves in the middle of the tooth. Prolonged drying or a cold stimulus causes the water in the tubules to contract outwards (toward the stimulus), which causes a suction of the odontoblasts into the tubules which in turn pull on the nerves in the middle of the tooth, again causing discomfort or pain.  Lastly, over-the-counter analgesics (painkillers) will not be very effective at preventing the pain, and more powerful ones will only mask the pain temporarily. Use of special toothpaste to block the tubules and desensitise the nerves can work, but an examination by an oral health professional will make sure that there is truly no other factors at play.   My sources, other than professional training:  Brannstrom, M. (1963). \"Dentin sensitivity and aspiration of odontoblasts.\" Journal of the American Dental Association 66: 366-370.",
        "id": 1222,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are tourniquets only used to stop bloodflow?",
        "body": "Yes, tourniquets are used to creating pressure like you said. But stopping bleedings is not only function of tourniquets. Medical professionals use it also to finding a vessel for taking some blood; because when it is tied to your arm, it will squeeze your vessels in that area. So, the pressure in vessels which front of the tourniquet will be increased; and than that pressure will cause that dilatation of those vessels.  In this way, those vessels will be getting more visible from your arm surface. Then medical professionals find easily a vessel in order to taking some blood.",
        "id": 2567,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "23andMe DNA Test is reliable?",
        "body": "I would like to start by saying that 23andMe performs its genetic test in CLIA certified laboratory. Processes like DNA extraction, purification, measurement can only be done under laboratory conditions.   Second, 23andMe provides you with ancestry and health information and also allows you to download your raw data. Your raw data information is txt or zip file that contains information on your polymorphism, chromosome position etc. There are third party tools who interpret this information for you to give you helpful lifestyle insights. There are around 650,000 gene markers in your 23andMe raw data file. So the information that can be dug out is enormous. For more information on such tools please refer to this article",
        "id": 1804,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Yearly flu and cold got worse after Mononucleosis",
        "body": "It's possible in the same way that \"anything is possible\" (limiting ourselves to those things that are actually and potentially possible, i.e. a human can't sprout wings and fly; that's impossible.)  It's possible, because the etiologic agent that causes Infectious Mononucleosis - Epstein-Barr virus or EBV - may periodically reactivate; that family of viruses famously reactivates periodically, in the form of cold sores, genital herpes, shingles, etc. etc. But it was not known until relatively recently that Infectious Mononucleosis (or Mono) also periodically reactivates in some people causing symptoms consistent with a viral infection.  Does having had Mono make everyone's cold or flu symptoms worse? No. Does it make yours worse? Probably not, but not impossible; it's not a known scenario. Might you possibly be experiencing Mono from time to time making you feel bad? Yes, it's possible. Might having an illness reactivate your Mono? That could only be determined by testing.  How long is infectious mononucleosis contagious?",
        "id": 799,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Took a daily prescription pill but vomited shortly after",
        "body": "This depends on the type of pill you are taking, but there are a few good rules to follow. You may also want to talk with your doctor when your medication is prescribed, in case something like this happens.   Less than 30 minutes after - take the pill again (this is what should happen in the situation you described) More than 90 minutes after - definitely don't take the pill again; it has probably gone past your stomach 30-60 minutes after - if the risk of taking the pill outweighs the benefits, take the pill; if unsure, contact your doctor 60-90 minutes after - usually don't take the pill, unless the pill is really, really important; again, if unsure, contact your doctor     These numbers are more of an estimate, combined from numbers taken from several sources.    Note: this can vary from pill to pill, so it is best to call your doctor    What To Do If You Vomit After Taking Your Medication  Azithromycin  Vomiting of Oral Medications by Pediatric Patients: Survey of Medication Redosing Practices",
        "id": 30,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How good, and for how long, can endorphins really make you feel?",
        "body": "There seems to be a misconception at the driving part of the question. Exercise has more effects (on the brain) than just stimulating a few synapses. That is indeed a vague and vastly incomplete conception. Since brain chemistry is by far not completely understood it is also quite premature to believe we would be able to define some kind of \"optimal\" endorphine production. These neuropeptides are short acting and produced and released, signalling and reabsorbed as needed. Endorphins are quickly broken down by proteases. So what we do know to directly answer the question: not long.   What we do know about the brain from pharmacology and neuroscience is that it is not operating and optimisable like a belt-fed machine gun when it comes to releasing transmitters. This system strives over-all for a certain kind of balance, equilibrium or homeostasis. You regulate one thing up, the brain regulates this down again. Flood the brain with nicotine, that stimulates or blocks certain receptors, which in turn are altered in their number to compensate for this over the top supply. This does not mean the neurochemistry cannot be influenced.   Exercise can make you feel good. But that feeling does not depend on endorphines alone:     While endocannabinoids seem to contribute to the motivational aspects of voluntary running in rodents, influencing the total distance covered most likely via CB1 receptors, they are less involved in the long-term changes of emotional behavior induced by voluntary exercise.   As usual human behaviour and experience is more than just some biochemicals floating around. Any human is much more than the collection of some neurotransmitters and more than the sum of some electricity circuits:     Dissociating runners use a cognitive style in which they cut themselves off from the sensory feedback they would normally receive from their body. Marathon runners demonstrated high hypnotic susceptibility scores. Additionally, use of dissociation as a running strategy during the marathon was positively related to susceptibility, and runners who dissociated in training had higher susceptibility scores than did other runners. Runner's high was not related to hypnotic susceptibility; however, it was positively related to dissociation. The most common description of runner's high was general relaxation, whereas the least used description was total euphoria. Surprisingly some runners defined runner's high in ambivalent or negative terms. These results were related to the processes of self-hypnosis and to the positive mental health benefits of running.   Trying to use this exercise related 'legal high' sounds like a natural substitute. And of course, natural means safe:     Endurance athletes: physiologic changes and nonorthopedic problems.    The current increased participation in long distance running and endurance events brings new challenges to the physician. Adaptive changes of exercise must be differentiated from disease states. Left ventricular hypertrophy, Wenckebach rhythm, elevated creatine kinase (myocardial fraction), gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, hemoglobinuria, amenorrhea, and apparent anemia may all be exercise related. New syndromes have arisen--from \"runner's high\" to athletic amenorrhea. These dedicated athletes can be difficult patients. They are highly motivated and will continue training despite significant pain and danger of permanent damage. Speaking their language--carbohydrate loading, \"the bonk,\" \"slow twitch,\" \"the wall\"--is helpful in their treatment. Traditional health problems are less likely to bring the fitness addict to the physician than some new and peculiar disorders.   This is just to remind you that going after the maximal effect of endorphine related happiness through sports may lead to addictive behaviour that is not good at all. It is by no means to be read as an advice to abstain from sport, if you like it:     Does sport really produce positive effects in mental illness? The author discusses this question, through a survey of the literature. There is evidence that exercise increases endorphine levels. In order to support the prevention and treatment of depression through sport, it seems particularly useful, to encourage the practice of moderate, diversified physical activity.   Still looking to get a good dose of elevated endorphines (and a generally healthy mixup for your brain chemistry)? Then here is something that is more fun:  Social laughter is correlated with an elevated pain threshold.",
        "id": 1184,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can shingles on one part of my body spread to another?",
        "body": "The herpes virus responsible for chickenpox, Varicella zoster lays dormant in nerves  after the chickenpox outbreak. Shingles (called herpes zoster) break out in the region affected by that nerve or nerves, which is also why shingles are usually restricted to one body side (as nerves don't cross the spine). [NHS page on shingles]   Spreading the virus to other parts of the body is called autoinoculation. I could not find this described anywhere for Varicella zoster in healthy patients. In the related Herpes simplex, it is uncommon.      Sometimes, infected people can transmit the virus and infect other parts of their own bodies (most often the hands, thighs, or buttocks). This process, known as autoinoculation, is uncommon, since people generally develop antibodies that protect against this problem   [University of Maryland Medical Center - Herpes simplex]   Basically, the other parts of your body are vaccinated against the virus.   For Varicella zoster, it is a concern when considering immunocompromised patients (patients receiving chemotherapy, or infected with HIV, for example):     If your immune system is weakened, shingles blisters may spread to other parts of your body and it will likely take longer for the symptoms to heal, maybe lasting for months   [University of Maryland Medical Center - Varicella]   This is a bit of an unsatisfactory answer - to me, it looks like it is at the very least not a common concern. No source I could find even recommended washing hands after touching the rash before touching other parts of your body (except for the eyes), which would be a basic precaution if spreading the rash were a concern in not immunocompromised patients. ",
        "id": 478,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does our brain get its Mg when we don't take Mg threonate which is the only form known to increase its levels?",
        "body": "The article Magnesium transport across the blood-brain barriers (2011) from NIH.gov books says:     Magnesium is able to cross the BBB [blood-brain barrier]...   It is not the ScienceDirect article you linked in the question, but ScienceDaily article that mentions that     magnesium-L-threonate...effectively crosses the blood-brain barrier   The article mentions magnesium-L-threonate as one of the magnesium formulations that can effectively cross the BBB. This does not mean that no other magnesium formulations can cross it, but that some of them may not (efficiently) cross it.",
        "id": 2470,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I detect condom failure?",
        "body": "I'm afraid the answer is no, you can't know in advance if the condom is going to break.  As far as I can tell, and from my own personal experience, most condom failures are not due to the condom itself being bad, but from misusing it, e.g. putting it in a wrong angle (so it slides off during the act), using too much force during the act, thus tearing the condom, etc.  Sometimes there are indeed failures in the material itself, causing it to tear while using it, but no way to see those, they are not visible.  So my tips are quite common:   Make sure the condom is not expired. (they always must have expiration date on the package) Make sure the condom's package is sealed when you open it. Put the condom properly. (Tons of guides if one wants, don't think it's needed to repeat here.) If during the act you have a feeling it's breaking/broken pull out immediately and take a look. In case of actual breaking, the hole should be obvious.   Enjoy!",
        "id": 1698,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Best healthy lifestyle habits to reach old age with optimal health?",
        "body": "Well, this is a big question to tackle considering there are so many different strategies that people take. I'll address the question of maintaining 'optimal health to old age' according to the biopsychosocial model of health.  1. Biology - One of the best habits to develop from an early age is to have a healthy diet and exercise regularly. A healthy diet includes eating more vegetables, cutting back on the sugary beverages and fried food (trans fat). For exercise, the American Heart Association suggests \"at least 150 minutes per week of moderate exercise [~20 min./day] or 75 minutes per week of vigorous exercise (or a combination of moderate and vigorous activity).\" This habit is important for maintaining a healthy BMI and reducing the risk for many chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, etc.     2. Psychology - A critical skill to develop is mindfulness - being able to anchor one's attention to the present experience. This skill includes learning to handle stress, process one's emotional state, overcoming self-destructive thoughts, understanding who you are, etc. All are important to maintaining good mental health. Mindfulness can be developed in many ways: writing, meditating, paying more attention to the world around you.      3. Sociology - The main habit to cultivate here is to build healthy relationships - with family, friends, workers, etc. It's important to have a support network during times of trouble. Not to mention the amount of stress (and resulting illnesses) that can be avoided by giving more care to the social part of life. Personally, I've found the best ways to learn about building healthy relationships is through: listening, reading, empathy.     My answer is of course not exhaustive - I merely gave a good faith effort at pinning some of the more general habits that have long term health effects. For example, another simple habit under the biology category is to avoid tobacco use.  Finally, I do want to point out that a habit that contains all of these best lifestyle habits is: take an interest in your health (a.k.a. learning!).  Don't stop at just reading this answer. Keep an eye out for the news on the latest health research, public health promotions, articles on the net (do check the validity),  etc.     References:  Healthy Diet  Exercise Recommendation by American Heart Association   Prevention of Chronic Disease by Means of Diet and Lifestyle Changes  Mental Health: Culture, Race, Ethnicity  Importance of Mindfulness",
        "id": 2281,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the substance that not all human are able to smell?",
        "body": "As mentioned in a previous answer asparagus has a particular amino acid, asparagine, that not all people can smell.  There are also some medical conditions where particular people can't smell anything. For example, people with Kallmann syndrome often have complete anosmia (inability to smell) because the olfactory receptors do not migrate to the proper location during development.",
        "id": 1180,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Differences between MD vs DO regarding computational research?",
        "body": "MDs and DOs are both physicians.  Both learn at least a core medical curriculum, then take exams demonstrating that level of knowledge (USMLE vs COMLEX). Both can apply for residencies for any specialty, and they take the exact same specialty boards in order to practice medicine.  Both can go into research or any other branch of medical science, with or without going through a residency.  The core medical curriculum is offered in all.  So I honestly feel that what you learn and your exposure to research is highly institution-dependent, and the differences between MD schools can even be greater than between MD and DO schools. (Except that OMT is not offered in most MD schools to my knowledge.)  There are some generalizations, like that DO schools tend to be more holistic in philosophy, but even that is institution-dependent.  Unfortunately, historically, and even still in some circumstances/regions/fields, DOs have had a more uphill battle to reach the positions and recognition that they deserve in this MD-dominated medical field.  But within the medical field, I feel that the vast majority of MDs and DOs today finally see each other as equal colleagues, as they should.    Certainly a doctor's skill as a clinician or researcher is more dependent on their individual learning, mentorship and experiences that they seek out than anything else!  Which is probably the most important factor for someone going into research: what the affiliated UNIVERSITY is doing.  What research can you be involved in during medical school? What can it offer you in strength of opportunities and mentorship?   I would approach it by exploring the difference between SCHOOLS rather than degrees. Figure out who is doing what you want to do, and who offers the most opportunity to explore what you're interested in.  Then apply accordingly.  Also, I recommend contacting both an MD and a DO in a similar field of research and ask them for their perspective on their experience, and advice as someone coming into the field.",
        "id": 1941,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can acidic water be a pure water substitute",
        "body": "As you can see lemon juice is something that can adversely affect your enamel (1). Acid affects your teeth because it leeches calcium from them (2). When this happens your enamel breaks down making your teeth are more vulnerable to bacteria and plaque which then leads to decay. Pure lemon juice is not something you should be downing constantly throughout the day if you want to protect your teeth. That being said it probably isn't enough acidity to affect your stomach enough to cause acid reflex.  However you are drinking very dilute amounts of lemon juice which probably makes the effects negligible. I can't find any research to support this (there isn't much on this topic) but unless you are also drinking something very acidic on top of the lemon water I'm sure you will be fine.  Just to keep an eye out you should look for signs of tooth decay, here is a good place to check for signs/symptoms. However ignore the advice that \"all carbonated drinks\" harm your enamel. This is simply not true since not all carbonated drinks contain high amounts of acidic compounds. However, this is true of all soft drinks (aka a \"soda\").  To ease your mind, lemon juice with mineral water is a traditional drink in Italy and across most of Europe. I personally have grown up drinking it, along with all of my relatives, and have never experienced any enamel weakening. In fact my dentist regularly comments that I have incredibly strong teeth.  Still this simple breakdown of highly acidic beverages may help you avoid damaging your enamel too much, if you are worried of such things(here).",
        "id": 862,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When to take a blood test after a gout attack",
        "body": "Diagnosis of gout is based on clinical examination and arthrocentesis (to detect the presence of monosodium urate crystals in the synovial fluid).  The use of serum uric acid (sUA) levels is limited in acute gout flare and can be difficult to interpret. If acute gout attack is suspected in a patient, an elevated sUA (\u22656.8 mg/dL) can lend support to the diagnosis but is neither diagnostic nor required to establish the diagnosis. Normal sUA levels have been reported in patients with acute gout flare 1  To your question:  The most accurate time for assessment of serum uric acid levels (and establishment of a baseline value) is two weeks or more after complete subsidence of an acute gout flare.  Sources:  Becker MA. Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of gout. UpToDate. Jun 2016. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis-of-gout  Hainer BL et al. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of gout. Am Fam Physician. 2014 Dec 15;90(12):831-6.",
        "id": 1211,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I'm OK with chilis and any kind of oil. But I can't take any chili oil. Why?",
        "body": "Capsaicin (the molecule responsible for spicyness) is a very lipophylic substance, meaning that it dissolves very easily and in great amounts in oil. It's not very soluble in water, however.   When you eat chilli peppers capsaicin is released to your saliva, which is basically water. And being such, the amount released is limited. However, if you leave chilli peppers in oil, capsaicin is massively released to the oil. The amount of capsaicin that your body will have the chance to take in (aka bioavailability) is much greater for chilli oil than for fresh peppers.  I do not claim that capsaicin is responsible for your symptoms, and if it becomes a problem you should see a doctor, but I hope this helps you understand better the difference between these two condiments.",
        "id": 1449,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the calories from fat to total calories ratio not match the grams of fat to grams per serving ratio?",
        "body": "You drew the right conclusion! Fat does embody more calories (about 9 kcal/g) than the same weight of carbohydrate (4 kcal/g), protein (4 kcal/g) or ethanol (7 kcal/g). These are only approximate values, though, but they have been in use since the late 19th century and the work of Wilbur Olin Atwater. For references and details see the FAO website or this article.  ",
        "id": 1733,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any truth behind violent & risky (suicidal) behavior occurring with lunar cycles, i.e. full moons? Why (if actually true)?",
        "body": "Our Moon affects tides and nighttime light levels. This may not seem like much, but the fluctuations of tides and nighttime light levels have both been very important to life on Earth since it began. It is probable that our internal body rhythms are in some way related to the cycles of our Moon, but I do not know exactly how, nor how strong that relationship is.  Menstrual cycles are sometimes approximately the same length as lunar cycles, but nowadays there is quite a bit of variation among women. I cannot describe a mechanism by which our Moon would control the female reproductive system, but it might have influenced its development far back in the evolutionary tree.  So, as a tentative answer to your question (mostly conjecture), it is possible that human behavior is somehow related to lunar cycles, but I believe the link between the two was forged millions of years ago, and is probably quite weak by now.",
        "id": 1532,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Needing a resource for brain health",
        "body": "You state that you are looking for non-psychological health related information, but rather physical health. I understand the distinction you are trying to make to a degree, but am interpreting it as meaning you are not interested in information on how to overcome any sort of psychological abnormality such as mental illness. My below response is based off of this understanding; let me know if I am on the right track!  For general interest in learning in the things you are describing, a good place to start is the psychology or neuroscience section of either your local library or a book store. In these settings you are able to search specific keywords which you are most interested in (ex: wellbeing, neuropsychology, etc) and find books which discuss these topics in a more palatable format than research articles might offer.   Here are some examples of the type of books I am referring to (just examples, the options are limitless!):   \"The happiness of pursuit: What neuroscience can teach us about the good life\" by Shimon Edelman Described as: \"An informative, accessible, and witty tour of the mind, The Happiness of Pursuit offers insights to a thorough understanding of what minds are, how they relate to each other and to the world, and how we can make the best of it all.\"  \"Mind wide open: Your brain and the neuroscience of everyday life\" By Steven Johnson Subjects: Neuroscience, neuropsychology, self perception Summary excerpt: \"...Johnson explores how we \"read\" other people, how the brain processes frightening events (and how we might rid ourselves of the scars those memories leave), what the neurochemistry is behind love and sex, what it means that our brains are teeming with powerful chemicals closely related to recreational drugs, why music moves us to tears, and where our breakthrough ideas come from.\"  This one sounds like it might cover many of the interests that you mentioned, might be a good book to start with!  Here is an interesting one that connects physical health and behavior and the possible effects on the brain: Your brain on food: How chemicals control your thoughts and feelings\" By Gary Lee Wenk Subject Terms: psychopharmacology, neuropsychology, neurochemistry Summary: In Your Brain on Food, Dr. Gary Wenk expands his discussion of the effects of specific foods on the brain in a completely updated second edition. From investigations into the benefits and risks of supplements, to the action of gluten in the brain and marijuana's potential for pain relief, Dr. Wenk draws on the latest science to answer a range of fascinating questions such as: -Is your aluminum cookware hurting you? -Can tryptophan supplements improve your mood? -How do fruits and vegetables protect us from aging? -Why does eating chocolate make you feel so angry? -Does our brain want us to be obese?  There is a huge range of areas to explore regarding the brain, mind, and body. This is by no means a comprehensive list of the type of books you could explore. I would recommend sampling a number of books and related topics and seeing which ones you are more drawn to. Some of the books you may find are written in a less interesting way and you may decide relatively early that you don't want to finish that book; don't worry, there are tons more out there!  I believe that an understanding of psychology, basic brain functioning and neurotransmitters, and physiology will greatly help in your exploration. That being said, books (or even internet searches) of those areas will also help you understand what you are reading and make connections.",
        "id": 1153,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does reclining the front or back seat of a car reduce the effectiveness of the seat belt?",
        "body": "Yes.   The effect of reclined seats on mortality in motor vehicle collisions.     The reclined position is associated with increased occupant mortality   in motor vehicle collisions.   Why?     flexion and compression injuries over pretensioned lap and shoulder   belts resulted in severe thoracoabdominal and spine injuries in   restrained occupants, with a high associated mortality. Increased   lower extremity injuries from additional force loads into bolsters and   panels were also noted.   Seatbelt effectiveness      If your car seat is reclined, a three-point restraint (lap and   shoulder seat belt) becomes esentially useless because the shoulder   harness moves away from the passenger. Seat belts do not work -- and,   in fact, can make injuries worse -- if they are not properly designed (proper \"seat belt geometry\") or not properly worn.      Few people understand that the more space between the seat belt and   the passenger's chest increases the risk of death or serious injury   caused when your body either slams against the seat belt itself or   \"submarines\" and slides beneath the seat belt.    So yes, this is just a few ways reclining the seat can reduce the effectiveness of the seatbelt. ",
        "id": 1013,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Washing the ear?",
        "body": "Yes avoid getting too much water inside your ears  I would recommend against using ear buds they do more harm than any good. Stop poking inside your ear  Regarding your existing condition please go see an ENT specialist ",
        "id": 801,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the difference between a fast heart rate during exercise, and a fast heart rate during an anxiety attack?",
        "body": "It is not a fast heart rate but the underlying mechanisms that can affect health. The mechanisms involved in exercise can be beneficial and those in anxiety harmful.  EXERCISE  Physiological responses and long-term adaptations to exercise (CDC.gov):     ...the cardiovascular response to exercise is directly proportional to   the skeletal muscle oxygen demands for any given rate of work...   Table 3.2 from the same source shows cardiovascular changes after 6 months of endurance training, for example, increased heart volume, increased stroke volume at rest, lower systolic blood pressure at rest and increased blood volume.  Long-term exercise and the associated increased oxygen demand also results in more dense capillary network in the heart and skeletal muscles, and therefore their better oxygen and nutrients supply.  Regular exercise can have other benefits, such as easier maintenance of healthy body weight, increased muscle mass, lung volume and insulin sensitivity, and lower LDL cholesterol (CDC.gov) and mortality (PubMed).  ANXIETY  In anxiety, there is no increase in skeletal muscle oxygen demand, so there should be no cardiovascular benefits (concluding from the quoted part from the CDC.gov above). In contrary, mechanisms involved in long-term anxiety my be harmful for the heart:  Anxiety and cardiovascular risk...(PubMed):     ...anxiety appears to predict more cardiovascular symptoms...and   cardiovascular events.   Anxiety disorders and cardiovascular disease (PubMed):     The relationships between anxiety disorders and   cardiac outcomes likely are mediated by both behavioral and   physiologic mechanisms, including autonomic dysfunction, inflammation,   and platelet aggregation. ",
        "id": 2528,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to know if a person has seizures?",
        "body": "What are we to say? This is a very delicate issue, and misjudgements from us could lead to severe consequences.   Let's assume that the person does in fact suffer from seizures and the SE-Community convinces you of this. Assuming you are from a country with regulations on medicine, there will be nothing you can do, apart from checking Dr. Google to understand what seizure exactly is, how it works and what possible cures are. Be asserted though that Dr. Google May not provide you with the best answer. => You will have to go to the hospital and get him/her checked. The answers couldn't help you in any way.  Let's assume that the person does in fact suffer from seizures but the SE-Community wrongly tells you he/she doesn't. If this would prevent you from visiting the hospital, it would put a serious burden on the suffering person. As you stated in the question, you would, as I hope, visit the hospital no matter of the outcome. => You will have to go to the hospital and get him/her checked. The answers couldn't help you in any way.  Concluding, the next thing to do is go and visit a hospital.  As the OP asked whether the symptoms are  likely linked to seizure:      When it happens he start moving to a corner without his conscious and then falls on floor with bending mouth and fingers unconsciously.   To me, this looks more like a psychological issue than a seizure... I assume that the person can't remember anything about this, as you mention that he/she is unconscious.  Does he/she notice they black out?",
        "id": 1548,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which type of doctor to see when?",
        "body": "Primary Care   Primary Care Physician (General Practitioner) In the USA: primary care specialties include Family Medicine (all ages), Internal Medicine (adults), Pediatrics (children). Nurse Practitioners and Physician Assistants are also primary care providers who work alongside physicians.  This is often the best place to start, as they are well-versed in managing most conditions and injuries. If it is complicated enough to require a subspecialist who spent years studying just that area (see below), the PCP will be able to refer you to the right subspecialist.  PCPs are experts in evaluating and managing \"the big picture\" of your overall health.  Make sure you bring ALL results with you to your PCP/GP so that they can coordinate your care! Many of them do minor procedures such as biopsies, cyst removal, joint injections, IUDs.  They also specialize in general wellness and disease prevention from immunizations to mammos and PAP.     Subspecialists   Allergy and Immunology Diagnose, treat and manage allergies (hypersensitivity of the immune system to everyday environmental influences like pollen, which usually cause very little problems in most other people) that manifest in conditions like hay fever, food allergies, allergic asthma, or anaphylaxis.  Also immune disorders, such as immunodeficiencies; there is some overlap with Rheumatology with autoimmune disorders.      Anaesthesiology Focuses on maintaining stable vital body functions before, during and after surgery. They also manage pain both in the acute setting (like surgery) and chronic pain management.      Gastroenterology. Gastroenterologists are physicians with training in the management of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Their field, gastroenterology, is the study of the normal function and diseases of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon and rectum, pancreas, gallbladder, bile ducts and liver. In essence, all normal activity and disease of the digestive organs are part of the study of Gastroenterology.      Hepatology Diseases of the liver, such as cirrhosis due to hepatitis or alcohol.      Orthopedic Surgery Experts in evaluation and treatment of complicated musculoskeletal injuries and conditions. This is primarily a surgical specialty, but also perform non-surgical treatments such as bracing or joint injections, and refer out for physical therapy.      Pathology You usually won't see this specialist personally; they work behind the scenes.  They specialize in diagnosing diseases based on examination of tissue, body fluids, organs, or autopsies (anatomical and clinical pathology). There is also forensic pathology, which you hopefully won\u2019t encounter all too soon.      Physical Therapy This is not a medical doctor, but is a trained expert (usually at doctorate-level) in treating musculoskeletal injuries and conditions using strengthening and flexibility exercises, stretching, massage, ice/heat, and modalities such as ultrasound, electric stimulation, and other therapies.  This includes things like rehab after hip or knee surgery, arthritis, sprains, back injuries, and even tension headaches.   This list is work in progress, under on-going maintenance, and definitely not exhaustive",
        "id": 2011,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does vitamin E in oil liquid form help to eliminate wrinkles on face?",
        "body": "Topical application of vitamin E may reduce the length and depth of facial lines and wrinkles, according to the University of Maryland Medical Center. One specific form of vitamin E that has this benefit is alpha-tocopherol cream. Using such a cream can also reduce skin roughness.  Step-by-step guide about usage of vitamin E for skin   Precaucious of usage",
        "id": 2065,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the differences between the Herniated discs and Cervical spondylitis with cord/root compression?",
        "body": "A herniated disc means that a part of a disc has ruptured and squeezed out beyond its regular circumference. A herniated disc may or may not press upon the spinal cord or a root of a spinal nerve.  Spondylosis refers to age-related wear and tear of the spinal discs, which is the most common cause of a herniated disc. Cervical spondylosis means that the neck (Latin: cervix) part of the spine is affected.  Spondylitis refers to an inflammatory disease of the spine. Like in spondylosis, the parts of damaged discs or vertebra can result in nerve root compression. The most common changes in spondylitis are bone spurs and fusion of the vertebra (ankylosis) but less likely herniated discs.  The top picture shows a herniated disc, probably due to spondylosis. The bottom picture also shows a herniated disc, probably due to spondylitis (because the right arrow shows that some vertebral bone is affected).",
        "id": 2687,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can epileptic seizures become life threatening?",
        "body": "Yes. Most seizures are brief, resolving spontaneously within 1-2 minutes.1 These are rarely fatal. On the other hand, status epilepticus is not infrequently associated with death. Status epilepticus (sometime referred to in shorthand as just status) just means a prolonged seizure lasting at least 30 minutes. It can also refer to a situation that is technically multiple seizures back-to-back, but without complete return to baseline in between. A recent review of status epilepticus quoted the statistic:      The overall mortality associated with status epilepticus approaches 20%, with generalised convulsive status epilepticus representing about 45\u201374% of all cases.   However, it has long been recognized that it is very difficult to know whether the seizure itself or the factor that provoked the seizure is actually responsible for death.2 The strongest predictor of death from status is the underlying cause. For instance, in status attributable to hypoxia, death occurs over 50% of the time.1 That is because a seizure is likely to be provoked only by a pretty dire state of hypoxia &mdash; either not responsive to maximal interventions or occurring in a setting where such interventions are not available or not desired.  To the extent that death is directly attributable to the seizure, it is generally because of what doctors often refer has \u201cinability to protect the airway.\u201d Normal, conscious people have reflexes that \u201cprotect\u201d the airway at the level of the oropharynx to prevent aspiration. People having a generalized seizure lack such reflexes and can aspirate on their own oral secretions causing hypoxemic respiratory failure.       References      1. Betjemann JP, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus in adults.. Lancet Neurol. 2015 Apr 20. [Epub ahead of print]   2. Jane G. Boggs, M.D. Mortality Associated with Status Epilepticus. Epilepsy Curr. 2004 Jan; 4(1): 25\u201327.   ",
        "id": 127,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Whose bite is worse for infection a cat's bite or a dogs?",
        "body": "They can both be bad; it depends greatly on the type of wound.  Dogs are responsible for the vast majority of bites, hospitalizations, and deaths, but there's some suggestion that when cats do bite, it's more likely to cause serious problems, but the numbers of cat bites are small, so it's hard to say for sure.  Statistically, dogs are are the cause of 85% - 90% of bites in the US, and ~50% of those bites are unprovoked.  Cats are responsible for 5% - 10% of bites, and close to 100% of those bites are provoked.    Neither cats nor dogs are known for their dental hygiene, so both cat and dog bites are at high risk for infection.  There's also a chance, especially in older animals, that some portion of the tooth breaks off and is left in the bite wound.  It seems that cat bites are more likely to be deep puncture wounds than dog bites, and, as such are more likely to cause a serious infection, but cat bites are also much rarer than dog bites.  With cat bites, some people can go into anaphylactic shock, which is less likely with dog bites.    Both cats and dogs can transmit rabies via bite; statistically, cats are more likely to have rabies than dogs, but the chance of either is very small.  See http://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0815/p239.html for detailed information.",
        "id": 1777,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to fight beard loss without cortisol injections?",
        "body": "Please see the possible treatments for alopecia areata:   First-line therapies    Intralesional corticosteroids  Topical corticosteroids Minoxidil Anthralin  Topical immunotherapy Prostaglandin analogs  Topical retinoids  Bexarotene Capsaicin  Second-line therapies (if first-line ones are not effective)   Sulfasalazine  Photochemotherapy  Excimer laser Fractional photothermolysis laser   Third-line therapies (if second-line ones are not effective)   Systemic corticosteroids  Methotrexate  Cyclosporine  Azathioprine  Biologics    The detailed information you can get in \"Alopecia areata: a new treatment plan\" by Adel Alsantali in Clinical, Cosmetic &amp; Investigative Dermatology.",
        "id": 464,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the Fight or Flight response considered voluntary or involuntary?",
        "body": "The \"fight or flight response\" occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system, which is to a great degree (but not completely) involuntary.     The autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing. This system works automatically (autonomously), without a person\u2019s conscious effort.   You can exert some control over it, but only really a little bit unless you train rigorously for years.  For example, breathing is controlled by the ANS. People might be able - with a very great effort - to hold their breath until they pass out, but the ANS will immediately take over once they do pass out and they will breathe. The ANS, in other words, usually 'wins out'.  Likewise, people can lower their heart rates and blood pressure with meditation and biofeedback (also \"integrative body\u2013mind training\", according to one Chinese researcher.) But if a vicious, salivating, snapping dog jumps out at you from behind a bush, your heart rate and blood pressure will most certainly go up involuntarily, which is not necessarily a bad thing. That same ANS response allows you to run away faster or fight off the dog a bit more forcefully.  Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System Central and autonomic nervous system interaction is altered by short-term meditation Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A Pilot Study",
        "id": 480,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does caffeine have any distinct biological effects to adrenaline?",
        "body": "According to a case report about a 24-year old woman (PubMed Central), in agoraphobia, during a panic attack, the sympathetic nervous system is activated, which results in adrenaline release, which causes symptoms, such as:     ...pounding heart, shortness of breath nervousness, dizziness, losing   control on himself for few minutes.   So, from symptoms lasting few minutes, you can conclude that adrenaline is acting for few minutes and not all the time.  According to one 2005 study, caffeine stimulates adrenaline release, but     adrenaline alone does not account for the effects of caffeine and   additional mechanisms must be involved.   From the above, one might think that caffeine could help you stay alert despite already being stimulated by adrenaline from anxiety.  But, according to one 2015 review article:     moderate-to-high consumers develop tolerance to caffeine and only low   or nonconsumers can eventually benefit from an acute administration.   In conclusion, one who drinks a lot of coffee on a daily basis, will probably develop tolerance to caffeine, in which case the wakening effect would be a placebo effect.",
        "id": 2445,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to deal with dehydrating medicine",
        "body": "Excessive urination (more than 3 liters of urine per day) is medically called polyuria.  Causes include:   Excessive drinking Taking diuretic pills Diabetes mellitus Diabetes insipidus due to various brain or kidney disorders   A doctor will want to know:   What is an estimated amount of urine per day? Any other symptoms, such as hunger, fatigue, etc.? When did the problem start?   The doctor will then likely order various blood and urine tests to check for diabetes mellitus and other disorders. The doctor needs to make a diagnosis first, so at this point there is not much to discuss. The doctor can tell how much to drink.",
        "id": 2279,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "During Caesarean section: What is the name of the instrument in which the scar is burned to close it?",
        "body": "From the description, the instrument you are looking for should be a bipolar coagulation forceps.    ref: medicalexpo  It is used to stop bleeding by coagulation of smaller vessels, bigger one will still have to be closed by e.g. a ligature. It's part of the instruments used in the Electrosurgery, which uses high-frequency alternating polarity,  typically in the radio frequency (RF) range of 100 kHz to 5 MHz, to minimize the effects of muscle and neural stimulation. An other application area for bipolar would be the destruction of maligne tissues, e.g. tumors. With the bipolare the current in the patient is restricted to the tissue touched by the forceps electrode which helps to prevent damage to other sensitive tissues as it would be possible with the often used monopolare. The monopolar instrument another member of electrosurgery would be , more looking like a wired pen or scalpell where a big dispersive electrode is placed elsewhere on the patients body to close the circuit, is mainly used for fulguration and cutting with simultaneous coagulation.",
        "id": 2053,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dr. prescribed Ondansetron/Zofran for migraines & says it'll help with weight loss too. How effective is it for either (migraines/weight loss)?",
        "body": "Your question contains two parts. So I will address them separately.  First here a small background on ondansetron: Ondansetron is a selective antagonist at 5-HT3 receptors. It is most frequently used in the prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.     How effective is Ondansetron/Zofran for treating migraines?   Ondansetron doesn't belong to the drug used in the management of nausea and vomiting in migraine. Actually, headache are the most common side effects of odansetron 1 2, so it is definitely not suitable in your case. Although you seem to have tested a lot of drugs against nausea and vomiting, the review by Lainez et al provides an excellent summary of the recommendations for nause and vomiting management in migraine (below). This might help you.       How effective is Ondansetron/Zofran for helping to lose weight?   I haven't found a study showing a link between ondansetron and weight loss. Though, recently, an experimental study conducted in mice, showed that tropisetron (which is also a 5-HT3R antagonist) reduced intestinal motility and almost completely blocked weight gain associated with glucose feeding.",
        "id": 1221,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How likely is it for someone to develop a serious allergy in adulthood ?",
        "body": "Yes, you can develop a food allergy as an adult.  Apparently nobody really knows why but a couple of plausible theories:        being exposed to allergens when the immune system is weakened, such as during an illness or pregnancy   not being exposed to a high enough level of the allergen as a child but reaching that threshold in adulthood      From the Food Allergy Research &amp; Education (FARE) blog, New Findings in Adult-Onset Food Allergy (the original study is here but behind a paywall):     At least 15 percent of people with food allergies develop the condition after the age of 18, a new study suggests.... The age of first reaction peaked during the early 30s, with patients\u2019 ages ranging from 18-86 years. Another important finding was that an older age at the time of diagnosis was associated with higher risk for severe reactions. In addition:         A higher percentage of the patients were female, which contrasts with the male dominance of food allergy in children.   The five most common food allergies among this group were shellfish, tree nuts, fish, soy and peanut. Study participants also identified 14 other foods as allergic triggers.   Approximately 16% of patients were allergic to more than one food.      A slight aside: While it's really not known how allergies develop (either in children or adults), one possibility is Oral Allergy Syndrome, in which exposure (and allergy) to plant pollen can lead to an allergic reaction to food. That is a little different than anaphylactic shock though.  The chance of this happening to you: This Mass General Hospital article states that \"an estimated 4% of the US adult population is food allergic \u2013 about 9 million of us\". Of that 4%, 15% (1.35 million or 0.6% of US adults) would develop that allergy after the age of 18.  The public health question is really speculative. Obviously it would be very helpful for those people who are either allergic, or at risk of developing an allergy, since they wouldn't be exposed to the food trigger. However, many of these allergens are extremely prevalent in modern food production (peanuts, soy) meaning that food can be produced less expensively. It is probably more practical to emphasize allergens in ingredient lists (as is done in the US) to enable already-allergic or just-concerned adults to avoid ingredients of concern.",
        "id": 508,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it normal to experience headache while quitting smoking",
        "body": "Yes, it is normal, since Nicotine is a drug which not only affect many parts of your body\u201a but it also affect your brain. Withdrawal feelings usually are the strongest in the first few weeks after quitting and many people start smoking again to feel better. See: Understanding Nicotine Withdrawal.  During the quitting process the following physical symptoms may occur:   Tingling in the hands and feet Sweating Intestinal disorders (cramps, nausea) Headache Cold symptoms as the lungs begin to clear (sore throats, coughing, and other signs of colds and respiratory problem).   This also includes mental and emotional symptoms such as:   Feelings of being an infant: temper tantrums, intense needs, feelings of dependency, a state of near paralysis. Insomnia Mental confusion Vagueness Irritability Anxiety Depression   Source: Nicotine Withdrawal Symptoms &amp; Recovery at QuitSmokingSupport.com  See also: What happens when you quit? at NHS",
        "id": 1220,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to avoid the diuretic effect of caffeine or green tea?",
        "body": "Caffeine intake is associated with increased urination, but controlled studies (e.g., here and here) demonstrate fairly rapid adaptation and no chronic diuretic effect.   For most people, if you want to take caffeine without experiencing the diuretic effect, you simply drink your caffeinated beverage regularly and wait for your nephron to move through the equilibration phase. One would expect some variation here, which is why I say for most people. There are, of course, other reasons for excessive urination (beyond caffeine consumption), which are best not addressed in this stack for reasons discussed here. Since the OP states they have been drinking green tea for months and still experience a greater volume of urine output, I have both answered the general question about caffeine and voted to close the specific question (why am I urinating so much) as a personal medical question.",
        "id": 2625,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where are less painful self-injection sites for sub-cutaneous injections?",
        "body": "   If an injection seems especially painful or if blood or clear fluid is seen after withdrawing the needle, the patient should apply pressure for 5\u20138 s without rubbing. Blood glucose monitoring should be done more frequently on a day when this occurs. If the patient suspects that a significant portion of the insulin dose was not administered, blood glucose should be checked within a few hours of the injection. If bruising, soreness, welts, redness, or pain occur at the injection site, the patient\u2019s injection technique should be reviewed by a physician or diabetes educator. Painful injections may be minimized by the following:         Injecting insulin at room temperature.   Making sure no air bubbles remain in the syringe before injection.   Waiting until topical alcohol (if used) has evaporated completely before injection.   Keeping muscles in the injection area relaxed, not tense, when injecting.   Penetrating the skin quickly.   Not changing direction of the needle during insertion or withdrawal.   Not reusing needles.         Insulin may be injected into the subcutaneous tissue of the upper arm and the anterior and lateral aspects of the thigh, buttocks, and abdomen (with the exception of a circle with a 2-inch radius around the navel). Intramuscular injection is not recommended for routine injections. Rotation of the injection site is important to prevent lipohypertrophy or lipoatrophy. Rotating within one area is recommended (e.g., rotating injections systematically within the abdomen) rather than rotating to a different area with each injection. This practice may decrease variability in absorption from day to day. Site selection should take into consideration the variable absorption between sites. The abdomen has the fastest rate of absorption, followed by the arms, thighs, and buttocks. Exercise increases the rate of absorption from injection sites, probably by increasing blood flow to the skin and perhaps also by local actions. Areas of lipohypertrophy usually show slower absorption. The rate of absorption also differs between subcutaneous and intramuscular sites. The latter is faster and, although not recommended for routine use, can be given under other circumstances (e.g., diabetic ketoacidosis or dehydration).      American Diabetes Association   Diabetes Care. Insulin Administration. 2002 Jan; 25(suppl 1): s112-s115.      Apart from this, I can only tell you that I've been predominantly taught to do subcutaneous injections with either insulin or heparin in the abdomen, though with no particular reasoning. ",
        "id": 2366,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this description a tension headache?",
        "body": "Yes, a tension-type headache is more of a pressing, tightening quality, and mild to moderate intensity. There is no throbbing. There is also no nausea. It is usually bilateral, so usually it is on both sides of the head. The forehead is possible...but not the only option.  In contrast, a migraine is more of a throbbing kind of headache, and begins or stays unilateral.  I based my descriptions off \"Medical School for Everyone: Grand Rounds Cases\" from The Great Courses, presented by Roy Benaroch. I referred to Mayo Clinic to double check my answer.",
        "id": 1195,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is It OK to take vitamin tablets every day for long time?",
        "body": "Multivitamins ,more often than not,are composed of inorganic minerals,which are very poorly absorbed by the body and most of them are toxic to the body,causing free radicals and various health problems,including the kidney.  1 If you want b12 , take deactivated yeast  2 For vitamin d just go expose your skin to the sun about 30minutes to an hour.  3 Omega 3 need to be very filtered if you use if from the ocean,but there are plenty of natural sources.  4   Vit a synthetic(palmitate) form is a known cancer causing substance in some forms. Research them if you really want it,but carrots give easily 100%  5  If you want to eat well I suggest using this website http://nutritiondata.self.com/tools/nutrient-search , which is using official USDA as a source for information,but adds %, contrary to original source.  6 Some of the most nutritious and bioavailable are sunflower seeds http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/nut-and-seed-products/3076/2 Pumpkin seeds,peanuts and Sesame seeds for calcium(theres also savory herb and kale,etc), buy bulk and organic or at least no pesticide etc, if you're serious you can buy a corn grinder to dehull them,but it's cheap hulled also .  6.1 But don't forget to bake them in a ceramic cookware to 350 degres Celcius to remove possible small quantities of bacterias.  7- Easiest way to take is to blend sunflower and pumpkin and add liquid honey and mix with the spoon to make clumps (moderate taste/you can add melted chocolate/or chips) You can add maple syrup aswell.  8-  Best way to make it is to buy organic apples, peel them, then cut all except the core(you'll get it fast with practice), and then blend that to make a paste. Then mesure for example 3/4 cup sunflower 2/4 pumpkin seeds 1/4 peanuts or whatever the dosage you want, theres also a nutrient calculation tool on the website, you'll get almost 100% of everything (including considering the estimate of nutrient loss/plant content variation,methods of cultivation,and body absorption)  There you go,don't fall for the easy multivitamin scam, it's not hard to get all the nutrition if you go the scientific route. Theres also whfoods.com but their numbers are off sometimes. Don't hesitate if you have questions,but please make your own research to spare my time as I have helped you alot alredy.",
        "id": 1511,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Apps available? Nutrition Help?",
        "body": "Although probably not the answer you are looking for I would suggest starting with learning basic understandings of macro nutrients e.g. carbs, fats and proteins  Once learning that making meals of very simple foods e.g. vegtables + chicken and then weighing and entering them in apps like myfitnesspal.com and seeing the macronutrients used up compared to how much you need.  from these basic meals you can start experimenting with extra ingredients to make things taste better and entering them in to the apps as well to see the effects. e.g. spices, oil, sauces etc.   Doing this took a while but taught me a lot about nutrition and eventually you get to the point where you can judge foods on face value accurately.  hope this helps",
        "id": 1001,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does Ponstan treat headaches?",
        "body": "The active ingredient in Ponstan is mefenamic acid. It is categorized as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).   It works because it      is a cyclo-oxygenase (Cox-1 and -2) inhibitor and blocks the production of intracellular prostaglandins that are important in pain and inflammatory pathways. Mefenamic acid has analgesic as well as anti-pyretic and anti-inflammatory activities, but is used largely for treatment of pain.    Basically, like a lot of painkillers, it inhibits the transmission of pain signaling.   As for speed, how fast NSAIDs lead to less pain depends on a lot of things, including the severity of the pain or when the patient last ate, it can't really be generalized. A very fast relief might also be caused by the placebo effect just by having taking medication. ",
        "id": 685,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there solid evidence, that antibiotics cause allergies?",
        "body": "The possible link between antibiotics and increased allergy and asthma incidence was mentioned at the 2004 annual meeting of American Society for Microbiology (New Scientist, 2004). They said that increased antibiotic use may change normal intestinal flora; more exactly, it may stimulate yeast overgrowth, which may then alter the immunity, but they didn't say how.  In a 2013 systematic review of observational studies, there was a significant dose-response association, suggesting a 7% increase in the risk of eczema for each additional antibiotic course received during the first year of life.   In a 2016 case-control study by South Carolina University, using data from 2007 to 2009, the use of systemic antibiotics in 1504 infants was associated by increased risk (ratio: 1.21-1.64) of food allergies later in life.  In a cohort study published in JAMA Pediatrics in 2018, the use of antibiotics in 131708 children in their first 6 months of life was associated with an increase (ratio: 1.14-2.09) in allergies (asthma, allergic rhinitis, anaphylaxis, allergic conjunctivitis) later in life.  The mentioned studies were not randomized controlled clinical trials, so the question how solid this evidence is still remains unanswered. ",
        "id": 2579,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any studies showing that interventions affect diabetic risk measures in short periods of time?",
        "body": "I only looked for studies on the effect of exercise, there may be more in regards to dietary changes.   The impact of brief high-intensity exercise on blood glucose levels is a review article analysing several articles on this subject, with studies in both patients with and without diabetes.   One looked at two weeks of exercise:     Two weeks of sprint interval training increased insulin sensitivity up to 3 days postintervention   Original study: Short-term sprint interval training increases insulin sensitivity in healthy adults but does not affect the thermogenic response to beta-adrenergic stimulation  Others looked at single training sessions of high intensity interval training (HIIT):     low volume SIT with as little as 7.5 minutes of high-intensity exercise per week may be a time-efficient exercise strategy to help control blood glucose in diabetic patients and improve insulin sensitivity in nondiabetic adults.   However, this is a brief effect:     it is [...] uncertain if any improvements in blood glucose achieved by a brief intervention would be sustained over a longer period   But there does seem to be a short-term effect for training at high intensities that does not need to be sustained for long - typical exercise duration in these studies was a couple of sprints at a few minutes of high intensity training per session plus warm up. ",
        "id": 417,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are minerals in salts (e.g. Himalayan) overrated?",
        "body": "There are many benefits associated with Himalayan rock salt.  Looking into the first hit from the still favourite search engine one lands on a journal from an otherwise respectable publisher in the medical sciences and finds:     The Global Proving of Himalayan Crystal Salt:      Themes for Himalayan Rock Salt:   Major themes   \u2013 Suicide/Homicide/Accident/Death/Rape   \u2013 Comfortable with oneself/Confidence/ buoyancy   \u2013 Emotions: Grief/Sadness/Pain   \u2013 Moods: Irritable/Negative   \u2013 Mother-child theme   \u2013 Masculine/Feminine energy   \u2013 Homosexuality   \u2013 Lonely   \u2013 Old things/Memory   \u2013 Heart/Love Minor themes   \u2013 Past life   \u2013 Postponing   \u2013 Watched, being   \u2013 Cobweb sensation Co-incidences   \u2013 Work in bathroom/Sink/Tap   \u2013 Cosmic events The Higher Self   \u2013 Spiritual side \u2013 Meditation Food   \u2013 Food theme   \u2013 Food affinities The cosmic projection   \u2013 Animals/Birds   \u2013 Ocean   \u2013 Flowers   Physical representation   \u2013 Physical: Eye   \u2013 Physical: Head   \u2013 Physical: Hips   \u2013 Physical: Lips: Herpetic eruptions   \u2013 Dental issues   And this sums up quite nicely what a big cure-it-all this is. It's a miracle food and priced accordingly!  But how can it be so effective? \u2013 Simple answer: it's old, it's pure, it's from an obscure Eastern region associated with mysticism; and it is even said to contain \"all 84 trace elements\" the human body needs in the perfect ration! \u2013\u2013 Wait a minute. Pure and 84 elements? That are in a human body and needed? How exotic!  OK, really? Health Benefits?     What is pink Himalayan salt?      Pink Himalayan salt is mined in Pakistan and may be up to 98 percent sodium chloride.   Translation: It's not from the mountains of the Himalaya but one of the largest salt mines in the vicinity of Lahore. Looking at a map locating Khewra Salt Mine one is hard press to identify the surroundings with the claimed origin of these salts. It's in Punjab and not in the Karakorum mountains. Exposing the first lie about it right in its name.     Pink Himalayan salt is chemically similar to table salt. It contains up to 98 percent sodium chloride. The remainder of the salt is made up of trace minerals, such as potassium, magnesium, and calcium, which give the salt its light pink tint.   Translation: Mostly table salt, with some dirt left in.     The presence of these minerals also explains why Himalayan salt tastes different to regular table salt.   That might settle this issue. But even the yellow press can make this clearer:     Pink Himalayan salt is nutritionally very similar to regular salt. It\u2019s just prettier and more expensive.   If we inquire about this opinion on a site dedicated to evidence based medicine and promoting science in general the picture gets bleak:     What kind of salt should we use?      Even if this analysis is accurate, it is meaningless for health and if anything is worrisome. The amount of minerals in it is too minuscule to make any difference, and we already get plenty of the same trace minerals from other foods. They claim that two double-blind studies were done, but no such studies are listed in PubMed. There is no evidence published in peer-reviewed journals that replacing white salt with pink salt makes a shred of difference or leads to any improvement in health.      If you read down the list of minerals, you will notice that it includes a number of radioactive substances like radium, uranium, and polonium. It also includes substances that act as poisons, like thallium. I wouldn\u2019t be worried, since the amounts are so small; but if anyone believes the trace amounts of \u201cgood\u201d minerals in Himalayan sea salt are good for you, why not believe the trace amounts of poisons and radioactive elements are bad for you?      The claim that pink Himalayan salt contains 84 trace minerals may be true, but the claim that it \u201cpromotes health and wellness\u201d is false until proven otherwise by legitimate clinical studies. While waiting for evidence, I\u2019d just as soon my salt didn\u2019t contain uranium.   Is this a Scam?  There were several chemicals analysis undertaken to verify at least the claims about mineral contents of this salt: According to an analysis by the University of Technology Clausthal the salt as sold contains just 10 different minerals:     Au\u00dferdem entspricht der Anteil an Natriumchlorid nicht dem internationalen Standard f\u00fcr Speisesalz: Der m\u00fcsste bei mindestens 97 Prozent liegen. Die untersuchten Proben enthalten etwa 94 bis 95 Prozent Natriumchlorid und etwa drei Prozent Polyhalit.    Translation: international trade regulations proscribe a content of 97% sodium chloride for regular table salt whereas Himalayan Salt only contains 94\u201395% and in addition 3% polyhalite   Consumer Rights  Various consumer rights organisations have been alerted to this expensive salt and the outrageous claims made about it: They all concluded that the  place of origin is bogus, the claims about the mineral content and mineral needs of a human body are bogus, physiological benefit claims are bogus.  If there are no benefits, are there dangers?  Looking for the health status of the people in the region where this salt is mined and consumed is very instructive: the people there live in the so called Himalayan goitre belt! While regular table salt should be iodised now that Khewra salt is not. And lack of iodine leads some problems in the region where those lucky people always eating Khewra salt for cheap should be much healthier than we who have to pay so much for it.  Even if this is a Scam, I like how Looks and Tastes  Complete bogus it may be, but it is pretty, I get my iodine from elsewhere and pricey stuff tends to taste better? Well, only if you know that it is prices!     In the current study, there were no significant differences among TS and other gourmet-style salts with respect to meat quality and sensory characteristics of fresh poultry breast meat products. Objective tenderness, flavor, and overall cook loss yields were not altered due to the replacement of TS with other gourmet salts. Subjective tenderness, juiciness, and flavor notes were also not significantly different among salt treatments. The use of alternative salts with lower sodium content in chicken marination may be a healthy alternative to TS, with respect to potential sodium reduction (especially SGDG) and mineral enhancement, without sacrificing meat quality or sensory attributes. Sonoma gourmet salt may also potentially increase marination yields.   Summary  Usually, the claimed benefits are a reason for scorn. If in this case there are not even taste benefits then we have to conclude that there is only a single one health benefit associated with pink Himalayan salt: it's so expensive that the gullible buyers will have less money to waste on other detrimental supplements or health foods.",
        "id": 1937,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Heart size growth after heart transplant in children?",
        "body": "Pediatric heart transplantation represents approximatively 15% of the total heart transplantations 1.  Several studies have provided some insights on the cardiac growth after heart transplantation. Most of them have shown that the transplanted heart in children follows  similar growth as non-transplanted paediatric hearts.  Here some extracts of the major studies in that field:   In a study including 13 infants with a duration of follow-up was 3.1\u00b10.4 years      Both right ventricular (RV) and left ventricular (LV) chamber   dimensions were within the normal range at both early and late time   points and grew normally   D. Bernstein, S. Kolla, M. Miner, P. Pitlick, M. Griffin, V. Starnes, et al. Cardiac growth after pediatric heart transplantation. Circulation, 85 (1992), pp. 1433\u20131439   Another study reported normal cardiac growth after    transplantation although these patients showed somatic growth    deficits due to the immunosuppresive therapy.   V.R. Zales, K.L. Wright, A.J. Muster, C.L. Backer, D.W. Benson, C. Mavroudis. Ventricular volume growth after cardiac transplantation in infants and children. Circulation, 86 (5 Suppl) (1992), pp. II272\u2013II275   Finally, one large study which included 147 patients and followed them up during several years (up to 10 years) reported similar results      The ventricular end-diastolic diameters, the ventricular end-diastolic   volumes and ventricular mass increased proportionally 6 to 10 years   after heart transplantation in all patients regardless of the BSA   ratio.   Delmo et al. Influence of size disparity of transplanted hearts on cardiac growth in infants and children. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. Volume 143, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 168\u2013177",
        "id": 1163,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Transmission of helicobacter pylori",
        "body": "Yes, you could possibly become infected through sharing utensils.  https://publichealth.arizona.edu/outreach/health-literacy-awareness/hpylori/transmission     H. pylori is commonly transmitted person-to-person by saliva. The   bacteria can also be spread by fecal contamination of food or water.   In developing countries, a combination of untreated water, crowded   conditions, and poor hygiene contributes to higher H. pylori   prevalence. Most people become infected as children, and parents and   siblings seem to play a primary role in transmission.   However, h. pylori is a common infection and there's about a 50% chance you were already infected before you shared the spoon. It causes no symptoms in most people, so this event wasn't something you need to run to a doctor about. ",
        "id": 2368,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Necessity of break-the-glass for accessing patient electronic health records in emergency",
        "body": "I think there is a misunderstanding of the circumstances to which \"break the glass\" applies, or perhaps the rules by which physicians nurses and other patient care professionals are granted access to patient records.  Regarding accessing the chart in general, annual training is given to physicians and hospital staff on the laws and regulations (for example under HIPAA, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) that no one is allowed to even open a patient chart without specific reasons for doing so - such as direct patient care or billing.  These rules are a professionalism expectation, and any EMR (electronic medical record) keeps a record of access that can be traced.  Additionally, EMR can restrict who can view what.  For example, in one of the most prevalent EMRs called EPIC, the interface differs between users' job roles such that access to some areas in the chart is not even available for some users.  Within the US medical system EMRs, \"Break the Glass\" is a mechanism within the EMR chart where it requires a two-step process (justification and signature) to view certain data in a chart, or other circumstances such as open a chart of a patient who has died.  For most physician access, it is most commonly used when accessing any psychology or psychiatry notes; in that case one justification selection is \"for direct patient care.\" However, note that psychiatric meds will still appear in the medications list, and psychiatric diagnoses will appear in the problems list.    It is assumed that a physician or nurse will only open a chart for whom they are participating in care, thus an ER physician will have full access to the EMR chart for a patient they are taking care of, and would only need to do the \"break the glass\" procedure to gain access to psych notes - and would only do so if it is pertinent to the visit.  When a patient registers to be seen at an ER, some of this is explained in the terms of treatment paperwork that they have to sign.  An unconscious patient situation has unique laws and regulations that apply, including assumed consent for chart access for reasons of health and life preservation.  Don't assume, however, that EMR between institutions communicate with each other.  The technology to do so, although it's been possible since the 1980s, has not been implemented between most healthcare organizations.  Even within the same city, they still don't often interface.  If you go to a new hospital, they likely have access to zero medical information on you.  This can be a significant barrier to continuity of care.  Some information on HIPAA and its application to EMR:   https://medicine.yale.edu/ymadmin/news/summer2012/epic_hipaa.aspx https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/consumers/privacy-security-electronic-records.pdf https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/index.html ",
        "id": 2491,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to assist an epilepsy sufferer in convulsion?",
        "body": "There is not more you can do  The Red Cross strongly recommends to not restrain them but let them go through their seizure, otherwise you will cause injury to them, and notes nothing more that can be done.  The CDC has the same information on their website.  Call an ambulance if the seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes, get a few bystanders to make sure the ambulance knows where to get, ensure the patient has at least a little bit of privacy (it helps to send multiple people running for defibrillators just in case, if there\u2019s a large crowd), wait, talk to the patient and reassure them that someone is there for them, and monitor breathing without touching or restraining the patient.  What paramedics are able to do  Paramedics, Emergency Doctors and other first responders (it is depending on legislation and institution who\u2019s allowed to do what) will inject Valium or benzodiazepines en route to the hospital.      Benzodiazepines can cause some people to stop breathing, breathe too    shallowly or can cause cardiac complications.   (Cited from the study)   This is (apart from the difficulty with injections and legislation) why regular people are not allowed to administer such drugs.  Furthermore, it is important for the EMT\u2019s to secure airways and ensure that the patient\u2019s blood is saturated with oxygen enough after a severe case of epilepsy: Regardless whether they administered medication, some patients will stop breathing. This is also one reason why you have to call the ambulance after or during a severe case of epilepsy.  If the patient stops breathing  If the patient should stop breathing before the ambulance arrives, then there is something you can do. Start CPR, look for public defibrillators and do what your first aid training has taught you. ",
        "id": 1971,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is drawing with a pen on my wrist regularly unhealthy?",
        "body": " It is usually only a problem in Ink poisoning:      Writing ink poisoning occurs when someone swallows ink found in   writing instruments (pens).   And   Allergies to skin: Irritation to skin, burning or itching. Which are rare the main adverse effect is usually only staining do the dye in the ink.  Cuts in the skin and permanent ink can cause problems.      The primary concern with writing on skin with permanent ink is that   permanent ink may contain xylene. Xylene is a toxic substance, though   toxicity is normally linked to inhalation.      People can cause damage to their skin however, by cutting the skin and   then writing on skin with a permanent marker.    I can find no evidence of a greater problem over time, unless you were referring to developing a allergy which is possible, but I found no evidence to support that statement.    Additional Info   FDA.gov - About Tattoo ink Skeptics SE - Can you get ink poisoning from drawing or writing on your skin with pen? ",
        "id": 195,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to get rid of erectile dysfunction?",
        "body": "Before going directly into the topic, firstly, it is necessary to comprehend the mechanism of erection, because small fault due to different factors in the mechanism gives rise to its dysfunction.   An erection is a complex process. It involves the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, psychological and psychological factors, local factors with the erection bodies or the penis itself, as well as hormonal and vascular components.  When stimuli relating to sex are generated from different sources like touch, smell, visual,etc,they travel from the brain to the nerve centers at the base of the spine, where primary nerve fibers connect to the penis and regulate blood flow during erections and afterward.   Sexual stimulation causes the release of chemicals from the nerve endings in the penis that trigger a series of events that ultimately cause muscle relaxation in the erection bodies of the penis. The smooth muscle in the erection bodies controls the flow of blood into the penis. When the smooth muscle relaxes, the blood flow dramatically increases, and the erection bodies become full and rigid, resulting in an erection. Venous drainage channels are compressed and close off as the erection bodies enlarge.  So disruption in the any steps of the mechanism is responsible for erection dysfunction. The causes of erection dysfunction can be broadly classified as:  1.Psychological (mental) factors 2.Physical factors   Psychological factors   Depression, anxiety or other mental health conditions Stress Relationship problems due to stress, poor communication or other concerns feeling nervous about or self-conscious about sex  Physical factors   Heart disease Clogged blood vessels (atherosclerosis) High cholesterol High blood pressure Diabetes Obesity Metabolic syndrome \u2014 a condition involving increased blood pressure, high insulin levels, body fat around the waist and high cholesterol Parkinson's disease Multiple sclerosis Peyronie's disease \u2014 development of scar tissue inside the penis Certain prescription medications Tobacco use Alcoholism and other forms of substance abuse Sleep disorders Treatments for prostate cancer or enlarged prostate Surgeries or injuries that affect the pelvic area or spinal cord  Hormonal factors   Low level of testosterone High level of prolactin    References   http://www.emedicinehealth.com/causes_of_erectile_dysfunction/article_em.htm http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/5702.php http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/erectile-dysfunction/basics/causes/con-20034244 https://www.urologicalcare.com/erectile-dysfunction/ed-common-causes/ https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/erectile-dysfunction ",
        "id": 1091,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are nitrites/nitrates in processed meat unhealthy?",
        "body": "Nitrates and nitrites cause a lot of consumer confusion. They're naturally occurring molecules in vegetables.  Several foods are sources of nitrates (salts) which are a normal part of the diet as they occur naturally and they're produced by a number of species of nitrifying bacteria. Only excessive levels can cause any health problems (methemoglobinemia).  Sodium nitrite and potassium nitrite (salts) are added to cured and processed meats as reducing agent (opposite of oxidation agent) to delay spoilage and pathogenic bacteria growth and to preserve its color.  Historically nitrite and nitrate were considered harmful food additives where they were considered carcinogenic, however recent research has change our ideas about health effects of both nitrite and nitrate and newly studies show no association between its intake and stomach or ovarian cancer. Further more, they're now considered as essential nutrients for cardiovascular health by promoting nitric oxide (NO) production.2010, 2012  However under certain conditions, nitrite can form nitrosamines, molecules that cause cancer in lab animals. This happens when nitrites are exposed to high heat during cooking or strongly acidic conditions (stomach acids), they could form carcinogenic nitrosamines2006, 2007, wiki. As the result the U.S. Department of Agriculture established the safety limits on the amount of nitrites used in meat products in order to decrease cancer risk in the population. This could indicate that nitrosamines may be carcinogenic in humans.  Although available evidence supports a positive association between nitrite and nitrosamine intake and gastric cancer (GC) and oesophageal cancer (OC), they're not conclusive2006, wiki.  The recent research suggests that nitrite preservatives have \"been found to be safe\"2012. However it doesn't mean processed meats are healthy.  See also:   The Truth About Nitrite in Lunch Meat (2011) at Live Science ",
        "id": 33,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "is there any succesful way to grow taller after age of seventeen",
        "body": "No, there isn\u2019t.     How much variation (difference between individuals) in height is attributable to genetic effects and how much to nutritional effects?\" The short answer to this question is that about 60 to 80 percent of the difference in height between individuals is determined by genetic factors, whereas 20 to 40 percent can be attributed to environmental effects, mainly nutrition. This answer is based on estimates of the \"heritability\" of human height: the proportion of the total variation in height due to genetic factors.      Can special treatment and nutrient supplements increase the height further? The answer is yes. The most important nutrient for final height is protein in childhood. Minerals, in particular calcium, and vitamins A and D also influence height. Because of this, malnutrition in childhood is detrimental to height.      Scientific American ",
        "id": 2051,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What diseases cause a rapid fall in hemoglobin count?",
        "body": "There could be different reasons which can explain this situation. They are all well presented in this page of the Mayo Clinic (https://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/low-hemoglobin/basics/causes/sym-20050760).   In short, those are the most common main causes:   Your body produces fewer red blood cells than usual Your body destroys red blood cells faster than they can be produced You experience blood loss   I don't think that here we can do differential diagnosis (also because we don't have the whole clinical history of the patient). In any case, in acute, it could be good to evaluate the third cause. It doesn't have to be an important hemorrhage, but also a bowel disease which leads to slow blood loss (but this won't answer to the important drop of hemoglobine). Or esophageal varices",
        "id": 2427,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When is vitamin D released from fat?",
        "body": "It is already released in winter, and may help prevent very low levels that might otherwise be obtained.     Vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0Stored\u00a0in\u00a0Fat\u00a0Tissue\u00a0During a\u00a05-Year\u00a0Intervention\u00a0Affects\u00a0Serum\u00a025-Hydroxyvitamin\u00a0D\u00a0Levels\u00a0the\u00a0Following\u00a0Year.   Martinaityte I1,2,\u00a0Kamycheva E1,2,\u00a0Didriksen A1,\u00a0Jakobsen J3,\u00a0Jorde R1,2.  Author information  Abstract  CONTEXT:  Vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0and\u00a025-hydroxyvitamin\u00a0D\u00a0[25(OH)D] are\u00a0stored\u00a0in adipose\u00a0tissue, but the clinical relevance is uncertain.  OBJECTIVE:  To evaluate changes in\u00a0serum\u00a025(OH)D\u00a0and adipose\u00a0tissue\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0levels\u00a0after stopping\u00a0vitamin\u00a0Dsupplementation.  DESIGN:  A prospective, double-blind cohort follow-up study.  SETTING:  Clinical Research Unit at University Hospital of North Norway.  PATIENTS:  Seventy-six subjects were included after participation in a 3- to\u00a05-year\u00a0prevention of type 2 diabetes study and were administered 20,000 IU of\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0or placebo per week.  INTERVENTION:  During the 12-month follow-up period, blood samples were drawn at the beginning and after 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months.\u00a0Fat\u00a0biopsies were taken at the start and end.  MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:  Changes in 25(OH)D\u00a0level in\u00a0serum\u00a0and 25(OH)D\u00a0and\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0levels\u00a0in adipose\u00a0tissue.  RESULTS:  Forty-one of 42 subjects who were given\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0and 33 of 34 subjects who were given placebo completed the study. At the inclusion, mean\u00a0serum\u00a025(OH)D\u00a0levels\u00a0were 122 and 71 nmol/L in the\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0and placebo groups, respectively.\u00a0Serum\u00a025(OH)D\u00a0levels\u00a0were significantly higher in the\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0group than in the placebo group throughout and were 84.5 and 73.1 nmol/L, respectively, after 12 months. In the\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0group, adipose\u00a0tissue\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0levels\u00a0decreased by 52% over 12 months.  CONCLUSION:  Vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0and 25(OH)D\u00a0stored\u00a0in adipose\u00a0tissue\u00a0after 3 to 5 years of\u00a0vitamin\u00a0D\u00a0supplementation may have a clinically relevant effect on\u00a0serum\u00a025(OH)D\u00a0level the\u00a0following\u00a0year.",
        "id": 2106,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is one more susceptible to chronic pancreatitis if one's pancreas hemorrhaged during a single inexplicable acute pancreatitis event?",
        "body": "Yes, it is possible that one gradually develops chronic pancreatitis after a single attack of acute pancreatitis.  Pancreatitis (NIDDK)     The chronic form of pancreatitis can be triggered by one acute attack   that damages the pancreatic duct. The damaged duct causes the pancreas   to become inflamed. Scar tissue develops and the pancreas is slowly   destroyed.   A doctor can make a diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis from certain blood tests and other investigations. If chronic pancreatitis is established, further investigations to find the exact cause are warranted.   Causes of hemorrhagic pancreatitis:   Pseudocyst Pseudoaneurysm Gallstones Infection Anatomical abnormality of the pancreas   Sources:   Radiopedia Medicine Gut HopkinsMedicine ",
        "id": 1512,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the difference between the TDAP and DTAP vaccines?",
        "body": "They are similiar, but for different age group.    DTAP for people under 7 TDAP for 11 and up basically.    WebMD      DTaP is a vaccine that helps children younger than age 7 develop   immunity to three deadly diseases caused by bacteria: diphtheria,   tetanus, and whooping cough (pertussis). Tdap is a booster   immunization given at age 11 that offers continued protection from   those diseases for adolescents and adults.   They both cover the same illnesses, as well. The DTap probably isn't accepted due to the fact that it usually is taken around 7 years and so needs the booster shot TDap.  ",
        "id": 1024,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does sitting too much causes hip pain?",
        "body": "Your hips suffer from prolonged sitting, becoming tight and limited in range of motion because they are rarely extended. In the elderly, decreased hip mobility is a leading cause of falls.   Sitting also does nothing for your glutes, which may become weakened, affecting your stability and the power of your stride when walking and jumping.  Nerve irritation- The major nerves controlling lower leg function cross the hip. Irritation of these nerves can cause pain through the hip and/or down the leg. Injury to the sciatic nerve frequently causes pain along the outer thigh or down the back of the leg; this is called sciatica  In short, at the molecular level, your body was designed to be active and on the move all day long. When you stop moving for extended periods of time, it's like telling your body it's time to shut down and prepare for death.   HIP PAIN RELIEF  If pain is troublesome, you can take a pain medication such as acetaminophen(Tylenol). A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug(NSAID) such as ibuprofen(e.g Advil, Motrin), or naproxen(e.g Aleve) can also be used for pain  http://fitness.mercola.com/sites/fitness/archive/2015/05/08/sitting-too-long.aspx  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/hip-pain-beyond-the-basics#H1",
        "id": 1343,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Toxicity of Heated Honey",
        "body": "Surprisingly: yes, heating honey can be of a certain concern.  The article linked to above is based on ayurvedic principles which do not compare well in their reasoning with modern scientific thinking:     First, Ayurveda claims that heating honey to 104\u00b0F/ 40\u00b0C or above causes a negative chemical change that causes it to become bitter. This makes it undesirable to use from a culinary perspective in comparison with other natural sweeteners like unrefined cane sugar or fruit.   In addition, Ayurvedic dietary principles warn that consuming honey that has been cooked, baked or added to hot liquids contributes to ill health over time. The reason is because honey that is cooked becomes like glue. The molecules then tend to adhere to mucous membranes in the digestive tract producing toxins, called ama. The literal meaning of ama is undigested food or toxins stuck within the digestive tract. It is considered to be the root cause of most ill health in Ayurveda with heated honey one of the most difficult forms to detoxify.   Charaka, the ancient sage of Ayurveda, wrote over 500 years ago that \u201cnothing is so troublesome as ama caused by the improper intake of honey.\u201d    Dr. Krishna, an Ayurvedic practitioner for over two decades explains further that even raw honey should not be mixed with hot or spicy foods as this will by default make it \u201chot\u201d. In addition, he advises against using raw honey in a hot environment where you are already warm and possibly overheated.   At this point, we\u2019ve established that the ancient system of Ayurveda considers uncooked honey to be nectar and cooked honey as poison. But, what does modern science have to say on the subject?     That is indeed an interesting question. Some concepts in the above reasoning should be regarded as very weak reasoning. It could nevertheless be accidentally right, based on empirical evidence and just getting in wrong in the pre-scientific explanation? Meanwhile, the producers of honey, have a clear message:     Is Heated Honey Toxic?   First, let\u2019s assuage the most serious concern \u2013 no, heating honey will not turn it toxic and kill you. Heating up raw honey will change the makeup of the honey, and potentially weaken or destroy enzymes, vitamins, minerals, etc (more on this in a second) but it will not give you a horrible disease or poison you. Yes, this is something that we\u2019re asked.      Keeping it close to raw is great for your body, but heating it isn\u2019t going to kill you.     But that heat denatures the enzymes present in honey and destroys some vitamins should not come at a surprise. Heated protein is consumed in large amounts and the protein coming from cooked eggs or fried meat is not a concern for coctivores like humans.  What is the reason for valid concern then? A small degradation of enzymes and vitamins doesn't sound scary.  Studies on the physicochemical characteristics of heated honey, honey mixed with ghee and their food consumption pattern by rats:     Honey and ghee are the two food substances used widely in our diet. In Ayurveda, it is quoted that heated honey and honey mixed with equal amount of ghee produce deleterious effects. [\u2026] There was a significant rise in hydroxymethyl furfuraldehyde (HMF) in 60\u00ba and 140\u00b0C heated honey samples. The browning and total antioxidant of honey mixed ghee samples was significantly higher when compared to ghee samples. [\u2026] The study revealed that the heated honey mixed with ghee produces HMF which may cause deleterious effects.     Effects of honey HMF on enzyme activities and serum biochemical parameters of Wistar rats:     Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is a by-product of thermal degradation of glucose and fructose. In this study, the effects of high HMF content of honey on biochemical parameters of rats were investigated. Experiments were conducted with 40 Wistar albino male rats, each weighing 250-350 g and covered a period of 5 weeks. The animals were divided into five groups. The first group was served as control group. HMF was injected subcutaneously at a dose of 200 mg/kg rat b.w. to the animals in group 2. Group 3 was fed with honey that contains 10 mg HMF/kg honey. In group 4 and 5, there were honeys that contain significantly high HMF content due to long storage period (181 mg HMF/kg honey) and heat process (140 mg HMF/kg honey). At the end of the feeding process, biochemical blood parameters of rats were investigated. It was observed that there were no differences among the glucose, triglyceride, HDL cholesterol, uric acid, Na, GGT, and ALP parameters of the groups. On the other hand, significant differences were observed among the cholesterol, LDL, BUN, creatinine, Ca, P, Mg, K, Cl, total bilirubin, LDH, CPK, AST, ALT, total protein, and pseudocholinesterase values of the rats. The highest adverse effects were obtained from group HMF, and it was followed by groups SH (stored honey) and HH (heated honey). It can be concluded that high HMF content of honey may affect the human health adversely; thus, HMF in honey must be controlled by beekeepers.     That is indeed a bit disconcerting. HMF is present in honey from the start and increases with age as well as with the application of heat. This substance is suspected to be a carcinogenic agent. But how much of this substance actually forms in the intended application of honey as sweetener in tea?  Characterisation of viscosity, colour, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content and diastase activity in raw rape honey (Brassica napus) at different temperatures:     The effect of heating at various temperatures (30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 \u00b0C) on dynamic viscosity, colour, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) concentration and diastase activity of raw rape honey were assessed. [\u2026] Heating for 15 min between 50 \u00b0C and 80 \u00b0C did not significantly degrade the quality of the honey, but, slightly enhanced formation of 5-HMF and reduced the diastase activity.   Heating honey may not be ideal, and it does spoil a little over time. In relation to the question it has to be noted that all hexose saccharides, and especially fructose as found in table sugar, can degrade in the same way.  All of this has to be put into perspective: a table spoon of honey in a cup of tea will not reach a high enough temperature for long enough to really become so toxic in a meaningful dose to be of any real concern in that regard.",
        "id": 1546,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should a toddler drink milk if has congestion?",
        "body": "The following is for adults:  Relationship between milk intake and mucus production in adult volunteers challenged with rhinovirus-2.  (PubMed):     In individuals inoculated with the common cold virus, milk intake was   not associated with increased nasal secretions, symptoms of cough,   nose symptoms or congestion. ",
        "id": 1522,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are women the most fertile right after puberty",
        "body": "If I understand your question right:  WebMD:     Fertility peaks in your 20s.    So yes, young women are more fertile after puberty in their 20's. If you consider that after, as it would be around 7-18 years afterward puberty if they got puberty in their 13-14 year range.  And:     Most women hit their fertile peak between   the ages of 23 and 31, though the rate at which women conceive begins   to dip slightly in their late 20s. Around age 31, fertility starts to   drop more quickly \u2014 by about 3 percent per year \u2014 until you hit 35 or   so.   After the peak in fertility of their 20's their fertility goes down again. ",
        "id": 1198,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much protein per 100g is considered \"high protein\"?",
        "body": "Within the E.U. the European Commission consider a product labeled as or 'claims' to be a source of protein must contain at least 12% and a high-protein product \u2014 or one labeled as such to likely have the same meaning for the consumer must be at least 20% protein.     A nutritional 'claim' means any claim which states, suggests or   implies that a food has particular beneficial nutritional properties   due to:         The energy (calorific value) it:         (a) provides   (b) provides at a reduced or increased rate or   (c) does not provide      The nutrients or other substances it:         (a) contains   (b) contains in reduced or increased proportions or   (c) does not contain         Your bar then \u2014 having 29.6% protein \u2014 is indeed high-protein. In the E.U.  In the U.S. it is more difficult to define.  The Food &amp; Drug Administration state:  In the U.S., similarly a product \"high,\" \"rich in\" or described in \"excellent source of\":     Contains 20% or more of the DV per RACC. May be used on meals or main   dishes to indicate that the product contains a food that meets the   definition, but may not be used to describe the meal.   DV being Percent Daily Value and RACC being Reference Amounts Customarily Consumed.  From the Frequently Asked Questions for Industry on Nutrition Facts Labeling Requirements factsheet the RACC for most cooked meats and fish is 85g.  So for a meat to be high-protein it must have 17g (20%) of protein if the RACC was 85g.  This would vary by protein source, however.  In general, the 20% mark is considered to be high-protein.",
        "id": 1834,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Role of Omega-3 in exercise induced bronchospasm?",
        "body": "Since all of the studies on this specific product seem not only mussel-like but downright fishy when reporting large effects the following is a bit speculative and just assumes that it actually works:  Two aspects of action seem possible:  EIB is often seen as  \"even cases of asthma in which exercise appears to be the only trigger of bronchial obstruction (pure EIA) may be manifestations of chronic inflammation of the airways.\"   The clam-extract is said to contain 30 PUFAs and especially the Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. When the ratio of Omega-3 is moved towards the optimum it is commonly believed to reduce inflammation. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: from molecules to man. The extract is said to be an inhibitor for the 5-lipoxygenase pathway and might therefore be called an antileukotriene.   The product differs from what was marketed as an anti-arthritis medication which largely proved unsuccessful. If the main action is indeed from the PUFAs then I wonder how much exactly is in those pills and why it should not be possible to use the PUFAs  and other inflammation reducing foods from other sources. A more optimised ratio of fatty acids is advised anyway.",
        "id": 130,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the status of Ebola these days? Is it a pandemic or endemic?",
        "body": "There is actually a current (updated daily) map of where each case of Ebola is at, and what status of each case is, you can check it here: http://www.liveebolamap.com/  Also, according to WHO (World-Health-Organization), Liberia had declared in June 2016 that it had reached an end of the Ebola outbreak. Additionally, Guinea had reported an end in transmission at the same time. You can read it here: http://who.int/csr/disease/ebola/top-stories-2016/en/  By all accounts, it was an EPIDEMIC to Western Africa (note endemic and epidemic are two different things... I believe you meant epidemic. Endemic means it's specific to a geographic region because of the environment or a race of people. Epidemic means widespread.) If you would like more specific information regarding the EPIDEMIC, read here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic#Outlook ",
        "id": 1359,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "AED on infants: risks of using adult pads",
        "body": "Adult pads have a larger area. And they provide more energy. The higher energy is needed because most adults have more body mass than children.   Lower energy is more suitable for children. Source  I teach CPR according to the European standards (ERC). You can use an AED with adult pads on a child, but you should put one pad on the front and the other on the back (both sides of the heart). So they can't touch.  http://www.aedbrands.com/blog/2012/07/30/do-you-really-need-pediatric-pads/",
        "id": 101,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much difference should there be between systolic and diastolic pressure?",
        "body": "The difference between systolic and diastolic pressures is known as the pulse pressure. (If this doesn't make sense, please see another answer of mine where I explained the meanings of the different components of blood pressure.) There is no \"normal\" or \"should\" that are well defined here. Despite that, there is quite a bit that can be said.  What causes them to be ... far apart? *    Age On a population level, the biggest factor is age. With increasing age, pulse pressure increases, sometimes dramatically.    Arithmetically, this is because diastolic pressure peaks at about age 55 and delines thereafter, whereas systolic pressure continues to increase throughout life (see Franklin, 1997).   Physiologically, this is because the large vessels tend to \"stiffen\" with age to calcification. As such, when the heart pumps blood into them (systole), they aren't especially elastic, so the diameter doesn't increase much. The result is higher systolic pressure. Similarly, in the period of diastole when flow is lower, the arteries don't rebound to a smaller diameter as robustly as young vessels, so the pressure falls. It is common in 80+ year-olds to see blood pressures like 180/60. I've never seen such a pressure in a young person.   Valvular disease This is the part with an obvious physiologic correlate that medical schools and board exams like to hammer on. Aortic regurgitation (a.k.a. aortic insufficiency) is the primary valvular disease associated with increased pulse pressure. That's because the incompetent aortic valve allows part of the blood to flow back into the left ventricle during diastole. If the aorta has access to the ventricle as it relaxes during diastole, the ventricle acts as a pressure sink, resulting in lower systemic pressures during that phase, increasing pulse pressure.  The converse of this is aortic stenosis, which is a valve that doesn't let adequate blood through during systole. Because the flow is less, the pumping ventricle does not change the pressure in the systemic circulation as much as it normally would.  This physiology text does a pretty good job explaining the valvular pathology in more detail.   Pulse pressure as a predictor of cardiovascular disease    There is extensive literature addressing the question of whether pulse pressure is a (semi-) independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, beyond that provided by systolic or diastolic pressure alone. I provide a few references below. The upshot is that the relationship between pulse pressure and risk is complicated and highly age-dependent. A high pulse pressure may be a better predictor of cardiovascular events than systolic pressure itself among the elderly.   *Removed \"too\" because this just isn't well defined.      Franklin SS, Gustin W 4th, Wong ND, Larson MG, Weber MA, Kannel WB, Levy D. Hemodynamic patterns of age-related changes in blood pressure. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1997 Jul 1;96(1):308-15. Vaccarino V, Berger AK, Abramson J, Black HR, Setaro JF, Davey JA, Krumholz HM. Pulse pressure and risk of cardiovascular events in the systolic hypertension in the elderly program. Am J Cardiol. 2001 Nov 1;88(9):980-6. Franklin SS, Khan SA, Wong ND, Larson MG, Levy D. Circulation. 1999 Jul 27;100(4):354-60. Is pulse pressure useful in predicting risk for coronary heart Disease? The Framingham heart study. Pastor-Barriuso R, Banegas JR, Dami\u00e1n J, Appel LJ, Guallar E. Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse pressure: an evaluation of their joint effect on mortality. Ann Intern Med. 2003 Nov 4;139(9):731-9. ",
        "id": 277,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is \"insulin resistance\" and why is the word \"resistance\" used?",
        "body": "Insulin resistance refers to decreased ability of insulin receptors in the cell membranes to respond to insulin.  Insulin resistance (Wikipedia):     Insulin resistance implies that the body's cells (primarily muscle)   lose sensitivity to insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas to   promote glucose utilization. At the molecular level, a cell senses   insulin through insulin receptors... ",
        "id": 2672,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are inflammations painful in the case of a tendinitis?",
        "body": "   Why are inflammations painful in the case of a tendinitis?      When suffering from tendinitis, does the inflammation itself cause any   pain, and if so why?   Based on the definition of tendinitis actually meaning inflammation of a tendon, what's typically associated with this condition, and the body's immune system response with it stimulating nerve cells and triggering pain, inflammation can and does cause pain.       Definition (1)      Tendinitis is inflammation or irritation of a tendon \u2014 any one of the   thick fibrous cords that attaches muscle to bone. The condition causes   pain and tenderness just outside a joint. (1)   When swelling occurs and the immune system responds accordingly, this process can also stimulate nerves and trigger the pain effect so based on this, that is WHY inflammation causes pain with tendinitis or any other condition for this matter with the human body.     WebMD - Inflammation (2)      When inflammation occurs, chemicals from the body's white blood cells   are released into the blood or affected tissues to protect your body   from foreign substances. This release of chemicals increases the blood   flow to the area of injury or infection, and may result in redness and   warmth. Some of the chemicals cause a leak of fluid into the tissues,   resulting in swelling. This protective process may stimulate nerves   and cause pain. (2)      Mayo Clinic - Tendinitis Definition(1)   Meet the Mayo Clinic Staff  WebMD - Inflammation (2)   Meet the WebMD Staff  ",
        "id": 10,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does HIV infect people?",
        "body": "You can only get HIV from someone or something already infected. This includes humans, needles, breast milk, etc. HIV virus must come in contact with a damaged or open tissue.  CDC.gov      You can get or transmit HIV only through specific activities. Most   commonly, people get or transmit HIV through sexual behaviors and   needle or syringe use.   You must have the infection to transmit it. Multiple partners increase risk, but only transmit if one partner already has infection.   How does a person get HIV? From someone or something already infected. If we go back to the first person infected then:  AIDS institute      They believe that the chimpanzee version of the immunodeficiency virus   (called simian immunodeficiency virus or SIV) most likely was   transmitted to humans and mutated into HIV when humans hunted these   chimpanzees for meat and came into contact with their infected blood. ",
        "id": 859,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can't I remember things?",
        "body": "It seems that you do have some issues remembering verbal instructions, especially if you are under duress of some form. I have this issue as well, but I will not include my personal experience here, as that is not typically appreciated on S.E. sites.   Some things that may help you are: play math games (you may be able to find an app similar to this) and memory games such as Lumosity (also available as an app). Try playing the math games on a time limit, as strange as this sounds, it will help you think more quickly on your feet which may help you remember things you heard while stressed more easily.   If you know you will be receiving important information or instructions, be ready with a pen and paper so that you can take down the information - or at least enough details to jog your memory later. If you feel nervous/worked up, try to take some deep breaths and relax before receiving the information. Also, do your best to stay interested in what you are being told, even if it seems boring or normal or whatnot, keep your ears and brain open and not thinking about what you'd rather be doing or hearing.    In the slightly more long-term, try to eat healthily and get enough rest so that neither of those is responsible for stressing your body. If you continue to have difficulties with your memory or notice it is getting worse - such as expanding to other portions of your life - you may consider getting check out by a doctor to rule out any more serious complications.   I hope this has been helpful to you. If you have any questions or concerns, feel free to let me know in the comments! ",
        "id": 1308,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which criteria should one look at when purchasing an electric toothbrush?",
        "body": "Refer to the [Cochrane Systematic review] about this issue, available at [1]http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002281.pub3/full#CD002281-tbl-0012",
        "id": 1924,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does it become harder to lose weight as you age?",
        "body": "In general, it is the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of the organism which in a person who doesn't exercise more than average, consumes most of the calories of the daily intake. It is dependent of age, sex, population and fat-free mass, i.e. the mass of muscles in your body, which consume a lot of energy just for maintenance. Studies show that it can vary individually between 1000 and 2500 kcal/day within just one population. Many factors and energy consumers contribute to the basal metabolic rate, but approximately 70% of it is used for maintenance of the body's main organs, and the rest is used for physical activity (in an average human) and for thermogenesis and digesting your food.  It is not known why exactly the BMR decreases with age. While it can be partly attributed to lifestyle changes after early adulthood with decrease in exercise and physical activity, studies show that it is not the only contributing factor. Part of it may be attributed to \"an alteration in tissue energy\". But when you compare age 40 with age 20, another part is that human adolescence and body growth are active until approximately age 17.5 in women and age 19 in men, which also heavily contributes to BMR.  So, the decrease in BMR with age is multifactorial, and thus may also be influenced in many ways, the most popular one being the increase of physical activity and thus fat-free mass, which is a big contributor to it as we learned here and here.",
        "id": 185,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Glue on Chocolate and other Wrappers Safe/ Edible?",
        "body": "It can be trusted as safe as much as the regulations that it comes under can be trusted to make it safe and producers following said regulations.       Materials and articles that come into contact with food must comply with the rules laid down by European Regulation 1935/2004. The regulation requires that adhesives used in food packaging must not:   - affect the food   - make the food harmful   - change the nature, substance or quality of the food   https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/using-adhesives-food-packaging",
        "id": 498,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is eating refregerated home cooked food daily bad for health?",
        "body": "Prepared food is typically good for 3-4 days in the refrigerator food safety guidelines    Frozen is is even longer.  It would be cooled (not frozen) in a normal refrigerator.    Healthy depends on the food.  Home prepared food can be healthier than prepared food (especially fast food) that can have a lot of fat and salt.  ",
        "id": 1575,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should all persons with diabetes get statins?",
        "body": "In short, no. It is important to understand the meaning of risk and the balance of possible harm caused versus positive effect made by an intervention.  Patients with diabetes have higher risk of  cardiovascular disease (CVD) but not all patients with diabetes has CVD. Actually The European cardiovascular disease risk assessment model suggests that diabetes increases the risk of CVD three-fold in males and five-fold in females (1).   The current guideline by European society or cardiology (2) states that:     Statins are recommended to reduce cardiovascular risk in diabetes      Target LDL cholesterol is &lt;2.5 mmol/L, for patients without atherosclerotic disease total cholesterol may be    &lt;4.5 mmol/L, with a lower LDL cholesterol target of &lt;1.8 mmol/L (using higher doses of statins) for diabetic    patients at very high CVD risk   Moreover, there are studies which show that statin treatment is beneficial regardless of the baseline level of LDL in patients with diabetes. However, \"the  absolute  risk and treatment effect increased with rising cholesterol concentration\" as stated in the ESC guidelines. So it is not recommended to prescribe statins to all diabetic patients since the advantage obtained the statin in patients is smaller than the potential harm caused due to side-effects. Hence, ESC has instructed LDL target level above which statin used be used since the benefits are more prominent than the potential harm caused.",
        "id": 359,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any truth to the claim that pregnancy is somehow a health risk to women?",
        "body": "In the U.S., 14 in every 100 000 pregnancies are fatal for the mother. While this may not seem much, consider the following graphic:    In picture B and D the blue bars indicate deaths due to pregnancies. While those numbers have decreased since 1990, in 2010 they still accounted for a large proportion of deaths of women in that age group.    A selection of problems that can occur during a pregnancy (not ranked in any way)   Infections (due to open wounds during labor and birth) Thrombosis (due to immovability) Anemia (low count of red blood cells) Heart failures (due to the strain put on the heart)   During a pregnancy, the woman's body supplies both the foetus and the mother with oxygen, blood and food. This puts a lot of strain on the organism. While humans are built so that they can handle it, it does increase the risks of the above and many more problems, so that pregnancy indeed is a risk factor. ",
        "id": 2377,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Routine doctor visit for people with myopia?",
        "body": "This probably varies from country to country. In mine (France), it is recommended to see an ophtalmologist (we have the distinction here) every three years for non-severe myopia, because your sight can vary a bit during that time. For children it's every year because children's sight vary much more than ours. For severe myopia, the ophtalmologist decides what schedule will be best - often every year as well.  The tests are generally eyesight measurements (for myopia, far-sightedness and astigmatism). Sometimes, especially in older people, you'll get a fundus examination as well.  This site has description of myopia progression that justifies the regular checks in the classification part.",
        "id": 607,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What heart conditions cause dizziness after/during exercise?",
        "body": "Dizziness or giddiness during exercise is classically caused by obstruction to the outflow of the heart i.e. aortic stenosis (see MedlinePlus). This condition is most commonly seen in either young persons due to bicuspid aortic valve or in elderly with sclerotic aortic valves. In developing countries, it may occur due to rheumatic heart disease also.   When a normal person exercises, extra blood flow is needed in the muscles. Hence, heart starts pumping more blood to keep up with this increased demand of the body. However, in persons with aortic stenosis, orifice of the outlet of the heart is small and fixed. Hence, blood flow (cardiac output) cannot increase when person exercises. Due to blood vessel dilatation in muscles, blood goes preferentially to muscles and flow to the brain gets reduced. Hence giddiness or dizziness occurs. It can progress to syncope, i.e. transient unconsciousness and fall. ",
        "id": 559,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I sit ergonomically on the floor when using a low table?",
        "body": "There are a few tricks which can make the cross-legged position comfortable:   Sitting more \"crossy\" - if you are not flexible enough to align your heels one in front of another, cross your ankles or even cross your shins. Elevate the hips above your knees (by using a cushion, blanket or yoga-block) Support your knees (again using cushions or something similar).   These \"tricks\" come from yoga practitioners:     If you choose to sit cross-legged, it is important to have your knees level with or below your hips. If you are having difficulty maintaining an erect spine while sitting cross-legged, begin by sitting on the edge of a cushion, bolster, or rolled blanket. For additional support, place rolled blankets or bolsters under your knees. (You may find that with the knees supported, the inner groins relax and that when you take the supports away, your knees drop further easily.)   You can see this demonstration video  Apart from this, when you feel physical strain, a good idea is to make a break and stand up for a few minutes. This doesn't apply just to sitting on the floor, by the way, because sitting for a long time (regardless of the position) is connected with health risks and some experts recommend a break from sitting every 30 minutes.     I don't have references for this part: the pain you are feeling might be caused by low flexibility (especially in the hips), but also week abdominal and paravertebral muscles (both of which are important for a good, straight-back posture). Working on these issues over time might help, but, as with any exercise program, you need to be aware of your general health and whether you have any specific health issues, so that you can exercise safely.",
        "id": 203,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Some tips to become more talkative with any person",
        "body": "The method I am most fond of is to try to be more interested in the person. Try to find things about the person which you like enough to discuss. Ask lots of questions about the person, but try to avoid subjects that are insulting or painful for either of you. Examples:  How are you? How are your kids? How is your husband/wife/daughter/son? How is work going? How was your weekend? Do you have any fun plans this weekend? How is your week going?  If you have difficulty finding anything you would like to know about the person, you can try talking about a subject with which you both are familiar. Finding common ground is an easy way to form a bond with someone, and will give you more interesting things to discuss. Examples:  Have you seen (TV show/film that you have seen)? Did you see the game/match between (teams you like to watch)?  Finally, try not to be unnecessarily judgmental. If you get a lot of negative feelings toward a person, it will be more difficult for you to have conversations with them. Also, try not to use the word boring. The world is more interesting than you might think, and to call anything boring is to deny yourself the joy of discovering what is interesting about it.   If you find it very difficult in general to be interested in people or your surroundings, consider the possibility of depression. Lack of interest in (or inability to enjoy) the world around you is a symptom of depression, and may need to be addressed by your primary doctor or a specialist.",
        "id": 1526,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "For more exotic fruits, need you buy organic or not?",
        "body": "You may have answered your own question (\"However, these exotic fruits originate from countries with more dubious environmental or safety standards, or without any norms or oversight whatsoever\") if your goal is to eliminate toxic chemicals from your diet.  The point of growing organic food is to minimize, if not eliminate, the presence of toxic chemicals (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.) in the food you consume.  The following articles may help you make the decision:  In the article, Organic foods: Are they safer? More nutritious? The Mayo Clinic explains the rationale for \"going organic\", but they also provide some tips that may apply when an organic option is not available, as in the case you cite.    In Conventional vs. Organic: It's Not About Getting More, But Getting Less For Your Money. Less Pesticides, Dioxins &amp; Co, a well documented article exploring the subject of organic vs. conventionally grown food by by Prof. Dr. Andro, Figure 1, near the top of the article shows a definite contrast in pesticide levels in organic exotic fruits vs conventionally grown exotic fruits.  ",
        "id": 269,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Moderated Caffeine Good? (if so how much and how often)",
        "body": "If you take coffee daily, you no longer get a boost from it after about a week, but rather, you're just staving off the harsh withdrawal symptoms, not to mention over time it will physically change your brain to have more adenosine receptors i.e., \"sleepiness receptors\". (Ramkumar V et al, J Clin Invest 82:242-247) in a process known as upregulation  \"A 1995 study suggests that humans become tolerant to their daily dose of caffeine\u2014whether a single soda or a serious espresso habit\u2014somewhere between a week and 12 days. And that tolerance is pretty strong. One test of regular caffeine pill use had some participants getting an astronomical 900 milligrams  (9 cups of coffee) per day, others placebos\u2014found that the two groups were nearly identical in mood, energy, and alertness after 18 days. The folks taking the equivalent of nine stiff coffee pours every day weren't really feeling it anymore. They would feel it, though, when they stopped.  \"You start to feel caffeine withdrawal anywhere from 12 to 24 hours after your last use. That's a big part of why that first cup or can in the morning is so important\u2014it's staving off the early effects of withdrawal.\"  Caffeine, the natural pesticide of bright red coffee berries, creates an emergency response in your body to fight it off (pooping, peeing, and adrenaline). It inherently doesn't give you energy or focus, but the adrenal side effect does. Studies show that people who have coffee 7 days in a row no longer receive any energy or focus benefits. At that point their brain has been sufficiently altered with new adenosine receptors that they are just at their baseline behavior. They found this was true with any caffeine amount, from 1 to 10 cups of coffee. The exception is after 10 cups is it just starts frying your brain.   \"You might think all of this probably takes a while, but it takes about seven days to become addicted to caffeine. Once addicted, you need more and more coffee to get buzzed as your brain gets covered in receptor sites. \"  Watch It  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_mvTTLz3U4  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAMIQn78iAA  Sources  Life Sciences Volume 36, Issue 24, 17 June 1985, Pages 2347-2358 Caffeine tolerance: Behavioral, electrophysiological and neurochemical evidence  Dorothy T.Chou Sukur Khan Jesse Forde Kenneth R. Hirsh https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002432058590325X  Robertson D, Wade D, Workman R, Woosley RL, Oates JA. Tolerance to the humoral and hemodynamic effects of caffeine in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1981;67(4):1111-1117. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC370671/  \"Multiple components of the A1 Adenosine Receptor-Adenylate Cyclase System are Regulated in Rat Cerebral Cortex by Chronic Caffeine Ingestion.\" (Ramkumar V et al, J Clin Invest 82:242-247.) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3392208?dopt=Abstract  https://lifehacker.com/5585217/what-caffeine-actually-does-to-your-brain  https://youarenotsosmart.com/2010/02/22/coffee/  \"Effects of chronic caffeine on brain adenosine receptors: Regional and ontogenetic studies\" (Paul J.Marangos, Jean-Philippe Boulenger, Jitendra Patel) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024320584902078",
        "id": 1905,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Afterload during Cardiac failure?",
        "body": "Short answer: When treating cardiac insufficiency the key focus is increasing stroke volume. To do this we don't just decrease afterload but we also lower preload and sometimes increase contractility.  Long answer  So cardiac insufficiency is all about cardiac output (CO) and CO = stroke volume(SV)* heart rate (HR). The key problem in cardiac insufficiency is the lowered stroke volume, i.e. the amount of blood that is ejected from the heart on each heartbeat. HR can sometimes be relevant but let's focus on the SV for now.  SV is mostly dictated by three factors afterload, preload and contractility. The Frank-Starling mechanism regulates the relationship between these factors.   There is an inverse relationship between afterload, the pressure the left ventricle has to overcome to eject blood, and stroke volume that is represented by the force/tension curve. So in the setting of cardiac insufficiency and high blood pressure the lowering of afterload is key.  There is however a more complex relationship between preload and stroke volume. Stroke volume increases with increased preload up until a certain threshold where the preload pulls the sarcomeres of the cardiac muscles to wide. At this point increased preload decreases the stroke volume even further. This is sometimes referred to as the Starling mechanism (see fig 1). In the setting of fluid overload as we see in cardiac insufficiency blood backs up in the pulmonary blood stream leading to increased preload to the point where it is so high as to decrease the stroke volume. This is where decreasing preload is helpful in increasing stroke volume.  Figure 2 The Starling mechanism (note that Ventricular end-diastolic volume is    The relationship between preload and stroke volume is even further determined by the hearts contractility. An increased contractility leads to a greater increase in stroke volume with each unit of preload (see fig 2). In cardiac insufficiency contractility is usually decreased leading to lower stroke volume in relation to preload. Sometimes, especially in a critical care environment contractility is increased by giving inotropic medication.  Figure 3 (LV EDP: Left ventricular end-diastolic volume (i.e. preload))    So when we treat cardiac insufficiency we can manipulate all those factors to alleviate the key problem of a low stroke volume.",
        "id": 1518,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the quantitative relationship between free T4 and TSH?",
        "body": "The relation between TSH and free T4 is bidirectional and complex [1\u20134]. TSH stimulates the secretion of T4 from the thyroid gland. Immediately after being released into the bloodstream the vast majority of T4 is bound to plasma proteins including albumin, thyroxin binding globulin (TBG) and transthyretin (TTR, formerly called thyroxine-binding prealbumin or TBPA). Free and bound hormones are in an equilibrium, which is controlled by fast feedback loops. What is effective, however, is the small free portion of T4. It is converted to T3 via different deiodinases in the tissues, and it has some direct effects at integrin receptors on the cell membrane. T3 and especially 3,5-T2 are the more active thyroid hormones that express mainly genomic effects. This also applies to their central actions, which result in a suppression of TSH (and also TRH [5]) release. Additional control motifs include ultrashort feedback of TSH release [6], dual feedback via T4 and T3 [7], and a TSH-T3-shunt, where TSH directly stimulates T3 formation within the thyroid [reviewed in\u00a02]:    Unfortunately, there is little empirical information available that is suitable for analysis (to refer to your comment from Dec 25). Data from normal subjects representing a closed loop situation are hardly applicable for quantitative analysis. You might be interested in a free data table available from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4899439/bin/table_1.doc, which includes some original values from subjects with different conditions of thyroid homeostasis, where some of them correspond to an open-loop situation:    Two closely related cybernetic models are described in [6] and [8]. They have some omissions and desiderata, but they at least integrate a good empirical basis with mathematical modelling. A more thorough description of the corresponding equations is available from https://sourceforge.net/projects/simthyr/files/Documentation/Technical%20Reference%20E.pdf and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1415331, respectively.   References   Shahid MA, Sharma S. Physiology, Thyroid Hormone. 2018 Oct 27. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan-. Available from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500006/ PMID 29763182. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29763182 Hoermann R, Midgley JE, Larisch R, Dietrich JW. Homeostatic Control of the Thyroid-Pituitary Axis: Perspectives for Diagnosis and Treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2015 Nov 20;6:177. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2015.00177. PMID 26635726. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2015.00177 Dietrich JW, Landgrafe G, Fotiadou EH. TSH and Thyrotropic Agonists: Key Actors in Thyroid Homeostasis. J Thyroid Res. 2012;2012:351864. doi: 10.1155/2012/351864. PMID 23365787. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/351864 Abdalla SM, Bianco AC. Defending plasma T3 is a biological priority. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2014 Nov;81(5):633-41. doi: 10.1111/cen.12538. PMID 25040645. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.12538 Joseph-Bravo P, Jaimes-Hoy L, Charli JL. Advances in TRH signaling. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2016 Dec;17(4):545-558. doi: 10.1007/s11154-016-9375-y. PMID 27515033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-016-9375-y J. W. Dietrich, A. Tesche, C. R. Pickardt &amp; U. Mitzdorf (2004) Thyrotropic Feedback Control: Evidence for an Additional Ultrashort Feedback Loop from Fractal Analysis, Cybernetics and Systems, 35:4, 315-331, DOI: 10.1080/01969720490443354 https://doi.org/10.1080/01969720490443354 Hoermann R, Midgley JEM, Dietrich JW, Larisch R. Dual control of pituitary thyroid stimulating hormone secretion by thyroxine and triiodothyronine in athyreotic patients. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab. 2017 Jun;8(6):83-95. doi: 10.1177/2042018817716401. PMID 28794850. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042018817716401 Berberich J, Dietrich JW, Hoermann R, M\u00fcller MA. Mathematical Modeling of the  Pituitary-Thyroid Feedback Loop: Role of a TSH-T(3)-Shunt and Sensitivity Analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018 Mar 21;9:91. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00091. PMID 29619006. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.00091 ",
        "id": 2563,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Not losing visceral fat (beer belly)",
        "body": "It does not matter what exercise you are doing; you have no influence what fat reservoirs will be targeted. But there are some things which you should do:   Calculate your basal metabolic rate. While there are differences, they are in the range of +- 100 kcal. Being software engineer, multiply it with 1.1 to get your daily calorie requirement without cycling. Get a good kitchen scale and weigh every.single.thing you are eating. Calculate what you really take in a day. There are no such things as \"healthy\" foods which you can eat without getting more fat (vegetables are perhaps an exception because you need something like 5-10 kg before you hit your basal metabolic rate). Do not trust your own observations and assessments, eating under controlled conditions proved that people estimate their calorie intake in the wrong direction (fat people too low, thin people too high) with horrific error rates up to 500%. Also include your drinks and sweets into the condition. Even if you won't do scale everything the whole time, at first you need to know what you are really consuming. Be aware that your weight is fluctuating because water is stored and released, it could be up to 5 kg. Control your weight every day to check out such fluctuations. Be aware that losing weight needs time: 1 kg fat amounts to 7000 cals. If you reduce your necessary intake from 2500 kcal to 1500 kcal (this is much!), you will approximately lose 1 kg per week or 4 kg per month. If you have over 30 kg overweight, it will take a year to get rid off the fat. Check your blood if you have defiencies in vitamins, mineral nutrients and if your thyroids are ok: blood condition (anemia), iron (ferritine), glucose levels (diabetis) and vitamin D.  It explains many problems because if the body was suffering with bad nutrition before it will feel really, really bad if you decrease the intake and make food even more monotonous. Check if you eat enough proteins. If you exercise, your body needs protein to repair damage and build up muscle, if it is gets not enough protein it will actually destroy muscle mass and replace it with fat because it cannot sustain it. Protein has also the added bonus that the body needs more time to process it so your glucose level is much more steady, it prevents both food cravings if the level drops down and relieves your pancreas from spitting out insulin if the level is too high. ",
        "id": 1688,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How we can improve our Blood circulation?",
        "body": "To have adequate blood flow for survival is the demand for every single person.  From my experience: Chinese traditional medicine and traditional martial arts has a lot of focus on what amounts to healthy blood flow and circulation. Do a few years of studying that topic and you will get a good idea of what kinds of postures and exercises will help you towards your goal. Herbs and medicine that are supposed to do this could potentially be dangerous. Some chinese herbs have certain kinds of poisons in them and should be used with extreme care. Do not mess with these if you do not know exactly what you are doing. Feel free to try out some of the pre-made products while following application directions.  I also think that the Indian culture has similar information, but I have very little knowledge on that.  There are many things that could potentially improve blood circulation. Not too many things are PROVEN to do so. General exercises, particularly cardio, will help improve your body's blood circulation and overall health as well.",
        "id": 350,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it healthier for the children to have the heater on or off during the night?",
        "body": "Cold is good for slowing pathogens, but not the cold we like  Bacterial growth isn't going to be sufficiently slowed at temperatures that humans are comfortable with. One of the reasons the bacteria that infect us are still around causing us problems today is because they like a lot of the same conditions we do! Many infectious bacteria are mesophilic, meaning they like temperatures between 20C and 40C - the human body is normally at 37C.1  Other reasons not to keep it too cold  A problem with cold temperatures is that the child may have a harder time breathing due to bronchospasm - a condition where the airways become narrower - and cold dry air causing irritation.2 Colder air can also cause the shell on the influenza virus to harden, making it more infectious3.  Don't forget about humidity  Another consideration that you didn't mention is relative humidity. Both heaters and air conditioners can change our body's ability to dissipate moisture. When the moisture evaporates too fast, we can have irritation to our skin, nose, and throat.4   Conclusion  It's probably best to keep the temperature and humidity at a level where the child is comfortable sleeping, within reason.",
        "id": 763,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there studies of detriments to using deodorants?",
        "body": "I can't speak for Old Spice, but Lynx/Axe is basically just a solution of perfume in ethanol. The ethanol kills the skin bacteria that generate the malodour (though the population quickly recovers!) and the perfume just makes you smell nice.  Pure/concentrated ethanol will destroy cell membranes, which is how it kills skin bacteria, so it's more dangerous than its widespread use in drinks would suggest (though fortunately diluting ethanol with water greatly reduces the damage to cell membranes). The solvent in Axe is about 95% ethanol and this is concentrated enough to cause damage. There isn't very much ethanol in a typical few seconds of spray, but I suppose if you pointed the can up your nose and inhaled as you sprayed you might cause some real damage. I suspect the intense pain it causes would mean most people will do this only once!  But I would guess the most dangerous ingredient in the deodorant is the perfume. Perfumes are an unholy mixture of terpenes, alcohols, ketones and lots of other stuff, and many of these chemicals are irritating to skin. Handling flasks of pure perfume is done in a fume cupboard with gloves and protective eye wear. Getting any large amount of perfume onto a mucous membrane like the eyes, throat or lungs would cause irritation and pain. But again, the amount of perfume in a few seconds of spray is small and you'd have to work at it to do yourself any serious harm.  I suspect the warnings not to breathe the spray are largely just being cautious and/or a way of being protected from being sued. Though in principle the contents of the spray can cause harm this would take exceptional circumstances, and even then the result is likely to be local irritation rather than any serious damage.  Later:  To my considerable surprise I have found a safety data sheet for Axe deodorant online (note that this is a 55KB PDF). The sheet gives the formulation though it omits the perfume concentration. I would guess this is because the perfume concentration is below the level where it has to be disclosed. The section on toxicology states:  SECTION XI. TOXICOLOGY INFORMATION ACUTE EFFECTS EYE CONTACT: May cause redness or irritation. SKIN CONTACT: Overexposure may cause a skin reaction such as redness. Do not use on broken skin. INGESTION: May cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. RESPIRATORY: Intentional misuse by deliberately concentrating and inhaling the contents can be fatal or harmful. CHRONIC EFFECTS: None expected CARCINOGEN CLASSIFICATIONS NTP: None IARC: None OSHA: None ",
        "id": 168,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Neem Leaves be taken directly (Azadirachta indica, Nimtree)",
        "body": "First of all, I would suggest doing extensive research into natural-remedies and be extremely cautious.  I understand that your original question was referring to the method, however I believe this information is relevant, as there are factors to take into account that suggest the method of direct ingestion may not be safe. Ultimately, you should contact a professional.  There is not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate range of doses for neem. Keep in mind that natural products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional before using.  WebMD, not always accurate, does specify that Neem is taken orally, though it doesn't indicate what form (powder, leaf, pill, etc.). It has the following warnings and precautions about Neem in general:       Overview Neem is POSSIBLY SAFE for most adults when taken by   mouth for up to 10 weeks, when applied inside the mouth for up to 6   weeks, or when applied to the skin for up to 2 weeks. When neem is   taken in large doses or for long periods of time, it is POSSIBLY   UNSAFE. It might harm the kidneys and liver.      Children      Taking neem seeds or oil by mouth is LIKELY UNSAFE for children. Serious side effects in infants and small children can happen within hours after taking neem oil. These serious side effects include vomiting, diarrhea, drowsiness, blood disorders, seizures,   loss of consciousness, coma, brain disorders, and death.      Pregnancy/Breast-Feeding Neem oil and neem bark are LIKELY   UNSAFE when taken by mouth during pregnancy. They can cause a   miscarriage.      Not enough is known about the safety of need during breast-feeding.   Stay on the safe side and avoid use.      Auto-immune diseases Multiple sclerosis (MS), lupus (systemic   lupus erythematosus, SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), or other similar   conditions: Neem may cause the immune system to become more active,   possibly increasing the symptoms of auto-immune diseases. If you   have one of these conditions, it\u2019s best to avoid using neem.      Diabetes There is some evidence that neem can lower blood   sugar levels and might cause blood sugar to go too low. If you have   diabetes and use neem, monitor your blood sugar carefully. It might   be necessary to change the dose of your diabetes medication.      Infertility There is some evidence that neem can harm sperm.   It might also reduce fertility in other ways. If you are trying to   have children, avoid using neem.      Organ Transplant and Surgery There is a concern that neem   might decrease the effectiveness of medications that are used to   prevent organ rejection. Do not use neem if you have had an organ   transplant.       Neem might also lower blood sugar levels as mentioned earlier. There   is a concern that it might interfere with blood sugar control during   and after surgery. Stop using neem at least 2 weeks before a   scheduled surgery.   It would be safer to avoid direct leaf intake for children, the pregnant, and those trying to have a baby as well as those who have recently had a transplant.  http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-577-neem.aspx?activeingredientid=577&amp;activeingredientname=neem",
        "id": 216,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are people expected to live over 100 now?",
        "body": "Predicting life expectancy of people currently alive, can, of course, only be speculation, but one based on statistics. If there is a nuclear war next year, the predicted life expectancy will not be accurate.  For the United States, the CDC estimated a life expectancy of about 80 for children born in 2013 (table 16). 71 is the estimated expected life span at birth by the WHO for children born in 2012. This includes all countries.  However, these are medium values (often medians, meaning half of all people will reach a higher age), and people getting over 100 years is certainly not unheard of, even today. In 2012, there were over 300,000 people alive who are over 100. The US had over 7,000 of them alive in 2011 .  As for predictions for over-100s: For the UK, one third of babies born in 2013 are expected to live to 100.",
        "id": 432,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it actually advantageous to ration food?",
        "body": "This answer was initially written to describe different effects of few/frequent meals in everyday life. The part about rationing foods in a \"being stranded\" scenario is at the bottom.  1. Eating vs working time.  Eating until full means you will probably have only few meals per day, so you will be in the \"digestion mode\" only for some time around the meals. During digestion, the blood flow partially redirects from the muscles toward the intestine (Journal of Surgical Research), so you will have less energy for work around the meals, but more energy between the meals. On the other hand, frequently munching something will constantly keep you in the digestion mode.  2. Blood glucose spikes  Having large meals will likely result in high blood glucose spikes, which may not be optimal, at least not for diabetics (American Diabetes Association).   Individuals with reactive (postprandial) hypoglycemia frequently experience profound fatigue and sleepiness (\"crash\") after large meals.  3. Nutrients absorption  In a healthy person, the difference in a meal size should not importantly affect the absorption of nutrients. (There may be several interactions between iron, calcium, zinc, phytates, tannins, etc. that can affect the absorption of a particular nutrient, but this is more the question of the meal composition than size).  4. Hydration  If you drink a large amount of water at once (let's say >0.5 L), the water will enter the blood and expand its volume quickly, which will signal the kidneys to excrete some water. This way your drinking will be less efficient and you will need to urinate more frequently. If you drink smaller amounts, water has more time to get from the blood into the cells, before being excreted.  In summary, in the scenario when being stranded somewhere:  Regarding the efficacy of the nutrient absorption and their utilization, I don't see any significant difference between eating small portions or eating until full if the amount of nutrients/calories is the same in both cases. The exception is water, as described above.  Rationing food when stranded could make sense, if you eat smaller amount of food per day (low-calorie diet). Then your body will start to burn its own tissues (mostly fat but also muscles), you will lose weight and consequently your daily calorie needs will decrease. This is just to theoretically answer, when rationing food intake can actually work.  ",
        "id": 2254,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to lower SpO2?",
        "body": "I tried it out on my pulse oximeter.  I placed it on my thumb where it read 97%.  I then held my breath and it gradually dropped down over the course of a minute to 93% before I had to give up.  I suggest you check your device on other people in case it's defective.",
        "id": 1993,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does breathing heavily whilst having bronchitis have potential of furthering the illness?",
        "body": "If you look at the factors that cause an acute exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (such as bronchitis), you will find that   The cause can not be identified in one third of the cases. In the ones with identifiable causes, they may be Respiratory infections (bacterial and viral) Allergy Toxins Non adherenace to medications.    When I read through the technique you were talking about, I found that there is no such risk factors in that technique. However, you should take the following precautions:   Avoid this exercise when you have an active acute exacerbation of the disease. Fast breathing causes airways to collapse by Bernoulli's principle, and hence you will have more difficulty breathing. Even though it can potentially clear your airway, it is better avoided at that times. Make sure that you sit in a place with clean air when you do this exercise. You don't want allergens, toxins or even pathogens in the air entering your lungs when you are breathing like that. No cold exposure. Cold exposure can trigger a vasovagal attack and can cause constriction of airways. This can even precipitate an acute attack. So a big no no to that.  Even though it is a no brainer, it is important that you monitor yourself all the time. If you feel not so good, stop immediately.    Other than that, it is generally considered a safe practice to do breathing exercises, and are sometimes adviced to patients of bronchitis. If you follow these precautions, you should be fine. ",
        "id": 44,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the administration of oxygen to ischaemic patients improve outcome?",
        "body": "A large study of ~8000 patients suggests there is no real benefit to prophylactic oxygen supplementation after acute stroke (Roffe et al., 2017).  American Heart Association/American Stroke Association guidelines (Powers et al., 2018) are for oxygen only for hypoxic patients, with limited evidence of benefit but no evidence of harm. Hyperbaric oxygen is only recommended in cases of air embolism.  These guidelines are supported by Roffe et al., 2017, but they are consistent with the guidelines prior to that study, so this is a case where a large study confirms the standard of care rather than suggesting a shift in paradigm.    References:  Powers, W. J., Rabinstein, A. A., Ackerson, T., Adeoye, O. M., Bambakidis, N. C., Becker, K., ... &amp; Jauch, E. C. (2018). 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke, 49(3), e46-e99.  Roffe, C., Nevatte, T., Sim, J., Bishop, J., Ives, N., Ferdinand, P., &amp; Gray, R. (2017). Effect of routine low-dose oxygen supplementation on death and disability in adults with acute stroke: the stroke oxygen study randomized clinical trial. Jama, 318(12), 1125-1135.",
        "id": 2604,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can't we give blood within 8 days after taking an anti-inflammatory?",
        "body": "Platelets has an average lifespan of 8-9 days. Taking meds like aspirin which is an anti-platelet forms a non-competitive bond with platelets rendering them useless to the rest of their lifespan. Hence, by the 8th of last dose of aspirin, you would have formed new healthy platelets good for donation.",
        "id": 2473,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I trust my doctor and what he said",
        "body": "It is true that a tumour in your lung can make you cough (I coughed uncontrollably day and night until mine went away) but a million much milder things can do that too. If you had a cancer growing in your lungs you would have symptoms other than just coughing. Your doctors would notice.   If the \"acid reflux\" and the \"allergies\" treatments have not helped, it's good for you to continue to investigate so you can get some relief. It's not good for you to decide it's the worst possible thing, that will just upset you for no benefit. Keep communicating with your family doctor that you want to know what is causing the cough and you want to clear it up and get relief.  Sticking with one doctor and going from them to a specialist and then back again is probably the best way to build trust, compared to going to a series of different specialists who can argue with each other through you. If you think your family doctor would let you die from tumours rather than help you, you need a different family doctor. But if it's just a matter that you can't shake your fear, work with your doctor to get that settled.",
        "id": 1801,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a complete cure for Limited Scleroderma?",
        "body": "There is no complete cure for Limited Scleroderma (LS). Luckily, there are good ways that doctors can treat the symptoms of it and help prevent any complications.1,2,3   Topical treatments - one of the complications of LS is skin ulcers; if these become infected, there are some topical treatments to stop them from spreading Antacid drugs - used to stop some of the heart problems that may come with LS, especially heartburn Other drugs - doctors may prescribe other drugs to prevent lung problems  and other heart problems Physical Therapy - stiff joints and skin are common problems with LS; physical therapy, mostly stretching, can help to keep your body flexible, including your face Occupational Therapy - helps overcome any problems that LS patients might have on a daily basis; ie: special toothbrushes and flossing devices help with any dental problems Surgery - surgery might need to be done to help with some complications, such as calcium deposits under the skin, red spots caused by swollen blood vessels, and possibly amputation of fingertips if and infection causes gangrene (unlikely as infections are usually stopped before they can spread)   [1] Mayo Clinic [2] JAMA Dermatology [3] A randomized controlled study of low-dose UVA1, medium-dose UVA1, and narrowband UVB phototherapy in the treatment of localized scleroderma ",
        "id": 17,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Time needed for vitamin B6 to reach the brain",
        "body": "The medical way to ask your question is \"What are the pharmacokinetics of pyridoxine (B6 version that you're likely to take)?\"  Then that brings us to both primary and secondary sources, along with a good animal model study.  \"The greatest portion reaches the brain\" will likely be shortly after the peak serum concentration, or Cmax.  The amount of time it takes for a drug to get to Cmax is Tmax.   There is going to be some variability in Tmax based on age, sex, weight, diet, and B6 formulation.  A comparison of two formulations directly found a range of 1.25 to 1.44h, which is a little tighter of the general range of 1-2 hours.  I didn't find a source that showed peak concentrations in CNS tissue or that looked at the delay in B6 crossing the blood brain barrier (which it will readily given its solubility), but there is little reason to suspect that it is too delayed thereafter.  Animal studies have shown that the vast majority (80-90%) of B6 is stored in muscles and the liver, so even though the peak concentration for the CNS will follow Cmax, most of the B6 will not end up there.  Your next two questions are mostly implicitly answered in the first question.  The peak and greatest portion are likely to be very close together (I couldn't find any evidence of delayed metabolism in the CNS).  But expanding on your third question a little, it gets there via the blood, which is pretty standard for most drugs/nutrients/vitamins in humans.  As far as taking it from swallowing the pill, it then continues along the digestive tract to the small intestine.  Mostly in the jejunum, but somewhat in the ileum (2nd and 3rd part of small intestine) it passively diffuses into the blood, where it circulates through the heart and eventually to your brain.  Eating more food may prolong the time the pill is in the stomach, thereby delaying the time that the B6 is absorbed in the small intestine.  Generically this is called gastric emptying, and an approachable site on the subject can be found here.  Even though I'm pretty sure this is made up data to estimate the point, I think it's worth duplicating their time graph:    I would like to point out, that this is not something that you will be able to time on a stopwatch and fine tune.  Any of these values could easily vary by an hour.  I also want to point out that taking high doses of B6 can be habit forming, and that the study on dreaming cited in the wiki is far from convincing.  Further it was published in a relatively low impact journal.  I'm not saying it isn't true, but I don't like the idea of people super dosing B6 for recreational dream use.",
        "id": 450,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there such a thing as \"histamine liberators\" and how do they work?",
        "body": "\"Histamine liberators\" are foods that can trigger the release of histamine from the basophils and mast cells, which belong to white blood cells, and are found in the blood and connective tissues. They increase the histamine levels and can therefore worsen symptoms in people with allergies (PubMed, 2018), atopic dermatitis, histamine intolerance,  and histamine-induced headache (PubMed, 2018).  Examples of foods high in histamine: tuna, mackerel, Pacific saury (mackerel pike), pork, chicken, spinach, fermented foods such as fermented cabbage or radish, soy bean paste, red pepper paste, mayonnaise, yogurt, cheese, ketchup, wine and beer.  Examples of foods that can trigger histamine release (histamine liberators): instant foods, grapes, bananas, strawberries, citrus fruits (lemons, oranges, tangerines), pineapples, tomatoes, nuts, wine, green tea and chocolate.  The lists of \"food liberators\" mostly base on surveys that asked people with \"histamine intolerance\" which foods trigger symptoms in them, but these lists may be unreliable because they rely on people's experience and not always on the actual measurements of histamine levels.  German guideline for the management of adverse reactions to ingested histamine (PubMed, 2017):     ...numerous low-histamine diets prohibit foods that do not contain   histamine (e.\u2009g., yeast), or encourage the avoidance of so-called   \u201chistamine liberators\u201d (pharmacologically active substances that have   a histamine-releasing effect), despite there being no reliable   evidence of their existence in foods or of their clinical relevance in   the onset of adverse food reactions... ",
        "id": 2547,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Surgery of the hemorrhoid or other veins",
        "body": "   What happens when a blood vessel is cut during surgery?   Blood vessels (not just veins, but arteries also) are transected (cut), ligated (tied off), and/or cauterized (burned closed) in just about every surgical procedure ever. When done appropriately, this does not cause a problem because there is more than one path from the heart to the tissue and more than one path from the tissue back to the heart. This is called collateral circulation and often involves vascular anastomoses. In some cases collaterals are quite abundant, for example, the rectal plexus, the vascular supply relevant to the title to your question. Hemorrhoids are, in fact, the result of a very particular kind of venous branching, a porto-systemic communication. The rectal and anal circulation are drained through two parallel pathways, the portal circulation (through the superior rectal vein) and the systemic circulation (through the middle and inferior rectal veins). The portal circulation returns blood from the gastrointestinal system to the liver (and from there to the inferior vena cava and the heart), where the systemic circulation returns blood directly to the inferior vena cava (without passing through the portal system of the liver). When the pressure in the portal system increases (whether through pathological portal hypertension, or other, temporary nonpathological conditions, e.g., pregnancy), blood is shunted from the portal arm through to the systemic arm, engorging the vessels in a few specific areas. The rectal plexus is one of them, and is a clear demonstration of the principle that there is more than one path back to the heart.   An important part of good surgical technique is identifying which blood vessels can be cut, tied, or burned, and which ones can't (or will result in complications if they are).",
        "id": 2624,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the best way to obtain pure drinking water in the U S?",
        "body": "Mineral water from a glass bottle can have a good taste, is clean and does not contain fluoride (or far less than tap water).  It is sodium in mineral water that is most responsible for its (good) taste. Different brands contain different (small) amounts of sodium, mostly in the range 50-200 mg/liter.  You do not need to seek for \"healthy minerals\" (calcium, magnesium) in water because you usually get them in greater amounts from foods.  Here on USDA is a list of about 100 brands of mineral waters with nutrition facts, here is one example: 330 mg Ca, 110 mg Mg, 130 mg Na per liter.  Distilled water contains no minerals, so it does not have any taste. Reverse osmosis water is pretty much the same.",
        "id": 1242,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can someone explain these cancer names?",
        "body": "The causal sequence indicated here doesn\u2019t make a lot of sense to me. Having signed many death certificates, I can sympathize with the doctor who signed off on it. Generally, these have to be typed up in a form (in my experience, on a typewriter....). Someone other than the doctor usually does that, which means there is some verbal communication between the doctor and an administrative person about what should go in the blanks and... it doesn\u2019t always come out exactly perfectly.   Colon carcinoma is generally used to indicate a primary tumor of the epithelial cells of the colon. That is, the cells lining the inside of the colon underwent a mutation of some sort that caused a cancerous growth.   Abdominal carcinomatosis is what happens when cancer cells fall off (basically) the tumor and \u201cseed\u201d the peritoneal space, which is the area outside the gut but inside the abdomen. The cells land in various places and start growing more tumors. Often, this is accompanied by secretion of fluid which results in ascites, and the cancer can also spread by falling into this fluid and landing elsewhere.   Metastatic carcinoma (here to lung and liver) is what happens when the cancer cells get in the bloodstream or lymphatic system and spread to \u2018distant\u2019 organs. There they set up new tumors, but the cells can still be identified as having originated from the colon.   The causal sequence is then:       colon carcinoma &#8594; abdominal carcinomatosis       colon carcinoma &#8594; metastatic carcinoma (sites: liver and lung)   Generally it would also be possible to state a more proximate factor that directly resulted in death. For cancer metastatic to lung, that might be \u2018hypoxemic respiratory failure\u2019 (lack of oxygen).  One way to indicate that on a death certificate would be;   PART I. Enter the chain of events.....:           Hypoxemic respiratory failure                due to (or as a consequence of):           Metastatic Liver and Lung Carcinoma               due to (or as a consequence of):           Colon carcinoma     PART II. Enter other significant conditions contributing to death....:           Abdominal carcinomatosis  ",
        "id": 197,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Drinking alcohol after tick-borne encephalitis vaccine",
        "body": "No, you can't get encephalitis from the vaccine. According to a company that provides one brand of the vaccine:  https://centrumcestovnimediciny.cz/en/prices-of-vaccines/encepur-for-adults/     On the day of application it is recommended to avoid any strains,   sauna or excessive alcohol drinking.   One beer doesn't constitute excessive drinking.   The manufacturer of another brand of the vaccine doesn't even mention avoiding alcohol.   https://www.drugs.com/uk/ticovac-0-5-ml-suspension-for-injection-in-a-prefilled-syringe-leaflet.html",
        "id": 2317,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Suicide with no pain",
        "body": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_suicide_crisis_lines     Country&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Organisation&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Website      Australia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lifeline&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;https://www.lifeline.org.au/   Bangladesh&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shuni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://shuni.org/   Canada&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CASP&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://suicideprevention.ca/   France&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suicide \u00e9coute&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;https://suicideecoute.pads.fr/accueil   Germany&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Telefonseelsorge&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.telefonseelsorge.de/   India&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;AASRA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.aasra.info/   Iran&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;IOWB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://moshaver.behzisti.ir/   Ireland&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Samaritans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.samaritans.org/   Italy&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;SPS&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.prevenireilsuicidio.it/   Japan&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;TELL&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://telljp.com/lifeline   Korea&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Love-Line&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://counsel24.com/   Netherlands&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;113Online&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;https://www.113.nl/   New Zealand&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lifeline Aotearoa&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.lifeline.org.nz/   Romania&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ARPS&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.antisuicid.com/   South Africa&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;LifeLine&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;https://www.facebook.com/LifeLinePietermaritzburg/   UK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Samaritans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://www.samaritans.org/   USA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NSPL&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;http://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/ ",
        "id": 1558,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) decrease or increase swelling during the acute phase of a tendon injury?",
        "body": "A big difference here is due to the structures involved.  Mature tendons are composed of cartilage and contain a very poor blood supply.  They rely on localized synovial fluid for tissue perfusion and nutrition as opposed to simply a connecting blood vessel.       Epicondylitis (lateral or medial) is a chronic from of inflammation caused over time by repetitive micro-trauma (wear and tear) to the tendon, nerve and vessel in the related area.    NSAIDS would help with any inflammation and pain resulting from this.    Also in looking at that medscape article.  It seems some involved are not realizing your tendon not only very minimally bleeds (if at all), it does not produce sufficient platelet rich plasma that is capable of healing these micro-traumas.  This is why injections of exactly that - platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is used as a treatment to heal the damaged tissue.       This would be a debate in more vascularized tissues (where the injury is generally some type of acute trauma and bodies own healing process is  required).    See Here:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2505250/",
        "id": 951,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is the crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur best heard at the cardiac base?",
        "body": "It's not, unless you are using the term \"base\" to refer to the aortic root of the heart rather than the apex.  A systolic \"crescendo-decrescendo murmur\" is the classic description for the murmur resulting from aortic stenosis.  The aortic valve is best auscultated at the right upper sternal border.  In the below diagram, the actual valve locations inside the heart are indicated by the colored ovals, but the location that you best HEAR the valve-related murmurs are indicated by the A P T M in circles for Aortic, Pulmonic, Tricuspid, and Mitral.      You hear a murmur at a different location than the valve itself because of fluid physics and acoustics.  A cardiac murmur is a vibratory process occurring due to fluid mechanics; pathological murmurs are due to blood flow along abnormalities in heart structures.  If you look at the course of the aorta, from the aortic valve to the carotids etc, you can see how vibration from narrowed aortic valve would easily radiate there.  Anecdotally, I've often heard it more clearly at the LUSB (left upper sternal border, which is generally the pulmonic region) than the right (RUSB), and I'm not sure why - but it was never the apex where I heard it most clearly.  There must be some confusion in your sources.  References:   Med school website U Wisc AAFP Murmur Evaluations in Peds Harrison's IM (great medical text but lots of detail) Another detailed medical text ",
        "id": 2610,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does staring at a screen for long periods of time cause myopia?",
        "body": "Gaming for long times cause myopia? It happens when you mantain your eyes focused in a small part without natural light and to stress them. Stress causes damage and lack of natural light cause blindness and sickness of the eyes.  The gaming monitor causes unnatural light which stress your eyes and cause you to do habits and actions which are not natural such as postures.  I would not say its the gaming per se but the habits that go along with gaming the ones which cause myopia.  I gonna say your uncle is right however and to do eye exercises regularly can help maintain good vision.",
        "id": 2419,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Naturally improve eyesight",
        "body": "Ps:myopia is condition your cousin is having most likely.  children's bodies grow, so do the eyes, which may cause a gradual increase in myopia. And just as bodily growth can be in uneven spurts, the changes in myopia may be similarly uneven. During adolescence, the change can be rather rapid and require a new, thicker eyeglass correction more than once a year, but when body growth slows or stops (usually by age 18), the myopia tends to stabilize. There is normally no reason to worry about the frequent changes in lens correction that occur during adolescence. Almost never is there any real danger to eyesight, and vision can almost always be corrected to 20/20 or better with eyeglasses or contact lenses.  Note: There is an extremely rare type of myopia, called malignant progressive myopia, which is a serious condition and leads to gradual structural damage to the eye. This type needs regular clinical evaluation. It is not related to ordinary myopia and does not develop from ordinary myopia.   For your cousin, it may be the correct time for his eyeball to stop growing . Ask him to do check up regularly.  If it still continues, ask him to check his doctor.  Balanced diet is recommended to prevent further deteriorating of myopia aka distant vision problem, esp vit A.  It is an irreversible process, you can't bring his power back to normal naturally  But you can go for lasik surgery, but I don't recommend it personally. .  It has its own line of complications  ",
        "id": 29,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Interactions with Resalor (Prucalopride)",
        "body": "Resolor (Prucalopride)      This medicine can cause diarrhoea which, if severe, can reduce the   effectiveness of oral contraceptive pills at preventing pregnancy. If   you are taking the pill for contraception and you experience severe   diarrhoea while taking this medicine, you should follow the   instructions for diarrhoea described in the leaflet provided with your   pills. You may need to use an additional method of contraception, eg   condoms.  It should not be taken while pregnant or breast feeding Based on the common side effects, it may be best to avoid activities that require a lot of focus like driving and handling machinery depending on symptoms.       Disturbances of the gut such as indigestion, flatulence, vomiting and   abnormal bowel sounds. Decreased appetite. Fatigue. Dizziness.   In the article, Prucalopride. In chronic constipation: poorly documented risks this statement was made as to the risk identified.     In practice, prucalopride should be avoided. It is better to focus on   lifestyle and behavioural changes, and rational use of laxatives.    Other sites also suggest avoiding spicy foods when taking as it can cause feeling sick or abdominal pain.    Risks     Increases in heart rate and blood pressure were observed in pigs and   dogs treated with prucalopride. Prucalopride seems to increase   prolactin levels. Tumours of the liver and thyroid were observed in   rats. Prucalopride also carries a risk of poorly defined   pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions. Prucalopride may   reduce the efficacy of oral contraceptives. Miscarriages were reported   in clinical trials.   For medications that should be or shouldn't be taken with this medication a health care professional should be consulted. As for Diflucan interactions I cannot find any evidence against or for its interaction with Resorol. ",
        "id": 1016,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why aren't fluoride mouthwashes with cetylpyridinium chloride labeled as both anticavity and antibacterial?",
        "body": "In business school (MBA) we were taught to consumer test all permutations of a possible \"pitch.\" We would come up with permutations of the same label with different words and phrases on each. Then we would set up tables in public places and get feedback.  Basically, these large public companies have huge marketing departments. They tested the heck out of various combinations of words. What you see on the shelf is the label that had the best response from consumers with regard to ultimately buying the product.  My personal thoughts would be that anti-bacterial is a second order function that the average consumer would not understand. You are assuming that \"bacteria causes cavities\" is common knowledge. It isn't. The consumer understands \"cavity.\" Cavities are talked about from when we are very young; even in cartoons.",
        "id": 2631,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sterile urine, but UTIs?",
        "body": "Urine is sterile when in the bladder.   You have bacteria in the urethra (which goes from bladder to outside). When urinating, you usually wash out the patogens in the urethra, but some can still remain there. Then, if you don't urinate, bacteria can go up in the bladder and gives you patologies, like cystitis, or other type of infections. ((little off-topic: this is the main reason why females have more often than men cystitis. Female urethra is shorter than the male's one, and so bacteria can go up more easily)))  This can bring also the bateria up in the ureter (which goes from bladder to kidney) if you refraining from urination too long continuously, causing kidney infections.",
        "id": 1624,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it OK to use soap to clean penis?",
        "body": "Just take a shower with body soap. That's perfectly fine. Body soap has to be tested before market release and won't harm your genitals.  You might want to investigate if the white dots keep reoccurring.",
        "id": 1885,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Unit of the daily recommended amount of calories",
        "body": "That figure is in kilocalories.  A human needs about 2000 kilocalories per day.  Sometimes a kilocalorie is described as a \"big calories or a \"Calorie\", but to me that's more confusing than helpful.",
        "id": 1678,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will my retainers ever become comfortable again? or do I need new ones?",
        "body": "The possibility of the retainers (esp. the top ones) to fit in once more is mostly dependant on the drift of the teeth during the previous 1 1/2 years. The teeth are attached to the PDL (periodontal Ligament) which enabled the orthodontist to move your teeth. Unfortunately, it take a while for the fibers to reajust to their new position, and why retainers should be worn until specified by the orthodontist.   Under normal use, retainers are passive, contrarily to your previous active treatment which moved your teeth. The way you now use your retainers could be  work (esp the bottom ones, because they did not move much) but the top one's may require either an ajustment of the retainer, or further treatement to reposition the teeth, or at least making a new retainer.",
        "id": 1109,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any irreversible damage from not treating common cold right",
        "body": "Common colds are exactly that, common. Lots of people contract colds and there are no significant health repercussions. http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/coldsandflu/Pages/Coldcomfort.aspx However, if you have underlying medical conditions where your immune system is already compromised then a common cold can cause serious problems if left untreated.  If you have a serious underlying health condition, your doctor will likely advise you of what action to take should you contract a cold. ",
        "id": 1740,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How else can a phlebotomist lessen my pain, on top of using a baby needle?",
        "body": "Most people do not know that you are an active participant in getting blood drawn or IVs started. The skill differences among those who are poking you include their skill in getting you to do the right thing. My tips:   drink plenty of fluids and avoid caffeine the day of the draw keep your arm warm. I leave it in a sweater until the last minute. I also rub the inside of my elbow while waiting for them to get all their tubes ready etc. When I was getting IV treatments they would wrap my arm in a heating pad relax, breathe slowly, try not to tense your mouth, in fact try opening your mouth a little. Make sure your entire arm is relaxed except for your hand if they've asked for a fist. This takes practice. Focus on it. support your elbow with your other hand to keep it at a good angle and to stop yourself from jerking backwards as the needle goes in keep your eyes open. Closing my eyes slows blood flow (learned this from a chemo nurse and would not have believed it but several experiences have shown it is true for me) Don't look at the puncture site or watch the blood if it upsets you. Focus on something behind the poker -- wall art, a clock, their computer, etc. tell them to use the smallest needle. If you have scar tissue from a lot of draws and tests, tell them so after they swab with alcohol, ask them to wait a moment until it evaporates. The burning sensation you sometimes feel as the needle goes in is alcohol. It's not necessary to endure that, just some pokers don't wait if there is a spot that hurts more or that often fails, tell them not to try that spot follow their instructions about making a fist etc pay attention every time, and when you have a \"good\" draw remember all the things you did, then do them next time whether the poker asks you to or not   I learned these tips from good phlebotomists and nurses. They have dramatically reduced the pain and bruising of both blood draws and IV starts. They also reduce the number of failed attempts. I have had a vein spasm shut once the needle is in, and been walked through a relaxation process that got it to open again. Opening both your eyes and mouth is key to this. Another time, when it spasmed shut with a different person, I convinced them to leave the needle and let me try getting it open. It worked and they said \"I did not know that was possible.\" Neither did I until I learned to do it.   Actively work on learning what you can do to make the pain and difficulty less. People will tell you that you have nothing to do with it, but they're wrong. It's your arm, your muscles, your heart rate and blood pressure. You can make it go better.  [will add links if I find some]",
        "id": 2601,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference between hypovolemic shock and heart arrest caused by hypovolemia?",
        "body": "Hypovolemic shock may be a reversible cause of cardiac arrest (5)  Mechanisms:   Acute cardiac ischemia and myocardial infarction: these are due to decreased oxygen supply to the heart itself (remember that shock itself represent global ischemia)(1)(2) pH changes, especially acidemia: when shock reaches to a irreversible state so much acidosis has developed(1) which itself can cause a cardiac arrest.(2) Electrolyte abnormalities, most notably hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, and hypomagnesemia: ischemia (untreated) leads infarction leads necrosis leads loss of cell membrane leads ions and enzymes to leak and and produce toxic effects.(2) (3) Heart Failure:The incidence of sudden cardiac death appears to be increased during periods of worsening HF symptoms.4.   While Hypovolemic Shock itself does not involve cardiac arrest,   if uncompensated will ultimately cause tissue damage, release of destructive enzymes, acidosis, depletion of cellular ATP. (1)    Pathophysiology:     As volume status continues to decrease, systolic blood pressure drops. As a result, oxygen delivery to vital organs is unable to meet oxygen demand. Cells switch from aerobic metabolism to anaerobic metabolism, resulting in lactic acidosis.      As sympathetic drive increases, blood flow is diverted from other organs to preserve blood flow to the heart and brain.      This propagates tissue ischemia and worsens lactic acidosis. If not corrected, there will be worsening hemodynamic compromise and, eventually, death.(4)   References:   Guyton and Hall Medical Physiology https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathophysiology-and-etiology-of-sudden-cardiac-arrest#H1240264379 Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Diseases https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513297/ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hs_and_Ts ",
        "id": 2642,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What drugs can keep you awake for long time?",
        "body": "The most popular drug that can keep people awake for long time is caffeine. Most caffeine pills contain a 200mg dose, about the same as the average 12-ounce cup of coffee. ",
        "id": 1639,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Subconcussive brain trauma",
        "body": "I'm not sure kicking or punching a bag jars your head. Brain injury occurs when your head is somehow \"shaken\" or jarred. I'm not so sure about wrestling, but I am certain in gymnastics you could shake the head enough to cause brain injury. The other factor, of course, is frequency - in football and boxing there is repetitive jarring in the core of the activity. In gymnastics and soccer and basketball shaking of the head is not a core movement of the activity; so, although the trauma may be more severe when it occurs, recovery between traumatic episodes is possible and probably long-term effects of injury overall less severe. Hope that is helpful.",
        "id": 660,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bread and acid reflux",
        "body": "While whole grain bread is said to have some healthy effects (lowering chance of diabetes II compared to white flour bread), it also contains anti-digestive substances from the grains - unless it has lots of sour dough which fermented that. I am not sure whether those anti-digestives already impact the pre-digestion in the stomach, though.  Okay, disclaimer, what follows now is solely based on my personal experience (and what some friends told). Perhaps it's over the scope of the specific question - but if you're interested to get rid of reflux no matter whether it comes from bread or something else, here you go:  I would say that any \"simple\" food alone is not very likely to cause acid reflux, unless you eat a lot of it and then drink some fluid. It is when some certain different kinds of foods, or even foods in different stages of pre-digestion, meet and mix in the stomach, and potentially also if you add fluid at certain stages of pre-digestion. Since this is based on experience (confirmed by some people I know, but maybe it's not universal), I can't give exact definitions of those things. But you might be able to make sense of symptoms and connect some dots if you experiment yourself.  The occurrence of reflux, or at least some pre stages of that, like unpleasant feeling and smelling gas coming up the throat, seems to be most likely if you ate a generous meal which contained lots of everything. Lots of protein, lots of fat, lots of carbs of different kinds (starches, sugars). It may get worse if then fluid is added. It may get real bad if you generated a mix in your stomach for which, for some reason, the stomach needs a long time before it opens the passage to the small bowel. It sometimes almost feels like some sort of fermentation is going on. Then if you eat something again, perhaps because you eat in typical intervals, while the stomach still has this \"difficult mix\", taking longer than \"normal\", it can get even worse, if fresh food is added to that which is already in there for too long. Especially if you add fruit or sweets to a very fatty meal of some time ago.  I have seen this also when mixing (in the stomach) lots of whole grain bread with cheese and some time later lots of nuts.  I do not have such problems anymore (> 10 years) since I moved to eating my peculiar \"diet\". For one thing it's plant based. But I guess most relevant here being that I usually avoid mixing \"lots of everything\" in my stomach. I might eat a big bowl of salad. Some potatoes with some peas. Or just a mix of veggies, perhaps with a little oil or avocado, not a ton of dressing or gravy with sugar + fat. Or some non-salted non-roasted nuts without anything. Or some fruit. But when I feel there still is some remainder of something in the stomach, I do not eat anything, period. In the morning, when many people say you should stuff your belly when it feels weird, I do not eat - the weird feeling (that I rarely have anymore) goes away by itself when I'm fully awake some hours later. Then I eat. Something feels strange in the belly? I do not eat.  Oh, and when you ate something late, which contained lots of fluid or you added some to your stomach content after eating, and then only 1 hour or less later, you go to bed - if you have a tendency to rotate such that your belly presses against the mattress - that may cause reflux! I.e. mechanical reasons.  While I can't say what exactly of all this helped - belly problems are a thing of the past for me.",
        "id": 1045,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I gain immunity against traveler's disease?",
        "body": "A short summary of a report by Prof. DDr. Martin Haditsch  seems to come to the conclusion that a permanent immunity of travelers against \"traveler's disease\" can not be gained.     Traveler's diarrhea is usually caused by a toxin-producing gut germ, namely   ETEC (enterotoxic / enterotoxigenic E. coli), the resulting immunity   requires a recurrent contact, which is only guaranteed in the local population. As a result, travelers can repeatedly fall ill   during repeated visits.     Actions that can be taken are mentioned as:     In addition to the well-known \"Peel it, boil it, cook it - or forget   it!\", a strengthening of the defense barriers is possible through   several measures:          high-percentage alcoholic drinks (WITHOUT ice cubes!)    bitter tinctures or bitter teas stimulate the gastric acid secretion (important unspecific line of defense)    In addition, cholera (Dukoral\u00ae) oral vaccination as a specific measure may be due to one of the vaccine antigens used (B-subunit of   the cholera toxin; deceptively similar to the heat-labile ETEC toxin -   produced by up to 75% of the strains detected) considerable   cross-immunity (for 3 to 7 months) and thus lead to a significant   protection against ETEC.      Regarding the mentioned salmonella:  Salmonellosis does not leave an effective immunity against re-infection from  Die Salmonellose hinterl\u00e4sst keine wirksame Immunit\u00e4t gegen eine erneute Infektion",
        "id": 2034,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Herbs that Would Relax the Mind but Not Decrease Blood Pressure?",
        "body": "We cannot recommend medical treatments on this site.  It's dangerous, especially in a situation where we're talking about symptomatic hypotension.  I can offer you suggestions on where to go for answers:  First, I recommend a relationship with a primary care physician.  A very low baseline BP should be assessed, and precautions discussed with the patient.  Second, I would recommend your relative bring up this concern about relaxation herbal therapies to the PCP.  Most M.D. and D.O. practitioners are not well versed in alternative medicines (even those for which there is mounting evidence of efficacy) but some are.  If they are not, I might recommend seeing an N.D. or other practitioner with thorough knowledge of herbal treatments of mental health.   Third, regardless of whom else he/she sees, psychology/counseling/therapy is an extremely beneficial treatment for stress/anxiety that doesn't involve taking any substances, herbal or otherwise.  It may be able to help get to the root of the problem, rather than just treating symptoms.",
        "id": 1846,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why gamers dont wear glasses",
        "body": "Continuous watching of monitor causes eye dryness that's because we force our eyes no to blink each and every 6-7 secs but to some maximum time we keep it open that causes pain in eyes and red devil look. Gamer glass act as a blue filter. As blue is a color which signal our brain that sun isn't set even after sunset this in turn reduces the secretion of melatonin(sleep hormone). Gamers have intense passion and accuracy to achieve the target and to win the game they need to watch the screen properly (my experience in Counter Strike).",
        "id": 939,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In comparing the healthiness of shredded wheat and bran flakes, what are some pro/con considerations for each?",
        "body": "The European Union has only accepted two health benefits from the consumption of wheat bran     Increase in faecal bulk   The claimed effect is \u2018intestinal health: faecal bulking\u2019. The target population is assumed to be the general population. The panel considers that an increase in faecal bulk might be a beneficial physiological effect. In weighing the evidence, the panel took into account that the majority of the human intervention studies showed a consistent effect of wheat bran fibre on faecal bulk and that no threshold dose for the effect can be established. A linear dose dependent relationship was demonstrated in several studies.   The claimed effects are \u2018gut health\u2019 and \u2018intestinal transit time, intestinal health\u2019. The target population is assumed to be the general population. In the context of the clarifications provided by Member States, the panel assumes that the claimed effect refers to a reduction in intestinal transit time. The panel considers that a reduction in intestinal transit time within the normal range might be a beneficial physiological effect. In weighing the evidence, the panel took into account that the studies provided consistently indicated that wheat bran fibre consumed at an amount of at least 10 g/day decreased intestinal transit time.   The claim for nutrients provided by wheat bran would likely have been rejected on account of the anti-nutrient phytic acid which is tightly bound to minerals     Most of the minerals in wheat kernels are present as complexes with phytic acid. Mature wheat grain has high phytase activity, hydrolysing phytates and making the minerals nutritionally available (Brinch-Pedersen et al. 2002). However, the presence of phytate has been considered as an anti-nutrient in humans because of its effect on the bioavailability of iron, magnesium, zinc and calcium. While the mechanism is not entirely understood, it is suggested that phytic acid binds strongly with these mineral cations to form phytate\u2013mineral complexes, changing their solubility, functionality absorption and digestibility (Rickard and Thompson 1997). Consequently, the complex cannot be absorbed or easily hydrolysed by the human body and so there is an adverse effect on bioavailability of minerals (Harland and Harland 1980).   so the status of nutrient access from wheat bran remains unclear.  Those issues don't apply so much to shredded wheat which is the whole grain being cooked and shredded as the amount of phytic acid is much less.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3507301/",
        "id": 2180,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Mirena IUD help with acne control too? Is it safe to take concurrently with Accutane?",
        "body": "When someone is considering to take 2 drugs both of which can have severe side effects, he/she should discuss this with a doctor, so this part of the question CANNOT be properly answered here.  Mirena can actually cause acne:  1. Mirena side effects (Drugs.com)     The most commonly reported adverse effects are alterations of   menstrual bleeding patterns, nausea, abdominal/pelvic pain,   headache/migraine, dizziness, fatigue, amenorrhea, ovarian cysts,   genital discharge, acne/seborrhea, breast tenderness, and   vulvovaginitis      Dermatologic side effects: Very common...Acne/seborrhea (15%)   2. Mirena (Drugwatch)     Common side effects of Mirena include:          Acne   Weight change   Mood changes   Breast tenderness   Nausea   Ovarian cysts   Vaginal discharge   Abnormal bleeding patterns      3. Mirena safety considerations (Mirena-us.com)     Between 5% and 10% of Mirena users may experience:         Headache/Migraine   Acne   Depressed mood   Heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding      4. Mirena contains the progestin hormone levonorgestrel, which can increase the blood levels of free testosterone (androgene hormone), which can cause acne (AAD.org).  Stumpf PG et al, 1981 Changes in physiologically free circulating estradiol and testosterone during exposure to levonorgestrel (PubMed)     During treatment with d-Ng [levonorgestrel]...the % of testosterone   increased to about 55% of the total.   5. There are many conflicting anecdotal reports of the effect of Mirena on acne online.",
        "id": 1249,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If we take magnesium supplements on an empty stomach, are we wasting it?",
        "body": "The article you've linked mentions impaired magnesium uptake in diabetes mellitus type 2, not in healthy individuals.   In cases when meals significantly affect bioavailability of a supplement, there will be likely an instruction on the information leaflet about the optimal time to take it.",
        "id": 2257,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pre diabetic after fasting blood work?",
        "body": "Retest  I generally retest and don't base decisions on a single reading. Although the impact of the mint would seem minimal, the abnormal result itself deserves repeating.  Unfortunately, insulin resistance has become a huge problem and I see it all the time in clinical practice and am no longer surprised when a fit appearing person or an athlete I work with has abnormal glucose metabolism.  Another test(s) to consider would be a fasting insulin and a 2 hour glucose tolerance test. An A1C can be useful combined with other tests.  The approach to figuring out your actual question - Am I pre-diabetic? hinges on the viewpoint of the treating physician.  From a functional medicine approach, normal is often pathologic.  For example, using a normal A1C to exclude insulin resistance and prediabetes will miss a large number of people already in trouble.   Glucose tolerance testing is considered gold standard by many functional medicine experts. A 2-hour reading of 120-139 indicated >60% loss of pancreas Beta cell function (decreased insulin production). A 1-hour 120 or above indicates insulin resistance.   Lipids are also important in determining the risk and using a ratio of triglycerides to HDL (good cholesterol) can help identify insulin resistance.  reference: 4th International Congress on Prediabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. Madrid",
        "id": 831,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is crunching sound in the neck normal?",
        "body": "You're asking about so called articular release. It is considered a normal condition.  From \"Joint cracking and popping: understanding noises that accompany articular release.\" (2002):     The sound, or the noise,   is what people notice in articular release; the subjective relief   it provides is secondary. (...)   The sound generated by joint manipulation has been classified   variously throughout osteopathic medical literature, being   referred to as an \u201carticular crack,\u201d \u201carticular pop,\u201d \u201cclunk,\u201d   \u201ccrepitus,\u201d \u201cjoint click,\u201d \u201csnap,\u201d \u201csynovial grind,\u201d and \u201cthud,\u201d   and it has been described as a \u201cgrating\u201d sound in the general   medical literature (Figure 3). The articular release may be accompanied   by a loud audible release or a soft joint sound\u2014but it can   also be inaudible. (...) The articular crack occurs for patients in both healthy and diseased states. It can be heard during normal functioning.   About long-term, habitual cracking:     Is articular release necessary to maintain joint health? (...) A person who   undergoes habitual cracking does so for the feeling of relief and   greater motion in the involved joint. If one were to consider the   anatomic and physiologic models solely, one could assume   that maintaining motion throughout the joint could lower the   likelihood of developing osteoarthritis. On the other hand, the   excessive use of a joint could lead to laxity of the ligaments supporting   the joint, causing hypermobility or introducing an   unnecessary stress that could eventually cause dysfunction.    There is nothing about the neck, but there is about knuckles, as researchers are generally more interested in investigating knuckle and hand cracking:     Swezey and Swezey studied the prevalence of knuckle   cracking in geriatric men in comparison to 11-year-old children   and found that their data failed to show that cracking leads to   degenerative joint disease in the MCP joint in old age. The   chief morbid consequence of habitual joint cracking appeared   to be the annoyance inflicted on the casual observer.   If you're more interested in what exactly causes this strange sounds, I recommend reading \"Real-Time Visualization of Joint Cavitation\" (2015). There is a very interesting history section. But the final conclusion is:     Our data support the view that tribonucleation is the process which governs joint cracking. This process is characterized by rapid separation of surfaces with subsequent cavity formation, not bubble collapse as has been the prevailing viewpoint for more than a half century.  ",
        "id": 1283,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do simple carbohydrates affect skin quality?",
        "body": "Yes, long-term eating of a large amount of simple carbohydrates may affect skin quality.  Nutrition and aging skin: sugar and glycation (PubMed, 2010)     The effect of sugars on aging skin is governed by the simple act of   covalently cross-linking two collagen fibers, which renders both of   them incapable of easy repair. Glucose and fructose link the amino   acids present in the collagen and elastin that support the dermis,   producing advanced glycation end products or \"AGEs.\" This process is   accelerated in all body tissues when sugar is elevated and is further   stimulated by ultraviolet light in the skin.   Diet and Dermatology (PubMed Central, 2014)     Rhytides, sagging of skin, and loss of elasticity are all related to changes in the collagen and elastic fibers of the skin, which are   themselves impacted by diet. Ingestion of sugar, in particular, can   accelerate these signs of aging...      Foods with a high glycemic index, such as sugar, white bread, and white rice, are rapidly absorbed, leading to higher serum glucose   levels and corresponding elevated levels of insulin. Insulin and IGF-1   have been shown to augment sebum production, stimulate adrenal   androgen synthesis, and increase androgen bioavailability, all of   which play a role in the pathogenesis of acne. ",
        "id": 2268,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of taking too much painkillers",
        "body": "Yes, taking too much painkiller can be harmful. Two common painkillers are acetaminophen (brand name Tylenol) and ibuprofen (brand name Advil). They each have different risks.  Paracetamol / Acetaminophen  The maximum daily dose is 3,000 mg. With the 650 mg extended release pills, the daily limit is just 4 pills. Never consume more than 4,000 mg in a 24 hour period. Passing either of these limits may result in liver damage and/or death.     Between 2001 and 2010, more than 1,500 people in the U.S. died from accidental acetaminophen overdoses. Source   The amounts specified are for a fully-grown adult; the maximum dose for children is lower. Consult with a pediatrician for advice on giving painkillers to children.  Ibuprofen  The maximum daily dose of Ibuprofen is 2,400 mg. Most pills are 200 mg each, so the daily limit is 12 pills. Exceeding this limit is likely to cause the development of stomach ulcers (a break in the mucous membrane that fails to heal).  The amounts specified are for a fully-grown adult; the maximum dose for children is lower. Consult with a pediatrician for advice on giving painkillers to children.",
        "id": 1404,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a colloid intravascular volume expander be used in chronic orthostatic hypotension?",
        "body": "Albumin is expensive and potentially dangerous, colloids have never been shown to be better than crystalloids, and there is no good evidence for their effective use in orthostatic hypotension.     Albumin, due to its cost and the traceability requirements inherent to all blood-derived products, is rarely prescribed as first-line treatment 1      Synthetic colloids provide a plasma expansion property of close to 100% (80%\u2013120% depending on the product; Table 2) but with a risk of anaphylaxis, renal failure and clotting disorders. 1      The plasma expansion property of a solution theoretically has direct metabolic effects. A product with a high expansion property corrects blood volume more effectively, limiting the risks of tissue hypoperfusion responsible for lactic acidosis. The expected benefit of a colloid should therefore be logically greater than that of a crystalloid, but this superiority has never been demonstrated. 1      Neurogenic orthostatic hypotension, postprandial hypotension and exercise-induced hypotension are common features of cardiovascular autonomic failure. Despite the serious impact on patient\u2019s quality of life, evidence-based guidelines for non-pharmacological and pharmacological management are lacking at present. Here, we provide a systematic review of the literature on therapeutic options for neurogenic orthostatic hypotension and related symptoms with evidence-based recommendations according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE). Patient\u2019s education and non-pharmacological measures remain essential, with strong recommendation for use of abdominal binders. Based on quality of evidence and safety issues, midodrine and droxidopa reach a strong recommendation level for pharmacological treatment of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension. In selected cases, a range of alternative agents can be considered (fludrocortisone, pyridostigmine, yohimbine, atomoxetine, fluoxetine, ergot alkaloids, ephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, octreotide, indomethacin, ibuprofen, caffeine, methylphenidate and desmopressin), though recommendation strength is weak and quality of evidence is low (atomoxetine, octreotide) or very low (fludrocortisone, pyridostigmine, yohimbine, fluoxetine, ergot alkaloids, ephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, indomethacin, ibuprofen, caffeine, methylphenidate and desmopressin). 2    https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/730821_2 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5686257/ ",
        "id": 2236,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a convenient self test for Glaucoma?",
        "body": "Disclaimer: I have no formal medical or vision science training. Please point out any factual errors.  My test is based on the idea that Glaucoma is indicated by pressure on optic nerve, which one may not even be aware of but slowly destroys the nerve (which is actually a bundle of nerves, similar to a huge communications cable) from the outside of the cable in. The effect of this is a gradual loss of vision from the periphery toward the center, forming tunnel vision and eventually total blindness. The mind compensates so the person doesn't even realize that their field of vision is being narrowed until it is too late.   Doctors test for vision loss at the periphery by snapping fingers at the periphery and seeing if the patient can see it.  With my test you simply look straight ahead and raise your arms into a circle around your head, similar to a ballet dancer:    Slowly move the elbows forward while continuing to look ahead. If you have to move your elbow on either arm significantly forward (consult an eye doctor to \"calibrate\" your elbows) then you may have damage to the periphery of the optic nerve. If so, the further forward, the more the damage.  Damage to the optic nerve is, with current technology progressive and never regressive so acting quickly is of the utmost importance.",
        "id": 2682,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do doxycycline pills also contain lactose?",
        "body": "Lactose is a disaccharide sugar found in milk. Many tablets contain lactose. It is not an active ingredient but simply a filler and is chosen because it has excellent compressibility properties and is biologically safe. It can also be used to form the powder in dry powder inhalers.  While people who have a true allergy to lactose should not use tablets that contain it, there is not usually enough lactose to cause problems for people who have lactose intolerance.  Source: Lactose (inactive ingredient) - drugs.com",
        "id": 2617,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the best toothpaste you can get in the wild?",
        "body": "It depends what do you mean by \"the best\" toothpaste. Toothpastes work by mechanical surface abrasion, so they scrub the plaque and remains of food from your teeth. If toothpaste is overly abrasive, it can damage your enamel, so it is important to find one with some proper abrasiveness level. Also, your brushing technique and used brushing tool are very important.  Abrasiveness of different toothpastes might be estimated using some special procedures (e.g. Relative Dentin Abrasivity method, PMMA Abrasion Test), index scores might be calculated, some safe range values can be established and toothpastes can be categorized into \"low\", \"medium\" and \"highly abrasive\". There is quite a lot information about this on the Internet but I was unable to find any reliable (and free) source to quote any values. Also, I haven't seen any research on substances occuring in the wild. But this is a direction you can go: look for research publications about RDA measurement of different wild-occuring substances. Bear in mind than low abrasive ones might not be better than simply bruishing with water. Also, remember that all of this is just an estimation - and a very rough one. You can read about it in \"Toothpastes\" by C. van Loveren et al.. Quote from it:     RDA values are not intended and should not be used as prediction tool of dental abrasion, since it does not reproduce the complex multifactiofial nature of the toothbrushing abrasion process clinically. ",
        "id": 463,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does electrical exposure build human resilience?",
        "body": "Neither. You would either kill them with the first shock or just annoy them every day of their life. Human tissue can't adapt to electricity. It's either enough current to damage it or it's not. And if the path of the current is through the heart, the amount needed to disrupt the heart's electrical functioning is as little as 100 milliamps.",
        "id": 1025,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much sugar is in my UHT Milk?",
        "body": "No, that is incorrect. Liters are a measure of volume but grams are a measure of weight, so you need to convert 1 liter of milk to the weight of 1 liter of milk. (Your calculations would be correct for water, by the way.)  Milk is an organic product so some variation is going to exist, but 1 liter of whole milk weighs approximately 1031 grams.   From that point forward the rest of your calculations are correct:  1031 grams x .028 = 28.8 grams of sugar per liter of milk  If 100 ml is one serving, then each serving contains 2.88 grams of sugar.  In other words, you were low by about 1 gram.",
        "id": 1260,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often is endoscopic ultrasound done to check for gallbladder disease?",
        "body": "UpToDate has a couple (1) (2) pretty good articles discussing current research and recs on the use of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS).  As it is behind a paywall (which some hospitals pay for, so you might be able to access it at a local institution), Medscape has a couple good articles as well (3) (4).   I cannot accurately speak for national or international standards of practice, but your question asks for an individual's viewpoint from primary care in the US or UK, and is specific to gallbladder disease.  From my experience in the US, the standard of practice for outpatient primary care management of non-emergent suspected gallbladder disease remains to start with transabdominal ultrasonography with liver function tests.  I have very rarely seen EUS be ordered in the primary setting, and never yet as the initial test.    This is likely because although EUS is more sensitive and specific than transabdominal ultrasound, it is more invasive, costly, difficult, time-consuming, requires sedation, and risks are - although fairly low - still higher than transabdominal US.  Thus transabdominal US is a more reasonable first step, with the knowledge that it is not 100% sensitive and thus additional testing is required for high suspicion.  In that case, depending on the suspected pathology, additional testing is ordered and sometimes referral made to a gastroenterologist or general surgeon.   A gastroenterologist's practice may be different, however.  And of course ER/inpatient management is different due to patient acuity, but in most cases, transabdominal is still the initial test.  Again due to lower sensitivity it is not sufficient to rule out if suspicion is high enough; however, if it does find something, it provides a quick answer.  This is not a comprehensive discussion on its use, but it addresses your primary question.   I would be interested in hearing from practitioners in different locations if EUS is more broadly used in primary settings.  References   https://www.uptodate.com/contents/endoscopic-ultrasound-in-patients-with-suspected-choledocholithiasis?search=eus&amp;source=search_result&amp;selectedTitle=4~150&amp;usage_type=default&amp;display_rank=4#H3 https://www.uptodate.com/contents/choledocholithiasis-clinical-manifestations-diagnosis-and-management?sectionName=Diagnostic%20approach&amp;topicRef=2660&amp;anchor=H17164458&amp;source=see_link#H972627978 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/717345_4 https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/407974 ",
        "id": 2516,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you experience withdrawal from amphetamines?",
        "body": "Amphetamines can definitely cause withdrawal symptoms. Like other drugs, the severity of symptoms depends on the usage pattern and the particular amphetamine. For methamphetamine, the strongest withdrawal symptoms are from 1 day to 1 week after last use but can continue for weeks afterward.  Like other drugs of abuse such as cocaine and opiates, withdrawal symptoms are thought to be a major (if not the major) contributor to relapse.  Common symptoms of amphetamine withdrawal include depression, dysphoria, anxiety, agitation, irritation, anhedonia, fatigue, sleepiness following by sleep disturbance, increased appetite, concentration problems, and others.  I'm not sure why a doctor (I presume a physician?) would suggest that amphetamines do not cause withdrawal symptoms. It's possible this statement was meant to apply to prescriptions for amphetamines, for example for ADHD, but those drugs can also cause withdrawal symptoms. Giving her the benefit of the doubt, it's possible she was referring to a low dose of an amphetamine that would not be likely to cause withdrawal side effects, and describing them this way was a professional simplification meant to reassure a patient about a particular option rather than make a blanket statement. I don't agree with that approach but I can appreciate the reasons for it, if that was the case.  Otherwise, the idea that these symptoms are somehow \"not true\" because they are mental symptoms and therefore somehow invalid seems to be a very old and discredited approach to addition, akin to telling a depressed patient there is nothing wrong with them because it's \"all in their head.\"    References  McGregor, C., Srisurapanont, M., Jittiwutikarn, J., Laobhripatr, S., Wongtan, T., &amp; White, J. M. (2005). The nature, time course and severity of methamphetamine withdrawal. Addiction, 100(9), 1320-1329.  Watson, R., HARTMANN, E., &amp; SCHILDKRAUT, J. J. (1972). Amphetamine withdrawal: affective state, sleep patterns, and MHPG excretion. American Journal of Psychiatry, 129(3), 263-269.  Gossop, M. R., Bradley, B. P., &amp; Brewis, R. K. (1982). Amphetamine withdrawal and sleep disturbance. Drug &amp; Alcohol Dependence, 10(2), 177-183.",
        "id": 2145,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Supplementing potassium to get my 4.7g RDA - is it safe?",
        "body": "1) Multivitamin-mineral supplements in the US do not contain more than 99 mg of potassium per serving to avoid overdose.  Linus Pauling Institute:     Oral doses greater than 18 grams taken at one time in individuals   not accustomed to high intakes may lead to severe hyperkalemia, even   in those with normal kidney function.   In individuals with somewhat impaired kidney function (without them knowing it), the toxic dose can be considerably lower.  2) Foods that contain more than 500 mg potassium per serving: avocado, jackfruit, pomegranate, dates, kiwi, banana, potatoes, beet greens, tamarind, white beans, red salmon. Foods with 300-500 mg potassium: various fruits, legumes, fish and meats.  3) Strictly speaking, 4.7 g potassium/day is not Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), but Adequate Intake (AI), which is believed to cover the needs of all healthy adults (Institute of Medicine). The needs for nutrients in general increase with calorie needs. This means that AI 4.7 g potassium/day is what people with the highest needs (athletes, heavy physical workers) who spend more than 4 K Calories/day may need and not necessary what average adults who spend 2-2.5 K Calories/day need.  4) Additionally, according to National Academic Press:     Given the interrelatedness of sodium and potassium, the requirement   for potassium may well depend on the level of dietary sodium...   So, if you decrease your sodium intake, your potassium needs will be likely lower.  5) If studies show that high intake of foods high in potassium is associated with health benefits, this does not automatically mean that potassium supplements are beneficial. This is because it is not actually known, is it potassium or are other nutrients (calcium, magnesium) in foods high in potassium, or their combination, which is actually beneficial.  PubMed Central, 2013:     High quality evidence shows that increased potassium intake reduces   blood pressure in people with hypertension.   PubMed Central, 2006:     This systematic review found no statistically significant effect of   potassium supplementation on blood pressure. ",
        "id": 2256,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is brown sugar better than white for diabetes?",
        "body": "Type 1 and Type 2 diabetic patients can eat sugar under specific conditions.  White and brown sugar are pretty much identical (from a \"diabetic\" viewpoint) and they respectively have a Glycemic Index of (+-10) 68 and 64 according to the Linus Pauling Institute. So as a summary, no. Brown sugar affects the Blood Sugar level of a Diabetic patient similarly to white sugar.",
        "id": 2508,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Notation for toilet visits",
        "body": "The bristol chart is commonly used for describing the texture and consistency of stools. See chart and details below.   By Cabot Health, Bristol Stool Chart (http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-wm/46082.pdf) [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons  Quoting the wikipedia article linked above     The seven types of stool are:         Separate hard lumps, like nuts (hard to pass)   Sausage-shaped, but lumpy   Like a sausage but with cracks on its surface   Like a sausage or snake, smooth and soft   Soft blobs with clear cut edges (passed easily)   Fluffy pieces with ragged edges, a mushy stool   Watery, no solid pieces, entirely liquid         Types 1 and 2 indicate constipation, with 3 and 4 being the ideal stools   (especially the latter), as they are easy to defecate while not   containing excess liquid, and 5, 6 and 7 tending towards diarrhoea. ",
        "id": 1038,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What needs to be exposed for the body to produce Vitamin D?",
        "body": "Vitamin D is produced in the skin, not the eyes.(1)  I would imagine that when those indigenous peoples were introduced to sunglasses, they were also introduced to a number of other items they had never previously known, such as tobacco, alcohol and fast food. Diseases they had no immunity to might also have played a role.   The synthesis of vitamin D is well understood and sources describing it can be found in many places so I'm not going to quote the entire process, but a good explanation can be found here under the heading \"PHOTOSYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN D\". In short, it's a passive process that occurs in the skin and is not regulated by the brain, eyes, or other organs. What determines the amount of vitamin D synthesized by the body? Solely the amount of UVB photons penetrating the skin and the person's age:     Anything that either influences the number of solar UVB photons that penetrate the skin or alters the amount of 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin influences the cutaneous production of vitamin D3. The amount of 7-dehydrocholesterol in the epidermis is relatively constant until later in life, when it begins to decline (17, 18). Ibid., \"FACTORS THAT ALTER THE CUTANEOUS PRODUCTION OF VITAMIN D3\"   There are no other factors mentioned in synthesis, and as you can see from the diagram here there is no involvement of the eyes or brain in vitamin D physiology at any point. Could there be an indirect involvement of the brain since it also controls the parathyroid glands? Yes, there could, but that wouldn't change the results of how we measure vitamin D levels.  Therefore, an assertion that the eyes are involved in vitamin D deficiencies is purely speculative and the burden of providing evidence for it would be on the person making the assertion. I can find no evidence to support the notion. It's also a little odd considering that a huge number of people living in developed countries have been wearing sunglasses for many decades without ill effect. Why would we have not seen this effect long ago? Is it possible these indigenous peoples have unique genetic differences that altered their basic mammalian vitamin D physiology and somehow caused their eyes to be involved? Well, anything's possible, but that would be an astonishing finding and it also is purely speculative.",
        "id": 169,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Did I receive the BCG vaccine via stamper, not hypodermic?",
        "body": "After some more google-research, I found this paper, published a couple of years after I received my BCG vaccination: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1745564/  The paper describes \"multipuncture\" as a method of delivering BCG as an alternative to the intradermal method, so apparently my memory was correct.",
        "id": 303,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do gene therapies so often target rare disease?",
        "body": "Common diseases tend to be polyfactorial, while rare genetic diseases often involve a single gene.\u2002Many involve just a single mutation event (substitution, deletion, addition, inversion, etc).  It's easier to target a single-gene defect than multiple.\u2002Since gene therapies are at such an early stage of development, it's expected they would go for low-hanging fruit.    Go to clinicaltrials.gov and search for gene therapy.\u2002Consider the genetic interventions (skip the drug trials).\u2002The majority on the first dozen pages specify a single target gene.  I was unable to find a list of non-infectious diseases ranked by prevalence.\u2002However, there is a List of Common Diseases on Ranker.\u2002It is suitable for illustrative purposes.\u2002Scrolling through the index of a textbook would do as well.\u2002Skipping psychiatric, infectious, and situational conditions (such as traumatic brain injury), consider whether there is an obvious genetic target.\u2002There isn't one for conditions such as Dementia, Diabetes Mellitus, Cancer, Stroke, etc.  Also consider CDC: Leading Causes of Death.\u2002They're largely non-genetic.  DM-II is highly heritable, so in that sense, it is genetic.\u2002But usually, people consider only single-gene conditions to be \"genetic\".\u2002So what are some \"common\" genetic diseases?\u2002This infographic lists ten.\u2002Note that they're not that common compared with non-genetic diseases.\u2002Six of them do have genetic therapy trials.\u2002The rest have drug trials, so they're not being ignored.\u2002These are the ones that don't have genetic therapy trials listed:   Down Syndrome.\u2002Usually trisomy 21.\u2002Excising an entire extra chromosome is likely beyond current gene therapy capabilities.\u2002Another cause is translocation.\u2002In that case, half a chromosome would have to be excised. Fragile-X Syndrome.\u2002Triplet repeat of variable length.\u2002Variability likely complicates gene therapy.\u2002For instance, how to excise a repeat that is too long vs a repeat that is normal? Huntington Disease.\u2002Triplet repeat of variable length.\u2002There is also a psychosocial issue where many with Huntington do not want to know their status.\u2002How do you treat a population that is in denial?\u2002There is a documentary about it. Angelman Syndrome.\u2002Caused by uniparental disomy.\u2002Two copies of chromosome 15 are inherited from the father.\u2002The extra copy would have to be replaced with a chromosome from the mother. ",
        "id": 2715,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Strapping a reduced hernia",
        "body": "The simple answer is no.     [H]ernias seem to be very simple to fix if deal with early on.   Very true; so easy that it's often an outpatient procedure.  \"Strapping\" (or belting) hernias has been done in one form or another for centuries. It's fine for people who have relatively small hernias that are asymptomatic. However, it's not a cure. The separation of the abdominal wall muscle is permanent (it's caused by either an inherent weakness at birth, and/or repetitive stress).  For inguinal hernias, watchful waiting (deferring surgery until it's necessary due to pain or other symptoms) is a perfectly acceptable way to \"treat\" hernias. Though there is considerable crossover to surgery, in one study, men have been watched for more than 11 years without any mortality and only 2 emergency repairs in a group of 254 men with inguinal hernias. The limitations are on lifting, activities, diet, constipation and other factors; many of the hernias become more painful with time.  More than you ever wanted to know about hernia repairs Long-term results of a randomized controlled trial of a nonoperative strategy (watchful waiting) for men with minimally symptomatic inguinal hernias. A clinician's guide to patient selection for watchful waiting management of inguinal hernia Management of asymptomatic inguinal hernia: a systematic review of the evidence.",
        "id": 213,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to maintain my health during irregular sleeping patterns?",
        "body": "You are correct to be worried about the effect of sleep on your physical health, especially because you seem to have bad luck (or bad genes) when it comes to serious infectious disease.    Anyway, back to the issue of sleep as it relates to infectious disease:   Sleep deprivation attenuates antibody responses to vaccine,  whereas good sleep imparts long-lasting immunoenhancing effects.  Furthermore, sleep is a profound regulator of cellular immunity  and formation of immunological memory critical for adaptive  responses to immune challenges.  -- from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3695049/   So it's safe to presume that your lack of sleep is impairing your health.  No one can guarantee that good sleep will restore you to good health, but it can't hurt.  ",
        "id": 214,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Administering Anti-biotics to elderly people",
        "body": "Giving the same antibiotic whithin a short time does possibly increase the risk of  drug resistance so you should generally consult a doctor in this case. The boil re-appearing is also not the best sign, as could mean that the previous eradication was not successful. You may need an other drug or surgical approach.",
        "id": 355,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do we need a rabies vaccine after exposure?",
        "body": "It is because rabies take time to kill you and vaccine that you are given is 'dead' virus so it makes it easy to develop antibodies against and when you have antibodies you can fight actual virus",
        "id": 1621,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Routine exams in patients with hypothyroidism",
        "body": "This also depends on the question if hypothyroidism is subclinical or overt. Recently, the European Thyroid Association has published a guideline on the management of subclinical hypothyroidism. In asymptomatic patients thyroid function tests (TFTs) should be repeated in 6 months intervals.  Decisions shouldn't be based on TSH levels alone, but also on concentrations of free T4 and free T3. In difficult cases calculated parameters including SPINA-GT, SPINA-GD and Jostel's TSH index might be helpful as well. A recent paper demonstrated age, sex, SPINA-GD and aetiology of hypothyroidism to be independent predictors of substitution dose with L-T4.",
        "id": 606,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can your finger bones grow thicker after extreme pressure or use?",
        "body": "Bones and tendons take quite a long time to condition due to pressure. Generally the remodelling you do see see happens over a prolonged period of time. The sort you see most frequently is in athletes, power lifters and body builders. That would be remodelling that is not associated with trauma, but with conditioning.  When you investigate the bones (in an anatomy lab) of individuals who did resistance training, you can see the effect on the bones, like on the clavicle for instance, where the pectoral muscle attaches. You will see that the bones remodelled over time to accommodate the increased stress.  This type of process of bone remodelling is subject to tendon and ligament conditioning and remodelling which takes 18 - 24 months to remodel. This is one of the reasons you see athletes get repeat injuries. Once an injury has been rehabilitated, such that the pain is gone and the muscle strength restored, the ligaments and tendons aren't fully healed after only 8 weeks.  As for bone only, that happens a bit quicker than the connective tissue like tendons and ligaments.  To answer the question though.  Think about this, can you fix your broken finger in a very short period of time, by waiting? No. It takes 4-6 weeks for the bone to reattach, and that is if it remains immobilised.  I suppose, theoretically, you could remodel the bones in a similar period of time, if the exposure to the stressor was also applied consistently over the same period of time (4-6 weeks).  Though probably not thickening of the bone. Thickening of bones is primarily in response to stronger muscles that consistently add longitudinal pressure on the bones over a long period of time by virtue of being trained over a long period of time.  In the short term, what you are experiencing is probably just inflammation.",
        "id": 2668,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What (if any) are the measurement units for neurotransmitters?",
        "body": "These substances are measured in mass concentration (Example: Dopamine), that is, mass per volume. The standard SI unit for this is mg/ml, but I've also seen ng/ml or other units.  This is because they are usually used in solutions as an infusion. If you were to be just talking about how much neurotransmitter you have, you'd use any unit of mass.",
        "id": 1972,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does poor sleep cause circles under one's eyes?",
        "body": "These dark circles can likely be attributed to vascular network prominence caused by hollowing of the contents of the orbital rim, pigmentary changes in the periorbital area caused by extravasated hemoglobin and its breakdown products (bilirubin and biliverdin), or to visibly accumulating fluid in the lower eyelid due to local processes such as atopy or systemic fluid retention.  Dark circles under the eyes are very literally representative of infraorbital (or periorbital/periocular) hyperpigmentation. I was able to find literature pretty quickly on this subject dating all the way back to the '60s:     \"Dark Circles Under the Eyes in Children.\" Meyer B. Marks. Clinical Pediatrics. 1966.      Dark   discolorations    or    shadows    under   the    eyes    as    seen    in    some    children    are    often   ascribed    to    fatigue    or    sleeplessness.    With    older   children    and    even    in    adults    a    popular    notion   is    to    attribute    these    to    chronic    eyestrain.    With   an    adolescent    girl    at    menarche    the    mother   may    associate    them    with    menstruation.   Many    of    the    bluish-black    discolorations    in   the    lower    orbitopalpebral    grooves    of    children   \u2013 termed \"allergic    shiners\" \u2013 result    from    long-   standing    perennial    nasal    allergy.   They    are    rarely    seen    in    the    first    year    of    life   unless    the    infant    had    nasal    obstruction    with   accompanying    mouth-breathing    from    birth.   Children    with    uncomplicated    seasonal    allergic   rhinitis    do    not    have    allergic    shiners.   This early paper (which mentions allergies as the cause of these dark circles) alludes to sleeplessness or fatigue as being another cause of infraorbital hyperpigmentation. Skipping several decades of research and progress, there are a number of useful, modern review papers on this subject (emphasis mine):     \"What causes dark circles under the eyes?\" Fernanda Magagnin Freitag,   Tania Ferreira Cestari. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2007.      Dark rings under the eyes are defined as bilateral, round,   homogeneous pigment macules on the infraorbital regions.   There  is  no  doubt  that  they  are  worsened  by  general   fatigue, especially lack of  sleep. This idea is corroborated   by the daily fluctuation of  the lesions intensity, according   to the patient status. For this reason, they have been   regarded  as  a  mere  physiologic  phenomenon.     Dark circles are more pronounced in certain ethnic groups and   are also frequently seen in multiple members of  the same   family.  These  hereditary  observations  raise  a  question:   are  there  any  anatomic  or  histological  characteristics   in  these  populations  that  could  give  us  a  reasonable   etiologic explanation?   Histological characteristics of  infraorbital darkening   suggest that they are caused by multiple etiologic factors   that include dermal melanin deposition, postinflammatory   hyperpigmentation secondary to atopic or allergic contact   dermatitis,  periorbital  edema,  superficial  location  of   vasculature, and shadowing due to skin laxity.       Despite its prevalence and cosmetic importance, there are   few  published  studies  in  the  scientific  literature  about   dark  circles.  Even  a  good  definition  of   this  condition  is   lacking. We think the term    infraorbital ring-shaped melanosis   proposed  by  Watanabe  et  al.  does  not  encompass  its   etiology in a global manner.   As  there  is  neither  a  general  understanding  about   dark  circles  pathogenesis  nor  a  consensus  about  the   major  responsible  features,  treatments  are  chosen  in  a   simplified  way,  rendering  suboptimal  results  most  of   the time. It is important to identify the specific anatomic   problem  of   each  patient  in  order  to  individualize  treatment.   This gets closer to a direct answer and offers several possible etiologies (bolded) for infraorbital hyperpigmentation. These are further clarified in the context of sleep by publications from this year:     \"A study of epidemiological, etiological, and clinicopathological factors in periocular hyperpigmentation.\"  M Chatterjee, B Suwal, A Malik, B V. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2018.      Conclusion:   Periocular darkening was predominantly not due to pigment, but rather due to cutaneous laxity and vascular visibility through   thin skin. Most of them with pigment had it in the dermis. Clinical dermal pigmentation correlated well with histology, unlike epidermal   pigmentation. Iron and amyloid were not significant as etiological factors in our patients.      \"Periorbital hyperpigmentation \u2212 An overview of the enigmatous condition.\"   Manju Daroach, Muthu S Kumaran. Pigment International. 2018.      Periocular dark circles may appear because of various   anatomic factors such as architecture of facial ligaments,   the bony facial structure, midface soft tissue including the    prominence of the orbicularis oculi muscle. Because of ageing,   there is a loss of facial fat leading to inflexible ligaments   causing hollowing effect on orbital rim. There is worsening of   shadowing duetohollowness,which is mainly seen in the tear   trough area in inferomedial orbit. The thin eyelid skin   contributes to the prominence of the underlying soft tissue   and subcutaneous vascular network and the orbicularis oculi   muscle, due to which the overlying skin appears dark.       Visible pigmentary changes in periorbital area may be due to   extravasated hemoglobin and its breakdown products   bilirubin and biliverdin. A variety of pathologic and   age-related processes result in the increased permeability   of the local vasculature resulting in these pigmentary   changes. The lower eyelid tissues may have an increased   tendency to accumulate fluid due to local processes such as   atopy as well as systemic fluid retention and can be limited   inferiorly by the orbital rim because of the cutaneous   ligaments. This fluid often takes on a purplish color due   to the prominent role of the orbicularis muscle in the lower   eyelid. Medical disorders including disorders of liver,   heart, thyroid or kidney, hereditary blood disorders,   vitamin  K  deficiency.   For a more complete analysis of the different contributing factors to infraorbital dark circles, check out this review from 2016:     \"Infraorbital Dark Circles: A Review of the Pathogenesis, Evaluation and Treatment.\" Ivan Vrcek, Omar Ozgur, and Tanuj Nakra. Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery. 2016.      Infraorbital dark circles are caused by a variety of anatomic features, with contributions from the skin, subcutaneous tissues, orbicularis muscle, vasculature and ligamentous architecture of the lower eyelid and cheek. A detailed understanding of the regional anatomy is crucial to the management of dark circles, which encompasses a wide variety of modalities.   This might not be a totally satisfying answer, but it's not as simple as a single source of pigmentation resulting in dark circles under the eyes. Even though there are many contributing factors, we still use general periorbital hyperpigmentation as an identifier of fatigue, since the various factors (usually) cumulatively represent sleeplessness.",
        "id": 2396,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the optimal weight within the BMI range?",
        "body": "BMI is calculated from this formula, only looking at the height and weight of a person.   However, muscle is bulkier than fat, so two people could have the same BMI but be at different health levels (for example, if people A and B are the same height and weight then they will have the same BMI. However, person A could be mostly muscle and in good shape they will be healthier than person B who has less muscle weight and more fat weight and isn't in as good of shape).  As stated in the comments above, Body Fat % is a better way to determine health.",
        "id": 841,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a name for an irrational fear of food additives, food colouring, preservatives, etc?",
        "body": "Yes, there indeed a phobia for the irrational fear in which you are describing. It is called Chemophobia, and it is described as      Chemophobia is specifically a distrust of what people view as   \"artificial\" chemicals \u2013 food additives, drugs, pesticides and so on.   This is usually attributed to a lack of trust and knowledge among the   public, which is often fueled by tabloid-based health scares and the   occasional additive shown to possibly be toxic. Advances in the field   of analytical chemistry are also thought to be behind chemophobia, as   modern techniques are capable of identifying substances in very low   (parts per billion or even trillion) and harmless quantities.   For a more substantiated and scholarly source, have a look at Food Chemistry and Chemophobia. For just a brief glimpse of what the detailed article is about, here is the abstract below:      Chemophobia is the exaggerated fear of anything \u2018chemical\u2019 which is   found quite widespread both in the Western world and in Asia. That   food incontrovertibly is chemistry seems to require regulation of all   sorts. As we will see below, that would truly necessitate gargantuan   determination exceeding every regulatory effort to date. Worse, it   will be futile. Our food is peppered with natural compounds such as   organohalogens, dioxins, aflatoxins, and many others. These we will   briefly discuss, including their natural whereabouts. Overall, the aim   of this paper is to show that food is chemistry beyond our immediate   control, including those synthetic chemicals that are deemed to be   artificial and should not be found in \u2018safe\u2019 food. The latter is an   overestimation of regulatory competence and an underestimation of   nature to produce most unlikely chemicals in unlikely places,   including our food.   Ta Da! There is basically a phobia for everything.     ",
        "id": 1603,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should eating before bedtime be avoided if someone wants to lose weight?",
        "body": "There is some experimental evidence that suggests that those who front load ( have their main meals earlier in the day ) are more likely to lose weight than those who eat later.  BACKGROUND: There is emerging literature demonstrating a relationship between the timing of feeding and weight regulation in animals. However, whether the timing of food intake influences the success of a weight-loss diet in humans is unknown.  OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of food timing in weight-loss effectiveness in a sample of 420 individuals who followed a 20-week weight-loss treatment.  METHODS: Participants (49.5% female subjects; age (mean \u00b1 s.d.): 42 \u00b1 11 years; BMI: 31.4 \u00b1 5.4 kg m(-2)) were grouped in early eaters and late eaters, according to the timing of the main meal (lunch in this Mediterranean population). 51% of the subjects were early eaters and 49% were late eaters (lunch time before and after 1500 hours, respectively), energy intake and expenditure, appetite hormones, CLOCK genotype, sleep duration and chronotype were studied.  RESULTS: Late lunch eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight-loss rate during the 20 weeks of treatment than early eaters (P=0.002). Surprisingly, energy intake, dietary composition, estimated energy expenditure, appetite hormones and sleep duration was similar between both groups. Nevertheless, late eaters were more evening types, had less energetic breakfasts and skipped breakfast more frequently that early eaters (all; P&lt;0.05). CLOCK rs4580704 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associated with the timing of the main meal (P=0.015) with a higher frequency of minor allele (C) carriers among the late eaters (P=0.041). Neither sleep duration, nor CLOCK SNPs or morning/evening chronotype was independently associated with weight loss (all; P>0.05).  CONCLUSIONS: Eating late may influence the success of weight-loss therapy. Novel therapeutic strategies should incorporate not only the caloric intake and macronutrient distribution - as is classically done - but also the timing of food.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23357955  Another paper suggests that there are metabolic sequelae if you have your main calories late in the day  Abstract Objective Few studies examined the association between time-of-day of nutrient intake and the metabolic syndrome. Our goal was to compare a weight loss diet with high caloric intake during breakfast to an isocaloric diet with high caloric intake at dinner.  Design and Methods Overweight and obese women (BMI 32.4 \u00b1 1.8 kg/m2) with metabolic syndrome were randomized into two isocaloric (\u223c1400 kcal) weight loss groups, a breakfast (BF) (700 kcal breakfast, 500 kcal lunch, 200 kcal dinner) or a dinner (D) group (200 kcal breakfast, 500 kcal lunch, 700 kcal dinner) for 12 weeks.  Results The BF group showed greater weight loss and waist circumference reduction. Although fasting glucose, insulin, and ghrelin were reduced in both groups, fasting glucose, insulin, and HOMA-IR decreased significantly to a greater extent in the BF group. Mean triglyceride levels decreased by 33.6% in the BF group, but increased by 14.6% in the D group. Oral glucose tolerance test led to a greater decrease of glucose and insulin in the BF group. In response to meal challenges, the overall daily glucose, insulin, ghrelin, and mean hunger scores were significantly lower, whereas mean satiety scores were significantly higher in the BF group.  Conclusions High-calorie breakfast with reduced intake at dinner is beneficial and might be a useful alternative for the management of obesity and metabolic syndrome.  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.20460/abstract",
        "id": 1316,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to improve memorizing ability?",
        "body": "Train your Brain.  its not the supplement in the market which will boost your memory application, althgough you can take Omega supplements which is good for brain stuff and heart.",
        "id": 1078,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Who can release my medical records if I'm temporarily disabled?",
        "body": "If you are in the US, doctors can access your medical records in an emergency in order to render appropriate care:     The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)   Privacy Rule sets rules and limits on who can look at and receive your   protected health information, or information that relates to your   health or health care you have received and can also be used to   identify you. Your health information may be used and shared with   doctors and hospitals; with family, relatives, friends, or others you   specify; with the police in special cases such as gunshot wounds; and   with government agencies that report on the incidence of various   illnesses.   https://www.healthit.gov/patients-families/faqs/who-can-look-receive-and-share-my-health-information-or-medical-record  But consider that in many cases, if you arrive in an ER unable to speak for yourself and no one to speak for you, they'll have no idea where your medical records can be found. This is why you should carry a medical card, tag, or ICE entry in your cell phone listing any pertinent conditions you have or medications you're taking. For example, things like a seizure disorder, diabetes, heart disease, prescription drugs, or a medication allergy would be important for emergency personnel to know. ",
        "id": 1012,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are Depressions in the Skull Normal or At Least Okay",
        "body": "I am a layman, no expert on human skulls.  I do think I can likely help you feel a little less concern perhaps.  The type of xray used by orthodonists typically is called a cephalometric xray or ceph.  The image I see of you seems pretty typical &amp; many seem to show some amount of a thicker area along the occipital bun on the back of the head.  Here is some info on the type of xray &amp; if you link, you will see an image that very much shows a similar bone formation and a little info on the type of xray used.  You can certainly ask your orthodonist about it.  They can tell you what is typical that they see &amp; I am pretty certain had they seen anything unusual, they would speak up immediately.  I had a chiropractor take an xray that showed a sinus tumor.  They didn't tell me that.  They told me I needed to have my dentist do some xray as something looked off in my oral cavity &amp; they have a better resolution to take a look.  It was from a tooth growing in the wrong place &amp; totally treatable.   https://www.verywell.com/definition-of-cephalometric-ceph-x-ray-1059162 ",
        "id": 1779,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to mitigate thirst",
        "body": "If thirst mitigation is your goal, then you should focus on what food and drink you SHOULDN'T take beforehand. This includes anything salty (chips, soups), diuretics (coffee, alcohol), and sugary foods. Avoid those things beforehand and you should be able to forgo thirst a little bit easier in the future.",
        "id": 996,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My saliva turns sour when I'm angry. Is it a common phenomenon?",
        "body": "The symptoms you are describing sound like the symptoms of GERD or similar illnesses. Since these can be exacerbated by stress(anger), that may be your answer.   Symptoms of GERD:    Sore throat Dry cough Bad breath Hoarseness   But it doesn't have to be this, it could be related to what you are doing while angry:   Shouting, talking or excessive mouth breathing can cause your mouth to dry out and due to the lack of saliva can cause your mouth to develop a sour taste and the excessive shouting or dry throat can cause the burning. Once again this could be related to stress.     The most likely reason is that stress causes your taste buds to   change. How they change differs from person to person, but there is   evidence that under periods of intense stress, a person's sense of   taste is altered with it.   Additional Info:   Severe Gastro-oesophageal Reflux Symptoms in Relation to Anxiety, Depression and Coping in a Population-Based Study   Based on your symptoms it would probably be best if you consulted your doctor on the etiology of this problem. ",
        "id": 879,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why isn't Biafine sold OTC in the US?",
        "body": "I have two competing theories:  1) I guess that one problem might be that Biafine contains parabens.  European Council recently banned some forms of parabens (1). Furthmore, in this year EC set more restrictions for the use of parabens (2). It seems that parabens may have certain adverse health effects and EC think that these should be assessed before parabens are safe to use.   More specifically, EC claims that occlusion coat or skin irritation \"may allow increased penetration than intact skin\".   Perhaps due to the parabens the use of Biafine should be based on physician\u00b4s discretion.  2) Biafine was cleared by the FDA almost two decades ago (3). I could not find the original application in the FDA website. Here is the FDA clearance for another similar cream. In the section 5 it is stated that prescription product requires physician to diagnose the disease state. Since FDA approves many drugs based on the \"Substantially equivalent (SESE)\" (4) I think very similar process was used with Biafine. So the use of Biafine requires a visit to a physician for diagnostics. Whether this limitation is due to parabens remains unclear to me.",
        "id": 383,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any evidence that phytic acid in oats can be dangerous?",
        "body": "Although phytic acid has some anti-nutrient properties, the issue in the western world is not undernutrition but over nutrition!  And there is some suggestive evidence that phytates may have a role to play in anti-cancer activity in the large bowel.     The authors have found that phytic acid is a potent inhibitor of iron-mediated generation of the hazardous oxidant, hydroxyl radical. Herein, the authors propose that inhibition of intracolonic hydroxyl radical generation, via the chelation of reactive iron by phytic acid, may help explain the suppression of colonic carcinogenesis and other inflammatory bowel diseases by diets rich in phytic acid.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2990653",
        "id": 1113,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I achieve long term activation of the lower back to improve my posture?",
        "body": "First of all, there is a weak correlation between posture and pain.  Secondly, working on long term activation may hurt (as in pain) your back.  If you find that a certain posture is good for you try to sets of time in which you are in that posture.   Remmember: your best posture is your next posture. ",
        "id": 149,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Did my dentist lie to me?",
        "body": "That 'put your arm out' scenario is a kinesiology practice.  You can google it to find out more.  I have known people who say it's very accurate and others who say it's hocus-pocus.     Maybe it's similar to homeopathy that seems to work on some people but not on others.  ",
        "id": 1107,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Blood Donation After Effects",
        "body": "Be sure to supplement enough iron (about 18 mg per day)! Take your iron with vitamin C and avoid tea and coffee. American Red Cross: \"The American Red Cross now recommends that individuals who give blood frequently should take a multivitamin with iron or an iron-only supplement to replace the iron lost through blood donation. Before taking a multivitamin with iron or an iron-only supplement, you should consult with your health-care provider.\"  About 200 mg of iron will be lost during your donation: \"A donor generally donates approximately 450 ml blood at the time of donation. One gram of haemoglobin contains 3.4 mg of iron. In a normal individual with 15 g of haemoglobin per dl, 100 ml of blood contains approximately 50 mg of iron. Thus removal of only 2 ml of blood results in the loss of 1 mg of iron3. If 450 ml of blood are taken in a donation approximately 225 mg of iron will be lost.\" Vitamin C helps iron absorbtion. You need about 90 mg of Vitamin C per day - feel free to take more as it won't hurt - vitamin C is soluble in water and body can easily get rid of excess. Watch out for coffee and tea, they block iron absorbtion: \"Recommendations with respect to tea consumption (when in a critical group) include: consume tea between meals instead of during the meal; simultaneously consume ascorbic acid and/or meat, fish and poultry.\"",
        "id": 860,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "HyperThyroidism",
        "body": "If your TSH levels are too high, you have hypothyroidism. Beneath hairloss other symptoms are listlesness, dry skin, feeling cold or  gaining weight easily. The TSH should be between 0.4 and 4 (1). The best would be to visit an internist/endocrinologist and start a L-thyroxine substitution.  If the wrinkles are because of the hypothyroidism, the substitution should solve the problem.   Why is a high TSH a marker of a Hypothyreosis?  Click here for an image of the thyroid hormone controll loop.  The hypothalamus constantly screens the bloodlevels of thyroid hormones. If they are too low, it releases TRH (thyreotropin releasing hormone). TRH stimulates the pituary gland to produce TSH (Thyrotropin or thyroidea stimulating hormone). An increase in TRH leads to an increase of TSH. TSH than stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T4 which finally becomes T3, the active thyroid hormone, in the tissue (the most conversion from T4 to T3 happens in the brain).  If there is a lack of thyroid hormone, the hypothalmus senses it and through increased TRH more TSH ist produced. However if the thyroid gland is insufficient and can't respond to elevated TSH levels with producing T4 there is no negative feedback, thus leading to a further increase of TSH levels. That's why high TSH levels indicate hypothyroidism. TSH under 0.4 is therefore an indicator for hyperthyroidism.  Hypothyroidism is usually harmless and is treated with L-Thyroxine (artificial T4) substitution. ",
        "id": 1048,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Having sex with someone who's had many sexual partners,",
        "body": "This is a very good and important question, not only for you but for other people as well.  As people have said in the comments, YES it can be potentially dangerous to have unprotected sexual encounters with her without having tested for STDs first. Even if she's had unprotected sex with only ONE person, she would've been at risk for an STD.  As long as she hasn't been tested, please have protected sex only. This study talks about (among other things) the effectiveness of condoms in reduving the risk for STDs.  You should be honest with her and say \"I'm not comfortable having unprotected sex if you do not test for STDs first.\" STDs can be asymptomatic, so she might have one and not know about it. So it's not a question of trust. If it makes it easier for you, you might even say \"It's not that I do not trust you, but I do not know the people you've had sex with before and it's them I don't trust.\"   Generally, I tell people: If a person refuses to check for STDs/does not want to have protected sex, they do not truly care about you. If that's the case, walk away.",
        "id": 1812,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why don't all teratogens warn against pregnancy?",
        "body": "As a point to note with your 2 selections of medications, Isotretinoin (e.g. Roaccutane) is used to treat acne and Paroxetine is for treating depression, General Anxiety Disorder, panic disorder and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.  These are medical conditions with very different possible outcomes.  Acne can be lived with without affecting daily life, but others (depression etc.) can severely affect daily life, which can include risks of suicide.  With Paroxetine (a type of antidepressant called Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)) manufacturers advise that you avoid taking them during pregnancy unless the potential benefit outweighs the risk (British National Formulary).  Now, you can stop taking Roaccutane with no adverse effects, but you cannot just stop taking SSRIs. Stopping needs to be under the direction, advice and control of your doctor.  Stopping suddenly can lead to withdrawal symptoms such as:        stomach upsets   flu-like symptoms   anxiety   dizziness   sensations in the body that feel like electric shocks   seizures (fits)         If your GP or mental health specialist decides to stop your course of SSRIs, they'll reduce the dose gradually over a few weeks.   I don't know about other countries, but here in the UK, SSRIs come packaged with a patient information leaflet which discusses side effects, contraindications, etc.",
        "id": 2647,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In what situations can vaccination lead to autism-like symptoms?",
        "body": "Hannah Poling (as the quote in the question points out) doesn't have autism - she has Mitochondrial Disease, a thankfully rare genetic disorder that relates to the bodies mitochondria and can result in (amongst other things) neurological damage occurring as a result of a fever (in Hannah's case regressive encephalopathy).  There's some overlap between the symptoms found when Dr Zimmerman examined Hannah and the symptoms used to diagnose autism but not enough for her to meet the criteria - only 3 line up with the DSM-IV criteria (which was current at the time).  The vaccinations Hannah recieved didn't cause her mito (as said above it's genetic) - it's possible however that she experienced a fever as a result of the vaccines (which is a known possible side-effect) and that it was this fever interacting with her mitochrondrial disease that caused the encephalopathy. Around the same time she was also suffering with recurrent bouts of otitis media (or \"Ear infections\" in layman's terms), which would have been another potential cause. Since the vaccines -> fever -> encephalopathy route is plausible, understood and matches up with the timeline of Hannah's case however the Vaccine Court erred on the side of caution and (correctly IMO) chose to compensate Hannah and her family (encephalopathy is after all a table injury).  Essentially this whole thing is a fuss over nothing - basically antivaxxers like Kim Stagliano over at Age Of Autism (Sorry, I'm not linking to anything on that hateful site) decided to completely ignore Hannah's actual diagnosis and instead picked on the words :     features consistent with an autistic spectrum disorder   in Dr Zimmerman's report and in a textbook example of confirmation bias shouted to everyone that would listen that this was somehow proof that Hannah was autistic and that it was the vaccines wot done it!  So should children with mito not be vaccinated? No. because the regressive encephalopathy that can occur in mito cases like Hannah's is triggered by the fever not the vaccine. Yes the vaccines can result in a fever, and that fever can in turn trigger the encephalopathy - but there's nothing special about the fever because it resulted from vaccination and the diseases that they aim to prevent are not only more likely to result in a fever but also it's more likely to be a more severe fever - which increases the probability of such regressive encephalopathy from occurring.     I believe that some people may be predisposed to develop autism   In order for this to be feasible, it first needs to be feasible for vaccines to cause autism. Study after study has shown no evidence that this is the case - even if it were rare for these \"susceptible\" people to exist we'd expect to see signals of it in the large scale epidemiological studies such as this study recently published in Denmark but as with other studies done before it.. nothing shows up. I mean never say never and all that but so far whenever anyone shakes that particular magic 8 ball it keeps on coming up \"Vaccines don't cause autism\".  For more detail on this particular case there's a great article over on Science Based Medicine.",
        "id": 2664,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should i start drinking coffee or tea for health reasons?",
        "body": "I am not an expert, but I am going to write up what I think. Note that there is a Coffee Stack Exchange if you later have non-health related questions about coffee.  Caffeine has some positive effects, but also some negative effects.  The positive effects seem to be linked to better mood and concentration, and preventing a number of cancers and Type II diabetes. It also improves athletic performance a tiny bit, especially when working out in the morning.  Ironically, the same article mentions that caffeine may decrease people's mood by making them anxious and disrupting sleep patterns if you take it too late in the day. It raises blood pressure levels make it harder for people with Type II diabetes to manage their insulin levels. Coffee is also a mutagenic.  So whatever health positives there are, there seems to be a risk for the opposite to occur, which is a bit paradoxical. Coffee contains antioxidants, but it's also a laxative which may inhibit uptake of nutrients. It may upset your stomach. It may stain your teeth over time. There are also some other effects (good and bad) you can read about.  There is also the finding in rat subjects that coffee only makes the \"lazy\" motivated, but already motivated subjects are actually hampered by the stimulant.  The health benefits your friends are referring to, I think are dubious. If you don't even enjoy coffee, I think the net effect may even be negative for you. There is usually a peer pressure around drinking coffee (because it is a stimulant drug), and maybe they just want you to join in.  I am a coffee drinker, and the main reason I drink it is because it gets me alert in the morning (and I have learned to enjoy the taste, which is a positive). I also use it as a short-term mood booster to get back to work, if my morale starts to wind down. But on the negative side is that it can make you jittery and anxious, and the motivation gained is followed by a \"crash\" where your concentration and mood will slip.   Coffee does not provide concentration over an extended time, so any cognitive performance increase will be short-lived. Basically, caffeine will only help you work longer if you are already tired, but it will not improve cognitive performance if you are already energized. Think of it as a 2 am quick fix, not an 11 am booster. It will however probably improve physical performance a bit whenever.  From your description of yourself, I would not start. You do not seem to need it, in any practical way.  Regarding tea, it usually contains some caffeine (there are caffeine-free teas), but it may also provide more antioxidants. It may be a better health choice than coffee.",
        "id": 1061,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "For long-term use: Non-Alcoholic Mouthwash vs Saltwater",
        "body": "Comparing \"saltwater\" to non-alcoholic mouthwash may be too general.  If I remember correctly, pH is dependent on OH- (hydroxide) and H+ (Hydrogen) levels. Depending on the type of salt, let's say NaCl (table salt), water will recombine with the salt, but OH and H levels aren't affected. Na binds to OH and H binds to CL in equal quantity.  Regarding the following that I found below, I believe \"alkalinize\" can't be taken to mean below neutral. I think it means that it lowers the pH level, whether to basic or less acidic. How I think of it is that you start with a highly acidic environment due to the bacteria. Then you use something with less acidity to average out the pH.      \"Salt water rinses are good because they alkalinize the mouth (opposite of acidify, which is what the bacteria create.) Use one-half teaspoon each of baking soda and salt in a cup of warm water. The alkalinity helps decrease the bacteria count because they like an acid environment. As far as hot or cold, I'm not sure it matters. The rise in pH (alkalinity) is temporary. That is why the docs are promoting the Peridex, because they last longer.\"1   However, I believe that the acidity is relative. So for short term, it kills the bacteria, but for long term I believe Dr. Kerr is correct: it erodes teeth, which are made from Ca+ and probably fall to influence of the Cl- present in the solution.  Cetylpyridinium chloride is a modern anti-sceptic. Despite the hazards of LARGE quantity exposure, \"CPC was one of only three antimicrobial systems to be classified as safe and efficacious for the treatment of plaque-induced gingivitis, along with stannous fluoride and essential oils.\"2 So it's safe in the amounts we use. Plus, hopefully you're not swallowing your mouthwash.    1: Ped-Onc Resource Center - Mouth and Teeth: Care and Problems  2: Cetylpyridinium chloride reduces plaque, calculus  What is Cetylpyridinium Chloride?",
        "id": 14,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What factors besides age and genetics influence the prevalence of Alzheimer's?",
        "body": "How about this list from the Alzheimer Society of Canada? It differentiates between modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors and goes on to explain how and why which risk factors are risk factors.     Modifiable risk-factors:   - Risk factors for both Alzheimer\u2019s disease and cardiovascular diseases   - Smoking   - High Blood Pressure   - Diabetes   - High Cholesterol   - Obesity &amp; Low Physical Activity       Other risk factors   - Alcohol   - Low levels of education   - Depression   - Head Injuries         Non-modifiable risk factors:   - Age   - Family History and Genetics   - Gender         Source: Alzheimer Society of Canada. Risk factors. Accessed 01/01/2019 ",
        "id": 2575,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "a cure for gray hair is on the way?",
        "body": "I haven't read the article, only the abstract, but what it's saying is that, for people with grey or white hair, darkening of hair color is an indication that anti\u2013PD-1/anti\u2013PD-L1 treatment for lung cancer is working.  This is almost entirely unrelated to reversing age-related hair depigmentation.  (As a side note, I consider the Daily Mail to be comparable to The Onion when it comes to accuracy in medical reporting.)",
        "id": 2399,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a TDEE calculator which takes into account sleeping hours?",
        "body": "There are several such calculators where you can input the hours you spend sleeping / sitting / standing etc. One example is here.   Please note that even this will not give you a 100 percent accurate number. ",
        "id": 550,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does the intensity in an MR image represent?",
        "body": "There are no units for MRI intensity.  A Comparison of Five Methods for Signal Intensity Standardization in MRI (CEUR-WS.org):     A major problem in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the lack of a   pulse sequence dependent standardized intensity scale like the   Hounsfield units in computed tomography.   MRI sequences (Radiopedia):     When describing most MRI sequences we refer to the shade of grey of   tissues or fluid with the word intensity, leading to the following   absolute terms:         high signal intensity = white   intermediate signal intensity = grey   low signal intensity = black          Often we refer to the appearance by relative terms:         hyperintense = brighter than the thing we are comparing it to   isointense = same brightness as the thing we are comparing it to   hypointense = darker than the thing we are comparing it to         Annoyingly these relative terms are used without reference to the tissue being used as the comparison.   See also: Signal intensity (MR-tip.com)",
        "id": 2578,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the scientific basis for the health benefits of caloric restriction?",
        "body": "Calorie restriction is a complex phenomenon as the effects can vary depending on how much you restrict calories to when you restrict them. You can do daily calorie restriction, or you can restrict your calories with fasting in various intermittent fasting protocols.   For the benefits of restricting calories, there seems to be several studies showing benefits in longevity and health. However, the fact that restricting calories will in most cases lead to weight loss, it is hard to determine whether it is the restriction itself that has benefits (and the hormonal changes that occur in the body due to restriction) or simply from the weight loss itself.   This study, which is done on rodents, show that there are changes on the cellular level that can increase the lifespan of rodents: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1357272502000389  This study shows that several age-related diseases can decrease with long-term calorie restriction. However, this study discusses the effects it has on yeast, worms, flies and rodents, and links these hypothetically to primates: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journal/v6/n4/abs/nrm1616.html  This is a similar study as the one above. It discusses studies done on yeast, worms, flies, rodents, and some primates (the Rhesus monkey) and draws conclusions from those studies to humans: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047637405000874  This study is similar to the one above: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867405001030  I find the conclusion of the last study to be of interest:     CR has long been recognized for its ability to extend mammalian life   span and to mitigate disease processes in many tissues. Humans have   not fully harvested the benefits from the regimen, in part because of   the extreme difficulty in complying with the regimen.   Long term calorie restriction is very difficult for humans, and since we cannot do lab studies on humans, it is very hard to determine the long term effects of CR. However, there are several studies that seem to indicate that intermittent fasting (IF) can produce similar results as CR, and that IF can be much easier for humans to maintain in the long term. Since IF is not the topic of this question I will not link to studies.",
        "id": 312,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Washing hands after going to the washroom to prevent epidemy",
        "body": "Hands play a major role especially in the transmission of blood-borne, fecal, and respiratory tract viruses.   Hand washing after use of bathroom aims at preventing the transmission of pathogens, which rely on faecal-oral transmission, such as rotavirus, noroviruses, enteroviruses in some cases hepatitis A virus (1). It prevents those pathogens from reaching the kitchen for example where it could lead to subsequent ingestion.  Recently a systematic review (2) identified a total of 2881 unique publications addressing this question.  Interestingly, this study found a varying prevalence of hand-washing after contact with extcreta:     We estimate that 19% of people worldwide wash their hands with soap   after contact with excreta. The regional mean prevalence of   handwashing with soap ranges between 13% and 17% in low- and   middle-income regions, and between 42% and 49% in high-income regions   However, the authors reported a 40% reduction in the risk of diarrhoea from the promotion of handwashing with soap (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.53\u20130.68) suggesting that hand-washing impact on faecal oral transmission and reduces risk of diarrhoea.  Sources:   Kampf G, Kramer A. Epidemiologic Background of Hand Hygiene and Evaluation of the Most Important Agents for Scrubs and Rubs. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2004;17(4):863-893. Freeman et al. Systematic review: Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects. Tropical Medicine and international health. Volume 19, Issue 8. August 2014. Pages 906\u2013916                          ",
        "id": 1192,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many paper abstracts are typically read when preparing a clinical systematic review?",
        "body": "Even if this will be just a partial answer, it might help to \"better understand the process of creating systematic reviews\", as given in the comments.  One obvious answer to give here is: all of the abstracts have to be read, once the papers turn up \"positive\" within the (re-)search strategy for the literature. After all they have to be evaluated for inclusion or exclusion.  If the original question is meant to ask for the average number of studies actually used, i.e. a hard number of included papers into the review, then the answer is quite different:  From Terri Pigott: Advances in Meta-Analysis, Springer, 2012:     Another common question is: How many studies do I need to conduct a meta-analysis? Though my colleagues and I have often answered \u201ctwo\u201d (Valentine et al. 2010), the more complete answer lies in understanding the power of the statistical tests in meta-analysis. I take the approach in this book that power of tests in meta-analysis like power of any statistical test needs to be computed a priori, using assumptions about the size of an important effect in a given context, and the typical sample sizes used in a given field. Again, deep substantive knowledge of a research literature is critical for a reviewer in order to make reasonable assumptions about parameters needed for power.   It therefore depends on how well studied and researched a field or a research  question is to select the reviewed papers from. Highly fashionable topics with controversy attached will have hundreds or thousands to choose from, niche interests, unprofitable venues perhaps only a few. To request a statistic across all of these fields of clinical systematic reviews is entirely possible. But one of the problems associated with meta-analyses is the so called garbage-in-garbage-out problem: such an undertaking \u2013 of not only \"estimate how many paper abstracts medical researchers read when preparing a clinical systematic review?\" but even precisely calculate that number \u2013 might be in danger of producing meaningless numbers, only useful for journalists or politicians.  One article providing just such a meta-meta-analysis does list such a number as requested in the question for the sub-field of psychology: 51 (range 5\u201381). (doi: 10.1080/00273171003680187 A Meta-Meta-Analysis: Empirical Review of Statistical Power, Type I Error Rates, Effect Sizes, and Model Selection of Meta-Analyses Published in Psychology.) But it also  highlights the problems inherent with such an approach quite nicely:        Effect Sizes and Heterogeneity in Meta-Analysis   Model Choice:   Fixed-effects models were used with much greater frequency than random- effects models, often without overtly stating that such a model was being used. On the other hand, random-effects models were used with increasing frequency over time. Future studies should more routinely implement random-effects models given their greater validity from an inference standpoint.  Finally, it is important to consider that use of random-effects models will lower power for significance tests in most cases (i.e., when the between-study variance is greater than zero).      More general we might guard against blind trust into reviews or meta-analysis in general. Currently, the field of medicine strives to rebuild its knowledge on an evidence based foundation, which is of course very welcome. But in pursuing this goal with overly confident concentration on quantitative data and mathematical models, a child in the bathtub might get hurt. Naming, using or just believing in any kind of 'gold standard' (or variously even platinum) will be too much on one extreme side. That is pictured as follows:    The biggest problem with that picture is that \"the filter\" is quite ill defined and regularly studies with higher statistical power or greater significance are chosen to be included. While sounding logical at first this violates philosophical principles, on principle, like Carnap's \"Principle of Total Evidence\". This mechanistic reasoning introduces therefore its own set of systematic bias.  To address several of these known dangers, pitfalls and shortcomings the PRISMA statement is an initiative to at least standardise the approaches and document transparently the procedure chosen for these types of analyses.  More epistemological problems are condensed in Stegenga: \"Is meta-analysis the platinum standard of evidence?\" (2011):     [\u2026] meta-analyses fail to adequately constrain intersubjective assessments of hypotheses. This is because the numerous decisions that must be made when designing and performing a meta-analysis require personal judgment and expertise, and allow personal biases and idiosyncrasies of reviewers to influence the outcome of the meta-analysis. The failure of Objectivity at least partly explains the failure of Constraint: that is, the subjectivity required for meta-analysis explains how multiple meta-analyses of the same primary evidence can reach contradictory conclusions regarding the same hypothesis. [\u2026] However, my discussion of the many particular decisions that must be made when performing a meta-analysis suggests that such improvements can only go so far. For at least some of these decisions, the choice between available options is entirely arbitrary; the various proposals to enhance the transparency of reporting of meta-analyses are unable, in principle, to referee between these arbitrary choices. More generally, this rejoinder from the defenders of meta-analysis\u2014that we ought not altogether discard the technique\u2014over-states the strength of the conclusion I have argued for, which is not that meta-analysis is en- tirely a bad method of amalgamating evidence, but rather is that meta-analysis ought not be considered the best kind of evidence for assessing causal hypotheses in medicine and the social sciences. I have not argued that meta-analysis cannot provide any compelling evidence, but rather, contrary to the standard view, I have argued that meta-analysis is not the platinum standard of evidence. ",
        "id": 2058,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating cherry tomatoes daily - Healthy?",
        "body": "I think I can answer this myself now.  After ~3 weeks I started having problems with my intestines. My stool got very soft, sometimes more like diarrhoea. So I stopped eating tomatoes. Ik took about 2 weeks for things to normalize again.  So I guess moderation is in place here. 1 or 2 times a week shouldn't be a problem, but don't overdo it.",
        "id": 1824,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do uteruses return to their original size after a full-term birth or are they slightly bigger than one that's never grown?",
        "body": "   Does the uterus return to its original (pre-pregnancy) size after a full term birth?   Good question. No. Uterine involution, the return of the uterus to the nonpregnant state postpartum, does involve a remarkable decrease in size, but it's not as small as it was before pregnancy. Nonpregnant uterine size increases with what we call parity, or the number of times a woman has carried a pregnancy to term. I can't seem to find the original data on this, but it would likely be an early 20th century (or possibly late 19th) pathology series. The phenomenon is referenced in the pathology literature, e.g., in the section on hysterectomy specimens in this article:     Note that the parous uterus (premenopausal adult 75-100 g) is heavier than the nulliparous uterus (premenopausal adult 30-40 g), and weight increases with parity, so that after eight pregnancies a weight of 240 g is normal.   This finding (increased uterine size depends on parity) is confirmed in imaging studies, for example, here.",
        "id": 2612,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Alzheimer's disease determined by genes or lifestyle and diet?",
        "body": "In short:   Alzheimer's disease (AD), in most cases, is not hereditary. You can decrease the risk of having AD by maintaining healthy weight and regular physical activity. There is insufficient evidence about the effectiveness of different nutrients, foods, diets or supplements in the prevention of AD.   According to Alzheimer's Society Canada, modifiable risk factors for AD include:     diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, smoking, depression, cognitive   inactivity or low education, and physical inactivity.   Other risk factors can include: excessive alcohol drinking, high blood cholesterol levels, stroke and repeated head injuries.  Alzheimer disease and genetics:     Most Alzheimer\u2019s disease does not run in families and is described as   \u201csporadic\u201d. Rare cases of Alzheimer\u2019s disease are inherited or   \u201cfamilial\u2019.   Diet. Various systematic reviews, like this one, mention the association (but not necessary the cause-effect relationship) between Mediterranean diet and lower risk of AD.  Cochrane has a long list of study reviews about the preventative effect of supplements, herbs and alternative treatments on AD; in most cases, there is no evidence of their effectiveness.",
        "id": 2263,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Assessing protein bars with artificial sweeteners for diabetics type 2",
        "body": "Firstly energy/calories for this bar are itself high as is case with many energy bars. Now with this small bar if we do get enough energy but does it fill the stomach and urge to eat, no. Now anything except for fibres that we consume in excess even proteins can be used in gluconeogenesis. Also fat is also present in such bars and I see that's saturated too, now here saturated fats actually may effect the esterification too. PUFA help in decreasing esterification of cholesterol. Although excess pufa too are not good a balance of pufa mufa is needed. So these things are complicated &amp; multifactorial.Best is to consult doctor.  PUFA stands for polyunsaturated fatty acids. Like linolenic,linoleic, arachidonic acid. We refer them as $\\omega$ fatty acids.  PUFA decrease cholesterol esterification esterification of cholesterol decrease in presence of pufaand that's why they are associated with antiatherogenic property.  Moreover PUFA also help in synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators like PGI2. Even more PUFA come under essential fatty acids.  If you want to know more about cholesterol esterification click here.  Further the use of artificial sweeteners complicate the matter, their safety may not have been established",
        "id": 2621,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do I need to communicate with my doctor if I don't want to take prescribed MRI?",
        "body": "This is a specific instance of where a physician has ordered a diagnostic test, and after agreeing to do the same, the patient decides for whatever reason not to adhere to their original commitment.  The health implications obviously vary depending on what the underlying diagnosis is, and in some jurisdictions some physicians may be penalized for not following up on whether these tests have been done due to patient non adherence.  By not doing the test you agreed to do, you strain the doctor patient relationship and the doctor may feel well within their rights to terminate the relationship.  It is therefore incumbent on you to advise your doctor that you do not wish to proceed with the test so that your doctor can then make alternative arrangements for you, and to document that you declined to proceed.  This might include asking you to return to discuss the reasons for the test, or to refer you a specialist, presumably a neurologist in the specific instance above.   A letter written to your doctor might suffice, as might a telephone call to their office, depending on the policies of the office, to advise your doctor of your change in mind.  If the test were intended to look for a serious illness, then they may not accept a phone call and may want it in writing instead.",
        "id": 898,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Increase vision clarity with eye exercices?",
        "body": "I've changed eyeglass prescriptions in the past, which is equivalent to what you're doing. Your eyes are no longer currently accustomed to having that kind of lens in front of them, so it feels the same way it did when you put glasses on for the first time.  I would guess that the -2.5 power is the lens which makes a more significant correction to the lens of one of your eyes. I don't remember the numbers for the lenses of my glasses, but my left eye is further off (more nearsighted) than my right eye, so if I were to not wear glasses for a few days, my left eye would notice it more when I put my glasses back on.  I think it was after I had not worn glasses for a while - maybe months - that my vision was evaluated again, and both eyes had changed. My left eye was less nearsighted and my right eye was more nearsighted. So, I would guess that not wearing glasses makes your eyes exercise harder at focusing, which might change the shape of the lenses in either direction.  Maybe after wearing your old glasses for a couple weeks, giving your eyes a chance to get used to them again, if that eye is still not focusing satisfactorily, you should go to the optometrist and have them see if your eyes have changed. (Two weeks is a rough estimate, but I think it's a good amount of time.)",
        "id": 1339,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Anilingus healthy?",
        "body": "According to Jack Morin, the author of     Anal Pleasure and Health: A Guide for Men, Women and Couples   anilingus can actually be beneficial (point 10 of '10 Rules of Anal Sex').        Anal sex can be perfectly safe, even beneficial.   The taboo against anal eroticism is perpetuated by the almost universal belief among physicians that anal sex is inevitably dangerous. No physical injury from anal stimulation results if both partners refuse to tolerate pain, never use force and   avoid the use of drugs.   . . .   Thousands of men and women with chronic anal medical problems have   restored their anal health by challenging their   negative attitudes. This approach is indispensable for full erotic   enjoyment of the anus.      But most references claim (e.g. the Wikipedia link above) claim that it is very hazardous to your health.  An audio excerpt from this book is available from:     https://www.audible.co.uk/pd/Anal-Pleasure-and-Health-Audiobook/B009152MHY   in which the narrator describes only how to avoid 'anal hell', and does not mention any positive medical advantages.",
        "id": 1792,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are diet soft drinks really a healthy alternative?",
        "body": "Short: NO. It's not healthy neither for you nor for your environment. E.g. there is study (Jotham Suez et al., 2014), which indicates that there are problems with sugar substitutes when it comes to glucose metabolism. E.g. Acesulfame which comes often together with Aspartame is difficult to treat in wastewater. Just drink tap water or maybe mineral water.",
        "id": 436,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does efficacy of the flu vaccine change if received while sick with the common-cold?",
        "body": "No, it doesn't     Vaccines contain the same antigens (or parts of antigens) that cause diseases. For example, measles vaccine contains measles virus. But the antigens in vaccines are either killed, or weakened to the point that they don\u2019t cause disease. However, they are strong enough to make the immune system produce antibodies that lead to immunity. In other words, a vaccine is a safer substitute for a child\u2019s first exposure to a disease. The child gets protection without having to get sick. Through vaccination, children can develop immunity without suffering from the actual diseases that vaccines prevent.      Source: CDC.gov, Emphasis Mine   The effort it takes for the immune system to produce antibodies is so little your immune system should be able to cope with it, this is why multiple vaccinations can be received at the same time.     A number of studies have been done to look at the effects of giving various combinations of vaccines, and when every new vaccine is licensed, it has been tested along with the vaccines already recommended for a particular aged child. The recommended vaccines have been shown to be as effective in combination as they are individually.  Sometimes, certain combinations of vaccines given together can cause fever, and occasionally febrile seizures; these are temporary and do not cause any lasting damage. Based on this information, both the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend getting all routine childhood vaccines on time.      Source: CDC.gov, Further Reading, Emphasis Mine     Furthermore, the Common Cold is usually not very straining on the immune system, and immunity to the influenza can take up to 2 weeks to develop. Your immune system is handling so many infections at the same time, most of whose outbreaks never occur because the immune system is quick enough, a few killed antigens won't burden it much.  If you still are in doubt, talk to your doctor.      A little treat:  ",
        "id": 2006,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is rabies contagious?",
        "body": "Yes, rabies is most definitely contagious.  The most common route of infection is from the bite of an infected animal, which introduces virus-laden saliva to the victim. It's also possible, though much less likely, to be exposed to infective saliva in the eyes, nose and mouth.  The CDC claims that a person-to-person transmission of the virus via bite is theoretically possible, but has not been documented:     ...bite and non-bite exposures inflicted by infected humans could theoretically transmit rabies, but no such cases have been documented.    There has however been person-to-person transmission of the virus through organ transplants, also documented here.  In terms of avoiding spreading the disease, the routes of transmission suggest several clear methods:   Avoiding contact with wild animals, or domestic animals in rabies endemic areas showing signs of infection, such as hydrophobia or aggressive behavior. Vaccinating animal populations to interrupt transmission of the virus within wildlife. Postexposure prophylaxis for people who have come in contact with a potentially infectious animal. Screening of organ donors for rabies. ",
        "id": 152,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Disadvantages of Running in Night after dinner",
        "body": "Immediately after dinner - No. The body is re-directing a significant amount of blood to your stomach region to deal with the dinner you just had.   Therefore, a run would not be advisable.   You should ideally wait at least 2 hours after dinner and if the dinner was heavy, at least 4 hours to allow for the food to be digested.  Short answer: Wait for 2 to 4 hours after dinner before you run.",
        "id": 1782,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why isn't sweet toothpaste bad for teeth?",
        "body": "Artificial sweeteners are used in toothpastes. Mostly Xylitol or Sacharin. They don\u00b4t promote tooth decay. The sweetness in toothpaste are added in order to make more people brush their teeth on a daily basis.     Livestrong - Saccharin Safety in Toothpaste  What makes toothpaste sweet?  Why is toothpaste sweet and what is it sweetened with?",
        "id": 329,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Leg apparently slightly shorter after femur surgery",
        "body": "I am certainly no expert, however I had a hip replacement in August 2015 and I know I have a slight leg length difference now.  It's very common in hip surgery but I think we are so pleased to be out of pain it doesn't seem important until we are fully recovered as you are and then possibly left with a limp.  I was measured about 8 weeks after surgery and there was a difference but they said it can a couple of years for everything to 'bed in' and I think they were right except I feel that my left leg is longer than my right and some days it seems more apparent than others.  For me I think unless I start getting pain somewhere I'm not worried, I have got used to it. Saying that I did have to retrain myself to stop limping as it had become a habit. Have you had help with strengthening your core and your leg?  Once you find the right physiotherapist they are amazing.  I go to Pilates and it has made such a difference.  I know people who use the little insole in their shoes and they work fantastically.  A friend of mine had a really bad back and sciatica and could hardly walk but just by wearing an insole and levelling him up, he is now pain free and has been for years.   He has one pair for his shoes, another for his wellies and a third for his trainers now!  I would definitely go for a second opinion as it is your health and you have a right to ask questions and be in control. Sometimes we just need to speak to the right person and get peace of mind. I think it is different for everyone, some don't notice or can live with it and some people are more aware, as I am.   Sorry to hear you have been through so much but sounds like you have recovered really well which is fantastic.  Good luck!  Take care",
        "id": 1578,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can your rectum atrophy after a long time of inactivity?",
        "body": "The premise is incorrect. The internal anal sphincter is in a state of chronic contraction and is not under voluntary control. When defecation occurs the sphincter relaxes allowing the passage of the rectal contents. Even when there is a colostomy there is still mucus produced which needs to be expelled on a regular basis. There is no disuse occurring.  https://www.britannica.com/science/anal-canal",
        "id": 2167,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How To Get Rid Of Bloated Stomach?",
        "body": "I'd suggest seeing a doctor. They'd be able to get to the crux of the matter, and it could be indicative of something more serious. Especially considering bloating can be caused by so many things and you've tried most of the basics  Did you google it? There's tons of articles on bloating along with suggestions and remedies. Based on your question it seems like you have, so I'm assuming you've tried avoiding sugar substitues (splenda, aspartame, etc), carbonated drinks, and sugars, taking enteric coated peppermint oil, etc.  And again, I'd suggest seeing a doctor. Expecially since you seem to have tried all the more simple remedies.  Medical disclaimer:     This answer is for general informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. If you think you may have a medical emergency, call your doctor or (in the United States) 911 immediately. Always seek the advice of your doctor before starting or changing treatment.  ",
        "id": 327,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name of the condition where your foot is much larger when standing than when sitting?",
        "body": "Where the tissues swell when you do a lot of standing but don't when you're recumbent, or less obvious when you're sitting - is called dependent edema.     What are the causes for dependent edema?   Although dependent edema is the most common cause for leg swelling, there is no easy explanation to why it happens. All that is known that it happens in certain conditions Here are several causes that are known to be causes of leg swelling:    Hot weather \u2013 Hot weather causes the veins to dilate. Dilated veins will result in fluid leaving them. This is a very common cause of ankle swelling. This is why more people complain of swollen legs during summer.  Flight \u2013 The pressure in the passanger cabin during flight is less than it is on the ground. That reduced pressure may cause the ankles to swell.  Diet rich in salt \u2013 Salt is well known to attract fluid. A diet rich in salt may result in dependent edema (editor: Hmm.  that needs a reference) Standing for a long time \u2013 Gravity results in pooling of fluid in the ankles after long periods of standing. This is why people who are on their feet a lot without really moving get swollen legs. Examples of such people are cashiers.  Lack of movement \u2013 The body uses movement to pump fluid out of the legs and back into the body. People who do not move much will develop edema. This may happen even in young, healthy, people, who have a desk job and sit by their computer for prolonged periods of time.  Medication \u2013 Such as amlodipine. (vasodilators)   http://www.angiologist.com/uniquely-vascular-medicine/dependent-edema/",
        "id": 2232,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Treating gingivitis",
        "body": "According to WebMD, not having proper brushing techniques can result in gingivitis.      Ask your dentist about the proper way to brush -- bearing down too   hard or missing spots can lead to gingivitis.   So not brushing thoroughly enough is a option to Gingivitis may develop in a person who brushes and flosses enough times a day.    NIH     Gingivitis is due to the long-term effects of plaque deposits on your   teeth. Plaque is a sticky material made of bacteria, mucus, and food   debris that builds up on the exposed parts of the teeth. It is also a   major cause of tooth decay.   So even though you brush twice a day and floss you may still be leaving plaque behind.  Gingivitis Prevention   Brush your teeth twice a day and throw out old tooth brushes every 3 months.  Make sure you visit a dentist at least every 6 months and consult them about your concerns and questions.  Utilize floss and mouthwash. Consult you dentist on which types are better for you and how to floss properly so that you do not damage your mouth.    9 Toothbrushing Mistakes -- and How to Fix Them   Make sure your toothbrush fits in your mouth and is not to big or to small.  Don't brush to many times a day, over 3 times is probably to much.  A good session should last around 2 minutes. Take your time and don't rush.  Wait a  hour after you eat to brush teeth because acid from food weakens enamel, and don't store your toothbrush in the bathroom.    It is important to consult your dentist on what is best, as gingivitis is a early stage of gum disease. So prevention and treatment is important in this stage. Treatment can be usually just better dental hygiene, but consulting a dentist would be best. ",
        "id": 1022,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is using urine to clean a wound better than non-sterile water?",
        "body": "It depends  Extended contact of urine on skin will cause skin irritation and eventual breakdown. On the other hand, that water may contain flesh eating bacteria.  This is a situation of a lesser of two evils. Each wound is different and the causes numerous. The only reason you would need to \"clean\" a wound is if there is something in the wound that presents a hazard. Is that hazard greater then the damage urine will cause it?   Bleeding does not necessarily require cleaning. Bleeding in it's very nature is bleeding out and not in, decreasing the odds of infection.  Urine is designed to remove waste materials and isn't designed for bacteria. A UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) is normally introduced externally rather then interiorly.  As far as sterility goes, completely sterile water is uncommon. I would trust water from my water bottle more then urine, even if it does contain bacteria from my mouth.",
        "id": 23,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why aren't tendons affected by chronic tendinopathy replaced by artificial tendons?",
        "body": "Tendons don't usually get replaced because there is tendon repair surgery instead. Getting your tendon (or any body part for that matter) replaced by an artificial tendon usually takes longer to recover than a tendon repair surgery, and also leaves you with some lifetime limitations, such as not be able to lift weight and you will not be able to compete in sports that involve the tendon that got replaced as actively. Tendon repair surgeries tend to take less time to recover from, and they also have a high success rate (if you do proper therapy).    Tendon Repair Surgery  Hand Surgery: Replacement and Tendon Repair",
        "id": 50,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why lower gauge needles aren't used to draw blood for blood tests?",
        "body": "Gauge sizes do affect the red blood cells (RBCs). However, this mostly applies in the high range with 23 gauge needles (and higher) predisposing the sample to hemolysis (the destruction of RBCs) which causes problems for some blood tests (namely the CBC). Large needles come with problems of their own like an increased risk of creating a tear in the blood vessel with associated pain etc. and failure to acquire the blood sample. These large needles are currently only recommended for blood donation, both to prevent hemolysis but also to speed up the donation process since they allow more blood flow than smaller needles.  So in short, large needles are not without their own problems so needles that are smaller should be used for most blood sampling. However, this may create problems if the needle is very small.  Source: WHO Guidelines on Drawing Blood: Best Practices is Phlebotomy, 2010.",
        "id": 1005,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Farts coming out of the mouth?",
        "body": "The linked article's title and subtitle are in contradiction with the article's content.  The title and subtitle say:     THIS IS WHAT HAPPENS TO YOUR BODY WHEN YOU HOLD IN A FART...If you   keep one inside too long, it can bubble up to your mouth instead...   But the text says:     ...gas literally bubbling up from your intestines and coming out as a   burp...That\u2019s because, at this point in the digestive process, the gas   is still much closer to your mouth than your anus.   The gas discussed above is the gas in the first part of the small intestine (just after the stomach). When this gas comes out from the mouth it is called a burp and when it comes out from the anus, it's called a fart or flatulence. So, it's not even theoretically possible that a fart comes out of your mouth.   The subtitle of the article claims that holding a fart can result in gas coming out of your mouth. This is not likely. You can voluntary hold in a fart only at the level of the anus, and once gas reaches the anus it will not travel all the way back to the mouth. The same way, if you hold in the stool, it won't come out of your mouth. Gases and other bowel contents can probably flow backward only from the stomach and first part of the small intestine (the duodenum). For example, the bile from the duodenum can appear in the vomit.  If you hold a fart, some gas will be absorbed in the large intestine and some will be eventually released.   The gas that comes out of your mouth during burping (belching) can be swallowed air or it can originate from fermentation of nutrients by microbes in the stomach or small intestine. The gas that comes out of the anus (flatulence) originates from fermentation in the large intestine.  Frequent burping can occur due to:   Swallowing air during eating or smoking Drinking carbonated beverages Chewing gum or eating foods high in sugar alcohols, such as sorbitol or xylitol Acid reflux Irritable bowel syndrome H. pylori infection of the stomach Fructose malabsorption Lactose intolerance Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) Infestation with intestinal parasites, such as Giardia Impaired stomach emptying (gastroparesis), for example, as a complication of diabetes   Other references:   Mayo Clinic Harvard.edu ",
        "id": 2369,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the intake of all nutrients proportional to caloric needs?",
        "body": "Refer to this link: http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/HealthyEating/Nutrition/Understanding-Food-Nutrition-Labels_UCM_300132_Article.jsp#.VzQ5fPl94wM  Essentially that means yes, but keep in mind that you might only need to increase some specific nutrients and not others depending on what you're trying to do.  The percentages on the label are the % of the recommended daily value of that nutrient for the average person who eats 2k calories. For example, a pregnant woman would need a higher % of vitamins whereas a bodybuilder would likely go for more fats/protein (just an example). But to my understanding you're correct.",
        "id": 958,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there other surgeries with comparable restrictions to the real-life test for transsexual genital surgery?",
        "body": "There's a six month rule demanding abstinence from alcohol for liver transplants.  I can't immediately find evidence of similar rules for other organs, but they might exist.  There can also be a cooling-off period for plastic surgery, but that's not really a lifestyle test.  It's kind of the opposite.",
        "id": 683,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How quickly should you get kidney stones to your doctor for analysis after passing them?",
        "body": "Your doctor wants to know what the stones are made of (e.g. Calcium oxalate, etc.) Being in the container will not be alter that, nor will drying out.   Just put all the stones you find in the container, and follow the advice you were given about fluids, foods, etc. Drop the stones off whenever it's convenient - a week or two is fine. The sooner they are analyzed, however, the sooner your doctor can give you tailored advice on measures you can take that will decrease the likelihood of more stones forming.",
        "id": 252,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do fridges really keep things fresh?",
        "body": "Your milk and chicken both have bacteria in them. If you leave them at room temperature, those bacteria will grow rapidly. Some may produce toxins that will not be inactivated by cooking. The greater the dosage of these bacteria, the more likely they are to make you sick. Keeping stored food cold (below 40&deg;F / 5&deg;C) is an important part of basic food safety for reducing the risk of foodborne illness. Now, this doesn't mean that you will always get sick if you eat or drink milk or chicken that has been at room temperature for too long, but it does mean you will be more likely to get sick. Beyond health and safety, you will immediately notice the difference if you put a closed container of milk on the counter for 24 hours, and put another one in a cold refrigerator for 24 hours. You can run this experiment on your own (just don't drink the milk you left out).  You can read more about the importance of refrigeration at various public health websites. Here, for example, is some good information from the US department of agriculture.",
        "id": 2551,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How exact are the times for how long to wait between pills?",
        "body": "Good question though a broad one!   Well, it all depends on the 'pill' or 'medicine' you are on. Different medicines have different half-lives. And 'half-life' is the factor that mostly decides the 'dosage/timings'.   But, if you go by general guidelines, all doctors agree upon one thing:     Take a missed pill the moment you remember it. But then, if it is almost the time for the next dose, skip it. That said, don't ever take two pills together (compensating the missed dose).   The best practice is ask your healthcare provider about it. They can precisely tell you what should you do (though most of them would advise what I wrote). ",
        "id": 19,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is there no triptan on the WHO's list of essential medicine?",
        "body": "The following is from the 2007 WHO Expert Committee meeting regarding the addition of sumitriptan:     The Committee noted that the application was generally of poor quality and    provided only a limited review of the evidence. Although medicines for man-   aging migraine are on the Model List, the information provided did not estab-   lish the public health need for an additional medicine. As noted by the expert reviewers, there is high-quality clinical evidence from a Cochrane review    (57) that supports the superiority of sumatriptan for the acute management of    migraine, compared with placebo. However, there have been few trials com-   paring sumatriptan with standard management (aspirin and metoclopramide,    or caffeine and ergotamine). In these studies, sumatriptan was found to be    superior in effectiveness to caffeine and ergotamine although it caused more    adverse events. When compared with aspirin and metoclopramide, sumat-   riptan was superior for only one outcome (pain relief at 2 hours) and also    caused more adverse events. The Committee noted that it would be helpful to    have updated Cochrane reviews to con\ufb01rm these \ufb01ndings. Some studies have    found that the 50 mg dose of sumatriptan is as effective as the 100 mg dose.      Despite the availability of some generic preparations, the current cost of    sumatriptan is substantially higher than that of aspirin and metoclopramide.    No valid cost-effectiveness evidence was provided.      Overall the evidence provided in the application did not support the public    health need or comparative effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of    sumatriptan. The Committee therefore recommended that sumatriptan not    be added to the Model List and will seek high-quality national treatment    guidelines to guide a full review of Section 7, Antimigraine Medicines.   It would seem nobody bothered to take the time to write a good application.",
        "id": 1552,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does laughing improve immune system?",
        "body": "There is some evidence that laughter can help improve eustress levels and overall health, but evidence is mixed as many of the studies are not designed very well.  This study examined stress hormones in a small sample study of men viewing a comedy video, and concluded that stress hormones dropped in the subjects which has a beneficial effect in the body.  Many of the studies available, however, are in the nature of this example, which is observational in nature, and may or may not have correlation. (This citation is abstract only, I do not have access to the full article on this).  So while there is evidence that laughter and good feelings may help boost personal health, it is very much unproven and in need of further, well designed research.",
        "id": 722,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Probiotic expired Oct 2013",
        "body": "I would go with the expiration on the package. If the package says that it can only last till June 2015 or other date, I wouldn't try go very far past that. Also, make sure the package is intact and make sure it looks and smells edible.      Probiotics can last 18 months      Unrefrigerated, Complete Probiotics have an 18 months shelf life.   Probiotics, shelf life and storage, this may or may not be helpful.  It is also interested to note,      FDA does not require food firms to place \"expired by\", \"use by\" or   \"best before\" dates on food products. This information is entirely at   the discretion of the manufacturer. ",
        "id": 483,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is \"histologically invasive diameter\" assessed in live patients?",
        "body": "These patients were staged on surgery. Typically whole tumor is excised with clear margins confirmed intraoperatively. Note the measurement is diameter of the primary tumor. Nodes and mets are assessed separately. As personal commentary, I would say characterization of the primary tumor (including diameter) is something you can be much more certain of than identification of nodes (lymph node involvement) and mets (metastases).   You can read about this in Schwartz's Principles of Surgery, Chapter 10, in particular the subsection on Surgical Management of Primary Tumors. As discussed in that section, the goal of surgical management is excision of the tumor with clear margins. Clear margins means the outermost tissue (the margins) are free of cancer (clear). ",
        "id": 2606,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I use take pills to prevent micronutrient deficiencies and not worry about my diet too much?",
        "body": "The biggest issue with using supplements instead of food is that studies don't always measure what they think they're measuring. A lot of near-magical powers were ascribed to Vitamin C, for example, that have not held up when done with supplements. It may turn out that many of the benefits of \"Vitamin C\" are really be related to fibre, since people were getting that Vitamin C from fruits and veg. Or to some other phytonutrient. Or to being the kind of person who spontaneously eats a lot of fruit and veg, or at least doesn't get kicked out for noncompliance when in a study that asks you to eat a lot of fruit and veg.  Example:     The present systematic review included 78 randomised clinical trials. In total, 296,707 participants were randomised to antioxidant supplements (beta-carotene, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium) versus placebo or no intervention. Twenty-six trials included 215,900 healthy participants. Fifty-two trials included 80,807 participants with various diseases in a stable phase (including gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, neurological, ocular, dermatological, rheumatoid, renal, endocrinological, or unspecified diseases). A total of 21,484 of 183,749 participants (11.7%) randomised to antioxidant supplements and 11,479 of 112,958 participants (10.2%) randomised to placebo or no intervention died. The trials appeared to have enough statistical similarity that they could be combined. When all of the trials were combined, antioxidants may or may not have increased mortality depending on which statistical combination method was employed; the analysis that is typically used when similarity is present demonstrated that antioxidant use did slightly increase mortality (that is, the patients consuming the antioxidants were 1.03 times as likely to die as were the controls). When analyses were done to identify factors that were associated with this finding, the two factors identified were better methodology to prevent bias from being a factor in the trial (trials with \u2018low risk of bias\u2019) and the use of vitamin A. In fact, when the trials with low risks of bias were considered separately, the increased mortality was even more pronounced (1.04 times as likely to die as were the controls). The potential damage from vitamin A disappeared when only the low risks of bias trials were considered. The increased risk of mortality was associated with beta-carotene and possibly vitamin E and vitamin A, but was not associated with the use of vitamin C or selenium. The current evidence does not support the use of antioxidant supplements in the general population or in patients with various diseases.   There was also the whole \"oat bran fibre\" thing that turned out to be mostly about what participants didn't eat because they were so full from eating three huge fibre-filled muffins every day. Choosing a sweetened breakfast cereal that happens to have a little oat fibre in it isn't going to have that effect.  When there is an observation that \"people who eat a lot of food X have less Y\", reasoning about exactly the reason for it - a compound in food X, a compound in a thing people often eat with food X, a food they don't eat instead, a cultural habit -- is more of a challenge than you might think. To use a non-food example, studies about whether circumcision affects the spread of STDs was complicated by different rates of being piously religious and monogamous in the two groups. As a result, just taking a Vitamin C pill may not help you at all, if you're not generally eating good food.  For the specific case of vegans, Dieticians of Canada seems to be in favour of supplements-in-disguise  by recommending fortified products a lot:     Vitamin B12: Vitamin B12 is important for making red blood cells and helping the body use fats.\u00a0\u00a0 Good sources of vitamin B12 include:   Red Star nutritional yeast,   fortified soy beverages and other fortified non-dairy beverages like rice and almond beverage,   fortified meat alternatives like TVP, veggie burgers and meatless chicken, fish and meatballs.      Vitamin D: Vitamin D helps the body to absorb and use calcium and phosphorus for strong bones and teeth.\u00a0 Good sources of vitamin D include:   fortified soy beverages and other fortified non-dairy beverages like rice and almond beverage,   non-hydrogenated margarines.      Calcium: Calcium helps bones to grow and stay healthy. It also helps muscles to contract, including making the heart beat.\u00a0 Good sources of calcium include:   soy yogurt, fortified soy beverages and other fortified non-dairy beverages like rice and almond beverage,   soybeans, navy beans, white beans and tofu prepared with calcium sulfate,   almonds,   sesame butter (tahini),   blackstrap molasses,   some vegetables, such as bok choy, okra, collard greens and turnip greens,   some fruit, like figs and fortified orange juice.   They do include sources that are not supplements though, and these probably are still the wiser approach.  A long article on vegans and calcium (among other nutrients) includes this conclusion:     Conclusion on Calcium and Vegan Diets: There is no reason to think that vegans are protected from osteoporosis more than other diet groups, and they should strive to meet calcium recommendations. Although it is possible to meet the calcium recommendations by eating greens alone (see chart below), the average vegan probably will not meet recommendations without drinking a glass of fortified drink each day, eating calcium-set tofu, or taking a 250 - 300 mg supplement (in addition to eating an otherwise balanced diet). Although it is important to get enough calcium, do not get more than 1,400 mg of calcium per day.   The article itself includes links to studies if you need the science behind the conclusions.",
        "id": 1741,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What clinical studies demonstrated that CelGro improves tissue in-growth and repair for the rotator cuff tendon injuries?",
        "body": "Try this:  \"Evidence of healing of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears following arthroscopic augmentation with a collagen implant: a 2-year MRI follow-up\"  Source - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27331028",
        "id": 1933,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "At what point would blood loss impede the ability to achieve an erection?",
        "body": " Erections aren't binary, they have a gradient of turgidity; but going by your statement \"completely impossible,\" then I will assume that for your novel you want to understand what would prevent any noticeable degree of erection. As it is a part of the body, the penis will continue to be perfused by the circulatory system as long as the heart is pumping.*  The blood trapping that occurs during erection is a mechanical obstruction of the outflow of blood in response to arousal.    There IS redistribution that occurs when the body experiences significant blood loss, and there is certainly a point prior to death at which there would be decreased penile perfusion, but there is no clear way to pinpoint a specific point at which no amount of arousal would result in ANY erection whatsoever.  That said, the psychology of whatever traumatic injury is causing the blood loss, coupled with the intense physiologic sympathetic stress of the compensatory mechanisms, may impact the ability for the individual to experience arousal.   The cardiovascular physiology of blood loss is actually really complicated. As you imagine, the body wants to do absolutely anything it can to keep functioning, so there are a lot of mechanisms that kick in the more blood volume that is lost.  The physiologic response also differs between acute blood loss and chronic blood loss.   Of course there is an amount of blood that would result in immediate death, which in a normal healthy person would likely be at least 40% blood volume or greater.  But the points leading up to that are where things are more complicated.  This website will help illuminate the complexity.  A few key passages:     When blood loss is 15 to 40%, mean arterial and pulse pressures fall,   and heart rate increases, with the magnitude of these changes being   related to how much blood is lost. If the hemorrhage is stopped, the   arterial pressure slowly recovers and heart rate declines as long-term   compensatory mechanisms are activated to restore normal arterial   pressure... A greater than 40% blood loss is life threatening, and   resuscitation is generally essential for survival because prolonged,   severe hypotension leads to organ failure and death.   and     Compensatory mechanisms. The reduction in blood volume during acute   blood loss causes a fall in central venous pressure and cardiac   filling. This leads to reduced cardiac output and arterial pressure.   The body has a number of compensatory mechanisms that become activated   in an attempt to restore arterial pressure and blood volume back to   normal. These mechanisms include:         Baroreceptor reflexes   Chemoreceptor reflexes   Circulating vasoconstrictors   Renal reabsorption of sodium and water   Activation of thirst mechanisms   Reabsorption of tissue fluids      There are also exceptional cases where people have survived massive blood loss, or died from lower amount of blood loss - so it's not always the exact same case.  But this at least gives some direction.  As for drugs, with hypovolemic shock, we try to rapidly expand intravascular volume crystalloid fluids (like normal saline or lactated ringer's) and blood when available, and sometimes use vasopressors like norepinephrine to maintain an adequate mean arterial pressure.  The medication is a short-lived solution until the blood can be replaced, however.",
        "id": 2529,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do we lose resistance to the common cold over time, or are we infected by a different cold each time?",
        "body": "It is usually a different strain of the flu or cold virus.  Unfortunately, viruses like the flu are able to combine and recombine their genes almost endlessly, meaning that they end up with different proteins on their outer coat.  Those proteins are the way that our body recognizes the virus as a foreign invader, and so a different type of protein means that our body doesn't recognize the virus. The flu vaccine each year essentially tries to expose your body to proteins from many of the emerging strains of flu, in order to reduce the chances of you getting infected. Because there are so many strains of the flu, though, the vaccine is only effective at preventing about 60% of cases (still a huge accomplishment!).  However it's also important to note that immunity to many diseases is not forever. Some diseases, or vaccines against diseases (for complicated reasons) cause a shorter period of immunity. In other words, the body \"forgets\" the exposure sooner. That's why you should get regular tetanus booster vaccines, for example.  While it's possible to lose immunity, most colds or cases of the flu come from mutations in the virus that our body can't recognize.",
        "id": 2129,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do low-nicotine low-tar cigarettes have less negative impact on health than standard ones?",
        "body": "Probably yes on lung cancer, no for other diseases, but it's really hard to say.  Apparently, this 'trend' isn't very new - it goes back to the 1960s, though back then low-tar cigarettes contained more tar than you specify in your question. The National Cancer Institute has a looong monograph on this with data from the past decades: Risks Associated with Smoking Cigarettes with Low Machine Measured Yields of Tar and Nicotine. I am not even going to pretend I read all of that.   The chapter Smoking Lower Yield Cigarettes and Disease Risks is in itself 94 pages long, but is summarized in the paper Health impact of \u201creduced yield\u201d cigarettes: a critical assessment of the epidemiological evidence.  Apparantly, it's not very clear-cut, the primary problem being that there's so many confunders when looking at epidemiological (population-based) data:   smokers who choose to smoke cigarettes with less tar/nicotine might be more concerned about their health in general smoker who choose to smoke cigarettes with less tar/nicotine 'compensate' by smoking more, see the linked paper where figure 2 illustrates that lower nicotine content often corresponds with a higher amount of cigarettes smoked. This is often ignored in studies by matching subjects by number of cigarettes smoked (so they compare people who smoke 10 high-yield cigarettes a day with those who smoke 10 low-yield cigarettes a day)   From the conclusions, emphasis mine:     Epidemiological studies have not consistently found lesser risk of diseases, other than lung cancer, among smokers of reduced yield cigarettes. Some studies have found lesser risks of lung cancer among smokers of reduced yield cigarettes. Some or all of this reduction in lung cancer risk may reflect differing characteristics of smokers of reduced-yield compared to higher-yield cigarettes.   Now, the National Cancer Institute is not generally a fan of cigarettes, so they are probably going to recommend against low-tar/nicotine cigarettes in any case. It does seem to be the case that if the number of cigarettes is kept constant, the risk of lung cancer decreases with tar content. The same is not necessarily the case for other risks, like that of coronary heart disease, stroke, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.",
        "id": 254,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many senses do we have?",
        "body": "You can't really put a number on it.  There are so many edge cases that what counts as \"a sense\" is really a matter of opinion.  For example: do you count proprioception (feedback about the locations of your body parts) as a sense, or is it not a sense because it doesn't provide information about your environment?  Your body has distinct receptors for transient pressure, continuing pressure, and vibration: is that one sense or three?  Are taste and smell distinct senses, or different aspects of the same sense?  Some people are able to detect the polarization of light in addition to its color and intensity -- do you count that as a sense, as part of vision, or do you discount it because not everyone can do it?  Ask a dozen experts, and you'll probably get a dozen answers.",
        "id": 337,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rash development during ketogenic diet?",
        "body": "Preface: This is not a comment on your rash as that would be getting into the realms of medical advice; instead, I'll treat it as a general question.  Can there be a rash associated with a ketotic state?  It seems so. There is a skin condition called prurigo pigemntosa (aka Nagashima disease), which has an unclear cause \u2013 friction, or contact dermatitis to one or more substances \u2013 but has an association with ketotic states. From DermNetNZ:     Prurigo pigmentosa is a rare inflammatory skin condition of unknown cause. It is characterized by a recurrent itchy rash with netlike hyperpigmentation.      ...      It has been associated in some patients with ketotic states associated with diabetes, fasting and post-bariatric surgery   From Prurigo pigmentosa on DermNetNZ.  The rash has been reported to clear with resolution of ketosis:     Another notable association frequently reported in the literature is with ketosis resulting from diabetes, diet, eating disorders, or pregnancy. Although several authors have reported improvement of the eruption upon resolution of ketosis, there is no noted association with blood glucose levels.    From Prurigo pigmentosa: Report of two cases in the United States and review of the literature.",
        "id": 2171,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which foods increase the brain activity?",
        "body": "I dont know if our diet can make us cleverer or not but I do know how our food habits can improve the overall functioning of the nervous tissue like memory,reflexes etc.  You see the well being of the nervous system based solely on diet tactics can be undertaken in 5 steps:  1)The neurons communicate with one another via synapses and the working rate of the synapses depends on the availability of neurotransmitter.Neurotransmiter depletion is the main cause of fatigue at the synapses. Intake of tryptophan rich food like milk ,,egg yolk and legume help in the formation of neurotransmitter serotonin which is thought to be involved in the memory pathways.Intake of choline containing food like eggs,liver,peanuts,spinach,beet,wheat,shell fish etc helps improve acetylcholine formation.  2)The neuronal tissue is broadly segregated into white matter and grey matter. Compounds like galactocerebrosides are more common in the white matter composition and gangliosides in the grey matter. Intake of galactose rich food like milk, essential fatty acids like linolenic acids,rich in walnut oil,soyabean oil,marine fish oils and linolenic acids in safflower and peanut oils help improve the functioning of these tissues.  Also amino acids like cysteine,methionine and serine are essentially helpful in maintaining the health of the nervous system.  3)The nervous system can generate ATP for conduction of impulses only from glucose.So the proper intake of glucose plays an important role too in reducing fatigue.  4)Electrolytes like Na+,K+ are important for conduction of impulses.So they should be considered for intake but in proper quantities.  5)Vitamin B1,B6 is essential for a healthy nervous system.Food like yeast,liver,cereal grains,lentils,fish are rich in both of them.",
        "id": 1781,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I be worried about rat bite",
        "body": "Yes. There are a number of diseases that can be transmitted by rodents, and several of them can be quite serious. This is the list of diseases that can be directly transmitted by rodents according to the CDC:        Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome   Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome   Lassa Fever   Leptospirosis   Lymphocytic Chorio-meningitis (LCM)   Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever   Plague   Rat-Bite Fever   Salmonellosis   South American Arenaviruses (Argentine hemorrhagic fever, Bolivian    hemorrhagic fever, Sabi\u00e1-associated hemorrhagic fever, Venezuelan   hemorrhagic fever)   Tularemia      This is not to say that any given rat or mouse might transmit any of these. Other factors come into play, such as which diseases are endemic to the area and which diseases infect which species. On the link above you can expand each disease to see which rodents can transmit it. Unfortunately, rats and mice are included in most of those diseases.",
        "id": 539,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to detect colon cancer?",
        "body": "Some of symptoms of colorectal cancer can include:   A change in bowel habits, such as diarrhea or constipation A feeling that you need to have a bowel movement that is not relieved by doing so Rectal bleeding Blood in the stool, which may cause the stool to look dark Cramping or abdominal (belly) pain Weakness and fatigue Unintended weight loss   But most importantly, in the absence of symptoms, people over age 50 should be screened regularly (every 1 to 2 years) for bowel cancer, or precancerous polyps, with a simple faecal occult blood test (FOBT) followed by colonoscopy if the result is positive.  Screening can detect precancerous polyps early, which can then be removed before bowel cancer even begins to develop, and thus many countries now have a screening program for their citizens.    Screening and Surveillance for the Early Detection of Colorectal Cancer and Adenomatous Polyps, 2008: A Joint Guideline from the American Cancer Society, the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer, and the American College of Radiology",
        "id": 104,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "gas/upset stomach from red meat?",
        "body": "Evil smelling flatus is caused by a high sulfate content in the diet. Meat is high in methionine and cystine, and some gut bacteria metabolise these releasing sulfide gases. If these bacteria can be reduced in number, the amount of sulfide gas in flatus can be reduced.  Prebiotics feed some bacteria in the large bowel creating healthy short chain fatty acids which acidify the lower intestinal environment and make it less hospitable for sulfide producing bacteria, thereby reducing the foul smell.  http://gicare.com/diets/colon-gas-flatus-prevention/",
        "id": 892,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to prevent teeth-grinding at night & TMJ (Jaw) pain? Mouth-guard causes dry-mouth & restless sleep. Alternative treatments?",
        "body": "What type of splints have you tried? A NTI (or similar) anterior splint only covers your front teeth so there would be less of problem with dry mouth. If it is a mouth guard, it will be too thick and uncomfortable to wear to sleep. Using dry mouth solutions/gels may help with your dry mouth.  You could also look at the causes of your grinding. If it only occurred in the last few years, the likely cause is stress related. You could also look at orthodontic correction of your occlusion (how your teeth come together). This can help but there is no guarantee with the result, so you could spend lots of money and get no improvement. I could go on and on about this topic.  If you can not tolerate any splint (guard) at all, you can build up your canine teeth if possible to \"protect\" other teeth from wear to some extent. Beyond that it is very difficult to solve this problem and will result in long term wear and damage to your teeth.  Hope this helps.  (Disclaimer: This was written by a dentist who I contacted)",
        "id": 1293,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is a child with chickenpox who is vaccinated still contagious?",
        "body": "From the CDC report:     Communicability   The period of communicability extends from 1 to 2 days   before the onset of rash until lesions have formed crusts.   Vaccinated persons with varicella may develop lesions that   do not crust (macules and papules only). Isolation guidance   for these persons is to exclude until no new lesions appear   within a 24-hour period. Immunocompromised patients   with varicella are probably contagious during the entire   period new lesions are appearing. The virus has not been   isolated from crusted lesions.      Varicella is highly contagious. It is less contagious than   measles, but more so than mumps and rubella. Secondary   attack rates among susceptible household contacts of   persons with varicella are as high as 90% (that is, 9 of 10   susceptible household contacts of persons with varicella will   become infected).    So, vaccinated people with breakthrough varicella (infection despite vaccination) can still be contagious. The duration and severity of their syptoms tend to be reduced, which leads to the issue mentioned above where you cannot rely on the crusting of lesions to determine when they are no longer contagious.     In clinical trials, breakthrough varicella was substantially less severe with the median number of skin lesions commonly less than 50; vesicular lesions are less common and the lesions are commonly papules that do not progress to vesicles. Varicella in vaccinated persons is typically shorter in duration and has a lower incidence of fever than in unvaccinated persons.   On the plus side, they are overall less contagious if they have the reduced symptoms:     One study of varicella transmission in household settings found that persons with mild breakthrough varicella (&lt; 50 lesions) were one third as contagious as unvaccinated persons with varicella. However, persons with breakthrough varicella with 50 or more lesions were just as contagious as unvaccinated persons. ",
        "id": 917,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where does the powder spray from an asthma inhaler go?",
        "body": "This depends a little on whether the inhaler is a metered-dose inhaler (MDI - aerosol) or dry powder inhaler (DPI). DPI inhalers require adequate inspiratory flow rates.  Metered dose inhalers  Propellants in MDIs typically make up more than 99% of the delivered dose and are usually hydrofluoroalkanes (HFA). These a gaseous and are usually exhaled. I cannot find any data on the extent to which (if at all) that HFAs may be absorbed.  Dry powder inhalers  Dry powder inhalers (an example) mainly use lactose (a milk sugar, usually as alpha lactose monohydrate) to form the bulk of the powder because it is safe and easily available. This is usually absorbed by the mucosal lining of the lung and does not accumulate over time. It can also be deposited in the mouth and throat and ingested into the gastrointestinal tract. From here it can be absorbed to some extent (though lactose undergoes less active absorption in the gut than other sugars) or egested.  Drug absorption by inhalation  In fact, traditional aerosol devices can only deliver about 10 to 20% of their loaded doses into the lungs - source. A lot of this rest ends up in the gastrointestinal tract. Drug particles less than 5 \u00b5m have the greatest probability of deposition in the lung - source. Thus drug particle size is of vital importance in inhaler production.  Other sources:  Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and the delivery of pediatric bronchodilator therapy Lactose information Methods to identify drug deposition in the lungs following inhalation The Lungs as a Portal of Entry for Systemic Drug Delivery",
        "id": 2641,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can skin creases caused by obesity or exacerbated by poor posture be corrected?",
        "body": "Creases form all over your body. Once they do, there is really very little that can be done for them. If you doubt this, consider how much money is spent on cosmetic surgery every year just for facial creases. They can be filled with collagen or other substrate, they can be stretched, the muscles around a crease can be relaxed, decreasing the depth of the crease (this is how botox works), but the crease is there.  Very fine creases (or wrinkles) can be diminished by contact irritants (e.g. retinoic acid preparations, vegetable acids, and other preparations) which cause mild edema (stretching the skin) and reactive skin changes which in toto reduce the appearance of wrinkles.  Obesity normally causes deepening of normal skin folds and the creation of deep skin folds from superficial ones (for example truncal-abdominal skin-folds.) Once this process occurs, the structure of the skin itself is irreversibly changed. If very prominent (for example after weight loss in the morbidly obese), surgery can be done to remove the excess skin and the fold itself (but a scar will replace it).  Aloe vera will not help. However, moisturizers may diminish their appearance a bit, as will good posture.  Topical Retinoic Acid for Photoaging: Clinical Response and Underlying Mechanisms Dermolipectomies Following Weight Loss after Surgery for Morbid Obesity",
        "id": 716,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When not to apply pressure to bullet wound?",
        "body": "Never unless the wound is actively bleeding heavily, which would most likely be an extremity wound since gunshot wounds to the torso tend to do most of their bleeding internally where you can't see it and only a surgeon can stop it. Head wounds where external bleeding is a major concern are rare.   With wounds to the torso you don't generally want to be applying pressure since that could cause the bullet to shift or move, which may cause more harm. For example, what if the bullet is lodged in an artery? If you apply pressure and dislodge that bullet it might unseal the artery and cause uncontrolled bleeding. ",
        "id": 1660,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does antacid increase intestinal and stomach ulcers?",
        "body": "You should see a GI doctor. There are two ways to treat gastric ulcers. With antacids (like calcium carbonate \"Tums\") that bind with the acid and neutralize it, and medications that block acid production like PPIs and H2 blockers. Neither cause excessive acid secretion. The notion that an antacid causes excessive secretion is not recorded anywhere.   https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000198.htm  PPI and H2 blockers can cause excessive acid after you abruptly stop taking them.  It's called rebound acid production or secretion. It's not permanent, however taking antacids after stopping acid reducers is recommended for a few weeks to allow your stomach to readjust to normal state.  http://www.refluxmd.com/what-to-expect-if-you-reduce-ppi-use/  In short, there is a very small possibility that rebound acid could cause an ulcer after you stop taking your acid reducer. That's just my logic on the matter. If treated properly, you should remain ulcer free. If not a specialist needs to find out why it's chronic if it is.",
        "id": 1886,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Most common nutrient deficiencies for athletes (runners)",
        "body": "You need to keep using protein (which is egg white), you need to keep your diet into fruit not fast foods (pizza).   There are some supplements which you can take to have balanced health, which you daily not inserting into your health system",
        "id": 1089,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effect of Debrox with tubes in ears as a child?",
        "body": "I did go back and ask my doctor.  They said it was ok for me to use.",
        "id": 1106,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does some ingredient in coffee actually help the liver break down fibrosis?",
        "body": "The conclusion of the mentioned systematic review with meta\u2010analysis: coffee consumption and the risk of cirrhosis (Alimentary Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics, 2016):     This meta\u2010analysis suggests that increasing coffee consumption may   substantially reduce the risk of cirrhosis.   They say coffee may reduce the risk of cirrhosis, not that it can treat it.  The article mentions that caffeine, chlorogenic acid, melanoids and the pentacyclic diterpenes, kahweol and cafestol in coffee may be associated with health benefits.    According to another systematic review, regular coffee consumption is associated with decreased risk of liver cirrhosis and according. Yet another systematic review concludes that coffee consumption is associated with decreased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.  In another systematic review, caffeine consumption was associated with lower risk of liver cirrhosis in patients with hepatitis C.  These reviews say there is an association between coffee drinking and lower risk of cirrhosis. The actual cause-effect relationship between coffee drinking and cirrhosis has not been established, so far.  Cirrhosis may be reversible.  Is cirrhosis of the liver reversible? (PubMed, 2007)     Accumulating evidence suggests that liver fibrosis is reversible and   that recovery from cirrhosis may be possible.   Cirrhosis and its complications: Evidence based treatment (PubMed, 2014)     In the past cirrhosis was generally thought to be irreversible but   recent studies have shown that treatments aimed at the underlying   cause especially in earlier stages of the disease can improve or even   reverse fibrosis. ",
        "id": 2689,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rheumatoid arthritis heritability",
        "body": "Odds vary.  The most straightforward study I could find was Koumantaki et al. (1997), which found several odds ratios for developing rheumatoid arthritis:   4.4 for individuals having a first degree relative with the disease. 5.4 for individuals having a female first degree relative with the disease. 7.0 for females having a first degree relative with the disease. 4.8 for females whose mother has the disease. 8.6 for individuals whose mother has the disease. 1.1 for females whose father has the disease. 1.9 for individuals whose father has the disease.   An odds ratio of X means that a person is with the given characteristic is X time more likely to have the disease than a person without it. The higher the odds ratio, the greater the chance of the individual inheriting the disease. From this, it is easy to see that those with mothers with rheumatoid arthritis were more likely to inherit it, especially if the individuals were female.  A different study, the GoRA study (summary) found that     if one of your parents, or a sibling (one of your brothers or sisters) has RA, your risk of developing RA will be slightly higher (around a 16% chance) than someone that does not have a family member affected with this illness (around a 0.8% chance).   This would seem to give an odds ratio of about 20 - much higher than any of the other results.  In addition, I've found numbers from Arthritis Research UK (no studies cited) which says that the probability of a child getting rheumatoid arthritis from a parent is about 1-3%.  Going even further, a New York Times Health article claims that     Some people may inherit genes that make them more susceptible to developing RA, but a family history of RA does not appear to increase an individual's risk.   It also goes along with Koumantaki et al.'s findings that women are more likely to get the disease than men.  It seems like the jury is still out on this, although most studies of the genetics behind rheumatoid arthritis focus on which genes might be transferred, or related hypotheses. Many authors conclude that more research on the subject is needed, especially as the origins of the disease are not well known.",
        "id": 546,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there anything anyone can do to decrease the symptoms of dysmenorrhea?",
        "body": "Dysmenorrhea (pain with menstruation) can be primary or secondary. The first thing a woman should do is see a physician to determine which kind of dysmenorrhea she has.   Primary dysmenorrhea is painful menstruation with a normal pelvic examination (no causes can be determined). It is is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women, can be worse in younger women than older ones, and is worse in smokers. Usually women refer to this kind of pain as \"menstrual cramps\", and they tend to occur just before and in the early part of menstruation. The cause is increased production of endometrial prostaglandins, natural hormones which cause uterine contractions. If the pain is severe enough, or in any way atypical, an pelvic ultrasound will be done to rule out pelvic pathology.  Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDS) are the usual treatment because they are anti-prostaglandins; NSAIDS include ibuprofen, naproxin, aspirin, etc. If NSAIDS alone do not decrease pain sufficiently, patients are often placed on oral contraceptive pills, which will make periods lighter and less painful, or continuous-use OCP's that result in suppression of menses altogether. If these are inadequate in the absence of pelvic pathology, stronger medications can be prescribed, or one can try accupuncture. Topical heat is often comforting.  Secondary dysmenorrhea is pain in the presence of gynecologic findings, usually endometriosis or adenomyosis (growth of endometrial tissue outside of the endometrial cavity, either outside of the uterus or in uterine muscle walls), adhesions, fibroid (benign) tumors, infection, or other problems. It tends to be more severe pain, later during the period, starts years after the onset of menses, can be associated with heavy menstrual flow or irregular cycles, or other. It's important to have a physician involved in the care of secondary dysmenorrhea.     Aspirin and NSAIDS  - A very nice overview of NSAIDs Primary Dysmenorrhea Aspirin and NSAIDS  - A very nice overview of NSAIDs Trials of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units, laparoscopic presacral neuronectomy, acupuncture, omega-3 fatty acids, transdermal nitroglycerin, thiamine and magnesium all demonstrated some relief of dysmenorrhea symptoms.  ",
        "id": 182,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is in energy drinks?",
        "body": "It's nicely summarized in \"Energy Drink Breakdown: What\u2019s in a Red Bull, Anyway?\":     Basically, Red Bull is a mix of sugar, caffeine, taurine and several B vitamins, all of which are well known for their energy-promoting qualities.   As far as I know, it's true for all energy drinks. So yes, they contain caffeine which is also the main ingredient of coffee and tea (as theine). I have never seen energy drink without caffeine.",
        "id": 1156,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does inhibiting prolactin levels cause any health problems?",
        "body": "Prolactin is a peptide hormone that, in addition to modulating the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal axis, functions as a cytokine in the immune system and as a growth factor in the vascular system amongst many other functions.  According to Wikipedia:     Prolactin receptors are present in the mammillary glands, ovaries, pituitary glands, heart, lung, thymus, spleen, liver, pancreas, kidney, adrenal gland, uterus, skeletal muscle, skin and areas of the central nervous system.[31]   How prolactin suppresses GnRH, the mechanism through which hyperprolactinemia causes hypogonadism, is unknown. Many of prolactin's other functions may not necessarily be influenced by blood serum levels, as prolactin acts in a paracrine and autocrine, in addition to an endocrine, manner.  The positive outcomes from normalizing hypogonadism should outweigh any negative effects of reducing prolactin levels. Androgen deficiency in males can cause osteoporosis, a series weakening of the bones. Of course, as more is known about the function of elevated prolactin levels, this opinion may change.  Surprisingly, serum prolactin below physiological levels can cause many of the symptoms that high levels can. Prolactin acts as a weak gonadotropin by itself, and enhances the effect of leuteinizing hormone at testosterone-producing cells in males.  Hypoprolactinemia can lead to hypogonadism and osteoporosis, just like in hyperprolactinemia. However, in cases of hyperprolactinemia, cabergoline often does not completely reduce prolactin to normal levels, anyway.  The side effects of cabergoline itself are probably more important. as there are known cases of valvular heart disease in doses used to treat Parkinson's. Inflammation and fibrosis of various tissues can also occur.",
        "id": 316,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do vertical mice cause less stress on the hand, wrist and arm than traditional mice?",
        "body": "   Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) is numbness, tingling, weakness, and other problems in your hand because of pressure on a nerve (median   nerve) going through your wrist. {1}   Pressure or swelling of the median nerve causes CTS and making the same hand movements over and over may induce swelling. The swelling can get even worse if the wrist is bent down (your hands lower than your wrists) or by making the same wrist movements repeatedly.  The ergonomic mouse serves to prevent people from holding their mice on the edge of their desks or other surface, which naturally rests in a manner that bends the wrist. The person has to keep their wrist straight in order to use the mouse, thus reducing swelling over time.  It can be annoying to adjust to an ergonomic keyboard or mouse, but they help keep the wrists straight, which can be a problem for anyone sitting all day at a computer.  Given what an ergonomic mouse and keyboard are supposed to do, there is little or no data to support the concept that activity adjustment prevents carpal tunnel syndrome. The study cited below has results that are inconsistent and non-conclusive. The researchers even state in their conclusion:     Speculative causal theories should be analyzed through a rigorous   approach prior to wide adoption.   {The Quality and Strength of Evidence for Etiology: Example of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome }",
        "id": 94,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Most common diseases associated with low GGT",
        "body": "According to this website (http://www.palpath.com/index.htm), which regroups a group of pathologists:     Following diseases/conditions can be associated with low GGT         some cases of treatments to reduce high triglycerides also decrease    the GGT.   levels fall (but not necessarily below normal) after meals   hypothyroidism   hypothalamic malfunction   low levels of serum magnesium      They cite following sources, so possibly, these might give more details:   Burtis CA &amp; Ashwood ER, Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry, 3rd Edition, 1999. McKenna and Keffer, The Handbook of Clin. Path., 2nd Ed. (EBS's office) hepatic lab tests, Practice Guidelines, National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (NACB), USA. ",
        "id": 1117,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I increase my height?",
        "body": "It is not possible in any means.   The growth of a child or a teenager is mainly due to the epiphyseal or growth plates in the long bones of the body. The most important long bones are tibia, femur and humerus. Throughout the growing years of a human, cells divide constantly in the epiphyseal plates thus making the bones longer. Around the age 17 (little earlier in girls) the growth stops. The hallmark of this biological phenomenon is the ossification of the growth plates and the cell division has ended.  As so in your age, there are no biological \"sources\" on growth which could be boosted in ways. ",
        "id": 396,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "High level of Vitamin D,1,25(OH)2, Total",
        "body": "This could be linked to your diet, but Vitamin D is not found in many foods (with the exception of fish and fortified foods). However, there have been some reports that laboratories may be producing an incorrect value.   \"This means that compared with the actual concentration of 25(OH)D in a sample of blood serum, a falsely low or falsely high value may be obtained depending on the assay or laboratory used.\"  Follow this link on a list of foods high in Vitamin D and some other facts: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/",
        "id": 413,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How cold can an asthmatic's drinking water be?",
        "body": "Drinking cold water having asthma can cause bronchial spasm, a sudden constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles (tightness in the chest), causing difficulty in breathing. This can be also triggered by Exercise-induced asthma (EIA).       The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is known to decrease sympathetic response by slowing the heart rate and constricting the smooth muscle tissue. Ongoing research and successful clinical trials have shown that agents such as diphenhydramine, atropine and Ipratropium bromide (act as receptor antagonists of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors) are effective for treating asthma and COPD-related symptoms.wiki   Studies from 2000 has been shown that both exercise and drinking ice water can induce airways obstruction, however there is a limited interpretation of results, because of the difficulty of separating the temperature and humidity of the airways during experiments (where airway microcirculation could be an important factor).  So how cold the water should be? I don't think it's possible to answer and it really depends on the individual organism and many other factors. If more studies would follow, it would give you only the averages, nothing more.  The following study used ice water (0-4\u00b0C) and warm water 37\u00b0C:   Effect of ice water ingestion on asthmatic children after exercise challenge. (2000)     Thirty Chinese asthmatic children underwent exercise challenge by ergocyclometer for 6 minutes and then were further challenged by immediate ingestion of ice water (200 ml, 0-4 degrees C), warm water (200 ml, 37 degrees C) or no ingestion on three different days in one week. Each patient completed the three different water ingestion tests after exercise challenge.      Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) developed in about two thirds of the 30 patients, regardless of whether ice water, warm water or nothing at all was ingested after exercise challenge. There was no statistically significant difference in spirometric data among the 3 different water tests at various time points.      A statistically significant difference was found between ice water and warm water tests for FEV1 and PEF (p = 0.0293 and p = 0.0308 respectively).      Those who ingested warm water after exercise had a better bronchodilator response than those who ingested ice water.    If they had ice in it - I don't know. However based on the above you should drink warm water just to be safer.",
        "id": 21,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there by any way to 'remotely' brush teeth",
        "body": "The short answer is NO  The long answer is: If time is of concern, ask your oral health professional whether an electric toothbrush can improve your cleaning enough so that 2 minutes of brushing are sufficient.  As stated in another question on Health.Stackexchange:     it is the physical movement of the bristles of the brush that removes   plaque that accumulates on and between the teeth and gums.   No matter what tool you use, contact is unavoidable with the teeth.  I currently have not seen good scientific papers that endorse using high-pressure water or air as a substitute for a toothbrush and floss to clean teeth.   Here is an article that discusses plaque control using a toothbrush: http://www.aapd.org/assets/1/25/Axelsson-03-S1.pdf  The Health.Stackexchange question I sited from: Is brushing teeth without toothpaste actually harmful?",
        "id": 1173,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Accidental hickeys: How long do hickeys last? How to prevent the development of them next time?",
        "body": "I am not a dermatologist, but hickeys are cutaneous very small bleedings when tiny blood vessels in the dermis, known as capillaries, get broken. They begin to bleed in to the small spaces below the epidermis called interstitial space. The best method to heal this bleedings is just to wait. Maybe cold application could help ... but the blood must be resorbed by body cells and it takes time.  So its not dangerous at all ... just wait :)  I hope that helps.",
        "id": 1611,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can one not simply remove gallstones, not the whole gallbladder?",
        "body": "According to this article from the Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons,      Gallstones do not go away on their own. Some can be temporarily managed by making dietary adjustments, such as reducing fat intake. This treatment has a low, short-term success rate. Symptoms will eventually continue unless the gallbladder is removed. Treatments to break up or dissolve gallstones are largely unsuccessful.   (Emphasis mine.)  The complications of removing just a stone would probably be the same as removing the gallbladder - problems with a general anesthetic, or infections of the incision. But leaving the gallbladder there might expose you to the risk of needing the surgery again. Since life after gallbladder removal is generally reported to be the same as before, except without abdominal pain, removing just the stones would be exposing the patient to more risk (of a recurrence and possibly a second surgery) for no benefit.",
        "id": 1654,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is the retainer tight whenever I put it on?",
        "body": "I will answer your questions separately:  1) Teeth can shift on their own, due to the fact that they are supported by the periodontal ligament (PDL) that holds the teeth by their roots in your mouth, while still allowing them to move slightly. Think of it as a shock absorber.   Most movement of teeth happens due to pressure that is applied to your teeth (ex: biting when eating) but also when an orthodontist slowly moves the teeth into place by having the orthodontic wire push and pull your teeth in a certain way for a long time.   Wearing a retainer is important, to prevent the teeth from returning to the way they were before wearing braces. The periodontal ligament has a certain memory and will tend to \"spring\" back to where it was before.  2) Your orthodontist should tell you exactly how often and how long you should wear the retainer. Here is an example of what an orthodontist might tell you: \"Some retainers are used full-time for the first 6 months; after that, the retainers are worn only at night, for a few years. Other retainers are worn full-time for about a week, and solely at night thereafter. Fixed retainers are normally kept in place for 5 years\" [1]  3) Yes, you may drink water with your retainer in your mouth. Avoid eating or drinking anything else when wearing your retainer.  Some of my Sources:  [1] http://www.ndcs.com.sg/ForPatientsAndVisitors/ConditionsAndTreatments/Glossary/Pages/Orthodontics-AfterBracesAlwaysRetainers.aspx",
        "id": 253,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which is better; Olive oil or Clarified butter(Ghee)?",
        "body": "Olive oil has many good properties in it that reduce the heart risks. While Ghee has Saturate fats in it and it is very harmful to your body. Our body should not consume more than 10-15% Saturated fats per day. If you use 1 tbsp of Ghee per day that should be fine. If you are addicted to Ghee then you must have to exercise in order to balance the nutrients in your body. The simple answer to your question is Olive oil is very healthy for heart as well as for all body.",
        "id": 1623,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any studies that prove the effectiveness of saw palmetto for restoring hair in the bald places and stop hair fall?",
        "body": "These are extracts and links:   Other proposed treatments include saw palmetto extract (Serenoa Repens); prostaglandin analogs like latanoprost and bimatoprost, which may be cost prohibitive (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430924/) Serenoa repens(commonly called Saw Palmetto) extracts promote hair regeneration and repair of hair loss mouse models by activating TGF-\u03b2 and mitochondrial signaling pathway. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/29949176/) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of botanically derived inhibitors of 5-alpha-reductase in the treatment of androgenetic alopecia CONCLUSIONS:\u00a0This study establishes the effectiveness of naturally occurring 5AR inhibitors against AGA for the first time, and justifies the expansion to larger trials.(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/12006122/) We can summarize our results by observing that Serenoa repens could lead to an improvement of androgenetic alopecia, while finasteride confirmed its efficacy.\u00a0 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/23298508/) ",
        "id": 2638,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to cure eczema on my foot?",
        "body": "Firstly is it definitely eczema and is it only eczema?  The discharge of pus suggests a bacterial infection (probably staphylococcal). Now this could be superimposed on eczema (which causes the skin barrier to break down causing an infection) or simply just a skin infection/abscess. Either way, if it really is an infection this usually requires antibiotics. Thus you should see a doctor.  If it is eczema, once the infection is treated:   Self care techniques - is there a trigger? Avoid it and avoid as much as possible the compulsion to itch Steroid creams - these reduce the inflammation and are very helpful Moisturising creams - these maintain the skin barrier. Use them for a long period of time even when the skin looks completely healthy ",
        "id": 251,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If I take probiotics and antibiotics at the same time, which one wins?",
        "body": "That depends on the sort of antibiotics. E.g. Tetracyclines interacts with Ca2+ and so its absorption is massively reduced see here, while other do interact less.  Generally you can say, that you should never take drugs with milk or milk derivatives.",
        "id": 1019,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Need advice in whether to get a crown on my tooth...?",
        "body": "If your tooth came completely out, its root has been severely damaged. Putting it back in place is something Im a bit surprised can work, but seems plausible to me.  Now, it is also very probable the interior of your tooth (pulp) is not vascularized anymore, and will come to necrosis soon. That's were you probably need the canal treatment. The crown comes almost naturally after the canal.  See here for images.  Also, crowns, if well placed (I assume your dentist knows its stuff), can last for 3-20 years (depending of the quality of the material, quality of placement, buccal hygien etc etc). ",
        "id": 964,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do the health benefits of beetroot juice outweigh how rank it tastes?",
        "body": "There is no correlation between something tasting \"bad\" and being good for you. Many things that taste bad are in fact bad for you, and many things that you think taste bad, other people like the taste of.  When you juice a vegetable or a fruit, the taste is generally stronger in the juice than if you were just to eat it raw. If it's a cherry or an orange, that's considered a feature. If you don't like the taste of beets, then juicing them isn't going to make them taste nicer. However, it can put them in a form where the taste can be hidden - by adding sweet fruit juices, by adding crushed ice (cold reduces the taste of most things) and the like - or it won't last long because you can drink it quickly compared to chewing and swallowing a quantity of solid food.  Like all vegetables, beets can be part of a healthy diet. But there is no single vegetable that must be eaten to ensure health. People all over the world go their whole, healthy lives without ever eating a beet, raw or cooked. You didn't specify what health benefits you feel it provides, but I suggest researching a little to find a different vegetable that will give you those benefits with a taste you enjoy. You could also (depending on the benefit you're looking for) consider cooking it differently in the hope of finding a preparation you enjoy. I love borscht made with lots of bacon, onions, and potatoes, and topped with sour cream. I also like dried beet chips topped with sea salt, and grated beets fried in butter with a squeeze of lime juice and some lime zest (a dish we call \"Surprise! You Like Beets!\" at my house.) But if you don't like them, eat something you do like. There are no medals for eating unpleasant things.",
        "id": 1848,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can someone be both prediabetic and hypoglycemic?",
        "body": "First I should clarify this - prediabetic range can mean two things: impaired fasting glycemia (IFG) or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). Both of these two tell us that a person is at risk of developing diabetes mellitus type-2. IFG means that you have higher glucose in your blood while fasting ; IGT means that your organism cannot reduce the glucose levels after sugar intake as fast as it should because the insulin response is weak in comparison to a healthy body.   Second, it i possible to have hypoglycemia and pre-diabetes. There are few common scenarios: one group of the people with pre-diabetes are using medications that lower their blood glucose as therapy (hypoglycemia can occurr as a side-effect, although rare); also, it is possible that people that do not have good glucose regulation (prediabetes) to fall into hypoglycemia if they abuse alchocol (especially if they mix it with medications that can lower the blood sugar levels).  ",
        "id": 598,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how can I get my sleeping cycle to normal again?",
        "body": "Many sleeping pills are addictive. Many non-addictive sleeping pills can be mentally addictive.  If you do not mind using sleeping pills for the rest of your life, then that is a perfectly fine choice.  Otherwise, you may want to consider other options first.  Exercise will help. Use up your energy and your body will WANT sleep. Exercise is key to your body's cycles. Your circadian rhythm (sleeping cycle) is largely affected by light. Particularly, artificial light gives off a lot of light in the frequency range that causes your body to think its NOT time to sleep and will screw up your cycles. When you know you have time to sleep, stay away from staring at computer screens as much as possible. Stay away from stimulants. i.e. caffeine or whatever else you may use throughout the day/night.  The huge factor here is that you said you have no official known work hours and you go in whenever they ask you to. If that means that you never know when you might have a good 6-8 hours of sleeping time, then there really is no way to \"fix your cycles\" since it is a constantly moving unknown. Sleeping pills MAY be the only realistic answer in that case. However, if you are able to figure out times when you know you will be off work for a certain number of hours more often than not, then you have a good chance of trying to fix your sleeping cycle.  Light level and duration of exposure determine the impact of self-luminous tablets on melatonin suppression  Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness  The Sleep and Technology Use of Americans: Findings from the National Sleep Foundation's 2011 Sleep in America Poll",
        "id": 349,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "why don't babies drown in the womb?",
        "body": "Why does a foetus not drown?  The foetus gets oxygen through the mother's umbilical cord:     The fetus receives its oxygen supply across the placenta, to which oxygen is delivered by maternal blood. The amount of oxygen delivered to the placental site is determined by the magnitude of blood flow and the oxygen content of uterine arterial blood. Transfer of oxygen from maternal to fetal blood is influenced by the diffusion gradient for oxygen between the maternal uterine blood and fetal umbilical blood.    Oxygen Supply to the Fetus and Fetal Hypoxemia  For further information about the umbilical cord and the placenta, see this Wikipedia image.  Are foetus' amphibious?  No. Although foetuses have pharyngeal arches the \"oxygen supply line\" is the umbilical cord. A foetus can not live outside the womb due to a lack of oxygen supply (the lungs are not yet working) and general supply of vital molecules. This is why they can not be considered amphibians.     The word \"amphibian\" is derived from the Ancient Greek term \u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03af\u03b2\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 (amph\u00edbios), which means \"both kinds of life\", \u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03af meaning \"of both kinds\" and \u03b2\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 meaning \"life\". The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters.   Wikipedia",
        "id": 1769,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are metamyelocytes typically present on blood tests?",
        "body": "Cells of the blood are produced in the bone marrow by multiple steps of differentiation, yielding intermediate precursor cells like metamyelocytes.  Their presence in peripheral blood is abnormal. This is called myelocytosis or myelemia.  Myelocytosis is very concerning if there is presence of morphologically abnormal cells (like blast), especially if other lineages are lowered.  However, an isolated report of up to 2% circulating metamyelocytes is not as concerning. As they are the last step before the normal circulating neutrophils, the presence of metamyelocyte in the blood is indicative of high activity in the granulocytic lineage caused by :   Compensating for a previously diminished number of neutrophils (for example, after chemotherapy) Active infection or inflammation, with elevated neutrophils (>7 giga/L) Use of granulocyte stimulating factor (G-CSF, filgrastim) for stem cell donation or recovery from agranulocytosis   If this finding persists across multiple blood draw, more severe causes may need to be considered :   Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Myelodysplasia Cancer invading the bone marrow ",
        "id": 2424,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why doesn't the human body lower sebum production in patients with chronic acne?",
        "body": "Your assumption is incorrect; the body doesn't have that kind of feedback mechanism for sebaceous glands.  Feedback mechanisms exist in the body for many processes, but this is not one of them. Excessive oil secretion is common, and it is not clear why some people have it and others do not. Sometimes acne results, but not always.  References:   https://www.dermnetnz.org/topics/seborrhoea/ ",
        "id": 2241,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference between Caffeine high dosages (800mg) and Adderal for ADHD?",
        "body": "Adverse effects of excessive caffeine intake  800 mg/day is well above the maximum recommended amount (1)(3). High doses of caffeine (>600 mg/day) can increase the risk of spontaneous abortion in women (2). Caffeine directly affects the heart. Side effects related to this becomes especially pronounced at higher doses, and can cause tachycardia, and arrythmias (5).  Excessive caffeine consumption can result in severe psychological dependence and withdrawal (5).  Caffeine use is associated with increased risk of developing anxiety disorders (4).  Tolerance also develops with chronic caffeine consumption. Increased doses will be required to achieve the desired effects of enhanced concentration and reduction of fatigue (3).  Moderate amounts (100-200 mg/day) however, have been demonstrated to be safe (3).  Treatment of ADHD with caffeine  There is some evidence to suggest that caffeine is an effective treatment for ADHD (5)(9). However, caffeine is not indicated for ADHD, and tolerance develops rapidly.   A Comparison of Stimulants  The drugs referenced interact with organisms in unique ways (i.e.: possess unique pharmacodynamics), and in turn, differ in their therapeutic effects, and side effects. The drugs also have varying pharmacokinetic profiles, meaning that they are absorbed, distributed, excreted, and metabolized differently in the body.  Caffeine     Caffeine is an antagonist at adenosine receptors 1 and 2A. This means   it binds to said receptors without activating them. The presence of   caffeine at the adenosine receptors prevents adenosine (an inhibitory   neurotransmitter) from binding (and producing a response), thereby   causing stimulation (1) . This activity also induces neurotransmitter   release (2) .   From Mechanism of action (MOA) of Caffeine.  Additionally, caffeine is a more mild CNS stimulant than the amphetamines (i.e.: methylphenidate and amphetamine). The amphetamines are a more effective treatment for ADHD than caffeine (10)  Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta)  Methylphenidate is a reuptake inhibitor of dopamine (DA), and to a lesser but still marked degree, noradrenaline (NE) (6). This activity increases the effect of these neurotransmitters, resulting in a reduction of symptoms.  Amphetamine (Vyvanse, Adderall, Dexedrine)  Amphetamine is a releasing agent of DA, NE, serotonin (5-HT) (6).  Side effects such as anorexia, weight loss, and nausea tend to occur more commonly with amphetamine than methylphenidate. (8)  In regards to the therapeutic effect, there is no significant difference between methylphenidate and amphetamine overall (7).  References   Caffeine: How much is too much? http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20045678 Coffee http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/food-beverages/coffee Medicines in my Home Caffeine and Your Body  https://www.fda.gov/downloads/UCM200805.pdf Common Psychiatric Disorders and Caffeine Use, Tolerance,and Withdrawal: An Examination of Shared Genetic and Environmental Effects https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3443633/ Caffeine Psychological Effects, Use and Abuse http://orthomolecular.org/library/jom/1981/pdf/1981-v10n03-p202.pdf Methylphenidate and dexmethylphenidate formulations for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Gains from Including Both Dextroamphetamine and Methylphenidate in Stimulant Trials https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3842881/ A post hoc comparison of the effects of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate and osmotic-release oral system methylphenidate on symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23801529 Tea consumption maybe an effective active treatment for adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21277687 Caffeine versus methylphenidate and d-amphetamine in minimal brain dysfunction: a double-blind comparison. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1096645 ",
        "id": 1428,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any issues with missing this hand tendon?",
        "body": "That tendon is attached to palmaris longus muscles, a muscle that some people lack. There are absolutely no functional differences between people that have it and those who don't.  Check the wikipedia article for more information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmaris_longus_muscle",
        "id": 1213,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would sharing patient data improve health Care?",
        "body": "Sure, if a doctor in France could type something into a computer and see all my records from Canada, that doctor would give me better care than if the only source of information was my memory. Heck, if a doctor in another province in Canada could do that, I would also get better care. All my previous diagnoses and prescriptions would be there, prior surgeries, and so on. I wouldn't have to spend time filling out forms and listing these sorts of things.  But that's not really the question. Such a system would have costs as well as benefits. Software development is difficult and expensive, and if you get it wrong, care could be actively worsened. (Say a patient tells the doctor something that isn't on the system and the doctor assumes the patient is misremembering, and the consequences cause harm to the patient.) A study on that was published this year. In some countries, the information could be mis-used to discriminate against a patient or harass them. Imagine a doctor in Country A reporting someone to the police because of information recorded in Country B about their sexuality or recreational drug use. Or an insurance company in Country A refusing to cover a procedure because of information recorded in Country B. The Daily Mail isn't exactly a reliable source, never mind a scientific journal, but here's an article about the NHS selling medical data. Whether it is currently happening or not, it certainly could happen with any new system that was developed. And there's even an issue that doctors might reject difficult patients if notes in the record suggested they were a \"PITA\".  What's more, paper always works. There are not competing standards for it. Photocopying (or printing another copy) is simple enough, and faxes still exist, or things can be scanned and emailed. Some medical facilities might not be able to afford the systems to read records electronically, but could use and maintain paper records just fine.  All of the legal, privacy, and translation issues would have to be worked out and agreed to by a large number of countries. And someone would have to fund it and test it. It would not be a trivial undertaking. So the question isn't \"would there be an improvement in care for some patients\" but \"would the  improvement in care for some patients outweigh the worse care for other patients, the privacy and legal issues, and the financial cost of developing the system and connecting everyone to it?\"",
        "id": 2291,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the physiological process that would cause one to void more than once in the morning?",
        "body": "In healthy patients, a circadianic rhythm of urine excretion has been observed. In average, it depends on age, sex and total (consumed) fluid volume. Several factors contribute to this rhythm:   The rhythm of glomerular filtration rate of the kidneys. They decrease filtration of urine at night. Many of the hormones which influence renal urine production - and also the parasympathetic/sympathetic nervous system, which controls bladder function - follow observable day and night rhythms.  The former study also states that there is a possibility for regulatory clock genes, which might directly influence urine production or the urge to urinate.  They could be located in the bladder itself or the neurons controlling its function, or in the kidneys.    The role of this rhythm is still unclear. In mice, the circadianic rhythm of urine excretion was lost 2 days into exposure to total darkness.  So, altogether, there is evidence of multifactorial contributions to an observable circadianic rhythm of urine excretion of unknown purpose. But it is clear that at night, your kidneys filtrate and thus produce less, and the tonus of the bladder muscles is also decreased, in summary leading to your bladder preserving more urine for the morning, possibly \"to give you some rest\" at night. And it is also clear that if you're a man, it is not going to get better with age, and this is very likely due to the increase of their prostate volume.",
        "id": 193,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If I drink a lot of alcohol, will my urine be flammable?",
        "body": "The liver breaks down about 90% of alcohol consumed, with only about 5% excreted in the urine. To become combustible, the ethanol concentration in urine would have to approach 50% at room temperature, though 20% would combust at around body temperature. However, conversion of ethanol into acetate by the liver generates one molecule of water for each molecule of ethanol consumed. Since 18 times more alcohol is metabolized by the liver than is excreted in the urine, the water from all that liver metabolism would render the urine too dilute to combust even if it were not supplied by the diet.",
        "id": 400,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health risks of consuming 6-8 liters (1.5-2 gallons) of water daily?",
        "body": "Summary       The primary risk of excessive water intake is hyponatremia (low sodium level in the blood). While a healthy person who drinks 6-8 liters of water daily is unlikely to suffer significant hyponatremia, people who drink this much often have psychiatric illness that is accompanied by poorly understood hormonal changes that may indeed cause hyponatremia and its attendant symptoms.  Psychogenic polydipsia    Many patients with a variety of psychiatric disorders drink more water than normal. This is termed psychogenic polydipsia. The cause is unknown.1   Hyponatremia: mechanism    Sodium levels correlate closely with serum osmolality, since sodium is the primary cation contributing to osmotic pressure. The body maintains serum osmolality within a narrow range via regulation of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, a.k.a. arginine vasopressin), a hormone that is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (a.k.a. neurohypophysis) at the base of the brain in response to a rise in serum osmolality. The hormone circulates in the blood and acts in the kidneys to increase free water resorption, thereby lowering serum osmolality. In the case of excess free water, ADH secretion will be maximally suppressed.   In a healthy person, ADH suppression results in urine diluted to a concentration of about 60 mmol/kg,4 which (assuming a normal glomerular filtration rate) corresponds to a fluid intake of about 28 L per day. Only above that level with serum osmolality be significantly compromised.  SIADH     Unfortunately, many people can not suppress ADH maximally. As a result, urine may be \u2018inappropriately\u2019 compromised in the face of falling serum osmolality. This is called, creatively, Syndrome of Inappropriate Diuretic Hormone (SIADH). For reasons that are incompletely understood, many psychiatric patients with psychogenic polydipsia (see below) have SIADH.3 Some of the reasons that are understood:    Medications including antidepressants (primarily SSRIs) and antipsychotics are well-established causes of SIADH.   Schizophrenia itself appears to be associated with SIADH.  Chronic hyponatremia may lead to a \u2018reset osmostat\u2019 whereby the pituitary's threshold for ADH secretion is changed.    Hyponatremia: consequences  The constellation of symptoms associated with hyponatremia is termed hyponatremic encephalopathy.3 It includes: headache, blurred vision, weakness, muscle tremor and cramps, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, restlessness, confusion. This can progress, in severe cases, to seizures, coma, and death. It would be exceedingly rare for a person with purely psychogenic polydipsia to progress to this point (in part because one is likely to develop depressed consciousness and stop drinking such that the kidney can fix the problem prior to dying).   One important point is that the level of hyponatremia required to cause these symptoms is largely dependent on the rapidity of change. Acute hyponatremia can cause symptoms at a level of 128-130 mEQ/L (normal 135-145 mEq/L). On the other hand, patients with chronic SIADH may walk around with sodium 120-125 mEq/L without symptoms.      References    1. M Biswas and J S Davies. Hyponatraemia in clinical practice Postgrad Med J. 2007 Jun; 83(980): 373\u2013378.       2. Dundas B, Harris M, Narasimhan M.Psychogenic polydipsia review: etiology, differential, and treatment. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007 Jun;9(3):236-41.   3. Illowsky BP, Kirch DG .Polydipsia and hyponatremia in psychiatric patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1988 Jun;145(6):675-83.   4. Robertson GL. Chapter 340. Disorders of the Neurohypophysis. In: Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson J, Loscalzo J. eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012. ",
        "id": 180,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How effective is a \u201ewrong-way\u201c rescue blanket?",
        "body": "Apparently, the difference is not very severe:     Die Regel: K\u00e4lteschutz: Silberseite nach innen, Sonnenschutz: Silberseite nach au\u00dfen wird auch von Herstellern angegeben. Jedoch ist der Unterschied in der IR-Reflexion laut Untersuchungen vernachl\u00e4ssigbar und soll nur einen Unterschied von 1\u00b0C bewirken k\u00f6nnen, wobei die silber-farbene Seite zu 99% und die gold-farbene Seite zu 97% IR-W\u00e4rmestrahlung reflektieren soll.      Generally, the silver side should be turned outwards as cold protection and the golden side as heat protection. Nevertheless, the difference in IR-reflections are - according to studies - irrelevant and only lead to a difference of 1\u00b0C, whereas the silver side reflects 99% of heat radiation and golden side 97% respectively.      Source: Product Description at MediCounter   More or less the same text can be found at the German wikipedia entry, where a pamphlet from the Hans-Hepp Company is sourced, but I haven't yet found the pamphlet.   Other producers claim that only 85% of body heat are reflected. I have contacted both shops and both state that the production team gave them the numbers and that they have no knowledge of studies/tests performed to back this up.",
        "id": 2308,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the correct way to use the pinch test for dehydration?",
        "body": "According to Healthline the skin sould bounce back within a second or two. The pertinent passage is:      When you pinch the skin on your arm, for example, it should spring back into place with [sic] a second or two.   The article also mentions that this should be done on your arm or abdomen. MedlinePlus says the same.  This is called skin turgor. It is not considered reliable for those over sixty-five. It can take over twenty seconds for the skin of elderly individuals to return to normal, because we lose elasticity as we age.  In general, this finding is not 100% reliable on its own, and when using this to determine volume status it should be to corroborate other findings, not as diagnostic on its own.  Correlate with history (decreased fluid intake, decreased urination), symptoms (dry mouth, oliguria, lightheadedness, palpitations), vital signs (tachycardia, hypotension), moistness of mucous membranes, labs (lactate, anion gap), etc depending on the case.",
        "id": 2679,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How bone of broken toe can be straightened without surgery?",
        "body": "Speaking from experience: Depending on the type and severity of the break, if the bone has not yet healed in place, you can potentially tape the toe in such a way to keep it straight while the bone heals. Because it is difficult to stay off of your feet for several weeks to allow the bone to be stable, a boot is sometimes recommended.  Which toe it is also matters with regard to treatment. The big toe is responsible for 50% of the utility of all of your toes (source: my orthopedist).  The other 4 toes share the remaining 50%. So, if it is a smaller toe that is broken, a loss in functionality is not quite as problematic.",
        "id": 1837,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a measure of satiety?",
        "body": "Benefit of fibers is mostly that fibers are not absorbed by your organism, and henceforth remain in your intestine during the digestion process, as well as filling your stomach, which can possibly delay somewhat the hungry feeling.  Now, there are also (mainly I guess) hormones. Leptin or Ghrelin are examples of these. The reason why it is often to recommended to take your time while eating (about 20min) is to let hormone regulation occur.  PS: some people with genetics disorder with these hormones can have problems with obesity.",
        "id": 962,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Revealing a murderer based on a genetic condition",
        "body": "   I'm writing a story, in which the detective will recognize a prescription for the victim is for relief of some genetic condition.    You wanted to be realistic: In the autopsy report (after any murder, they usually cut the corpse open and search for clues - and for causes of death), the genetic condition would have usually shown.    Usually, diseases/conditions do not have an identifiable prescription. As an example, Crohn's Disease (a genetic condition) is treated with antibiotics and prednisone, a combination that could also be applied for COPD, laryngitis, thyroiditis etc.      I'm looking for some genetic condition that both mother and father could have that would express itself differently in the child. I've done a lot of research, but search engines weren't made for this sort of question, and deadlines approach. I've discovered codominant genetic expressions, which seem to fit the bill, but the only examples I can find (in humans) are AB blood type and Sickle Cell Anemia, neither of which will work in the narrative. Perhaps I'm barking up the wrong tree.   Neither of which are expressed differently though. In the case of SCA, both carriers are either unaffected or show the same symptoms. I have yet to encounter a disease that can manifest itself entirely differently.    Source: Wikipedia  Furthermore, two people having the same genetic disease does not inevitably make them closely related. It'd have to be a really rare one for the detective to conclude that (to everybody's surprise, so no other likeliness etc.). Today, DNA tests are performed routinely for suspects, and any unknown relationship between father and suspect (daughter) would have presented itself there.",
        "id": 2385,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"DM at RLSB\" mean?",
        "body": "Diastolic Murmur [heard maximally at the] Right Lower Sternal Border  This is not the most typical description of any murmur, but it can be consistent with aortic regurgitation. Note that this patient had two murmurs described. In addition to DM/RLSB, he had a SEM = systolic ejection murmur (SEM). Both were described as II/IV intensity (read: two out of six), indicating a murmur that was faint but could be heard without difficulty.*  This is a good review on diastolic murmurs, usually considered to be an indicator of pathology. In contrast, systolic murmurs are at times consistent with normal physiology.     * Traditionally. Modern cardiologists tell me that those of us not trained in the good-ole\u2019-days of cardiac auscultation tend to experience difficulty up to a higher threshold of intensity. ",
        "id": 524,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long of a time period are medications tested for?",
        "body": "You are correct that there are no hard and fast rules on how long a clinical trial has to take. There are recommendations or, if you'd like common practices, but the duration of the trial is decided separately for each drug, for each clinical trial phase and even for each individual study (when there is more than one study in a phase).  The FDA website for example, states that the duration of the study is decided by the research team, although it gives common duration span for each phase (emphasis mine):  Phase 1:     Patients: 20 to 100 healthy volunteers or people with the disease/condition.      Length of Study: Several months      Purpose: Safety and dosage    Phase 2:     Patients: Up to several hundred people with the disease/condition.      Length of Study: Several months to 2 years      Purpose: Efficacy and side effects   Phase 3:      Patients: 300 to 3,000 volunteers who have the disease or condition      Length of Study: 1 to 4 years      Purpose: Efficacy and monitoring of adverse reactions   The information on the conducted studies are included in the Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC or SmPC for short), you can find them on-line or from your regulatory agency. However, they do not always include the length of the study. For new medicines the companies sometimes give information about the clinical trials, although depending on the country you are in, this information might be available just to healthcare professionals for prescription medicines (because promotion of prescription medicines direct to consumer is prohibited in many countries).   The fourth, post-marketing phase is not time-limited, it lasts for as long as the medicine is on the market. The health professionals are obliged to report any side-effects that they become aware of that are either associated or even just concomitant to a medicine use. Patients can report any side effects they notice to their health care professional, but very often there is also an option to report directly to the company/manufacturer. Most companies have a section on their website (or at least an e-mail address) dedicated to this, or, depending on the country a patient is in, the adverse effects can be reported by phone. Aside from spontaneous reporting, post-marketing phase studies are also conducted.  This procedure is a part of the pharmacovigilance system. There are various national and international adverse reaction monitoring systems, and these should all contribute to greater knowledge and the better safety of a medicine.  For example, there are laws and good pharamcovigilance practice (GVP) guidelines in the EU, that can be found on the EMeA website. This legislature makes it obligatory for manufacturers to periodically update safety reports and include new findings. ",
        "id": 1214,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can thinking too hard cause a migraine or a headache?",
        "body": "The exact cause of migraines is unknownNHS, although they are thought to be the result of temporary changes, or abnormal brain activity which can affect nerve signals, chemicals and blood vessels in the brain.  It could also relate to your health conditions (e.g. chronic headache), vital energy or specific hormone balance at the given time. Such as levels of sodium2006 or blood sugar (glucose).  Therefore it's not possible to indicate whether concentrating hard on a task can cause migraines or headaches, unless it's caused by emotional (anxiety, tension, stress, etc.) or physical trigger (tiredness, low blood sugar, etc.)NHS.",
        "id": 623,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What exactly are the health risks of using public swimming pools?",
        "body": "\"Surely there are more risks\" well, you could drown. You could be assaulted or filmed in the change room. You could get dry skin from exposure to the water or the compounds in it - when I swam daily in a semi-public pool I had to use lotion after every swim, which I don't need to do after daily swims in my own these days.  But I expect you're more concerned about catching something communicable. As the article says, urine is sterile. People with open sores and runny noses aren't allowed in the pool (there's generally a large sign about this) and the chlorine in the water is designed to kill the germs from the people who ignore the signs.   The article's risk isn't even about being in the water - it's about breathing and having uncovered eyes near the water. That \"chlorine\" smell we all recognize is actually chloramines, which are formed when chlorine reacts with ammonia in urine and sweat. These are the compounds that irritate the eyes and perhaps the respiratory tract. (The Wikipedia article has references.) So to reduce your risk:   wear goggles and put them over your eyes as you leave the change room, rather than waiting until you're in the water and about to put your face in. Leave them over your eyes until you're well away from the water take that pre-swim shower seriously, to reduce your own organic contributions, and pee before you swim don't hang around on the \"pool deck\" of an indoor pool breathing the fumes after your swim, rinse yourself, including your hair, and your swim suit thoroughly, so that you don't carry chlorine compounds out of the area if you have a choice between an indoor and an outdoor pool, choose the outdoor one for better ventilation, but don't forget to use sunscreen in that case if you have a choice between a pool that always smells really chlorine-y and one that doesn't, choose the less smelly one: its users are presumably contributing less organics and thus creating less chloramines. I noticed a huge difference between the university pool used by (among others) students training for the Olympics and the public pool used by ages 2-92.    If you spend hours a day everyday at the pool, because it's your job to train, or you're a lifeguard, these precautions are probably more important. If you go a few times a week, you don't need to be paranoid about it. ",
        "id": 1597,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do patients with angina have a high risk of dying?",
        "body": "Giving a definitive answer is not easy because angina is often not the only condition patients with angina suffer from. Thus, it can't be looked at \"in a vacuum\", so to speak. And, of course, it also very much depends on whether adequate medical care is available.   Numbers also vary between the forms of angina: stable angina and unstable angina. Stable angina might develop into unstable angina, which can be one of the first signs of a heart attack (What is angina?)   Stable angina     Long-term prognosis for those with stable angina is variable, with mortality rates of between 0.9%\u2013 6.5% per annum   The management of stable angina  Since patients with angina are often older and already in bad health, these numbers might even be the same or close to the \"normal\" death rate. As you can see from the wide range, the risk varies a lot.   The introduction section of Favourable long term prognosis in stable angina pectoris: an extended follow up of the angina prognosis study in Stockholm (APSIS) lists a lot of studies that found an annual death risk of about one percent, often not different from control groups without angina. This is the rate for patients with good state-of-the-art medical care and treatment, though.   Unstable angina  Unstable angina is a condition that needs to be treated with emergency medical care, as it is one of the signs of a heart attack. If the patient survives the first months, the death risk returns to the level of stable angina.      This observational study reported that the in-hospital event rates for unstable angina included a 2% mortality rate, 4% progression to myocardial infarction and 3% recurrence of refractory ischaemia. By 6 months this had risen to 7% mortality, 7% myocardial infarction and 17% recurrent myocardial ischaemia. One year after the index episode of unstable angina, the cardiovascular event rate had returned to that of patients with stable angina and a similar risk factor profile.   Unstable angina: the first 48 hours and later in-hospital management",
        "id": 535,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the potential effects of mobile phones on pacemaker function?",
        "body": "Phones can interfere with pacemakers, but usually the effects are rare and can be avoided.      Dr. Carsten Lennerz, study lead author and cardiology resident in the   Clinic for Heart and Circulatory Diseases at Munich\u2019s German Heart   Centre, said that pacemakers in rare instances can mistakenly detect   electromagnetic interference from mobile phones. The devices can then   interpret the interference as a cardiac signal, causing them to   briefly stop working. This can sometimes result in the patient   fainting.    fda.gov      Radiofrequency energy (RF) from cell phones can interact with some   electronic devices. This type of interference is called   electromagnetic interference (EMI). For this reason, FDA helped   develop a detailed test method to measure EMI of implanted cardiac   pacemakers and defibrillators from cell phones. This test method is   now part of a standard sponsored by the Association for the   Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI). This standard will   allow manufacturers to ensure that cardiac pacemakers and   defibrillators are safe from cell phone EMI.   If EMI were to occur it could cauae:     Stopping the pacemaker from delivering the stimulating pulses that   regulate the heart's rhythm Causing the pacemaker to deliver the   pulses irregularly Causing the pacemaker to ignore the heart's own   rhythm and deliver pulses at a fixed rate   However,     But based on current research, cell phones would not seem to pose a   significant health problem for the vast majority of pacemaker wearers.   Still, people with pacemakers may want to take some simple precautions   to be sure that their cell phones don't cause a problem.    The effects of mobile phones on pacemaker function: study   This study just says that phones effect pacemakers, but once you take the phone away the pacemaker is fine once again.    heart.gov   Phones available in the US(less than 3 watts) don't appear to affect pacemaker function. However, new phones using new frequencies may make pacemakers unreliable.    MedicineNet.com: mentions a study      Of important note, the pacemaker interference by the cellular phones   was only found to be significant when the phones were held over the   pacemakers-not when placed in the normal listening position over the   ear.    Healthline.com Third-Generation Mobile Phones (UMTS) do not Interfere with Permanent Implanted Pacemakers ",
        "id": 810,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How and where to test for organic mercury levels?",
        "body": "New York State  Yes, I know that you don't live in New York State. This is however the most useful and explanatory document that I have found on this matter and therefore linked it as further information.     Mercury Levels Tests are performed either with urine or with blood in the New York State.      The most commonly accepted methods of assessing mercury exposure are   to test urine or blood. Both tests usually measure levels of total   mercury (elemental, inorganic and organic). \uf0b7             Elevated mercury in urine usually indicates exposure to an elemental or inorganic source   of mercury, such as from a job that uses mercury. \uf0b7   Elevated mercury   in blood usually indicates exposure to organic mercury (such as from   eating fish containing methylmercury) or recent exposure to a high   level of elemental mercury vapor. For most people, an elevated blood   mercury level is associated with eating fish and other seafood   containing organic mercury.           (Source: New York Health Department)  In New York State, it is mandatory to report high level of mercury in blood or urine tests to the New York State Department of Health. Therefore, if anyone in New York had underwent a blood or urine test, they would have been notified if there are high mercury levels. (New York Health Department)  Massachusetts  It was a bit more challenging to find sources for Massachusetts. However, if one digs deep this is what I could find:  The Confidential Report Form for the State of Massachusetts states that all persons with mercury blood levels higher than 15 \u03bcg / L or urine mercury levels higher than 35 \u03bcg / g creatinine must be reported. (Link to the .doc version of the Confidential Report Form). The Reporting Occupational Diseases and Injuries Form (again in .doc-type) states exactly the same.  The Public Health Fact Sheet Regarding Elemental Mercury Contamination at the Grafton Street School (MA) says that      [mercury] tests are available to measure elemental mercury levels in   the body.   Urine or blood samples are used to test for exposure to   elemental mercury.  Urine is most useful for testing for potential   inhalation exposure to elemental mercury.   In order to get the most   accurate measure of mercury, the sample should be collected soon after   exposure.   Conclusion  Visit a GP of your choice and simply ask them to perform a mercury test on you. They will either collect blood or your urine and send it to a lab.     If they perform a urine test and you are very very sure that you only want organic mercury to be checked (where it is recommended to do a blood test), kindly tell them exactly this.   I would strongly recommend printing out the linked PDF-Document and bringing that with you. It is easier for your doctor to accept the official document (and they will see that you are well-informed) than to trust in your reasoning.    Summary of References  New York State Health Department  - Understanding Mercury Exposure Levels Massachusetts Health Department - Confidential Report Form Massachusetts Health Department - Reporting Occupational Diseases and Injuries Form Massachusetts Health Department - Public Health Fact Sheet Regarding Elemental Mercury Contamination at the Grafton Street School     ",
        "id": 1644,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does muscle really weigh more than fat?",
        "body": "Yes: muscle tissue is denser than adipose tissue:   Adipose tissue has a density of ~0.9 g/ml Skeletal tissue has a density of ~1.06 g/ml   Source: Wikipedia; with references to the scientific literature.  This means that, per volume, skeletal muscles weigh more than fat. However, skeletal muscle (which you gain by exercising) only contributes a fraction to the overall lean body mass. Another substantial contributor is water, and the amount of water in the body varies drastically.  To quote \u201cInBody\u201d:        Lean Mass gains, when they do occur, are largely increases in body water   It\u2019s difficult to say with any certainty how much any Lean Body Mass increase is due to Skeletal Muscle Mass without using sophisticated tools      And they have bad news for you:     [Do] not try to use a scale to measure changes in Lean Body Mass or Skeletal Muscle Mass. It\u2019s impossible [\u2026]   You should therefore track your exercise progress differently. As for tracking the progress of your diet, it may seem tempting to measure body fat percentage. Unfortunately this also requires sophisticated tools: those home-use scales that give you  body fat estimates are unreliable.",
        "id": 2134,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does vitamin D supplementation fully replace sun exposure to avoid vitamin D insufficiency?",
        "body": "Nicely, sunlight is best. While we are still not knowing nearly enough concerning all the details, that's a safe bet. Even the supplement lobby acknowledges that:     Despite the increased risk of non-melanoma skin cancers, the Vitamin D Council recommends moderate sun exposure and 5,000 IU of vitamin D3 on days you do not get sun exposure. We are not alone. Recent studies imply that sun exposure does more than simply make vitamin D and that one cannot fully replace the benefits of sun exposure by simply taking a vitamin D supplement.   There are differences. Differences between sunlight synthesised and supplemented. But also between those two types compared to D derived from food.  Just one example: Sunlight D remains twice as long in the blood compared to ingested D:     Vitamin D: The \u201csunshine\u201d vitamin (2012)   Sources of vitamin D      A major source of vitamin D for most humans is synthesized from the exposure of the skin to sunlight typically between 1000 h and 1500 h in the spring, summer, and fall. Vitamin D produced in the skin may last at least twice as long in the blood compared with ingested vitamin D. When an adult wearing a bathing suit is exposed to one minimal erythemal dose of UV radiation (a slight pinkness to the skin 24 h after exposure), the amount of vitamin D produced is equivalent to ingesting between 10,000 and 25,000 IU. A variety of factors reduce the skin's production of vitamin D3, including increased skin pigmentation, aging, and the topical application of a sunscreen. An alteration in the zenith angle of the sun caused by a change in latitude, season of the year, or time of day dramatically influences the skin's production of vitamin D3.   Further, producing D uses up cholesterol and sulfate, since D is found in more forms in the human body than just those D1-3 compounds:     Determination of four sulfated vitamin D compounds in human biological fluids by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. (2016)   The determination of both the water-soluble and lipid-soluble vitamin D compounds in human biological fluids is necessary to illuminate potentially significant biochemical mechanisms. The lack of analytical methods to quantify the water-soluble forms precludes studies on their role and biological functions; currently available liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods are able to determine only a single sulfated form of Vitamin D. We describe here a highly sensitive and specific LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of four sulfated forms of vitamin D: vitamins D2- and D3-sulfate (D2-S and D3-S) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D2- and D3-sulfate (25(OH)D2-S and 25(OH)D3-S). A comparative evaluation showed that the ionization efficiencies of underivatized forms in negative ion mode electrospray ionisation (ESI) are superior to those of the derivatized (using 4-phenyl-l,2,4-triazoline-3,5-dione (PTAD)) forms in positive ion mode ESI. Separation was optimised to minimise co-elution with endogenous matrix compounds, thereby reducing ion suppression/enhancement effects. Isotopically labelled analogues of each compound were used as internal standards to correct for ion suppression/enhancement effects. The method was validated and then applied for the analysis of breastmilk and human serum. The detection limits, repeatability standard deviations, and recoveries ranged from 0.20 to 0.28fmol, 2.8 to 10.2%, and 81.1 to 102%, respectively.   Different forms have different actions and even if all forms might be transformed from D3 alone that requires enzymes whose efficiency is not necessarily equally adequate across the whole population or whose inter-actions involves competing pathways. Supplements usually contain only one single form.  But since skin colour, clothing habits or necessities, and latitude make it almost impossible for many people to get enough sun exposure there is just no other way but too increase the D level by ingesting some form to reach amounts  needed or amounts considered 'optimal' or beneficial.  As can be seen from the second link:  sunlight > D-containig food > supplements  Sunlight (as always: in moderation) has other beneficial effects beyond D, but even as food might not provide  enough D, supplements then are still very probably a worthwhile option.",
        "id": 2101,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is cannabidiol safe to treat depression of a patient with a schizoaffective disorder?",
        "body": "First of all, you have to be aware that most studies cited are on animals, not humans. Applicability of that data for humans is limited.  Second, this molecule is interacting with all kinds of tissues thoughout the entire body. Its pharmacology is quite complicated, but it shows a lot of potential.  In general. Its use for depression is not yet among the most promonent applications investigated. Pisanti, S., et al., Cannabidiol: State of the art and new challenges for therapeutic applications, Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics (2017), DOI  In the case of schizophrenia:     Conclusions:      These findings suggest that CBD has beneficial effects in patients with schizophrenia. As CBD\u2019s effects do not appear to depend on dopamine receptor antagonism, this agent may represent a new class of treatment for the disorder.   Philip McGuire: \"Cannabidiol (CBD) as an Adjunctive Therapy in Schizophrenia: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial\", American Journal of Psychoiatry, Volume 175, Issue 3, March 01, 2018, Pages 225-231. DOI    The above should not read as \"it safe to experiment with this in schizophrenia\". But it is a significant finding as     So far, much of the evidence regarding the antipsychotic effects of CBD has come from studies with animals or healthy participants.   There have only been a handful of double-blind trials so far reported that have included patients with psychosis.   The others (Leweke et al. 2012, Boggs et al. 2018) featured smaller sample sizes (N=42 and N=36 respectively) and lower doses (800mg and 600mg per day respectively).   Leweke et al. compared CBD to Amisulpride, and found both had a similar effect on psychotic symptoms but CBD had fewer side-effects.   Boggs et al. also tested CBD against placebo as an adjunct to existing antipsychotic treatment, but found no statistically significant effect after 6 weeks.         Boggs D., Surti T., Gupta A., et al. (2018). The effects of cannabidiol (CBD) on cognition and symptoms in outpatients with chronic schizophrenia a randomized placebo controlled trial. Psychopharmacology. 235, 1923-1932. [Abstract]      Bridgeman M, Abazia D. (2017) Medicinal cannabis: History, pharmacology, and implications for the acute care setting. Pharm. Ther., 42, 180\u2013188.      Fakhoury, M. (2016) Could cannabidiol be used as an alternative to antipsychotics? Journal of Psychiatric Research , Volume 80 , 14 \u2013 21. [Abstract]      Gage, S. H., Hickman, M., &amp; Zammit, S. (2016). Association Between Cannabis and Psychosis: Epidemiologic Evidence (PDF). Biological Psychiatry, 79(7), 549-556.      Lim, K., See, Y.M., Lee, J. (2017) A systematic review of the effectiveness of medical cannabis for psychiatric, movement and neurodegenerative disorders. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci.; 15:301\u2013312.      M\u00fccke M, Phillips T, Radbruch L, et al. (2018) Cannabis-based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD012182.      Nielsen S., Germanos R., Weier M. et al. (2018). The Use of Cannabis and Cannabinoids in Treating Symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis: a Systematic Review of Reviews. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. 18: 8. [PubMed abstract]      O\u2019Connell, B. K., Gloss, D. &amp; Devinsky, O. (2017) Cannabinoids in treatment-resistant epilepsy: a review. Epilepsy Behav. 70, 341\u2013348. [PubMed abstract]      Rong C, Lee Y, Carmona NE, et al. Cannabidiol in medical marijuana: research vistas and potential opportunities. Pharmacol Res. 2017;121:213\u20138. [PubMed abstract]      Luke Sheridan Rains: \"Is Cannabidiol (CBD) an effective antipsychotic?\", 24 Aug 2018 ",
        "id": 2711,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any risks about switching to a non-fluoride toothpaste?",
        "body": "If all the rest is the same, your risk of caries would increase by 25% Source: Cochrane Syst Review.",
        "id": 1815,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do collagen supplements help ease some of the symtoms of Lupus?",
        "body": "Studies have shown that arthritis (joint inflammation) and arthralgias (joint pain) are reported in up to 95 percent of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).  There is currently no evidence for the use of collagen supplements in lupus patients. Actually, some decades ago, these supplements have been suggested in patients with osteoarthritis. The reason for this, is that the pathology of OA results from focal and progressive hyaline articular cartilage loss which leads to changes in the bone underneath the cartilage. However, while the prescription of collagen supplements was very trendy some decades ago, their use has slowly declined due to growing evidence failing to show an efficacy of these collagen supplements. Here the conclusion of a systematic review conducted in 2013 on this topic:     There is insufficient evidence to recommend the generalized use of CHs   in daily practice for the treatment of patients with OA. More   independent high-quality studies are needed to confirm the therapeutic   effects of collagen derivatives on OA complaints.   Of course this concerns osteoarthritis but it shows of controversial collagen supplements are.  As summarised in uptodate, treatment of arthritis in lupus patients relies on the following drugs: nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs or hydroxychloroquine. For some patients acetaminophen may be useful. Glucocorticoids, methotrexate, and other immunosuppressives may also be required.  Sources:  Schur P. et al. Musculoskeletal manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Aug 30, 2016. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/musculoskeletal-manifestations-of-systemic-lupus-erythematosus?source=machineLearning&amp;search=lupus+arthritis&amp;selectedTitle=1%7E150&amp;sectionRank=1&amp;anchor=H2#H499515",
        "id": 1126,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are toxins being released when one sweats during sickness?",
        "body": "Usually flu's are accompanied by fevers, when your internal thermostat is effectively 'reset' by the virus and your body temperature increases. When you're recovering, your internal thermostat is now resetting to its correct temperature so your body cools down. The way you cool down is by sweating.  As for your question regarding detoxification, the kidney and liver are the main powerhouses for removing toxins. According to Donald Smith, a professor of environmental toxicology,(https://www.huffingtonpost.com/melissa-edmonds/does-sweating-release-tox_b_8372452.html), \"Less than 1 percent [of toxins] are lost through sweat\".",
        "id": 2120,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mechanism of action (MOA) of Caffeine",
        "body": "Caffeine is an antagonist at adenosine receptors 1 and 2A. This means it binds to said receptors without activating them. The presence of caffeine at the adenosine receptors prevents adenosine (an inhibitory neurotransmitter) from binding (and producing a response), thereby causing stimulation (1) . This activity also induces neurotransmitter release (2) .  Caffeine is structurally similar to adenosine. (3) This underlies it ability to bind to the same receptors.    Figure 1 Comparison of the structural formulas of caffeine and adenosine (4)  The autonomic effects of caffeine are also mediated through caffeine's activity at the adenosine receptors (2).   References   http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/food-beverages/coffee https://web.archive.org/web/20170208153409/https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00201  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8608761_Caffeine_as_a_psychomotor_stimulant_Mechanism_of_action https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/2456-caffeine-and-adenosine-structure ",
        "id": 1865,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wearing a corset",
        "body": "1. Does wearing a corset have any disadvantages?  Yes.  The wearing of a corset for extended periods of time to maintain or reduce waist size is called tightlacing. It is commented (though nowhere I can cite) that to effectively tightlace you need to use a Victorian-style steel/bone corset as modern elastic/rubber/plastic corsets don't exert enough force.  A typical tightlacing training routine begins with the use of a well-fitted corset and introduces very gradual decreases in the waist circumference. Lacing too tight too fast can cause extreme discomfort and short-term problems such as shortness of breath and faintness, indigestion, and chafing of the skin if a liner is not worn.  The diminished waist and tight corset reduce the volume of the torso. This is sometimes reduced even further by styles of corset that force the torso to taper towards the waist, which pushes the lower ribs inwards. Internal organs are moved closer together and out of their original positions in a way similar to the way that a pregnant woman's expanding uterus causes the organs to be displaced.  The volume of the lungs diminishes and the tightlacer tends to breathe intercostally \u2013 that is, with the upper portion of the lungs only. Due to the lower portion of the lungs being used less there is often a stereotype of mucosal build-up there; a slight and persistent cough is the sign of the body trying to clear this.  For more information on the effects on individual organs please see this Wikipedia Commons article.   Feel free to google any of the above, its simple biology. You cant magically break the rules of thermodynamics or human biology by squeezing your waist.  2. What if I wear it for 8 hours a day?  The same as above still applies.   3. Does a corset affect the skin ( or as I read the fat under the skin )?  In a way, it moves it around which does 'affect' it.   It does not build muscle and may lead to atrophy of your abdominals due to them not being used to stabilise you (as you rely on the corset).   For more information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tightlacing  There are some benefits to tempory waist restriction, when power/weightlifting a tight belt can be used to brace ones core against so that the persons posture is kept more rigid at higher weights. It can even help develop abdominal strength by giving you resistance to push against ",
        "id": 1309,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will stroking a cat or dog reduce a human's stress levels?",
        "body": "It has been proposed by way of many studies that pet ownership can cause both short- and long-term stress relief. This study actually found that pet ownership is more effective at managing stress-related high blood pressure than ACE inhibitors (a blood pressure medication). Another study found that pet owners have significantly lower heart rates and blood pressure and higher rates of stress recovery than their non-pet-owning counterparts. As a result, pet owners tend to be healthier as well. And stroking a pet, even one that is not your own, has been shown to lower stress levels, too.",
        "id": 1071,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Supersaturation vs Undersaturation of the Urine | Kidney Stones",
        "body": "If you have kidney stones or you are at increased risk of developing them, ask a doctor if your urine is super- or under-saturated with any substance, such as calcium, oxalate, uric acid, cystine or citrate; this is a crucial info that can tell if any diet can help. Explanation at-a-glance: Eating, Diet, &amp; Nutrition for Kidney Stones by NIDDK.  Evidence about dietary measures that may help prevent CALCIUM OXALATE stones:  1. High water intake  According to several studies, drinking  3-4 liters of water per day (to produce at least 2 liters of urine/day) can decrease the risk of stones (PubMed, 1999, 2016).  Other fluids, such as tea, coffee, wine and beer might also help, but milk, soda and fruit juices might not, according to one 2015 systematic review of studies.  It is not clear if hard water (high in Ca and/or Mg) is a risk factor for kidney stones (PubMed, 2018, 2002).  2. High citrus/citrates intake  Potassium citrate supplements and possibly (?) citrus juices (PubMed 2017, 2016), which alkalize the urine, can decrease the risk of stones, but this 2015 Cochrane review does not strongly support this evidence. Additionally, potassium citrate supplements may have a lot of side effects.  3. High dietary calcium intake  Surprisingly, high intake of calcium from foods was associated with lower risk of kidney stones in several big observational studies. On the other hand, calcium supplements may increase the risk. According to Linus Pauling Institute, calcium may inhibit the absorption of oxalate in the intestine and thus its accumulation in the urine.  4. Low sodium (salt) intake  Low sodium intake (&lt; 3.8 g salt/day) decreases calcium excretion in the kidneys and thus the risk of stones (Linus Pauling Institute).  5. Low oxalate intake  Diet low in oxalates can reduce the risk of stones if your urine has too much oxalate (PubMed, 2016).  For URATE stones, apart from above measures, diet low in animal proteins can help (PubMed, 2004).",
        "id": 2569,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fact or Myth, Will too much smile cause wrinkles?",
        "body": "Wrinkles are not directly proportional to age; people have different collagen properties.  Some people wrinkle far earlier than others, and in different ways.  But yes, smiling does promote wrinkles to some degree due to repeated muscular contractions causing the same skin wrinkling pattern, but smiling also has beneficial and lasting neurobiological effects that go far beyond the minimal superficial impact of slightly deeper wrinkles.",
        "id": 1930,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does stopping fever hinder the process of killing bacteria via fever?",
        "body": "This is a great question, an area of active debate, and a personal interest of mine. I actually just did a presentation on this, so this answer will probably have more information in it than you need, but I'll add it for completeness.  Fever as an Adaptive Response  The first important thing to know about fever is that it is something your body initiates when you get certain types of infections. It is not a direct consequence of the bacteria or viruses themselves. Instead, white blood cells release a chemical messenger called prostaglandin E2. This travels to the brain, where it causes the body to start ramping up its set point for temperature-- essentially turning up the thermostat.  This is important because it seems to indicate an evolved response-- perhaps there is an evolutionary advantage to a fever in the setting of infection. Many bacteria are very temperature sensitive, so this idea makes sense.  The Data  Many papers have been published on the effect of fever on infection-- here are just a few:   Patients who don't take acetaminophen/ paracetamol clear the malaria parasite faster than those who control their fever Heat-stressed rats are more resistant to a common bacterial toxin than rats with a normal body temperature   In critically ill patients (my area of interest), there have been several interesting studies. In this randomized controlled trial (RCT) from 2005, they compared mortality in ICU patients where fevers were controlled with acetaminophen/ paracetamol and where fevers were not controlled. They actually had to stop the trial early because death rates in the group getting acetaminophen/ paracetamol were much higher.  This prospective study (not randomized) from 2012 looked at over 1400 critically ill patients, and found that treating fever doubled the mortality rate.  This meta-analysis, which included 11 studies, found a \"trend towards higher mortality for aggressive treatment\" of fever, though their p-value (how likely it is their findings are due to chance) was 0.09, which is higher than the 0.05 that is traditionally used as the cutoff for statistical significance.  The most high-powered meta-analysis done to date, which included 16 studies and a total of about 20,000 critically ill patients, found less dramatic results-- essentially concluding that it makes no difference if you treat a fever or not.  Important considerations:  Most of the studies done here are in critically ill patients, with mortality as the final endpoint. You can make a case that in those patients, you may be better off not treating fever, since you want to keep them alive.  The vast majority of fevers are due to respiratory viral illnesses. These have low mortality rates, and so rather than trying to lower mortality, you're trying to minimize the symptoms. And it sucks to have a fever. So for most people who do not need to get admitted to the hospital, treating a fever is a tradeoff between potentially getting better faster (an UNPROVEN benefit, as far as I could find), and not having a fever.  If a person is willing to sweat it out with the hope that the disease will run its course faster, that's perfectly reasonable. And if they are ok with the disease taking a little longer to clear from the body as long as they aren't sweating, shaking, and burning up, that makes a lot of sense too.  I should also note that there are times when a fever IS extremely dangerous-- if it's over about 106 it can lead to brain damage. All of the studies in humans treated fever if it went above about 104 degrees.  TL;DR: You are onto something! There is a lot of data out there that supports the hypothesis that treating fever is bad for you (or at least not any different from doing nothing).",
        "id": 2136,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Psychosis while using prednisone: how long will it last?",
        "body": "I'm sorry to hear about your recent psychosis.  The mood/psychological effects of glucocorticosteroids are well documented.    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=22764363 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=22424158   Throughout the reading, you'll note that many of these symptoms are transient ;however, the truth is that your healthcare providers (psychiatrist and hematologist) are better equipped to determine both the cause and treatment.  If you're looking for others with personal experience, you might seek out another forum.  ",
        "id": 362,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When is guilt in depression considered psychotic?",
        "body": "According to DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 819) a delusion is a \"false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality that is firmly held despite what almost everyone else believes and despite what constitutes incontrovertible and obvious proof or evidence to the contrary. ... When a false belief involves a value judgement it is regarded as a delusion only when the judgment is so extreme as to defy credibility.\"  Similarly, \u00d8stergaard, et al. (2012), citing Maj, et al. (2007), state: \"To avoid false-positive diagnoses of PD [psychotic depression], only beliefs that have \u2018delusional proportions\u2019, i.e. defy credibility, and are held with \u2018delusional intensity\u2019, i.e. not changed by rational counterarguments, are classified as delusions.\" (emphasis added)  An intriguing possibility exists that a specific, measurable cognitive bias,  the Jumping to Conclusions (JTC) bias, might serve as a marker for delusions (McLean, Mattiske, &amp; Balzan, 2017). The JTC bias is characterized by making interpretations or judgments early (quickly) and basing such interpretations or judgments on inadequate evidence. Regarding measurement:     JTC is most frequently measured by the beads task. Applying this task   with people with schizophrenia, Huq et al showed participants 2 jars   of colored beads. Each jar contained pink and green beads in an 85:15   ratio, with one jar containing mostly pink beads and the other mostly   green beads. The jars were hidden from view and beads were drawn from   one of the jars in a purportedly random but in fact pre-determined   sequence. With each draw, participants were invited to indicate   whether they had decided which jar (mostly pink or mostly green) beads   were being drawn from. Huq et al9 found that participants with current   delusions required fewer draws-to-decision (DTD) than those without   current delusions, demonstrating a JTC bias. (McLean, Mattiske, &amp; Balzan, 2017, p. 345)   Further research is needed before we will know if measuring JTC improves diagnostic accuracy.  Stephens &amp; Graham (20014) describe four criteria that define beliefs generally:    (1) beliefs have a representational content;   (2) the person holding the believe has a high degree of confidence that the content of his or her belief, e.g., \"I am a horrible person\", is an accurately represents reality;   (3) beliefs form the basis for both reasoning and action, such that individuals draw conclusions based on the belief (\"because I am a horrible person I am doomed to Hell\") and might take actions based on the belief (a Catholic person visits a priest asking, \"How do I prepare for an eternity in Hell?\"); and finally   (4) beliefs are associated with an emotional response, e.g., a belief that one is a horrible person may engender or exacerbate feelings of sadness, shame, guilt, despair, or hopelessness.  This four-component model of beliefs can serve as a heuristic to probe the \"delusional proportionality\" and \"delusional intensity\" of a patient's beliefs, e.g., by asking questions designed to assess the patients degree of confidence in the belief; the extent to which the patient has drawn conclusions and taken actions based on the belief; and emotions experienced when discussing the belief.  Like many symptoms of mental disorders, if a clinician can observe and interact with a patient over time, and if the doctor can interview family members or friends who know the patient well, then determining if a belief qualifies as a delusional becomes somewhat easier.    References  American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5\u00ae). American Psychiatric Pub. (ISBN 9780890425558).  Maj, M., Pirozzi, R., Magliano, L., Fiorillo, A. and Bartoli, L., 2007. Phenomenology and prognostic significance of delusions in major depressive disorder: a 10-year prospective follow-up study. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 68(9), pp.1411-1417.  McLean, B.F., Mattiske, J.K. and Balzan, R.P., 2017. Association of the jumping to conclusions and evidence integration biases with delusions in psychosis: a detailed meta-analysis. Schizophrenia bulletin, 43(2), pp.344-354.  \u00d8stergaard, S.D., Rothschild, A.J., Uggerby, P., Munk-J\u00f8rgensen, P., Bech, P. and Mors, O., 2012. Considerations on the ICD-11 classification of psychotic depression. Psychotherapy and psychosomatics, 81(3), pp.135-144.  Stephens, G.L. and Graham, G., 2004. Reconceiving delusion. International Review of Psychiatry, 16(3), pp.236-241.",
        "id": 1700,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can effervescent multivitamin tablets cause teeth problems?",
        "body": "Couldn't find any articles directly looking at effervescent tablets and dental problems, so I took a more broad look and searched for citric acid's effect on teeth.  The combination of citric acid and sodium bicarbonate are routinely used in effervescent tablets designed for human consumption (according to Wikipedia ;).  Citric acid is commonly found in many fruit juices and many soft drinks we consume have an acidic pH. I found an article that looks specifically at citric acid compared with artificial saliva.      Hence, enamel wear in the citric acid solution was significantly higher than in the artificial saliva   The study found that citric acid had a negative affect on tooth wear compared with artificial saliva. I would be cautious trying to relate these results to something like drinking an effervescent multivitamin solution though; the tooth exposure to citric acid was probably longer than if you just drank a solution and especially if you washed your mouth and brushed your teeth after.  So to recap:   Effervescent tablets usually contain citric acid which is the only compound I researched, so those not containing citric acid don't apply to this Citric acid and other acids are fairly well established as \"bad\" for your teeth, most notably sodas and acidic fruit drinks I assume that brushing your teeth or washing your mouth out after use would help, but I can't back that up with any research   So effervescent tablets containing citric acid is worse than saliva for your teeth, but how much of an effect it would have especially with infrequent use I can't really say.  References:  Zheng, J., Huang, H., Shi, M., Zheng, L., Qian, L., &amp; Zhou, Z. (2011). In vitro study on the wear behaviour of human tooth enamel in citric acid solution. Wear, 271(9-10), 2313-2321. doi:10.1016/j.wear.2010.11.027",
        "id": 247,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Safe and state-of-the art method of laser vision/eyesight correction/surgery?",
        "body": "Brief description:  LASEK and LASIK - cut a flap in the eye, use a laser to remove material underneath to reshape the lens and correct vision. LASIK has been around for a while, so there have been a lot of improvements and modifications, and there are a lot of variations of it.  PRK - similar to LASIK, but no flap is cut. Instead a surface layer of cells is removed so the laser can go to work underneat. Longer recovery time.  RLE and PRELEX - remove the natural lens and replace it with a corrected one. Think of it as glasses implanted in your eye.  LRI - a slit at the edge of your cornea to correct astigmatism. Not a general corrective procedure.  Ortho-K - a molding 'contact lens' is worn overnight, which molds your lens into the correct shape so you can see the next day or two after you take it out. This is the only reversible, 'non-invasive' procedure I'm aware of that can make you see correctly without external aids (like contacts or glasses).    All the laser based methods (LASIK, PRK, etc.) basically reshape your lens by removing material.   In all of these methods (except for Ortho-K) the lens on your eye is basically being cut up, removed and/or sculpted by removing material. It should be obvious why'd there'd be serious potential side effects. This is also why they can sometimes only be performed once - there's only so much material to be removed. However, they have a pretty good track record.  These techniques are all 'state of the art'.   Which one is right for you is a long and complicated discussion depending on the details of your eye prescription and your eye health, as well as your evaluation of which risks you'd prefer to live with. You'd do best to consult with a couple of eye correction centers offering different treatments (many of them offer free consultations). The doctors will help you understand what procedures you are eligible for, and what the potential risks and benefits will be for you personally. ",
        "id": 1286,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is heart rate indicative of sleep phase?",
        "body": "To have a really precise way to determine the sleep phase you must be under EEG beacuse HR is much more influenced by circadian rhythms as you can read here.",
        "id": 1183,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "HSV transmission",
        "body": "HSV1 and HSV2 are different strains of the Herpes simplex virus. They both can lead to oral or genital infection.   The reason they are usually known as oral (HSV1) and genital (HSV2) herpes are that the majority of genital herpes cases used to be from HSV2. However, this has been changing and now HSV1 is the more dominant genital infection at least in some regions. Moreover, people can be infected by both, even in the same \"region\", though it's unlikely that most people even know whether they are infected by HSV1 or HSV2 because testing what strain someone is infected with not always done, from what I understand. So yes, someone with HSV1 can additionally acquire HSV2, both orally and genitally.   In addition to that, even a genital infection with HSV2 may lead to shedding the virus from the oral region - it is uncommon, though. ",
        "id": 793,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the official eye colors?",
        "body": "There is no strong scientific consensus on eye colors. But for example, per 2019 review article at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30639910 the colors listed in that review are blue, brown and intermediate  So one approach is to bundle the non brown and non blue into a single category called 'intermediate'.  The top of a long table is pasted here to demonstrate that.  ",
        "id": 2616,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the correct brace position for car accidents?",
        "body": "There is no brace position because you will not have warning of a car crash. Think about it. If there was warning, why would there be a crash? The driver would use the warning to avoid the crash. Unlike a pilot who must land the plane eventually regardless of conditions, a car driver can simply stop the car and get out.  If, under some hard-to-imagine circumstance, you did know a crash was coming, the correct brace position would be simply sitting in a normal position. That's because that's the position auto designers assume you will be in and they design safety systems accordingly. In fact, they more than make that assumption -- they enforce it. When the crash detection system is activated, the first thing that happens is small explosives go off in the seatbelt mechanism causing it to retract tightly and forcibly, pulling you back against the seat and away from the airbags. So bracing your head against the dash or seat in front of you would be futile even if you tried. You would be yanked backwards against the seat.  The one thing you absolutely must never do is have a child or pet on your lap. They are at great risk of being injured or killed by the airbag crushing them against your chest, which is likely to also injure you severely.  Crash protection features",
        "id": 762,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to ensure that sex with a new partner will be safe for health?",
        "body": "   Is there some kind of quick medical checkup or something?   It depends on what you mean by \"quick\" and how you wish to proceed.  If you wish to have the most speediest possible test, you can go private and pay for you and your partner to have a complete set of STD tests.  If you are not in such a hurry, although it is still quite quick, you can get tested here in the UK for free under the National Health Service by going to a sexual health clinic.  I am not sure about Poland but, in some countries, I believe you have to be referred by your primary care doctor.  If you are unsure of the route to go you can speak to your primary care doctor who will be happy to put you in the correct direction.",
        "id": 2559,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Evening lighting that doesn't work against sleep cycle",
        "body": "It seems rather self-evident that humans after adolescence are not nocturnal. When it gets dark people get tired. When it gets brighter we tend to wake up or stay awake. People can start having trouble getting to sleep or sleeping just because of lighting conditions, unrelated to other causes like medical conditions, taking drugs affecting sleep (like stimulants), or stress, or noise, or\u2026 Light is not the only zeitgeber, but the latest scientific consensus says:      23.2 Light therapy   Our modern inventions have granted us control over our lighting environment (Fig. 23.2). We can choose to stay awake and surf the Internet by peering into our blue backlit screens all night if we want, or to retreat into dark, cool shelters of Abercrombie shops or watch the game at a local bar during the day. The temporal restructuring of light can lead to a state of circadian disruption, exposing us to new health risks and disease. Light is the most potent environmental cue able to predictably phase shift the timing of behavior (Khalsa et al., 2003). It is detected by the photopigment melanopsin localized in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). Melanopsin is most sensitive to blue wavelengths of light and its activation leads to the release of glutamate onto the SCN via the retinohypothalamic tract (Schmidt et al., 2011; Lucas et al., 2012). The glutamate signaling causes immediate molecular and cellular changes in the SCN, including increases in firing rate and the induction of c\u2010fos and Per1 transcription that eventually lead to a shift in the timing of the molecular clock within the SCN and throughout the body (Chapters 1 and 2).   In diurnal animals, exposure to even low intensities of blue light during the night can interfere with sleep by inhibiting sleep\u2010promoting neurons, acutely reducing melatonin levels, activating arousal\u2010promoting orexin neurons and stimulating the sympathetic axis (Duffy and Czeisler, 2009; Ruger and Scheer, 2009; Adidharma et al., 2012). In addition to poor sleep quality, light at night reduces daytime alertness the following day. Over a long period of time, these aberrant light cycles can increase the risk for serious diseases. Therefore, methods or behaviors that help reinforce the timing of natural, environmental light and maintain the normal variance of light intensities between night and day would reinstate a more robust and stable circadian system. Strengthening of the circadian network and enhancing circadian control of tissue function and physiology, will likely restore restorative sleep as well as daytime alertness helping to improve daily life and reducing the risk for disease.   In practice, light therapy has been demonstrated to ameliorate circadian symptoms in some conditions, including advanced/delayed sleep phase syndrome, jet lag, shift work, seasonal affective disorder and depression (Burgess et al., 2002; Barion and Zee, 2007). The scheduled light exposure helped reestablish the daily sleep\u2013wake cycle and improve mood (Magnusson and Boivin, 2003; Wirz\u2010Justice et al., 2004). The positive outcome is encouraging the use of light therapy for other conditions that present with circadian symptoms, including aging and neurodegenerative diseases. In these groups, light therapy improved daytime alertness and sleep (Lieverse et al., 2011; Friedman et al., 2012; Royer et al., 2012; Rutten et al., 2012) and enhanced motor and cognitive abilities (Yamadera et al., 2000; Ancoli\u2010Israel et al., 2003; Riemersma\u2010van der Lek et al., 2008; Willis et al., 2012). Individuals suffering from major depression show improvements in mood when light therapy is included in the treatment regimen (Benedetti, 2012; Chapter 17).   However, other studies show no or small changes in objective and subjective measures of sleep (Ancoli\u2010Israel et al., 2002; Friedman et al., 2009). These discrepancies point out that a better understanding is needed of critical parameters such as light wavelength, intensity, and duration, as well as the timing of treatment, relative to the endogenous circadian rhythm. But it is worth re\u2010emphasizing that even young, healthy individuals can be influenced by improved light exposure (Viola et al., 2008). A study found that camping in the beautiful mountains of Colorado and exposure to natural lighting for several days was effective in advancing the phase of melatonin rhythms in young adults by two hours (Wright et al., 2013). Thus lighting conditions provide one of our most powerful tools to influence the circadian system.   (Christopher S. Colwell: \"Circadian Medicine\", Wiley-Blackwell: Hoboken, 2015, p 339\u2013340.)   So, less light overall is good for sleep. But then only \"overall\" if temporally related to wanting to sleep soon. Conversely, more light during the day also helps maintaining a healthy circadian rhythm. This rhythm of wake and sleep seems to be almost more important to keep relatively steady than getting enough natural daylight and sleeping in the dark. (Charmane I. Eastman et al.: \"Dark Goggles and Bright Light Improve Circadian Rhythm Adaptation to Night-Shift Work\", Sleep, Volume 17, Issue 6, 1 September 1994, Pages 535\u2013543, https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/17.6.535)  Guessing it does not count as science-related: electronic devices are so bad for your healthy sleep that even Apple offers now a redshifting feature in newer machines. But that is partially because: Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness:     Moreover, the observation that the endogenous circadian melatonin   phase was 1.5 h later when reading an LE-eBook compared with reading   from a printed book suggests that using a light-emitting device in   the hours before bedtime is likely to increase the risk of delayed   sleep-phase disorder and sleep onset insomnia, especially among   individuals living in society who self-select their bedtimes and wake   times. Induction of such misalignment of circadian phase is likely to   lead to chronic sleep deficiency.   Although it also was quite a small sample: any light at night is not so good, but blue light is the worst.   The American Medical Association's Council on Science and Public Health: \"recognizes that exposure to excessive light at night, including extended use of various electronic media, can disrupt sleep or exacerbate sleep disorders, especially in children and adolescents. This effect can be minimized by using dim red lighting in the nighttime bedroom environment.\"  Exposure to Room Light before Bedtime Suppresses Melatonin Onset and Shortens Melatonin Duration in Humans Joshua J. Gooley, Kyle Chamberlain, Kurt A. Smith, Sat Bir S. Khalsa, Shantha M. W. Rajaratnam, Eliza Van Reen, Jamie M. Zeitzer, Charles A. Czeisler, Steven W. Lockley J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 March; 96(3): E463\u2013E472. Published online 2010 December 30. doi: 10.1210/jc.2010-2098  Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: melatonin phase resetting and suppression Jamie M Zeitzer, Derk-Jan Dijk, Richard E Kronauer, Emery N Brown, Charles A Czeisler J Physiol. 2000 August 1; 526(Pt 3): 695\u2013702. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00695.x PMCID:  PMC2270041 .  The \"ideal lamp\" shortly before bedtime is easily any lamp that is powered off. The evidence is growing that a lamp that simulates dawn shortly before bedtime is on second place. Dawn is meant here as: decreasing intensity and a reduction in the available spectrum: less blue light or a shift towards the \"red\" end of the spectrum.   From an environmental standpoint sadly the incandescent lightbulbs of old, coupled with an automatic dimmer-timer would be close to ideal. With modern LEDs things get complicated again since they typically emit rather specific wavelengths of light. Switching to red and yellow LEDs towards night seems necessary, choosing an LED-bulb advertised  with \"warm\" light characteristics would come next. Standard LEDs and \"bright\", \"cold\" lights are not really advisable towards bedtime.",
        "id": 2299,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there scientific evidence that spacing out vaccines have any positive effects?",
        "body": "There is evidence that delaying or refusing immunization puts children at risk of disease here and here. There is also evidence that delaying or spreading out MMR or MMRV in particular puts children at greater risk of reactions (febrile seizures), rather then reducing the risk. I'm not aware of any study demonstrating the opposite.",
        "id": 2520,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does menthol have therapeutic effect on sore or inflamed muscles and tendons?",
        "body": "There is evidence of analgesic effects of menthol in scientific literature. It has been studied in humans and has shown to be superior to ice in delayed onset muscle soreness; in a placebo-controlled, triple-blind, cross-over clinical study menthol-based gel acutely reduced pain in subjects with carpal tunnel syndrome symptoms. In mice blockage of voltage gated Na-channels of dorsal root ganglion neurons has shed light on potential mechanisms of analgesic action.  Here are the key parts of these studies:  A comparison of topical menthol to ice on pain, evoked tetanic and voluntary force during delayed onset muscle soreness has shown that:     Compared to ice, the topical menthol-based analgesic decreased perceived discomfort to a greater extent and permitted greater tetanic forces to be produced. [...] Tetanic force changes illustrated a significant main effect for the treatments (p&lt;0.05; ES=1.1) with the menthol based topical analgesic allowing 116.9% greater tetanic force (89.4 N \u00b1 60.7) output than the ice treatment (41.2 \u00b1 43.6). [...]  There was a significant (p=0.025; ES=1.2) difference in soreness perception with the VAS scale between the application of ice and the menthol based topical analgesic. Soreness perception was 63.1% less with application of the topical analgesic (1.1 \u00b1 0.4) compared to the ice (3.1 \u00b1 1.7).   In this study menthol was applied as 3.5% gel (Biofreeze\u00ae) without substantial force or rubbing during application.  Aside from cooling sensation attributed to activation of TRPM8 channel in this and other studies, another study (Menthol pain relief through cumulative inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels) has tested the hypothesis that menthol could block voltage gated Na-channels:     The results indicate that menthol inhibits Na+ channels in a concentration-, voltage-, and frequency-dependent manner. Menthol promoted fast and slow inactivation states, causing use-dependent depression of Na+ channel activity. In current clamp recordings, menthol inhibited firing at high-frequency stimulation with minimal effects on normal neuronal activity. We found that low concentrations of menthol cause analgesia in mice, relieving pain produced by a Na+ channel-targeting toxin. We conclude that menthol is a state-selective blocker of Nav1.8, Nav1.9, and TTX-sensitive Na+ channels, indicating a role for Na+ channel blockade in the efficacy of menthol as topical analgesic compound.   Acute Effect of Topical Menthol on Chronic Pain in Slaughterhouse Workers with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Triple-Blind, Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial:     Topical gel containing menthol led to a 31% (1.3 point on 0\u201310 VAS) acute reduction in chronic pain associated with carpal tunnel syndrome, and the absolute change in pain symptoms between topical menthol and placebo was 1.2 corresponding to a moderate effect size     In official monographs one can find predominantly Peppermint oil (Menthae piperitae aetheroleum), but since literature states that menthol is it's main ingredient (30 - 55% [WHO]) we could assume that it plays a role in the effects of the oil.   In Community Herbal Monograph by European Medicines Agency (EMeA):   Traditional use, indication 2:     For the symptomatic relief of localised  muscle pain      In WHO Monographs on selected medicinal plants, Volume 2:      Uses supported by clinical data      Internally for symptomatic treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (15-20), and digestive disorders such as flatulence and gastritis (21-23). Externally for treatment of myalgia and headache (21, 24-27)   (emphasis mine)   Commission E (translated into English at American Botanical Council)       The Commission E approved the internal use of peppermint oil for spastic discomfort of the upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts, irritable colon (in enteric-coated capsules), catarrhs of the respiratory tract, and inflammation of the oral mucosa; and external use for myalgia and neuralgia.      ESCOP [...] Its external use is indicated for coughs and colds, rheumatic complaints, pruritus, urticaria, and pain in irritable skin conditions (ESCOP, 1997).    *To show the lack of bias: not an official monograph, but a respected resource, PDR for Herbal Medicines lists the cutaneous use of peppermint oil as an analgesic in myalgia and neuralgia as \"unproven uses\".",
        "id": 451,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ongoing mid/upper back pain causes and treatments",
        "body": "For now, I can provide only a very limited answer:  The pain in your chest possibly arises from the joints between the sternum and the cartilages of the ribs. The condition is called costochondritis. There are no blood or imaging tests to confirm it, so a doctor can make diagnosis solely from a physical examination.  You've said you can lie on the back. By lying on the side or stomach, you are applying more pressure to the rib cage and this slightly changes the angles between the sternum and ribs and causes pain, which further speaks for my hypothesis about costochondritis.  I by no means can say if this is what you really have but if you do, try to avoid everything what affects the movements in the joints between the sternum and ribs: running, biking and swimming (arm swinging), twisting your upper body, weight lifting, carrying or lifting heavy objects, carrying a backpack and sleeping positions that cause you pain.  Walking should be fine. For chest pain, sitting might be better than standing.",
        "id": 933,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the effects of long term benzodiazepines use?",
        "body": "Benzodiazepines (benzos) are not indicated for long term treatment of anxiety disorders due to concerns with tolerance, dependence, and other adverse effects.  Serious adverse effects  Cognitive impairments (such as psychomotor retardation and memory impairment), and depression can occur secondarily to benzo use. There is evidence to suggest that the cognitive impairments may persist following cessation after long-term use in humans (1).   Benzos increase the risk of motor vehicle accidents, and hip fractures in the elderly (2). Seizures can occur during abrupt withdrawal (3).  Alternatives to Medication  Psychotherapy, most notably Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), is an effective modality of treatment for anxiety (4). It does not carry all the nasty side effects associated with psychotropic medications.   References   Persistence of cognitive effects after withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use: a meta-analysis http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0887617703000969 Risks Associated with Long-Term Benzodiazepine Use http://www.aafp.org/afp/2013/0815/p224.html Addiction: Part I. Benzodiazepines\u2014Side Effects, Abuse Risk and Alternatives http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0401/p2121.html The Efficacy and Effectiveness of Psychological Treatments http://www.cpa.ca/docs/File/Practice/TheEfficacyAndEffectivenessOfPsychologicalTreatments_web.pdf ",
        "id": 1586,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Body hair falling out or having the \"recently shaved\" effect?",
        "body": "\"The closest thing the Google Gods suggest is allopecia, but I don't think allopecia does this\"...  YES!  Alopecia does do this! Alopcia affects more than the hair on your head.  It can manifest itself on other parts of your body where hair grows..including legs, arms and private areas.  You say you don't want to see a doctor, but this may be a reason to see one. You may want to check out the National Alopecia Areata Foundation website (http://www.naaf.org) for more information. Good luck to you.",
        "id": 738,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are all Infants' Aquatic Instincts lost after 7ish months? Can they be maintained if skills are utilized often?",
        "body": "Introduction  First of all, the study should not be trusted too much. Thirty six test subjects does not seem very much to me in order to make such a claim. However, &amp;AtlLED's opinion in the comment differs from this.  From the abstract (emphasis mine):     Thirty-six infants were studied during diving exercises in infant swimming. [...] Although the bradycardic response gradually decreases, the study shows that a clear-cut response exists in children older than has previously been reported.   However, I think it is clear that the heart-rate does seem to slow down. There is nothing to very little studies available so the rest of my answer is somewhat educated speculation.    Frontal Lobe     The frontal lobe is also the most common place for brain injury to occur. Damage to the frontal lobe can create changes in personality, limited facial expressions, and difficulty in interpreting one\u2019s environment, such as not being able to adequately assess risk and danger. (healthline.com)   Therefore, an infants frontal lobe is not well developed at the age of 3 months or less.      The volume of the hippocampal formations increased sharply until the age of 2 years, and continued to increase slowly thereafter. (Study)   Take a look at this neat graph and notice the huge jump from 0 years to 2 years. The steepest growth is presumably around 0,5 years (just guessing from approximation the tangent).  Conclusion  It seems therefore fairly reasonable to me to conclude that around the age of 6 months, the frontal lobe is well developed so that the infant is able to correctly address the risk of drowning. And as any normal human, they would start to panic when they realise that they are drowning. This panicking will cause an increase of heart rate and is the opposite of a bradycardia response.     A bit on evolution  Evolutionary speaking, it makes sense to have a survive-by-all-means mechanism that will be triggered as soon as one is in serious danger. Such a mechanism can be counterproductive in a very few examples, like here when the bradycardia response is reversed. Nevertheless, it is very useful in most cases and therefore, we have this mode.   I would therefore conclude (again, educated guessing) that the bradycardia response of babies was never \"intended\" (1) and is just a side product of them not being able to judge a situation correctly.    Appendix  A \"standard\" newborn male infant weighs around 3kg, is about 48cm tall and its head circumference is roughly 34cm, so the radius is 10 cm. Assuming the body is cylindric, this would give us a density of 5.8g/cm^3 (V = \u03c0 r^2 h, density = V / mass) (Values taken from the Intergrowth.21 study).    I weigh roughly 70kg, am about 180cm tall and my head radius is maybe 30cm, which means my density is about 103.8g/cm^3.  Concluding, an infants buoyancy is significantly larger than mine. As the infant grows and gains weight, the buoyancy will decrease until the density reaches the density of a full grown human during adolescents.   This does not explain why the heart rate is so low, but it is another factor as to why infants are quite good at swimming.    Note  (1): Intended is a pretty bad word here. I mean, the argument was about evolution and not creation. I meant by this that the bradycardia response is just a side-product of multiple factors: The survive-by-all-means mechanism in adults and the baby's inability to correctly asses danger.",
        "id": 1620,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Smoking just after a workout",
        "body": "Smoking in general is unhealthy.  Smoking can result in emphysema, COPD, pulmonary hypertension and other ugly diseases [1,2,3].  After a workout your heart and respiration rates are higher than at basal levels.  Although I do not have data to back me on this, based on scientific evidence on cardiopulmonary effects [4] after a workout and the hazards of smoking [1,2,3], I would deduce you would have higher nicotine intake, as well as other terrible chemicals that are in cigarettes.  I am not sure if cardiac arrest would be a primary concern with smoking but rather a secondary event to pulmonary hypertension [2,3]. In short I would seek advice and support on quitting smoking.     Smoking and Mortality \u2014 Beyond Established Causes Severe Pulmonary Hypertension and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Pulmonary Hypertension and Right Heart Failure in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing - The Clinical Value of Gas Exchange Data ",
        "id": 655,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the earliest possible ovulation day/ possibly pregnant",
        "body": "It is unlikely that the pregnancy test is wrong. Sometimes ovulation tests appear positive in pregnancy because LH is very structurally similar to a alpha-HCG, a subunit of HCG that is being secreted in pregnancy - and so ovulation tests also pick it up. However, a pregnancy test is more sensitive to HCG than an ovulation test, so a negative result on it is probably indicative of no pregnancy.  You could however test again in 3-4 days to make sure.  LH values can vary a bit during the cycle and have 'peaks' even when you're not ovulating.",
        "id": 1692,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Trouble finding radial pulse in patients",
        "body": "Experience: Working 8 years out of an Air Force ER with primary ambulance response and air transportable hospital duties.  What always worked well for me was to use landmarks to find the pulse. Go about 1\" proximal to the base of the palm (There may be a crease line there to use as a mark), and to the lateral side of the wrist. There is a tendon there, I went a little to the outside (lateral) of that, palpated with the fore and middle fingers.   Pull gently towards the tendon and slightly down, and you should feel the pulse. I also (as a personal preference) kept my fingers just slightly separated (Maybe 1/4\" or so) as I felt that gave me a better feel for the pulse. As far as being able to distinguish it in a distracting environment, you just learn to shut that out.  All of the above assumes that the patient is not compromised to the point where you won't be able to feel a radial pulse no matter what. In that case you would need to go to brachial, femoral or carotid.",
        "id": 1361,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any known link between cholecystitis (gall bladder inflammation) and breastfeeding?",
        "body": "PREVENTATIVE AND RISK FACTORS FOR GALLSTONES   BREASTFEEDING:   Childbearing, breastfeeding, other reproductive factors and the subsequent risk of hospitalization for gallbladder disease (PubMed) (A prospective cohort study on 1.3 million women in England and Scotland from 1996-2001)     Hospitalization for gallbladder disease is common in middle-aged   women. The risk increases the more children a woman has had, but   decreases the longer she breastfeeds.    OBESITY:   The known risk factors for gallstones (and hence cholecystitis) are (PubMed Central):   Obesity Rapid weight loss (>3.5 lbs/week; 0.5-2 lbs/week is considered low risk) due to a very low calorie diet (&lt;800 Cal/day)   (Some women who have more children go through repeated cycles of obesity and rapid weight loss.)   GENETICS:   Genetic predisposition Ethnicity (Hopkins Medicine):        The Pima Indians of Arizona have the highest prevalence of gallstones   worldwide. Ninety percent of Pima women over the age of 65 have   gallstone disease. Micmac Indians of Canada, Hispanics, and Mexican   American women also have a higher prevalence of gallstone disease, as   do both men and women in Norway and Chile.    DIET:   There is INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE about high fat, high saturated fat or high cholesterol intake as risk factors, and fiber, vitamin C or unsaturated fat intake as preventative factors for gallstones (PubMed Central).",
        "id": 1880,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is combining silicone plasters and silicone gels for scars effective?",
        "body": "There are many factors that can determine how well an individual will heal and scar. While many treatments have been suggested for the treatment of scars, only a few of them have been supported by prospective studies with an adequate control group. As a result, the development of hypertrophic scars and keloids remains an unsolved problem in the process of wound healing. An abstract titled, \u2018The use of silicone occlusive sheeting (Sil-K) and silicone occlusive gel (Epiderm) in the prevention of hypertrophic scar formation' confirms,     For this reason, a successful treatment to prevent excessive scar formation still has yet to be found.    Therefore, as it relates to the effectiveness of topical scar treatments -- there isn't one particular type that is completely effective. The potential for achieving results from a topical scar treatment is usually dependent on the age, thickness, and location of the scar.   However, clinical support of topical gel products, relative to all alternative scar therapies, is considered the \"internationally recommended first-line form of scar management\", though there continues to be ongoing deliberation over the exact mechanism of action of silicone in improving a scar. 'The Use of Silicone Adhesives for Scar Reduction' explains,     At present it is likely that through occlusion of the scar site and hydration of the wound bed, the overactivity of scar-related cells is suppressed, and their activity normalized.   Whereas occlusion and hydration may also be achieved by other scar care products, 'An Evaluation of Evidence Regarding Application of Silicone Gel Sheeting for the Management of Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids' recognizes the benefits of silicone gel sheeting, stating it        \u2026has been clinically proven to also address pruritus, skin pigmentation changes, and primary prevention...Hypertrophic and keloid scar-related physical discomfort ranging from itching to pain have been seen to improve dramatically upon SGS treatment.   Additional benefits include:     ...no skin stripping, and no painful skin or hair pulling; but another advantage also lies in the fact that...unlike alternatives, have a low viscous component that limits their flow and consequently their readiness to absorb materials at the surface of the skin such as stratum corneum cells and lipids.  The adhesive surface...remains relatively clean and can be removed, reused and cleaned repeatedly without diminishing its integrity.      ...used in scar treatment for more than 30 years, demonstrating safety and efficacy recognized by wound care professionals.      ...silicone gel sheeting has been demonstrated to reduce incidence of hypertrophic scars.   The same abstract references several topical silicone-containing scar care products and, when comparing silicone gel and silicone gel sheeting, the limitations of silicone gel sheeting specifically      ...can be cumbersome to keep on the scar, with some patients showing an aversion to wearing SGS in visible areas   On the other hand, silicone gel was said to have      \u2026a higher compliance than gel sheeting, due primarily to ease of use and convenience...[but] A few studies have suggested no significant difference between the gel and gel sheeting.    Although the abstract also confesses that additional studies are needed with all therapies used to treat scars, your question is still addressed to some degree.      \u2026silicone gel sheeting can be employed, especially as an adjunct in combination with other hypertrophic scar and keloid treatments.   Based on the provided information, you can technically use both topical scar treatments at the same time but may not receive an added benefit from the combination. Thus, using one or the other should be just as effective. The effectiveness of using one or both products will likely depend on your individual biology because (as with any therapy), individual responses and results may vary.   In conclusion, it is always in your best interest to consult with your primary care physician or dermatologist to discuss the best treatment option(s) for your specific condition and individual needs.",
        "id": 1985,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does body wash for dry itchy skin work?",
        "body": "The first ingredient is water; the second ingredient is a detergent (milder than SLS). The next ingredients are Shea Butter and sunflower seed oil (good for the skin), then a humectant (attracts moisture from the air to the skin), then another surfactant/detergent - very, very mild, then a thickener/foam enhancer (people don't like to wash up with stuff that doesn't make bubbles), then Allantoin, one of my all-time favorite ingredients for skin care, then the rest are in amounts at or under 1% and are mostly to increase shelf life/prevent bacteria from growing in the product.  If that doesn't seem like an answer to you, I'll put it in plain English, but first an aside.  The Romans (well, maybe limited to the middle class and up), who had soap to wash garments with, did not use soap on their skin. Instead, they bathed in hot water, then were coated with an infused olive oil (say, lavender), then the oil was scraped from their skin with a scraper, taking away the old and (?)foul smelling, and leaving behind some of the nicer, new stuff. A couple of additional steps and they were clean. That was good skin care.  No one today washes that way. It would be prohibitively expensive and time consuming. By habit, many people would not feel clean, either, because they equate \"bubbles\" with \"clean\".  Your Cetaphil is trying to do that - replace oil removed with oil deposited - while still foaming and acting as a wash, which people expect.     Is it because, in general, it still remove your skin oil? Therefore, after all I still need to apply moisturizer. In that case, what is the different to use normal soap and then use moisturizer after that?   First, soap and detergent are different things. I'll assume you mean soap.  A very high quality soap (which you can't buy commercially) will attempt to do the same thing by superfatting the soap using oils with a great skin care profile: Jojoba oil, Macademia Nut oil, Shea butter, Cocoa butter, etc. to the point of almost not foaming (no bubbles). You would find the Cetaphil and the soap would leave you feeling about the same.  Regualar soap strips the skin of all fats and sweat, dirt, etc. Then you replace the oils stripped with new oils and the other ingredients in your moisturizer.  Does it matter? You can answer that yourself. In one scenario, you strip your skin of oils then add them back. In another, you have some good oils on your skin and you add to that. Which sounds healthier for your skin?  If you wonder why I am so opinionated on the matter, it's because I used to make skin care products for health care professionals, who often developed nasty hand dermatitis from hospital supplied skin cleansers. When my husband developed a rash that wouldn't go away - winter or summer, on vacation, using other soaps, etc., - and under a dermatologist's care for two years, biopsied twice and using steroids and other topical meds, I decided I could do better. I learned everything I could about skin health, and made some wonderful soaps and lotions that cured my husband's and others' dermatological problems. I studied skin care for about six years, and made products for five, always improving my formulas. In that very narrow area, I'd pit my knowledge against any but the best dermatologist's. In every country I've visited, their most expensive soaps are no where close to mine. They might be quadruple-milled, but they still are basically oil-stripping soaps.",
        "id": 242,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What disease/s killed Mozart? Or was it poison?",
        "body": "Nonetheless, we do know that he became ill on November 22 and died on December 5, 1791, one of many during a fever epidemic. According to his sister-in-law, Sophie, Mozart had a very high fever and was unconscious for most of his illness.  The researchers looked at death records in Vienna during the months surrounding Mozart's death \u2014 November and December 1791 and January 1792, and compared causes of death with the previous and following years.  \u201cWe saw that at the time of Mozart's death there was a minor epidemic in deaths involving edema (swelling), which also happened to be the hallmark of Mozart's final disease,\u201d said Dr. Richard Zegers of the University of Amsterdam, one of the study's authors.  For more information on the possible causes of his death, visit:  http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/09/killed-mozart/  http://www.chron.com/news/bizarre/article/Cause-of-Mozart-s-death-revealed-218-years-1735278.php",
        "id": 1368,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Varicella vaccine UK, benefits vs risk",
        "body": "The effective duration of the varicella vaccine isn't well known at this point, various studies however have suggested that immunity can last for 10-20 years post vaccination, particularly where two doses are used. It's possible that it may well last longer than that (live-virus type vaccines often provide lengthy immunity) although it can be boosted using the single antigen vaccine if required.     With the vaccine not being mandatory in the UK (and hence the proportion vaccinated not hitting the herd immunity threshold), does vaccination risk putting the average age of infection up (i.e. predisposing to more serious infections as an adult)?   We'll know better when the vaccine has been in use longer - so it can be determined how long it remains effective. The indications so far are that it retains a fairly stable 80-85% effectiveness. If there is a significant drop off in effectiveness then I imagine there will be calls for boosters to be scheduled - chickenpox is often more serious in adults.     Does the vaccine protect against shingles in the long term?   Shingles occurs when the dormant varicella zoster virus from a prior infection (i.e. chicken pox) \"wakes up\" and you get shingles (and all the associated \"fun\") - so if you're immunized against varicella and don't get it then you are protected from shingles. However the varicella vaccine is not 100% effective, and it's possible that a vaccinated person can still get the disease - although this is generally a much milder experience (in fact it's possible to contract the disease and not even know it), which is a double-edged sword since while it's reducing the chances of getting it and the severity if you do it leads to the possibility that a vaccinated person may believe that they have never had varicella and therefore believe that they aren't susceptible to shingles.  For older people (50+) there is the option to get vaccinated for shingles specifically (Shingrix) and before giving this you should be tested for immunity to chickenpox and if not you should be directed to that vaccine instead.",
        "id": 2671,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Carrots of other colors besides orange",
        "body": "Well not only are carrot colors other than orange still good for beta carotene (although some do have considerably less - purple still has an orange core though) things like kale, which are not at all orange, have a lot of beta carotene.  for serving size, there is more Vit A in kale, than carrots.  Sweet potatoes are also higher.    For a very easy reference on what carious carrot colors have in them, I found this the most simplistic explanation.  You can skip a lot of the reading &amp; just scroll down the chart. http://healthland.time.com/2013/08/20/eat-this-now-rainbow-carrots/  Overall I haven't found much that shows white carrots to be terribly nutritious but they do help your system in digestion. ",
        "id": 1832,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any evidence that blowing your nose speeds recovery from a cold?",
        "body": "In my experience keeping your nose blown (or even rinsed out) prevents a secondary infection in your throat. Whatever you don't blow out of your nose dribbles down the back of your throat and bacteria get happy there and give you a sore throat. This is technically a different second infection but most people will treat it as a single long cold that \"moved down\" as it progressed.   There was a study that suggested nose blowing would put mucus and bacteria up into the sinuses and result in a secondary infection there, but all the nose blowing was done by people lying on their backs, which doesn't seem super representative. To be on the safe side, blow as gently as possible, and keep in mind your own tendency to get a sore throat after a cold or to get a sinus infection after a cold.",
        "id": 544,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is water flossing more efficient than string flossing to remove plaques from tooth surfaces?",
        "body": "The latest systematic review in this issue found:  there is only weak, very low quality and unreliable evidence avalaible for floss the magnitude of the effect was small, for woodsticks and oral irrigators was weak and for interdental brushes was large  Main conclusions are:      There is weak evidence that flossing plus toothbrushing compared to   toothbrushing alone has a small but significant effect on gingivitis.   However, there is a lack of evidence for a concomitant reduction in   plaque scores.       The evidence for woodsticks and toothbrushing as   compared to toothbrushing alone was weak and showed that there is a   benefit of unclear magnitude with respect to bleeding scores but   lacking evidence for a concomitant reduction of plaque.       Moderate evidence was available for the efficacy of interdental brushes  in addition to toothbrushing as compared with toothbrushing alone. This   corresponded to a 34% reduction in gingivitis and a 32% reduction in   plaque scores, when standardizing the results retrieved from the use   of different indices.       There is weak evidence that the oral irrigator   plus toothbrushing compared to regular oral hygiene has an effect on   gingivitis. The magnitude remained unclear and it also lacked evidence   on a concomitant reduction of plaque scores.       In all there is consistent evidence that suggests that inter-dental brushes are the most effective devices to remove inter-dental plaque. In addition, they are appreciated best by the patients.   Anyway, you have to keep in mind that there there was insufficient evidence to determine whether interdental brushing reduced or increased levels of plaque when compared to flossing (source).  UPDATE Feb 2018: Higher frequency of interdental cleaning was correlated with increased periodontal health.   Source: J Clin Periodontol. 2015 Apr;42 Suppl 16:S92-105. doi: 10.1111/jcpe.12363.",
        "id": 2091,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Shampoos that are supposed to help hair grow - how long should they be left in before rinsing?",
        "body": "Typically those kind of shampoos you need to leave on your scalp for about 10 minutes for maximum absorption.  However, if you are experiencing hair loss, there is a procedure that is done by dermatologists called PRP.  PRP or Platelet Rich Plasma is a procedure where a Dermatologist would draw about 100cc of blood from your arm, then run it through a centrifuge for about 15 minutes. The blood separates into 4 different levels. The Top layer is the Plasma, which is the layer that the dermatologist takes (About 50-70cc) and injects it back into the scalp, stimulating hair follicle growth. Many of my patients are very happy with the results, however the procedure is never covered by any insurance, and costs around $500. Worth it though. Also be ready for quite a bit of pain, since dermatologists use about a 27GA needle to inject your scalp.",
        "id": 1763,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are aluminum profiles dangerous?",
        "body": "General rule of thumb: Reduce the amount of dirt and dust in the air you breathe.  This question does currently not specify if those profiles are just handled and assembled in a bedroom. That should be fine.  However, implicitly one can read that as asking for: if those profiles get drilled and sawed and machine polished, then a certain amount of dust and particles will be produced, getting into the air and inhaled into the lungs. Not a good idea in general.     Conversely, exposure to aluminium dust may possibly increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and dementia of the Alzheimer's type.    Susan Peters et al.: \"Long-term effects of aluminium dust inhalation\", Occup Environ Med.2013 Dec;70(12):864-8. doi: 10.1136/oemed-2013-101487.    This is covered with recommendations for occupational risks by several state level organisations, for example:     HAZARD SUMMARY            Aluminum can affect you when breathed in.   Contact can irritate the skin and eyes.   Exposure to Aluminum can cause \u201cmetal fume fever.\u201d   This is a flu-like illness with symptoms of metallic taste in the mouth, headache, fever and chills, aches, chest tightness and cough. The symptoms may be delayed for several hours after exposure and usually last for a day or two.   Exposure to fine dust can cause scarring of the lungs (pulmonary fibrosis) with symptoms of cough and shortness of breath.   Aluminum powder is a FLAMMABLE SOLID and a DANGEROUS FIRE HAZARD.            ALUMINUM - State of New Jersey Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet   One should also keep in mind:     Conclusions   The hazards posed by metal dusts are real. Recent incidents have shown that improper handling of metal dusts can cost lives. Apart from this, inappropriate metal-dust handling poses health risks, property dam- age possibilities, and housekeeping/maintenance costs. The key to reducing metal-dust hazards is to first minimize dust generation whenever possible. For the dust that is generated, safe and proper containment and capture follows. The proper design of powder storage and handling systems is quintessential in this regard. For the dust that still manages to find egress from the main process and accumulate, effective housekeeping and maintenance becomes the next line of protection. Also, it is important to perform site assessments for dust-hazard potentials and implement strategies to minimize the risks.   Understanding and Preventing Metal Dust Hazards - Jenike &amp; Johanson   All of these findings and resulting recommendations are for occupational hazards and risks. Meaning that relatively large amounts of dust would be inhaled over quite a long time. A one-off project with limited dust producing capacity is far below the quantities discussed in these papers.   But it still is a risk and a messy procedure on top. A bedroom is for sleeping and should be kept clean. The cleaner the air the better.   Aluminium profiles are safe. Producing dust from them in a bedroom is not.",
        "id": 2342,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are those white things in my juice & can it cause me any harm?",
        "body": "Fruit juice is acidic, and acid makes milk curdle. This is the end result. It's harmless. It's pretty much just juice-flavored cottage cheese.",
        "id": 1241,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a blood transfusion directly from one person to another through a line work?",
        "body": "Direct blood transfusion is both dangerous for the donor and inconvenient in a modern medical setting, so this does not really happen today outside of movies/TV.  Before blood banking and anticoagulation, direct blood transfusion was done between the artery of a donor and vein of a recipient; pressure is much higher in the arteries than the veins. See Crile, 1907.    Crile, G. (1907). I. The Technique of Direct Transfusion of Blood. Annals of surgery, 46(3), 329.",
        "id": 2700,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Link between extended sitting and weak quads",
        "body": "I have found that I did not have weak quads but that my abs were not doing enough work and this was placing more stress on my left quad initially which became injured and placed more stress on my right quad subsequently.  The injury was occurring from my teeth. I have realised, from consultation with a qualified physiotherapist and wearing a mouth guard, that I tend to bite or grind my teeth throughout the day and hold my breath. This closes my airways. Over a long period of time this has negative effects on my abs as my lungs are not expanding to their potential and in turn not keeping my abs activated. My abdominal muscles, particularly on my right side due to there being more internal organs on that side of the body, were shuting off.  Wearing the mouthguard, and undertaking daily short exercises to work my abs particularly the left side of my body, has reactivated my left lower abs and my left glute muscles. This has reduced the workload on my quads, because my glutes and abs are doing more of the work, and has returned myself to the condition I was in before",
        "id": 430,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Has my history of body building made me permanently stronger? (Despite quitting years ago)",
        "body": "Studies do suggest the existence of \"muscle memory\", possibly related to the nuclei of muscle cells (myonuclei). See here for instance. Still, the precise dynamics and hysteresis of strength and their causes do not seem to be fully explored yet.",
        "id": 1651,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's happening with the heart when you push your rectum really hard?",
        "body": "Pushing (when you go to the bathroom) can be associated with stimulating the Vagus nerve. This can lead to a rapid drop in blood pressure and heart rate and may result in fainting. If you loose consciousness from this, it is known as a vasovagal syncope episode. The act of bearing down in this way is known as the Valsalva maneuver (which does actually have a purpose in cardiology*). This information came from HealthGrades.com, similar information can be found on the Mayo Clinic's website (I didn't include it because it was a bit chopped-up).  From what I have read, bearing down isn't good for your head if you have a known brain aneurysm. Hence it is recommended that if you have a known aneurysm in your head, that you take laxatives (especially before surgery).  If you would like more information on this, please visit the Stroke Association site.  *The Valsalva Maneuver is used as a treatment for a variety of conditions as well as a diagnostic tool for them (listed below). The maneuver's mechanism occurs when a person bears down and holds their breath. When this happens, pressure in the chest cavity increases and venous return decreases. This results in a very rapid decrease in heart rate and systolic blood pressure. It is because of this rapid decrease both in HR and BP that can cause dizziness or syncope not only when purposely preforming this maneuver but also when you are on the toilet.   The Valsalva Maneuver is used to treat SVT (SupraVentricular Tachycardia), traditional tachycardia (high heart rate), tachypnea (high respiratory rate), and A-Fib (Atrial Fibrillation) among others. It also has a wide range of diagnostic uses - not relegated to the cardiovascular or respiratory system - such as a pinched nerve, certain types of hernia, brain deformity etc.   Additional information on the Valsalva Maneuver can be found here and here. Please note that both of these links have a much better description of the exact mechanism of this maneuver than I could provide. Also, this YouTube link is very awesome! However, it was accidentally cut off at the end and there is no second part to it.  Hope this information is helpful to you, if you have additional questions regarding this, let me know and I will do my best to answer them.",
        "id": 1175,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Self diagnosis expert system similar to easydiagnosis.com",
        "body": "There are quite a few free symptom checkers available online, for example:   Symptify WebMD Mayo Clinic Patient.info (based on Isabel symptom checker)   You can type in symptoms or choose them from the lists of 50-90 symptoms or so.  The tools can be useful if your symptom combinations are typical for a certain disease. They can greatly narrow down the possible causes and, on the other hand, remind you of the causes you didn't think of.  The pretty much only benefit of these tools is that they may help you judge if you have a serious disease that may need to be treated by a doctor or you can let it heal on its own.  The downsides include, for example, inability to guess the exact type of infection and getting misleading results when your symptom combinations are not typical, like, say, in pneumonia without fever. ",
        "id": 2587,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does breathing stop during cardiac arrest?",
        "body": "During approximately 50% of cardiac arrests, the patient continues to breathe for a time. However, this breathing is known as agonal respiration and is essentially gasping for air. This gasping is actually beneficial if CPR can be started while it is still occurring, it is believed that this may increase the chances of survival during a cardiac arrest incident and is better than any form of artificial respiration. This information was found on Sarver Heart Center's website.  The most interesting and, I hope helpful, site I found was PubMed.gov which discussed this exact issue. In the article, they mention that it is not known for sure why cardiac arrest often leads very quickly (if not instantly) to apnea as the O2 levels in the brain stem don't drop immediately.  If you have any additional questions about cardiac arrest itself or it's treatment, I highly recommend paying the Merck Manuals website a visit.  To sum things up a bit, it isn't known for sure why respiratory arrest often occurs at the same time as cardiac arrest, nor why cardiac arrest simply leads to agonal breathing initially in 50% of cases. ",
        "id": 1097,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I contract chickenpox from my child who just got vaccinated?",
        "body": "Yes, you can contract it, but it is very unlikely.   The chickenpox vaccine is a live (attenuated) vaccine, meaning that it was weakened.      People who get chickenpox vaccines can spread the vaccine-strain varicella-zoster-virus to others. However, this happens very rarely.   Source: CDC  In a 10 year study of Varivax (the Merck vaccine), this happened in only 3 people in contact with. One of them was a pregnant woman, one a baby and one a healthy man. Even considering not all cases get reported and that the authors of this study work for Merck, this is a very low number, considering how many doses were used over that time period (55 million doses distributed).      Secondary transmission of vaccine virus:\u00a0A varicella-like rash occurring 10-21 days after exposure to a person recently vaccinated. It is extremely rare. Since 1995, only eight secondary cases of transmission of vaccine virus from seven vaccinees have been documented with the varicella (Oka/Merck) vaccine, five of which occurred in immunocompetent people... All laboratory-confirmed cases of Oka vaccine secondary transmission have resolved without complications.\u00a0   Source: CDC  As for getting vaccinated yourself, it is certainly something you can do as an adult and the CDC recommends it for unvaccinated adults. ",
        "id": 585,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why don't leave HIV infected people in aseptic environment until they're cured?",
        "body": "There are three major reasons why we can't just keep someone in an aseptic environment and wait for their CD4 count to drop to zero and - presumably - for HIV to have consumed itself to extinction in the patient:   Time. In the Pre-HAART era in a middle-income country like Brazil, the median survival time for someone with AIDS was 1.1 years, but that can be a very long tailed distribution. That's extremely expensive, and the logistical capacity to keep someone in perfect isolation and containment for that period of time doesn't really exist on a population scale. And keep in mind you'd have to be perfect that entire time, with no room for errors of any sort, as you're essentially allowing people to become extremely immune compromised. That's not at all practical, even on a theoretical level. Native flora, cancers, etc. An HIV+ individual still has their own native flora, which may become dangerous due to a compromised immune system, such as C. difficile. They may have been previously infected by a dormant herpes virus. And they're at higher risk of cancers, only some of which are infectious in origin and thus could be prevented in a perfectly sterile environment. HAART. HAART therapy is awesome, and while not a cure for HIV/AIDS, is an extremely effective treatment for the disease. Any amount of money used keeping people in perfectly sterile isolation for years on end is likely better spent increasing screening and access to HAART. ",
        "id": 1702,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the body adapt to recurring blunt force trauma?",
        "body": "Yes and no.    These are your skin's layers and components. When being hit by something, everything you see gets either damaged or destroyed.  Bruising is caused by the blood that escapes the broken capillaries.  In a \"recurring blunt force trauma\" those capillaries are not allowed to heal.  Same thing happens to everything you see above including the sensory nerve fibers and in the long run, touch sense is affected. You might call this an \"adaptation\" but it's certainly not beneficial.    Now regarding the bones underneath all this, there's Wolff's law which states that bone in a healthy person or animal will adapt to the loads under which it is placed. If loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that sort of loading.  Load though doesn't mean hit, so it doesn't apply to that!    In conclusion, your body certainly kind of adapts to situations like \"being hit blunt objects\" by losing the sense of touch, but you don't \"get better at it\", you just feel the damage a little bit less because you've already destroyed a lot of sensory nerves.  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruise#Mechanism  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blunt_trauma",
        "id": 1764,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Brushing, flossing, and mouth wash",
        "body": "From a medical/dental standpoint, flossing and brushing with or without toothpaste is the best way of eliminating plaque, which can cause cavities and gum disease.  For the philosophical aspect of your question: If you had to chose between the two (and you should be doing both!), I would floss, since floss reaches more easily between the teeth than the toothbrush, while being able to remove plaque on the surfaces of the tooth which the tooth brush can reach.  Mouthwashes are not useful without prior mechanical removal of plaque.    It should be noted that your question was already somewhat answered in another post: Is brushing teeth without toothpaste actually harmful?    References:    http://www.aapd.org/assets/1/25/Axelsson-03-S1.pdf ",
        "id": 751,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sertraline (Zoloft) safety?",
        "body": "The overdose range of sertraline varies between individual to individual. For instance, in Reference 1, it is reported that an ingestion 13,500 mg did not result in a fatality. Another individual was not so fortunate. He died after taking 2,500 mg.  Long term effects do not appear to be common with SSRI overdosage (let alone sertraline). It would stand to reason that papers concerning sertraline overdosage would note any untoward long-term effects due to overdosage (References 2 and 3). However, Reference 4 does mention that \"The incidence of seizures was 1.9% and coma was 2.4%\" with SSRI medication.   References   OVERDOSE, HUMAN EXPERIENCE, http://www.rxlist.com/zoloft-drug/overdosage-contraindications.htm (Unsure of this source. Could not find references) Suicidality and Suicide Attempt in a Young Female on Long-Term Sertraline Treatment, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662142/ Sertraline overdose, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8808373 Relative toxicity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in overdose, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15362595 ",
        "id": 745,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the safety margin on duration of an antibiotics (levofloxacin) treatment?",
        "body": "Unfortunately, what you read about chemical interactions of levofloxacin with polyvalent cations is correct - the medicine binds to the cation to form a coordination complex in the gastrointestinal tract, which then cannot be absorbed.   From the SPC of levofloxacine:     Levofloxacin absorption is significantly reduced when iron salts, or magnesium- or aluminium-containing antacids, or didanosine (only didanosine formulations with aluminium or magnesium containing buffering agents) are administered concomitantly with levofloxacin tablets.. Concurrent administration of fluoroquinolones with multi-vitamins containing zinc appears to reduce their oral absorption. It is recommended that preparations containing divalent or trivalent cautions such as iron salts, zinc-salts or magnesium- or aluminium-containing antacids, or didanosine (only didanosine formulations with aluminium or magnesium containing buffering agents should not be taken 2 hours before or after Levofloxacin  [...] administration. Calcium salts have a minimal effect on the oral absorption of levofloxacin.*   As for the length of therapy, the same source recommends different duration, depending on the diagnosis (from 3 days for urinary tract infections up to 8 weeks for antrax; the most common therapy duration for respiratory infections is 7 to 10 days (depending on the severity).  This is the most important factor that determines for how long you should take the medicine, but there are other factors: the severity of the condition, your progress, the strain of bacteria (some are more sensitive then others) and also the dose (levofloxacine can be given by mouth in doses of 250 mg daily, but this depends on the condition, your body mass, liver and kidney function etc.).  In conclusion, I'm sorry to say, but this would be a question for your doctor.     *Other fluoroquinolones may bind with calcium as well. ",
        "id": 694,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health risks associated with Monosodium Glutamate, if any?",
        "body": "There several concerns related to MSG (monosodium glutamate):   it contains sodium, so it might rise the blood pressure leading to hypertension, a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. (1) it has been found to be strictly related to overweight and obesity (2), possibly because it improves the palatability of food (= it makes you feel you like it, and you want more) (3) in relation to cancer, I couldn't find much information about the topic. I would suggest you to visit whe webpage http://www.msgtruth.org/cancer.htm . On the same page there are several links on the right side showing connections of MSG to other diseases. ",
        "id": 260,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a \"contact lens fitting\"?",
        "body": "A contact lenses fitting is more expensive than a standard vision examination for glasses.  There are several reasons.  The doctor (Optometrist or Ophthalmologist) must measure more perimeters of the eye than for glasses.  And, they need to determine a material that performs well for the patient.  Both soft contacts and hard contacts come in wide variety of materials, not just different brand names.  Different patients do better with different materials for a variety of reasons.    The doctor's office must supply training on the proper care of the contact lenses prescribed.  Different contact lenses materials require different solutions and disinfection techniques.  And, different patients will receive different wearing schedules.  Some may be scheduled daily wear, others extended wear.  And still others may be scheduled for continuous wear.  The doctor includes a follow-up visit(s) until the fit is a success.  The doctor's office guarantees satisfaction with the contact lenses, and may need to switch the contact lenses material, or supply a refund for the extra cost if the patient is not successfully fit.     All of these extra fitting costs are figured into the \"contact lens fitting\" fee. ",
        "id": 580,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which kind of muscle has greatest resting metabolic rate; big muscle, or strong muscle?",
        "body": "Background:  Basal Metabolic Rate is the minimal rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at rest. Several BMR equations exist but the most notable one was the Harris-Benedict equation (revised 1984), which was created in 1919 and was the 'best' until 1990 until The Mifflin St Jeor Equation.  These equations use the same factors:  P   is total heat production at complete rest, m   is mass (kg), h   is height (cm), and a   is age (years)   When investigation on the BRM of a pool of individuals was done there was a wide range of results for people who appeared to be similar. They realised these because formulas are based on body weight alone, which does not take into account the difference in metabolic activity between lean body mass and body fat they were getting variation in their results.   Below is a further breakdown of the BMR impact per-pound of different types of tissue.   Organ or tissue Daily metabolic rate   Fat 2 calories per pound  Muscle 6 calories per pound  Liver 91 calories per pound  Brain 109 calories per pound  Heart 200 calories per pound  Kidneys 200 calories per pound    One can conclude for 2 individuals of the same weight, and different BMR's that it is likely that their muscle/fat ratio is not equal.  An important point to note is that in all research all muscle mass is treated equally, biology dictates that muscle only has size and the ability for that muscle to be fully recruited to move weight is down to the adaptions that the muscle has gone through. Body builders utilise the principles of time-unter-tension to increase volume and to achieve this they often do not train for maximal lifts. The opposite is true for powerlifters and to a greater extent, strongmen who to train their bodies to perform maximal lifts and thus are 'stronger'.  The quote from elite fitness is just looking from a maximal lift percentage. If they looked at total power output they might see that bodybuilders have a higher total.  What 'burns fat faster'? Neither, muscle is muscle.",
        "id": 1559,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I confirm death and the need for CPR?",
        "body": "TL;DR  DO perform CPR as soon as one stops breathing normally and is irresponsive, and don't stop. PERIOD. To be on the safe side, even perform CPR on people you presume to be dead for a longer period of time. There are certain definitive signs of death that doctors will use to pronounce a patient dead.  There is a difference between dead and dead  As a rule of thumb, for every minute without oxygen, the chances of survival decrease by roughly 10% because of irreversible brain damage.  Holmberg M. et al, (2000), \"Effect of bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients in Sweden\", Resuscitation, 47:59-70  The picture below is completely unscientific and has been drawn by me, with no data whatsoever, because I couldn't find any free-to-access statistics to prove my point. (The full version of the linked article. and quite a few other studies performed on this issue have data supporting this general trend).            Source: completely unscientific trend lines mingled together by me.   At some point, time has advanced so far that the patient has zero chances of survival left because the brain damage was too severe.   A patient is clinically dead as soon as they enter cardiac arrest (i.e. no oxygen circulation), but this status is reversible. However, due to ongoing brain damage due to lack of oxygen, the patients chances of survival decrease until they reach 0%, at which point a doctor will pronounce them (actually) dead.   So when do I perform CPR?  Simple, the European Resuscitation Council has published guidelines, the latest version (2015, as of now) says the following:           Source: Perkins, Gavin D. et al. Official Guidelines of the European Resuscitation Council, latest edition: 2015. Section 2, p.85   By the way, the guidelines are free to access, and definitely worth a read!  So as soon as the patient is unresponsive and not breathing normally, you should call the emergency services and start CPR. Even if you don't know how long they have been in this state of cardiac arrest, there are chances of survival. Once a doctor arrives, they will continue with CPR and/or pronounce the patient dead.  What about really dead people?  Of course, there is no gain in trying to reanimate a corpse that has been dead for a few days, and in this case it comes in handy to know if the patient was actually dead for a longer period of time.  You will know. Don't judge by the coldness (cold actually improves the chances of survival), but there are so-called certain signs of death.    Lethal injuries: This is actually quite obvious: If the patient is decapitated or otherwise so severely injured that it is simply impossible to survive, they are dead with a very high certainty. CAVE: Be careful about your own safety!  Pallor mortis: This is a paleness due to no circulation in the capillaries of the body. Gravity pulls the blood lower. Algor mortis: The reduction in body temperature. CAVE: Depend highly on environmental factors, drowning patients will be quite cold and still have chances of survival Rigor mortis: A stiffness in the body. For muscles to relax, ATP needs to be present, and because in a corpse, no ATP is produced/circulated, the muscles become stiff.  Livor mortis: The blood has been pulled down by gravity so that it forms a red decolorisation of the skin.     Decomposition: The proteins get broken down, the muscles relax because the binding proteins also get degenerated. This is accompanied with a strong odor. ",
        "id": 2565,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What abbreviations for pill types are there, and what do they mean?",
        "body": "Since I am assuming that you are obtaining generic drugs, the word after tab or cap is the brand that made the drug.  Auro is Aurobindo, Shir is Shire, Sand is Sandoz, and Solc is Solco. Sunp/Sun is likely Sun and Sunovion, and Nort is likely Northwest biopharmaceuticals.  As you stated earlier, cap is capsule and tab is tablet.  There are also orally disintegrating tabs (ODT tabs or wafers), liquid (syrup), inhalers (puffs), nasal spray, eye drops...  Honestly, there are so many methods of administration, that I would be here all day to go through all: rectal suppositories, ointments, gels, creams, extended release capsules, extended release tablets, all of which seem to be beyond the scope of the question you asked.   All the brands in the US can be found here:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Pharmaceutical_companies_of_the_United_States",
        "id": 2573,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the heart disease risk arising from salt mediated entirely by blood pressure?",
        "body": "I think you are onto something.  In the past few years, there have been much research that questions or contradicts the supposedly well-established concensus that we should eat less than 2.3 grams of sodium (included in table salt) per day and preferably even less (1.5 grams per day).  There are several excellent NYT articles on the subject including Study Linking Illness and Salt Leaves Reserachers Doubtful and No Benefit Seen in Sharp Limits on Salt in Diet.  Thus, based on those mentioned studies within the NYT articles you can probably feel comfortable taking in more sodium (included in table salt) than the standard recommendations.  One of the NYT articles mentioned that review of extensive research indicated that the most favorable health outcomes were associated with sodium intake ranging from 2.645 to 4.945 grams per day.  That's about twice the recommended range mentioned above.    However, independent of high blood pressure alone, sodium/salt does play a role in kidney health.  The following study has some information on this issue Salt Intake and Kidney Disease.  If you belong to a \"salt-sensitive\" demographic group (defined in the study as \"elderly, obese, diabetic or black patients\") you may have to watch out your salt intake somewhat more carefully.  Otherwise, you may be just fine intaking sodium/salt within the mentioned range by the NYT article.    ",
        "id": 563,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens to a person who consumes spoiled food?",
        "body": "The worst case scenario is death from complications due to bacterial food poisoning. The specific species' will vary by location. Here in the UK, food poisoning from meat and dairy products are most commonly due to Enterobacteriaceae (esp E coli), Campylobacter and Salmonella. Common symptoms include diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach cramps, elevated temperature, which if left untreated may lead to death due to organ failure from dehydration.  Note that eating spoiled food has the potential to cause illness, but may not do so. There is no way to know in advance. Also note that the species of bacteria that cause illness are often not the ones which cause products to be noticeably spoiled. Thus it it is possible to consume (visibly/smellably spoiled) food such as dairy (spoiled due to lactic acid produced by Lactobaccilus) but it is unikely that lactic acid or its by-products will make you sick (Lactobaccilus is included in many \"probiotics\")  Sources: Borch, Elisabeth, Marie-Louise Kant-Muermans, and Ylva Blixt. \"Bacterial spoilage of meat and cured meat products.\" International journal of food microbiology 33.1 (1996): 103-120 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8913812",
        "id": 610,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Use of fire retardants in fabric",
        "body": "Adding flame and fire retardends to clothing garments is possible, but it is not standard in the clothing industry. Those chemicals are usually reserved for specialty application, like race driving suits.     Racing suits, design and usage Other suits consist of cotton treated with Proban, a chemical manufactured by Rhodia, or other substances. These suits can lose their fire-resistant properties over time, particularly after washing.   Much more common are additions that provide a more direct \"benefit\"; to manufactures, shippers or merchants. Especially long distance shipping in containers seems to prompt the ample usage of fungcides to combat moulds during sea voyages from Asia. Fabric softeners, colour fastener, easy-iron applications also come to mind. And of course toxic residues of pesticides during plant growth or other chemicals during manufacturing can never be excluded.  In the case of American Airlines uniforms: these have been tested by now, and the PR-storm the company unraveled to dismiss the claims and accusations is less impressive than the long list of really nasty stuff found in them.  The \"benefits\" for manufacturers are classified a bit differently from a health perspective:         Irritants \u2013 chemicals that cause irritation to the skin, eyes, or respiratory tract that is local to the part of the body that is exposed to the chemical in question;          2-Bromo-4,6-dinitro-benzeneamine: women\u2019s parka with fur   2-Butoxy ethanol: women\u2019s crew scarf   2-(phenylmethylene)-octanol: women\u2019s pilot pants and blouse   9,10-Anthracenedione: men\u2019s \u201ccar coat\u201d   9, 10-Dimethylanthracene: black men\u2019s tie   9-0ctadecenoic acid: men\u2019s/women\u2019s pilot blazers   Benzaldehyde: women\u2019s pilot blazer   Bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)lauramide: men\u2019s crew blazer   Butylated hydroxytoluene: men\u2019s coat, women\u2019s parka with fur   Caprolactam: women\u2019s crew blazer, men\u2019s copilot jacket, women\u2019s crew jacket   Docosane: women\u2019s pilot blouse and neckwear, men\u2019s car coat, shirt (undefined)   Isopropyl palmitate (1-methylethyl ester hexadecanoic acid): women\u2019s jacket   Methyl palmitate (methyl ester hexadecanoic acid): women\u2018s blue-checkered blouse, dress, women\u2019s jacket, men\u2019s blue tie   N-ethyl-4-methyl benzenesulfonamide: women\u2019s pilot blouse   Octadecane: women\u2019s pilot neckwear, men\u2019s/women\u2019s pilot blazers, men\u2019s long-sleeved white shirt, men\u2019s long-sleeved pilot shirt, women\u2019s short-sleeved blue blouse   Oleic acid: pants (undefined)   Tridecanol: women\u2019s pilot blouse   Undecanol: women\u2019s pilot blouse      Sensitizers \u2013 chemicals that cause an immune-mediated response which is generally more serious than the \u201clocal\u201d type of irritant reaction and may be systemic, rather than localized;         Benzyl benzoate: men\u2019s pilot tie, long-sleeved men\u2019s \u201crip stop\u201d shirt   Disperse orange dye 30: men\u2019s pilot tie   2-(phenylmethylene)-octanol: women\u2019s pilot pants and blouse   Benzaldehyde: women\u2019s pilot blazer   9,10-Anthracenedione: men\u2019s \u201ccar coat\u201d   9, 10-Dimethylanthracene: men\u2019s black tie Antimony;   Arsenic salts;   Benzophenone (CAS number 119-61-9);   Benzyl benzoate (CAS number 120-51-4) \u2013 also potentially irritating;   4-Biphenyl ester benzoic acid (CAS number 2170-13-0);   C.I. Disperse Red 60 (CAS number 17418-58-5) \u2013 also potentially irritating;   C.I. Disperse Orange 30 (CAS number 12223-23-3/5261-314)   Cobalt and cobalt compounds;   9,10-Dimethylanthracene (CAS number 781-43-1);   4,4\u2019-Diphenylmethane diisocyanate (CAS number 101-68-8) \u2013 also potentially irritating;   Ethylbenzaldehyde (CAS number 4748-78-1);   Formaldehyde (CAS number 50-00-0) \u2013 also potentially irritating;   Mercaptobenzothiazole (CAS number 149-30-4);   2-(Methylthio)-benzothiazole (CAS number 615-22-5) \u2013 also potentially irritating; and Soluble chromium.      Endocrine disruptors \u2013 chemicals that are structurally similar to human hormones, such that they can disrupt hormonal cycles; and   Carcinogens \u2013 chemicals that either can (confirmed ) or may (probable/possible) cause uncontained cell growth/tumor formation.         Your uniform, your health (The Association of Flight Attendants-CWA (AFA-CWA) 2018).   While pentachlorophenol and tetrachlorophenol where the only substances that really exceeded any limits (Oeko-Tex 100) recently, the amount and mixture of all the other substances make for an interesting experiment, some of the results from this experiment are pictred online.  More information on the \"the common\" part of the question may be found in  European survey on the release of formaldehyde from textiles.",
        "id": 1670,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Blue veins appearing on legs",
        "body": "Veins pop out when the muscles are strained.   https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-veins-pop-out-when/  Muscle builders try to get them popping out with constraining the blood flow by tying something to their arms. The compression socks and pantyhose may work in a similar way.  http://www.wikihow.com/Get-Veins-to-Pop-Out",
        "id": 1643,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Differential diagnosis of swolen tonsils with exudates",
        "body": "In the picture you provided, the tonsils are enlarged and they appear to be cryptic (that is, they have little \"caves\" where food and bacteria can get trapped and grow.) Cryptic tonsils are common, painless, a common cause of bad breath, and a source of \"tonsilliths/tonsilloliths\" or tonsil stones.  Below is a picture of a tonsils with tonsilliths.    Exudates are whitish material that appear on tonsils which are inflammed. The cause can be viral or bacterial. Sometimes the exudates are so typical of one or the other that a fairly accurate diagnosis can be made just by looking at the throat. For example, Infectious Mononucleosis is characterized by enlarged tonsils (sometimes so enlarged that they meet in the middle, called \"kissing tonsils\") and a membraneous-looking exudate, as in the picture below.    Tonsillar ulcers usually occur with viral infections. They look like craters, usually surrounded with redness.    Strep is the most common bacterial infection of the throat. Strep throat  can look like anything or even nothing, so I won't include a picture, because the appearance of the throat is usually useless for its diagnosis. Exudates of some kind are common but not necessary. Strep throat is treated with an antibiotic, as is diptheria and gonococcus.  Diptheria is a very serious infection where the tonsild are covered by a membrane somewhat similar to Infectious Mononucleosis, but usually worse. A vaccination program can largely eliminate diptheria except in cases where immunity has worn off or has never \"taken\".    Candidiasis is a yeast infection common in children, when it is called \"thrush\". It is treated with antifungals. The exudates are more diffuse, appearing on the uvula, the palate, and sometimes the tongue as well.    There are many viruses that can cause exudates, and antibiotics don't help when a virus is the cause. The most common causes of sore throat with exudates is a virus, not all of which are listed.  It is important to know the cause of an exudate for two reasons: contagiousness (how likely someone you come into contact with can become infected) and other organ systems which may become involved.  Both strep and Infectious Mononucleosis can be diagnosed on an office visit (perhaps two if the first test is equivocal.) Strep is painful; Infectious Mononucleosis can be painful or not, is common in young adults, and is easily spread.  When you see a throat like that pictured in the question, the safest and smartest thing to do is to be seen by your doctor, so that you get treated if needed, and so that you don't unknowingly spread an infection. The doctor can advise you on the precautions necessary and what to look for that means the infection is getting worse.  Pharyngitis Differential Diagnoses",
        "id": 1926,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical Problems and Computers",
        "body": "Drug research and epidemiology are two areas that lend themselves to distributed computing, and there are several existing projects that you can look at.   There are several BOINC projects for medical projects, for example:   DENIS @ Home -  electrophysiological modeling FiND @ Home - malaria research  Malariacontrol - malaria epidemiology    The World Community Grid also has some medical projects for distributed computing, among them:   tuberculosis treatment research identifying cancer markers   All those pages should have information on the projects and contact information.   Then there's finished projects, which should all have information available on what was done, and what came out of it if the results were already analyzed. ",
        "id": 851,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is \"instant oatmeal\" as healthy as regular oatmeal?",
        "body": "Whole oats are generally processed into three different product categories, listed here from least refined to most refined. All oat products have the inedible husk and chaff removed.   Steel-cut oats are minimally processed. The tough bran is still intact, and the oats have not been heated or pressed. Cooking time is typically 15-30 minutes. Rolled oats often have the tough bran removed which makes them easier to cook and eat, but does remove some of the nutritional quality. They are pressed into a flat shape which increases the surface area, allowing them to absorb water faster and thus cook faster. They are pressed with a large roller, hence the name rolled oats. Instant oats (or quick oats) are mostly the same as rolled oats, but they are often precooked and pressed even flatter for faster cooking.   According to the USDA Nutrient Database, both steel-cut and rolled oats have identical nutrient contents from a chemical perspective. I have heard that steel-cut oats should have more fibre and trace minerals due to inclusion of the bran, but I had trouble finding source for this and it may vary across different product lines.  From a human digestion perspective, steel cut oats will have the lowest glycemic index because their smaller surface area means digestion happens more slowly. Steel cut oats may be preferable for people who are trying to improve regulation of their blood sugar level.  But really, the healthiest oatmeal is the oatmeal you actually eat. If instant oats makes it much easier for you to eat oats regularly, and if switching to steel-cut oats means you would eat oats less often, then you're better off sticking with what works for you.",
        "id": 2250,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does smoking increase the risk of developing medial epicondylitis?",
        "body": "Not too many studies showed any correlation between smoking and risk of epicondylitis but only one study mentioned it. They say:     Smoking may interfere with the circulation to tendons, which not only places these tissues at risk for injury but also slows or prevents their healing during a recovery period. That former smokers are also at higher risk of epicondylitis suggests that previous exposure to tobacco may have persistent effects on the vascular system. Increased risk of epicondylitis among smokers may also be due to other lifestyle factors associated with smoking.   (Prevalence and Determinants of Lateral and Medial Epicondylitis)",
        "id": 875,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a young person with hemochromatosis have normal iron levels?",
        "body": "If the person is a HFE homozygote, or a compound heterozygote, then they need to be monitored yearly for signs of iron overload.  Iron overload occurs more quickly if there is concurrent alcohol use and iron consumption eg. using iron cooking pots.  In the asymptomatic patient with genetic hemochromatosis, then phlebotomy should commence when the ferritin exceeds 500 mcg/L and/or fasting transferrin saturation exceeds 50% ( though this value may vary depending where you are located ).  The reason that we monitor iron levels is that it is now apparent not all patients who test homozygous for a HFE mutation go on to develop iron overload.     The authors of several large population-based studies have performed hemochromatosis genetic testing on participants many years into the study and used stored blood samples to measure SF over time in participants found to have C282Y homozygosity.10\u21d3\u21d3\u21d3\u21d3\u201315 These studies demonstrate that not all C282Y homozygotes, including those with an increased SF level, are destined to have progressive iron overload.16,17   http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/116/3/317",
        "id": 124,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do the derivatives of cannabis have the same effect on the brain?",
        "body": "Hemp has a highly heterogenous chemical composition. \u22069Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is just one of many active substances. Although THC is the most psychotropic 'ingredient' in cannabis it is by far not the only cannabinoid responsible for different experiences with different preparations.  The most important difference in outcomes of hemp consumption is from the different overall concentrations and ratios of mainly THC and Cannabidiol (CBD) and route of administration (not to discount the other chemicals present).  That means it is more dependent on the strain used than the preparation in question. Only when using the same plant for different preparations you might reason that grass is just dried and cured flowers (with a concentration of molecules as produced by nature), hashish is then a 'step up' with higher concentration (but with roughly the same ratio of chemicals from the trichomes) and oil as the highest concentration (made through a highly chemical extraction process).  So, there is not really much of a difference (assuming e.g. that with oil there are no solvents left in the finished product):    It is depends on the source material It depends on the quality standard of preparation It depends on the amount of active chemicals delivered, their ratio to one another, the route, and speed of uptake     It seems necessary to add that    THC isolated on itself can be quite nasty. People talking about \"Cannabis overdose\" are mostly talking of too much of this cannabinoid. You can get too high. To mitigate these unwanted effects of THC (and other cannabinoids working like this) a certain level of CBD is needed. While CBD will not be making you \"high\", it is technically psychoactive in having (among others) a certain relaxing effect and more importantly modulating the effect of THC. They work synergistically. Returning to the problem of overdose: eating and drinking are slower to set on \u2013 smoking, vaporising have a faster onset. But with inhaling the effects are usually  felt within seconds compared to up to hours when ingesting the material. That means a user smoking can stop much sooner once she approaches or oversteps hers limits. Eating on the other hand needs very careful testing and dosing: once is is swallowed then that is the ride you booked and paid for, no refunds. And that brings us back to oil extracts. Smoking oil, made from fairly THC rich material to begin with or ending up that way, might overwhelm you on the first draw. ",
        "id": 1980,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are some health consequences of low cholesterol?",
        "body": "In the following, I assume you meant total cholesterol and not HDL or LDL-cholesterol.   Low cholesterol can be found in some rare genetic diseases, and in people affected by other illnesses. For example, hyperthyroidism will cause low cholesterol because it fastens the metabolism and increases the use of lipids in general. Any illness that involves inflammation will be likely to lower the cholesterol blood level as well.   People affected by metabolic disorders and who have to follow a strict diet (especially hypoprotidic ones, like phenylcetonuria) will often have low cholesterol.  Additionally, children often have low cholesterol because cells use cholesterol to expand and multiply, and the growth period therefore use a lot of cholesterol.  As for the risks associated with low cholesterol, there is still little research on the subject. Low cholesterol seem to be a bad prognosis factor for severely ill patients, and associated with stroke, infections or mental illnesses. However, it is unclear if the cholesterol level is just a marker of the risk (a consequence) or a cause.  Like all biological factors, it'd be probably interesting to do another test to see if this low cholesterol happened just once or if it's a trend. Since you're being treated for cellulitis, it's likely that this infection is responsible for your current low cholesterol (which would be confirmed if your cholesterol returns to normal after treatment).   Sadly I can't be more precise than this answer as there is, as far as I know, no specific study on cholesterol levels in people treated for cellulitis.  Sources:   Hypocholesterolemia in clinically serious conditions     Hypocholesterolemia Medical experience ",
        "id": 602,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is iron's role in oxygenation in the human body?",
        "body": "This a vast topic, and sorry for the superficial nature of my answer.   Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a coloured pigment which binds to oxygen and carries it across the body. It binds to oxygen at a place where there is high oxygen tension (for example, lungs) and release it at a place where there is low oxygen tension (such as the tissues). Iron atoms exist as Fe2+ within the hemoglobin molecules. When oxygen is added to those atoms, they bind to the iron and this prevents the oxygen from leaving it. Oxygen only leaves the iron when it reaches the tissues. So basically you need iron to carry oxygen across the body, because iron (in hemogloobin) is the oxygen carrier.  If a person have a high oxygen requirement at the tissues (such as an athlete), then the body looks to produce more red blood cells (within which the hemoglobin recides) so that it can increase the overall oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. So in order to do that, the body needs needs more iron. So atheletes needs to take more iron because   There is a progressively increasing need for more hemoglobin There is a need to maintain the large red blood cell mass that are already existing   RBCs die after their life span of 120 days. So there is a constant rate of RBC production and killing of them. And then there is iron loss from body in various forms. The body has a store of iron (in liver). So if there is not enough supply of iron (as in pure vegetarians who does not take proper amount of green leafy vegetables), then the body will start utilising those iron stores. When the stores are over, then the body will start exhibiting symptoms of iron deficiency. In order to solve that deficiency, various iron preparations can be prescribed, and Iron tablets are only one of them.   So as I had described, athletes may need a higher iron supply than normal people. In addition to that, there are other people too, who need higher iron input in their diet:   Pregnant women (they are prescribed iron and folic acid tablets during gestation) Menstruating women (there is monthly blood loss, and hence iron loss) Growing children (constantly increasing RBC mass, and other growth demands) People with problems in iron absorption People living in the mountains   If there is a need to supplement, that can be done using the iron preparations I was talking about. Out of all ingested iron, at most 10-20% is only absorbed. However, the beauty of the human iron metabolism is that it is strongly regulated. Body will only absorb iron if it is needed. If there is adequate iron in the body already, then the absorption mechanisms are downregulated. However, in overdose, these mechanisms are deranged and hence there will be over absorption. This occurs more commonly in pediatric age groups who accidentally consumes excess of iron tablets. In those patients the iron gets accumulated in blood (and not in the RBCs are hemoglobin) and harms the cells by various ways. The only way for body to get rid of excess iron is by loss of red blood cells. Hence iron supplementation has to be a carefully monitored procedure.    Hence iron is an absolute necessity in carrying oxygen around in the body. ",
        "id": 69,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wishing to be dead without committing suicide",
        "body": "   Self-harm is not a mental illness, but a behavior that indicates a   lack of coping skills. Several illnesses are associated with it,   including borderline personality disorder, depression, eating   disorders, anxiety or posttraumatic distress disorder.   National Alliance on Mental Health     Sometimes when people self-harm, they feel on some level that they   intend to die. Over half of people who die by suicide have a history   of self-harm.      However, the intention is more often to punish themselves, express   their distress or relieve unbearable tension. Sometimes the reason is   a mixture of both.      Self-harm can also be a cry for help.   NIH  So the thought of wishing oneself dead could be construed as a symptom of depression, but cannot be classified as depression until a professional takes a closer look at the individual's life, behavior, and thought patterns.  This is because the thought of self-harm might be, in a way, self-harming already, which may be a way to feel control, release, or some particular stimulus, or it could be the initial stages of depression, or so on. The ambiguity can also be witnessed in all the comments going back in forth in the OP's question.   Therefore, it's a complicated area, extremely broad, but with a general consensus in one area: best to consult a professional or someone trusted to gain more information and insight into the matter.",
        "id": 2142,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can you disinfect your laundry?",
        "body": "A scholarly report discusses the matter  Several years ago, a scholarly report was published. The report's \"Appendix A\" discusses, among other things, how to clean your laundry if there's a risk that it may be somewhat contagious.  The advice given  The report advises:   Whenever you do laundry, add some activated oxygen bleach (AOB).   Notes: You can use standalone AOB, or a detergent with AOB included. This link discusses your options. In the US, Tide powder is one good choice. Certain products are probably not good disinfectants, including Tide liquid, Tide pods, and OxiClean.  If possible, also do laundry at 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C).   Note: This may shrink and/or destroy certain items. (Source.) Read their care labels.  Use the regular cycle. Don't enable \"quick wash\", \"water saving\", or any other environmentally-friendly options. Make sure each item goes through the rinse and spin cycles at least twice. Preferably three times. It's best to wash items belonging to the infected family member in separate loads from everyone else's laundry. If you can also dry the items in sunlight, this is an extra bonus. The report also gives other advice; please see here.   Water temperature  In some countries (including the US and certain others), if you want to wash clothing at 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C), there's a problem.  An article on the Bottom Line Inc. website states that, in these countries,     household water heaters typically are set to 120 \u00b0F [50 \u00b0C] to minimize the risk of scalding.   The article suggests three possible workarounds.   One (dangerous) workaround would be to raise your water heater's temperature to 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C). But this is a dangerously-high setting. (Source.) It may also be illegal in your jurisdiction. (Source.) Water at 120 \u00b0F (50 \u00b0C) takes 5-10 minutes to cause a third-degree burn; but water at 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C) takes just 3-5 seconds. (Source.) Third-degree burns sometimes kill people. (Source.) Maybe I should email the Bottom Line Inc. and suggest that they revise their article. Another workaround might be to pour a kettleful of boiling water into your top-loading washer shortly before it's finished filling. A third workaround is to use a washing machine with a water-temperature-boosting feature, \"such as the Whirlpool Front-Load Washer with Deep-Clean Steam, model #WFW86HEBW, which can get the water up to 150 \u00b0F [65 \u00b0C]\". ",
        "id": 1683,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sutures - do they go through the muscle as well?",
        "body": "Thanks to Vance-L-Albaugh for clarifications.  For deep cuts, sutures bind the subcutaneous tissue to allow it to heal properly. Since muscle lies beneath the subcutaneous tissue, it seems that sutures do NOT include muscle for lacerations.  However, if you want to generalize to any suture, then the first two articles below demonstrate instances where muscle might be sutured. The two links are tests of comparison between different types of methods and techniques in suturing on muscle.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16237883 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16129763   specific muscle case:   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3940505/   General suturing info:   http://www.bumc.bu.edu/surgery/training/technical-training/suturing-basics/ ",
        "id": 600,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do premiums count towards out of pocket maximum?",
        "body": "From reading another blog post:     Unfortunately, health insurance doesn\u2019t work that way; premiums don\u2019t count toward your deductible.   Also:     After you\u2019ve paid enough in deductibles, copays, and coinsurance to   have reached your out-of-pocket maximum each year, your health plan   begins to cover 100% of the cost of your care for the rest of the   year.      You don\u2019t have to pay any more cost-sharing that year. However, you   still have to pay your monthly premiums or your health insurance   policy will be canceled. ",
        "id": 1583,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Anti-inflammatory : Cortisone vs. Ibuprofen",
        "body": "Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are anti-inflammatory agents that are different structurally and mechanistically from the anti-inflammatory steroids. NSAIDS act by a competitive and reversible active site inhibition of Cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme.  The inhibition of COX reduces the local synthesis of Prostaglandins (PGs) that include pro-inflammatory actions among the diverse physiological role for the PGs. The PG family is also associated with fever and the perception of pain that accounts for the antipyretic and analgesic effects of the NSAIDs.     NSAIDs are prostaglandin inhibitors and prevent peripheral nociception   by vasoactive substances such as prostaglandins and bradykinins. Most   NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1, which produces prostaglandins that are   believed to be cytoprotective of the stomach lining, and COX-2, which   produces prostaglandins responsible for pain and inflammation        Given that glucocorticoids (or corticosteroids) modify the expression of so many genes, and   that the extent and direction of regulation varies between tissues and   even at different times during disease, you will not be surprised to   learn that their anti-inflammatory effects are complex.     Some studies1 indeed claim steriodal anti inflammatory drugs to be superior than NSAIDs, but strictly speaking it depends on the condition being managed (in that particular study its Rheumatoid arthritis).     Corticosteroid drugs can relieve inflammation, and in high doses they   have a dramatic effect on the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. They   are used only temporarily, however, because of serious adverse effects   during long\u2010term use. The review found that corticosteroids in low   doses are very effective. They are more effective than usual   anti\u2010arthritis medications (non\u2010steroidal anti\u2010inflammatory drugs, or   NSAIDs)   On the other hand, there seeemed to be no significant differences in their efficacy when managing inflammation after uncomplicated cataract surgery 2:     There was moderate-certainty evidence of no difference in mean cell   value in the participants receiving an NSAID compared with the   participants receiving a corticosteroid (mean difference (MD) -0.60,   95% confidence interval (CI) -2.19 to 0.99), and there was   low-certainty evidence that the mean flare value was lower in the   group receiving NSAIDs (MD -13.74, 95% CI -21.45 to -6.04).   The major reason why the former are generally frowned upon as the mainstay of managing inflammatory conditions is perhaps their wide range of adverse effects with long term use.     Low-dose glucocorticoid replacement therapy is usually without   problems but serious unwanted effects occur with large doses or   prolonged administration of glucocorticoids. The major effects are as   follows:      The adverse effects of the glucocorticoids include suppression of the   pituitary\u2013adrenal axis that requires dose tapering while withdrawing   the drug. GI effects are also common adverse effects and may include   peptic ulcer, GI hemorrhage, ulcerative esophagitis, and acute   pancreatitis. Characteristic effects of glucocorticoids include weight   gain, osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, acne, increased susceptibility to   infection, and cushingoid \u201cmoon face\u201d and \u201cbuffalo hump.\u201d Other   adverse effects include headache, vertigo, increased intraocular and   intracranial pressures, muscle weakness, psychological disturbances,   edema, and hypertension.     Having said that, the general take home points are:   NSAIDs are the agents of choice for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis. NSAIDs may also be used to relieve musculoskeletal pain, headache, and gouty arthritis. More specifically, glucocorticoids are useful for the last resort management of severe, disabling arthritis; severe allergic reactions; seasonal allergic rhinitis; bronchial asthma; chronic ulcerative colitis; rheumatic carditis; nephrotic syndrome; collagen vascular disease; cerebral edema; and topically for inflammatory disorders.   References   Corticosteroids versus placebo and NSAIDs for rheumatoid arthritis Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs versus corticosteroids for controlling inflammation after uncomplicated cataract surgery.  Rang and Dale Pharmacology 8th ed: Drugs affecting major organ systems. ",
        "id": 2048,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Munchausen syndrome by proxy, caregiver and care receiver relation",
        "body": "Munchausen by proxy has been diagnosed for caregiver/care receiver relationships that were not parent / child. Munchausen by adult proxy  is an article reviewing 13 cases found in the medical literature where the care receiver in the relationship was an adult. Not all of the perpetrators were parents.      The perpetrator was the victim's mother in 3 cases, wife in 2 cases, son in 2 cases, and daughter, granddaughter, husband, companion, boyfriend, or prison cellmate in 1 case each. Five (38%) worked in healthcare.   From Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy :An Adult Dyad     Although well-documented in the child and adolescent literature, few case reports document MSBP with an adult proxy    The majority of cases seem to be underage children and parents (usually mothers), though. ",
        "id": 493,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is it determined that someone died from \"air polution\"?",
        "body": "Your question can basically be extended to all studies related to statistics. In simple terms you are generally looking for a relationship (e.g. between an increased number of deaths and air pollution levels). Of course finding such a relationship ALONE doesn't tell you anything about cause and effect. Even if you are only looking at deaths from diseases known to be linked to air pollution, you have to come up with a way to show that these factors depend on each other - that they are correlated.  Usually, you look at some sort of control group that will have almost all the exact same characteristics as the test group, except obviously for the one you actually care about. The more similar the two groups are, the better of course - ideally if you could find two identical cities, with identical people - with the only difference being the air pollution, then you could show a cause and effect easily. Since this will be very difficult to achieve, you instead have to use some sophisticated statistical methods to study correlation of your variables. You can start reading about those methods here: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence  So, as long as those studies you refer to follow common statistical procedures, which I will assume they did, then yes, you could staticstically show a relationship and argue that X-many more people died from an increased in air pollution.  [EXTENSION]  One of the studies in the link you provided is referring to a Research Letter in Nature (one of the most highly regarded scientific journals out there): http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v525/n7569/full/nature15371.html  [Lelieveld et.al] are using a:      global atmospheric chemistry model to investigate the link between   premature mortality and seven emission source categories   They are using a      sensitivity study that accounts for differential toxicity   They are focusing on     mortality related to PM2.5 and O3   and     estimate of overall health impact depending on assumptions regarding particle toxicity   So, basically, they build a global model that will be able to correlate higher particle toxicity values with the number of deaths in different regions. They also talk about a sensitivity study, which will test if any change of specific variables may have extreme effects on their model.     Our calculations of air pollution related mortality are based on the method of the global burden of disease [...] applying improved exposure response functions that more realistically account for health effects at very high PM2.5   Of course it is just a model and not the reality, so the accuracy of their results will depend on the accuracy of this model, which is explained in more detail here: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23245609  Overall, this actually isn't so much of a direct study with X number of participants. Nobody actually collected health information from participants, but they are using previously generated information (from the World Health Organisation) on toxicity response the effects of air pollution onto a global level. I assume the WHO has collected thousands of samples and analysed clinical trial that do what I mentioned earlier - they study the effect of a particular change in your environment onto your health. So, by now knowing that O3 is actually actually reducing your life expectancy by X percent, they can make the aforementioned conclusions.",
        "id": 653,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Poison Ivy or Spider Bite?",
        "body": "Doc-In-Box diagnosed as Cellulitis from poison ivy and gave steroid shot and antibiotics prescription.",
        "id": 1094,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the relationship between cortisol and depression?",
        "body": "TL;DR  There isn't really a scientific consensus. There appears to be a connection between cortisol and depression, but cortisol anomalies appear neither necessary nor sufficient for depression    The scientific community believed that there is a strong connection between the \"happiness hormone\" serotonin (5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptamine). This so-called serotonin hypothesis of depression is very simple, in that it claims that a low level of serotonin causes the major depressive disorder. The fact that some antidepressants are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) seems to further support this theory.  However, recent findings have shown that impairing serotonin function can cause clinical depression in some circumstances, but is neither necessary nor sufficient.    This was a brief summary of: Cowen, Philip J., and Michael Browning. \"What Has Serotonin to Do with Depression?\" World Psychiatry 14, no. 2 (2015): 158-60. doi:10.1002/wps.20229.  As a follow up, it has been suggested that elevated levels of the \"stress hormone\" cortisol lead to decreased 5-HT levels, which in turn leads to depression. This is supported by the reported abnormality of cortisol secretion in MDD patients.   See Dinan, T. G.: Glucocorticoids and the genesis of depressive illness. A psychobiological model. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164 (1994) , 365-371.  However, a study performed in 2002 contradicted this theory:     Cortisol concentrations were not increased in the depressed or vulnerable. Morning salivary and serum cortisol were reduced in depression. Evening cortisol was increased after recent life events. Life events and depression were associated with increased prolactin responses.      Strickland, P. L., Deakin, J. F. W., Percival, C., et al. The bio-social origins of depression in the community. Interactions between social adversity, cortisol and serotonin neurotransmission. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180 (2002),168-173.   On the other hand, a study in 2001 found that MDD is correlated with no response of the serotonin uptake to chronically elevated cortisol levels:     A significant increase in serotonin uptake (+37%+14, M + SD) was observed in the control group, whereas neither the generalized anxiety disorder nor the major depression group exhibited changes in serotonin uptake upon incubation with cortisol. It is likely that under chronic stress or depression, the capacity for increase in serotonin transporter has reached its limit due to the chronically elevated blood cortisol level. The physiological and diagnostic implications of this observation are discussed.      Tafet, G. E., V. P. Idoyaga-Vargas, D. P. Abulafia, J. M. Calandria, S. S. Roffman, A. Chiovetta, and M. Shinitzky. \"Correlation between Cortisol Level and Serotonin Uptake in Patients with Chronic Stress and Depression.\" Cognitive, Affective, &amp; Behavioral Neuroscience 1, no. 4 (2001): 388-93. doi:10.3758/cabn.1.4.388.   An editorial about the former study concludes that     some patients with depression (for example, those reporting recent severe life events) do hypersecrete cortisol. However, elevated cortisol levels after life events are not necessarily associated with the development of depressive disorder. Furthermore, the majority of patients with moderate depression in the community probably do not hypersecrete cortisol. It seems more likely that people with depression in the community exhibit abnormal brain 5-HT function, although the cause of this abnormality requires further study.      Cowen, P. J. \"Cortisol, Serotonin and Depression: All Stressed Out?\" British Journal of Psychiatry 180, no. 02 (2002): 99-100. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.2.99.   However, a connection between cortisol and depression keeps creeping up:   High cortisol levels lead to arteriosclerosis and thus to coronary artery diseases (CAD), which in turn drastically reduce cortisol levels. Because cortisol is an anti-inflammant, the risk of myocardial infarction and other acute heart diseases increases. Patients with depression and CADs have been found to have the lowest cortisol levels and therefore a very high risks of myocardial infarction.   Waller et al., Blunted Cortisol Stress Response and Depression-induced Hypocortisolism is related to Inflammation in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease, JACC Vol 67 No. 9, Mar 2016",
        "id": 2350,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is alcohol eliminated from breast milk?",
        "body": "The best reference I could find on this was Schwegler et al. (2013), which gave detailed descriptions of both the processes of transfer of alcohol to the bloodstream and breast milk and the effects thereafter in the mother and the infant.  Here is a somewhat condensed timeline of what happens.   Intake. The mother consumes an alcoholic beverage, which travels along the digestive tract from the mouth through the esophagus and into the stomach and intestines. Resorption. The alcohol (really ethanol, for all intents and purposes) is resorbed in minute quantities in cells in the esophagus, and in moderate amounts in the stomach. Most of the resorption takes place in the intestines and beyond, specifically the smaller intestines, thanks to the \"first pass effect\". The ethanol is now transferred to the bloodstream.  Breakdown of alcohol. The ethanol is transformed into metabolite acetaldehyde via alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). ADH is more common in the liver and intestines than in the stomach, which in part accounts for the higher resorption rates in the lower part of the digestive tract. Next, the acetaldehyde undergoes oxidation by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) or monooxygenase CYP2E1. The result is acetate, which is then turned into water or carbon dioxide, as normal. Transfer from the bloodstream to breast milk. This step happens concurrently with (3). Some of the ethanol circulating in the bloodstream is transferred to breast milk along with other substances. This transfer often contains ethanol that has been resorbed from the stomach, where less ethanol is resorbed and filtered away. Additionally, acetaldehyde is generally not present in breast milk (Kes\u00e4niemi (1974) is cited on page 16). The reason for this is unknown, but it points to the absence of ADH.  The upshot of all this is that there may be little to no breakdown of alcohol in breast milk. Breakdown via ADH and ALDH would happen between resorption and transferal/lactation.   Levels of alcohol in the blood and in breast milk are generally the same, thanks to diffusion between the various glands in the breasts and the bloodstream (note that there are, of course, specialized veins and arteries for the mammary glands). Diffusion out and in means that there is not a significant net gain or loss of alcohol from the breast milk.  One reason for different concentrations in different groups of women depends on how proteins responsible for the filtering and breakdown are released. The authors say (page 16)     To explain the observed differences during lactation, Pepino et al. (2007)   hypothesised that increased levels of regulatory proteins are released during the breastfeeding phase and that these proteins delay the passage of the alcohol from the stomach to the small intestine and liver, thereby increasing the first pass effect. The findings were confirmed in a further study by Pepino &amp; Mennella (2008) among mothers who pumped off their milk.   It's worth noting that only a small amount of the total amount of alcohol makes its way unfiltered into breast milk. As Menella (date unknown) writes (emphasis mine),     In general, less than 2 percent of the alcohol dose consumed by the mother reaches her milk and blood. Alcohol is not stored in breast milk, however, but its level parallels that found in the maternal blood. That means that as long as the mother has substantial blood alcohol levels, the milk also will contain alcohol.   This is the key principle. Basically, there is little to no breakdown of alcohol in the mammary glands, due in part to the lack of ADH. While some enters through the bloodstream, it can diffuse out and be broken up in the normal fashion.",
        "id": 516,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I use a foot pedal to send mouse clicks and/or modifier keys ergonomically?",
        "body": "RSI refers to Repetitive Stress Injury. You see the word 'repetitive' there? So, it has to come with anything that you repeatedly do. No matter wrist, ankle, elbow, knee!   But then, if you think a bit more, the strength we have in our extremities is different from each other. Said that, by nature, legs are stronger than hands. Extending this further, toes are stronger than fingers, knee ...than elbow, and hip joint ...than shoulder. The same goes true in case of foreleg vs forearm, thighs vs biceps and so ankle vs wrist.   I don't say that using ankles won't cause RSI), BUT as compared to wrists, your ankles are a bit stronger so they'll take longer time to get affected. But RSI -repetitive...so doing it again and again won't spare you at all!   ",
        "id": 5,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "High Quality Flu Shot Providers?",
        "body": "There are a few different manufacturers of the influenza vaccine available in the United States. There are also two main types of flu vaccines available; quadrivalent and trivalent. Quadrivalent is designed to protect against two types of influenza A viruses and two types of B while trivalent protects against the two A but only one B. Neither one is recommended over the other by the CDC.  The difference in price could be due to manufacturer difference or quadrivalent vs trivalent vaccine. To find out what flu vaccine each retailer uses, you would probably have to call and talk to a pharmacist.   Another reason for price difference could be how the vaccine is supplied. Some manufacturers make single dose syringes as well as multi dose vials.   CDC Quadrivalent info  CDC vaccine efficacy",
        "id": 1207,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How was penicillin discovered, and was the use of it immediately realised?",
        "body": "The discovery of penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming was accidental.   In 1927 he had been investigating the properties of staphylococci and when he returned to his laboratory after few weeks (which was often untidy), to his surprise one culture was contaminated with a fungus and the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal. He identified the mould as being from the Penicillium genus and after some months of calling it \"mould juice\", named the substance it released penicillin on 7 March 1929.  Fleming would later say:     \"When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionise all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer, but I suppose that was exactly what I did.\"   Source: Sir Alexander Fleming  See also: Discovery of Penicillin",
        "id": 53,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Routine angioplasty after heart attack?",
        "body": "There are many circumstances in which angioplasty would not be performed. First, let's look at when it is performed:     Clinical indications for PCI [Percutaneous coronary intervention, or angioplasty] include the following:  Acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) Non\u2013ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS) Unstable angina Stable angina Anginal equivalent (eg, dyspnea, arrhythmia, or dizziness or syncope) High risk stress test findings       http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/161446-overview   A heart attack in the past isn't likely to meet any of those indications unless it's causing symptoms now such as angina or anginal equivalents. Generally, once ischemia (reduced blood flow) has killed heart tissue, reopening the artery with angioplasty won't accomplish anything. The tissue is dead and can't be revived. This last point is made in the same link as above. Emphasis is mine.     In an asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic patient, objective evidence   of a moderate to large area of viable myocardium or moderate to severe   ischemia on noninvasive testing is an indication for PCI. Angiographic   indications include hemodynamically significant lesions in vessels   serving viable myocardium (vessel diameter >1.5 mm).   Angioplasty also has a number of contraindications when it won't be performed even when the heart attack is ongoing. These include:     Clinical contraindications for PCI include intolerance of long-term   antiplatelet therapy or the presence of any significant comorbid   conditions that severely limit the lifespan of the patient (this is a   relative contraindication).      Relative angiographic contraindications include the following:  Arteries &lt;1.5 mm in diameter Diffusely diseased saphenous vein grafts Other coronary anatomy not amenable to PCI       [ibid., http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/161446-overview]   A lot of this is complicated language understood mainly only by cardiologists, but it boils down to saying that angioplasty will be performed only when it can save heart muscle from dying or when it can relieve chest pain or other symptoms, when the procedure is physically possible (eg, the arteries are large enough), and when it has a practical chance of extending the patient's life (eg, a terminal patient with days or weeks to live probably would not benefit from angioplasty).",
        "id": 366,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Strange hair growth behavior",
        "body": "There are more possible causes, other than generics, as described here:   Stress       Stress can also affect your hair. A 2013 study found a connection between stress and a depletion of stem cells in the hair follicles of mice. So if you\u2019ve noticed a rise in your number of white strands, stress might be the culprit.  Autoimmune disease       An autoimmune disease can also cause premature white hair. This is when the body\u2019s immune system attacks its own cells. In the case of alopecia and vitiligo, the immune system can attack hair and cause loss of pigment.  Thyroid disorder       Hormonal changes caused by a thyroid problem \u2014 such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism \u2014 may also be responsible for premature white hair. The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of your neck. It helps control many bodily functions such as metabolism. The health of your thyroid can also influence the color of your hair. An overactive or underactive thyroid can cause your body to produce less melanin.  Vitamin B-12 deficiency       White hair at an early age can also indicate a vitamin B-12 deficiency. This vitamin plays an important role in your body. It gives you energy, plus it contributes to healthy hair growth and hair color.      A vitamin B-12 deficiency is associated with a condition called pernicious anemia, which is when your body can\u2019t absorb enough of this vitamin. Your body needs vitamin B-12 for healthy red blood cells, which carry oxygen to cells in your body, including hair cells. A deficiency can weaken hair cells and affect melanin production.  Smoking       There\u2019s also a link between premature white hair and smoking. One study of 107 subjects found a connection between the \u201conset of gray hair before the age of 30 and cigarette smoking.\u201d    So, the steps you can follow are the following:   Go to the doctor again, this time ask to test yourself for alopecia and vitiligo, as well as checking your thyroid gland. While waiting for those tests, try some things yourself and see if this help:   Take Vitamin B-12 pills. In case you smoke, quit smoking.  ",
        "id": 1796,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Has the calorie content of soda (in US) increased over the years?",
        "body": "I am satisfied that the calorie content of soda has been fairly constant over the past few decades. A 1992 newspaper article says \"a 12-ounce can of 7-Up, Sprite or Coca-Cola contains 150 calories\". I conclude that comparisons claiming more calories in milk than soda (ounce for ounce) were, and are, applicable to milk containing fat rather than skim milk.",
        "id": 1869,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to Simplify Patient Visual Info for Doctors",
        "body": "Using these \"visuals\" is mostly a way for you to better understand and present the situation and condition of the patient. These preparations should help you to have everything ready and accessible when asked for by your doctor.  The first problem with these pictures is indeed that they are a first draw and that they might get streamlined into a cleaner illustration. That means having printed text in a consistent design.  The anatomical aspects are only helpful to you, an analog watch seems unnecessary, so from an cognitive ergonomics perspective (your UX part) I'd separate  this onto the left side of a two facing pages design.  It depends on many different things how well this will go: first thing to consider is the practitioner you visit and her preferences. Some really do not like being buried in details while others delight in as much detail as is possible and really devour files and information presented in that style.  Prepare two identical brochures. One for you, one to present the doctor. She may then chose to use it or to ignore it and you can still refer to it in your answers to the anamnestic questions she will have on top of what you present to her.  That style is the key part here:  Doctors are trained to make the best of their and your time to cut to the chase efficiently and effectively. Taking a medical history and proceeding to  diagnosis to arrive at a possible treatment.  The doctor chooses to read through the stuff you have prepared not only based on her preferences, but also on the current situation and setting. But further, how well presented your info is. That means two different but interconnected things:   Follow the guidelines other doctors or institutions use in what to include, when to include and where to include it in the flow of information. Choose a consistent layout with a clear hierarchy of information to present (headlines, paragraphs etc.; aim for minimalism).   One example is in the Wikipedia article, since it is not really suited to this case, there are others to orient your file design and content on.  Another might go as follows:        S   Symptoms: especially pain and discomfort.    When did it start, what hurts, where does it hurt, how did it proceed, how long, how intense did it hurt etc.    A Allergies: known, confirmed or suspected   M Medications: This includes really everything he takes or took: prescribed meds as well as self-chosen over the counter meds, supplements, unusual dietary habits or ingredients. These need to be clearly listed in one place, possibly ordered in tables if they are many. Every medication, every supplement, herb, vitamin, mineral. (Everything that has an effect likely has side effects and maybe interactions.)      P Patient's history: Prior illnesses and conditions, previous diagnosis or treatments. For example hypertension, diabetes, operations etc.       L Last\u2026: meals, hospitalisation, episode of illness etc.   E Event: What is new, what changed, what happened recently to arrive at the current situation   R Risks: known problems likely to occur but not listed above.      The written information is absolutely king and if it is presented well, everybody (including you, when asked by the doctor for just one specific thing) should be able to skip those parts that may be currently irrelevant. Be consistent in how you compile these things. ",
        "id": 2115,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Temperature effect on metal implant",
        "body": "Normal body temperature varies from around 36\u00baC (sometimes perhaps a little less, even) to around 37.5\u00baC... Inside the body itself, you might have a higher temperature by around 0.5\u00baC",
        "id": 1570,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a typical electromyography result report look like?",
        "body": "You can find a sample format for NCS/EMG here     The report template below   is based on the AANEM\u2019s educational paper Reporting the   Results of Needle EMG and Nerve Conduction Studies. A report   template helps the EDX physician adhere to and document required   procedures \u2014by checking them off a list. This process will help the   EDX physician complete a thorough analysis of the patient\u2019s history,   physical, and EDX data that will improve diagnostic accuracy and   result in quality patient care. The template also will help laboratories   applying for the laboratory accreditation program meet the criteria   used to evaluate EDX reports. The template was developed listing   the key elements for a EDX standard report excluding F-wave,   H-reflex, and repetitive stimulation studies. Physicians are strongly   urged to utilize this template to improve their reports.  ",
        "id": 2203,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the fetal viability of a full-term birth baby?",
        "body": "The concept of fetal viability is really only relevant when discussing premature infants. You are correct that the wikipedia figures are difficult to interpret. They come from this website, which is not itself a peer reviewed source, does not declare the source of these data, and do not define their terms. Unlike vital statistics like infant mortality, fetal viability does not have a standardized definition. One excellent study, often used in clinical decision making, used survival (and neurodevelopmental outcome) at age 18-22 weeks (corrected for gestational age at birth). As an example of the difference in definition, another used survival at discharge.  If you are interested in vital statistics for term infants, though, searching for data on fetal viability will not be particularly helpful. US data were recently reported and analyzed in last July's JAMA Peds. See this article.    Here is a chart that might provide what you're looking for. Recognize that these are descriptive statistics only, and do not address underlying changes in practice and policy over the period described. To help you interpret this chart, stillbirth and neonatal death are standardized terms. A stillbirth is fetal death prior to birth (no signs of life on delivery), neonatal death is death after birth up to 27 days.  ",
        "id": 2611,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bleomycin and Cannabis",
        "body": "If you are concerned about your lungs you could try to use edibles. They will not have any effect on your lungs.  However you should be careful because the onset of edibles takes longer (generally between 30 minutes and an hour) so it is harder to dose and generally lasts for a longer period (4-6 hours).  Another way of consuming cannabis involves the use of a vaporizer. Although this might still have some effect on your lungs. It uses convection instead of combustion of the cannabis leaving any plant material that has a lower vaporization point than the used temperature on the vaporizer behind. The benefit of this method is that the onset is as fast as smoking because the uptake of the active compounds is similar to smoking it so it is easier to dose.  I am not sure how long you have to wait after your treatment so you should consult your doctor about it but I have heard of people using it during chemotherapy already to help combat the nausea.",
        "id": 619,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I've unprotected acceptive oral sex with 3 partners, two of which were from escort service. What are my chances to get some desease(s)?",
        "body": "I would encourage you to get seen by a healthcare professional for testing/advice. This could be from your family doctor or at a walk-in clinic. There might also be a sexual health center near you that can offer testing, advice, and counseling services. Everything would be confidential and should be judgement free (if you feel like you are being judged you can always ask to see someone else). ",
        "id": 1825,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why would it be necessary to take a brand name medication if a generic drug is available?",
        "body": "   ...the inactive ingredients, which by definition do not affect the efficacy of the drug.   They can however have an effect on other physiological aspects of a human body, that's why, as far as I know, there can be a difference between various brands or generics.   Answering your question:   Sometimes patients have allergies towards a component of a generic (for example its colourant) in which case the doctor has a medical reasoning to pick a brand drug. One other reason for a doctor to prescribe a specific brand (or to disallow others or generics) is that he has made good experience with that specific one. Another reason is that he is following studies or guidelines which suggest or require a specific drug in order to be compliant, which is sometimes necessary, because Some health insurances only pay for the patient a certain brand drug (though they also often prefer cheaper generics, as far as I know) If the health insurance pays any kind of drug, or the patient is paying on his own, then the doctor could prescribe a specific drug also because he was convinced by pharmaceutical representatives to try out new drugs they advertise Also, if paid by the patient, those new drugs can be prescribed and the results could be collected (anonymously) and handed to the pharmaceutical companies (for evaluation) which in turn pay the doctor some legal compensation Well and there are gifts:      A recent letter in the Journal of the American Medical Association illustrates how effective drug advertising can be. It describes a patient who came into the hospital with an infected insect bite. The intern who first saw the patient first sensibly wanted to prescribe a nice, inexpensive penicillin, which is the drug of choice for a minor infection. But the resident overruled the intern and favored a more \"modern\" choice for this \"severely\" ill patient. He decided the patient had to have a brand-new antibiotic\u2026at $183 a day.      The attending physician who supervised the house officers checked into the incident. It turned out the resident had just been wined and dined by the drug representative whose company made the new antibiotic.    https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/bioethics/resources/prescribing-under-the-influence/  More to this topic:     \u201cGift-giving is an extremely effective marketing tool because it triggers in the recipient the basic human tendency to reciprocate whether the recipient is conscious of it or not,\u201d   http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/94/15/1119.full  These are a few points that came into my mind from my experience and/or conversations (as a medical student) with doctors in clinics and doctor's offices in Germany.",
        "id": 992,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chewing Over the Counter Pain Medication?",
        "body": "You can try soluble aspirin, or Diclofenac suppositories per rectum.  Cancer patients have other modalities of pain relief available to them, many of which are open to abuse and addiction.  But the best thing is for you to overcome your gag reflex which in most cases is learned and can be unlearned (otherwise you wouldn't be able to eat food).  This method involves using a toothbrush to progressively desensitize yourself by touching more and more of the region that provokes your gag reflex.  It takes a month to abolish.",
        "id": 2146,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "can I take pills before food?",
        "body": "They are referring to taking them with a meal (so in a real world sense you'd take them right after you sit down to eat).  I'd suggest taking them as prescribed.  Not taking your medicine with food can affect the bioavailability / absorption of your medicine. Can get a sick feeling too if taken on an empty stomach.",
        "id": 1650,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I'm 21. Is having a beer 3-4 times a week detrimental to my long-term health?",
        "body": "1) Is my brain still in 'development'?  It is. Your brain constantly grows until you are 25.     According to recent findings, the human brain does not reach full maturity until at least the mid-20s. (See J. Giedd in References.) [...] 1      The rational part of a teen's brain isn't fully developed and won't be until he or she is 25 years old or so. [...] In teen's brains, the connections between the emotional part of the brain and the decision-making center are still developing. [...] 2   2) If so, what negative effect, if any, will having a single beer 3-4 nights out of the week have on my brain development and my health? Will I have to suffer the consequences of these decisions as I continue through adulthood?  I can't cite an exact study right now as I haven't found one but several sites hint that there shouldn't be a problem if alcohol is taken in moderately.     If you choose to drink alcohol, do so only in moderation. For healthy adults, that means up to one drink a day for women of all ages and men older than age 65, and up to two drinks a day for men age 65 and younger. [...] 3   However, I found a study trying to unveil the links between alcohol consumption and its effects and the age in which drinking starts.     First use of alcohol at ages 11\u201314 greatly heightens the risk of progression to the development of alcohol disorders and therefore is a reasonable target for intervention strategies that seek to delay first use as a means of averting problems later in life. 4   As you age, the probability of developing an alcohol addiction shrinks.     [...] Ten years after their first drink 13.5% (49 of 363) of the respondents ages 11 and 12 and 13.7% (155 of 1,129) of the respondents ages 13 and 14 had progressed to a diagnosis of alcohol abuse, compared to just 2.0% in the reference group (19 and older) [...] 4   Here is an excerpt of a study I didn't have access to. The study, however, seems to represent some relevant data if you can access it.     [...] Discouraging alcohol consumption until neurobiological adulthood is reached is important for minimizing alcohol-related disruptions in brain development and decision-making capacity, and for reducing the negative behavioral consequences associated with underage alcohol use. 5   Finally, I found a PDF concluding a lot of relevant data 6.     Adolescent alcohol use sets up a persistent increase in activation of brain signals that contribute to inflammation. The consequences of this are unclear, but similar changes have been associated with depression in adults, and suggest that early alcohol use may set kids up for mood problems in adulthood. 6   The PDF should give a good insight about the topic. It concludes several other things aswell. Unfortunately, I wasn't able to find an exact study to meet your requirements. But I guess I could say that drinking in moderation is okay, but it's always better to stop it completely 7.     http://hrweb.mit.edu/worklife/youngadult/brain.html https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=1&amp;ContentID=3051 http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/alcohol/art-20044551?pg=1 http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.745 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10673229.2012.714642 http://www.talkitoutnc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/AdolescentBrainStudyFINAL-PRINT.pdf http://www.healthline.com/health/quit-drinking-alcohol-for-a-month#1 ",
        "id": 952,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "White, filling type of, tooth medication. What is it?",
        "body": "Please clarify : did the doctor touch the nerve or not?    If he did he probably placed calcium hydroxide inside the nerve space and removed the nerve. you will need a future appointment to complete the root canal therapy.  If he did not, he has placed a sedative dressing (temporary filling) made of clove oil extract and zinc oxide (Zonalin is the name of this product) which is antibacterial and sedative for the pulp (the nerve). The doctor will eventually do a permanent filling or a root canal, depending on how your tooth reacts. A stronger and longer lasting version of this product exists, Under the brand name IRM. This formulation contains more resin, which give the product additional strength, but makes it harder to manipulate.    If you want more info on the product, read about it on Wikipedia https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_oxide_eugenol  Or in Dentistry textbooks such as Materials in Dentistry: Principles and Applications, 2001, 2d Edition, Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkin",
        "id": 1970,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the benefits of high testosterone in men?",
        "body": "   What are the benefits of high testosterone in men?      what benefits does high testosterone actually entail?      Mental health discussion would be interesting too, if there's any   association   Suggested Introduction  I think it is important to recognize that levels of the testosterone hormone in the male body decrease naturally in men with age.  The level of this hormone peaks in young men starting sometime after puberty, but usually in the late teenage or early twenty age range. Typically the level of this hormone in men starts to decrease between the ages of 30 - 40 or so, and at a slow rate; generally around one percent a year.     What happens to testosterone levels with age? (1)      Testosterone levels generally peaks during adolescence and early   adulthood. As you get older, your testosterone level gradually   declines \u2014 typically about 1 percent a year after age 30 or 40. (1)   Testosterone Effects (physical and mental)  As far as high testosterone levels and its benefits are concerned, I'll give a general breakdown of typical effects (physical and mental) but I will allow you to classify these as beneficial or not depending on your perspective of these effects.  Physical Associations with High Testosterone  High levels of testosterone starting in early adulthood contribute to puberty transformations in the male body such as: genital organ growth, sexual maturity and fertility, growth of body and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Higher levels of testosterone are also associated with but not limited to increased metabolism (burn fat faster), increased muscle mass, strength, and bone density.     What is testosterone? (1)      Testosterone is a hormone produced primarily in the testicles.      Testosterone helps maintain men's:         Bone density   Fat distribution   Muscle strength and mass   Facial and body hair   Red blood cell production   Sex drive   Sperm production      Mental Associations with High Testosterone  High levels of testosterone is associated with but not limited to more aggressiveness and the effects of such behavior such as feeling more competitive. It also contributes to sleeping better and feeling well-rested, having more energy, increase in sexual desire and libido, heightened focus and concentration, and more self confidence and motivation.      Central Nervous System (2)            The body has a system for controlling testosterone, sending messages   through hormones and chemicals that are released into the bloodstream.   In the brain, the hypothalamus tells the pituitary gland how much   testosterone is needed, and the pituitary relays that information to   the testicles. (2)      Testosterone plays a role in certain behaviors, including aggression   and dominance. It also helps to spark competitiveness and boost   self-esteem. Just as sexual activity can affect testosterone levels,   taking part in competitive activities can cause a man\u2019s testosterone   levels to rise or fall. Low testosterone may result in a loss of   confidence and lack of motivation. It can also lower a man\u2019s ability   to concentrate or cause feelings of sadness. Low testosterone can   cause sleep disturbances and lack of energy. (2)      It\u2019s important to note, however, that testosterone is only one factor   that influences personality traits. Other biological and environmental   factors are also involved. (2)     References   Testosterone therapy: Potential benefits and risks as you age (1)   Meet the Mayo Clinic Staff  The Effects of Testosterone on the Body (2)   Meet the Healthline Staff  ",
        "id": 759,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any known health risks with taking megadoses of beta carotene?",
        "body": "Drawing on my previous answer about Vitamin A risks, the only known risk of large doses of carotenoids is an increased risk of lung cancer if you smoke or work with asbestos.",
        "id": 1059,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would it be beneficial to see a psycologist even though I am mentally healthy right now?",
        "body": "You express insight into your weaknesses in coping with stress, and a desire to build healthier coping mechanisms.  A person does not need to be in the acute phase of a psychological problem to seek therapy for it.  Prevention is part of psychology.  Even Wikipedia lists prevention in the definition of clinical psychology.  In health fields, primary prevention tries to prevent something from happening the first time. Secondary prevention tries to prevent something from happening a subsequent time - as in your situation, where you identified that you've already experienced difficulties.  But even if you had never experienced difficulties, seeking to improve one's own coping skills to prevent future problems is primary prevention - which is generally ENCOURAGED.  I can't find Academy recommendations specifically for this, but many (if not all) of the 25+ therapists I've worked alongside in clinic encourage early/preventive counseling.  Psychologists (PsyD or PhD) are not the only ones who do behavioral therapy, similarly trained therapists include MFT, MSW, LSW, etc.   Lastly, and purely anecdotally, I will gladly disclose that I established a relationship with a therapist myself for preventive counseling a few times during  these 7 years of medical training, and have found it to be extremely valuable when navigating the extreme stressors.",
        "id": 1452,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What should I do if someone has a seizure in front of me?",
        "body": "The typical scenario of a seizure is:   loss of consciousness uncontrolled movements recovery   The conduct to adopt during each of these phases follows:  During 1. and 2.  The person will fall on the ground if standing and may get hurt, either due to the fall or due to the uncontrolled movements that will follow.  The only things you can (and should) do at that stage are:   If possible, ease the victim to the floor when falling, without restricting his/her movements. Be careful for yourself. Do not face the person (you could get punched, and even a thin person is very strong in such cases), stand on his/her back. Should the victim wear eyeglasses, remove them carefully. If you can, carefully loosen clothes or jewellery around the neck. Insert a cushion or some folded clothes under the victim's head. Here again, be careful not being hit and do not restrict the victim's movements. Clear the area: remove any object that can be dangerous for the victim.  Be calm and reassuring for people around. Ask them to stay away from the victim, or to go next room should this happen inside a building. Ask at least one to stay at your disposal in case of need. This may be useful later. Monitor how long this phase lasts. If you're not aware of the victim's history with seizure, try to find any card or jewellery mentioning it.   There are things you should absolutely avoid doing as they would do way more bad than good:   DO NOT hold the victim or restrain his/her movements. The victim may hurt him/herself, the only thing you should do is to secure the area as much as you can (see above). DO NOT insert anything into the victim's mouth. The victim is NOT going to swallow his/her tongue.  DO NOT try to make the victim bite anything. No belt, no pencil, nothing. The victim may bite his/her own tongue, you cannot and should not try to prevent that. DO NOT move the victim, unless there is an immediate, real, and out-of-control danger. DO NOT leave the victim on his/her own. Don't stay too close, though. Be careful for yourself and get ready to do some more securing should this be needed.   During 3.  The victim will not necessarily be aware of what happened, and will need time to recover. He/she might be disoriented/confused, and he/she may have lost urine during the previous phase. You should calmly expect both signs.  There are some do's and don't here, as well:  Do:   Gently put the victim in recovery position (on a side: video and explanations here).  As long as the victim has not recovered consciousness, ensure the victim still breathes. To do this, approach your ear to his/her mouth, while looking at his/her chest, for 10 seconds. This allows you to hear the sound of breathing, feel his/her breath, and see the movements of his/her chest. Should you perceive none of these that's a medical emergency (potential cardiac arrest, which is another question1) - This is quite unlikely to happen but you have to check. Without being intrusive, visually check whether urine seems to appear on the person's clothes. Failing to determine this is not a problem. During the recovery, speak calmly, be friendly and gentle.  Once the victim has regained enough consciousness, explain what happened and be reassuring. Ask the victim to show his/her tongue, and explain why. He/she can be hurt without knowing.   Depending on what you know or discovered regarding the victim's history with seizure, and depending on the time the previous phase lasted, you may have to call the medical emergency services:   Should the last phase (1. + 2.) have lasted more than 5 minutes Should this be the first time the person has a seizure Should the person have stopped breathing Should another loss of consciousness occurs  Should another series of uncontrolled movements occurs Should the person remain disoriented after a few minutes of recovery Should the person be aggressive/violent Should the person be hurt  Should the person be a pregnant woman Should the person ask you to call the emergency services Or should you have any doubt, assume you should call the emergency medical services.   When calling the medical emergency services,    Don't be in a hurry, stay calm. Tell your name, phone number, current location, Tell this is for a seizure, and tell the victim's gender and age Describe the victim's condition, tell what of the above makes you call, tell whether there is a loss of urine or any injury. They will guide you. Do whatever they tell you and answer any question. Do NOT hang up the phone before instructed to do so   Should no emergency call be needed, offer some help to the person:    Lead him/her away from any danger, a quiet bench nearby is appropriate should you be outside.  Offer him/her to call a friend, a relative or a cab. In the US, and probably in some other countries, it's illegal to drive within 6 months after having had an unexplained seizure (not caused by eclampsia, hypoxia, head injury, etc.). Should this be the case, you don't have to force the person not to drive, but you can strongly discourage it.   Don't:   Don't speak fast or act in any way that could frighten the victim. Keep in mind the recovery phase is a slow process during which the victim feels dizzy and confused. Don't propose water or food before complete recovery or if you had to call the medical emergency services. In this last case, ask them whether you can propose anything.     1- Being nonresponsive and not breathing triggers the CPR process. It is not described here as it is a question on its own.    References:   Premiers Secours civiques 1 (First-aid guidelines for general public), Ministry of Interior, France First-aid for seizures, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA What to do when someone has a seizure, the British Epilepsy Action Charity, Leeds, UK   ",
        "id": 126,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Ayurveda treatment effective for modern diseases?",
        "body": "Honestly, the only way we can see if Ayurveda works is through rigorous peer-reviewed research that involves statistical methodology (randomized control trials) and double-blind studies. The reason this is important to mention is because a lot of studies of alternative medicine are unable to be replicated by other researchers, which implies flaws in the study design.",
        "id": 1882,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are headphones with EMF measurement of 10,000 milligauss harmful to me?",
        "body": "No, they aren\u2019t.     In the area of biological effects and medical applications of non-ionizing radiation approximately 25,000 articles have been published over the past 30 years. Despite the feeling of some people that more research needs to be done, scientific knowledge in this area is now more extensive than for most chemicals. Based on a recent in-depth review of the scientific literature, the WHO concluded that current evidence does not confirm the existence of any health consequences from exposure to low level electromagnetic fields. However, some gaps in knowledge about biological effects exist and need further research.   WHO",
        "id": 2564,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does lowering your resting heart rate decrease your metabolism?",
        "body": "The short answer is no, your metabolism isn't really driven by your heart rate.   The basic definition of metabolism is that it is the process by which your body converts the food and liquid that you consume into energy to fuel the body. This can be generally divided into two components, catabolism, which is the breaking down of ingested items into energy, and anabolism, which is the building up of cells with proteins and nucleic acids. The link I provided gives a basic definition and a basic writeup relating metabolism to weight loss.  The heart has a role in this, in that it delivers oxygen to the body which is used in metabolic processes, but part of the adaptation to exercise is that the cardiovascular system gets more efficient at delivering oxygen where and when needed. This is (in part) why your heart rate slows as you get fit. These adaptations include neovascularization (more capillaries/blood vessels grow into working muscles), stronger pumping action, and ventricular enlargement so the heart can pump more blood per beat. Oxygen delivery remains stable and adapts to deliver what is needed according to activity.  Your most likely culprit for the weight gain is that you are exchanging muscle for fat. Muscle is denser and weighs more than fat does, so if you lose a proportion of fat and replace it with an equal proportion of muscle, you will weigh more at the end of that process.",
        "id": 766,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does being optimistic help me to age more slowly?",
        "body": "Being optimistic is not the only factor but people who were prepared for physical losses, and who were nevertheless optimistic, were better able to maintain better physical functioning, and lower depressive symptoms. in the study below it was concluded that  ageing well may depend both on public policy and societal efforts that work against stereotypical views of ageing, recognizing instead the diversity of the ageing population, and on encouraging individual optimistic views and active behaviors to promote healthy ageing. Optimism buffers the detrimental effect of negative self-perceptions of ageing on physical and mental health.",
        "id": 384,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the best pH of drinking water?",
        "body": "The WHO says between 6.5 and 9.5, but mostly due to the pH's effect on operational water-quality parameters. Between 4 and 10.5, apart from possible irritation the effect on humans may not be severe:      EFFECTS ON HUMANS      Exposure to extreme pH values results in irritation to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes. Eye irritation and exacerbation of skin disorders have been associated with pH values greater than 11. In addition, solutions of pH 10\u201312.5 have been reported to cause hair fibres to swell. In sensitive individuals, gastrointestinal irritation may also occur.       Exposure to low pH values can also result in similar effects. Below pH 4, redness and irritation of the eyes have been reported, the severity of which increases with decreasing pH. Below pH 2.5, damage to the epithelium is irreversible and extensive. In addition, because pH can affect the degree of corrosion of metals as well as disinfection efficiency, it may have an indirect effect on health.      CONCLUSIONS      Although pH usually has no direct impact on water consumers, it is one of the most important operational water-quality parameters. Careful attention to pH control is necessary at all stages of water treatment to ensure satisfactory water clarification and disinfection. For effective disinfection with chlorine, the pH should preferably be less than 8.       The pH of the water entering the distribution system must be controlled to minimize the corrosion of water mains and pipes in household water systems. Failure to do so can result in the contamination of drinking-water and in adverse effects on its taste, odour, and appearance.   The optimum pH will vary in different supplies according to the composition of the water and the nature of the construction materials used in the distribution system, but is often in the range 6.5\u20139.5. Extreme pH values can result from accidental spills, treatment breakdowns, and insufficiently cured cement mortar pipe linings.      WHO: pH in Drinking-water:   Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. WHO/SDE/WHO/03.04/12. ",
        "id": 2444,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it unhealthy to eat too much proteins?",
        "body": "Humans need between 6 to 10 percent of calories to come from protein. Six percent is almost enough for anyone. Ten is for pregnant women and hardcore athletes. To answer this question, it is important to state that animal and plant protein effect humans in different ways.   Yes. Consuming over 10% of calories from strictly animal protein has been proven to promote cancer growth. For the latest evidence-based information and a detailed report on this, read Chapter 3 of the book The China Study Revised and Expanded Edition. Yes. Too much animal protein can cause kidney hyperfiltration while plant-based protein doesn't. (1) Humans need between 6 to 10 percent of calories from protein. Getting more than 10% of calories whether from animal or plant protein is not necessary. Consuming more than 10% of calories from protein is not only unnecessary, but it robs us of the space and opportunity to get calories from other nutrients that we need. ",
        "id": 2306,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Did Gary Taubes prove that cholesterol levels between 200 mg/dl and 240 mg/dl are normal and healthy?",
        "body": "Gary Taubes, the journalist and advocate,  did publish such an article:  Gary Taubes: \"The Soft Science of Dietary Fat\", Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5513 (Mar. 30, 2001), pp. 2536-2541+2543-2545 (jstor) (available at the author's page)  In that article, which is solidly written but not a study, more of an opinion piece, the author argues mainly against dietary advice given out despite being far less clear-cut than it ought to be for that kind of intervention. He does not prove anything in that paper, but merely discusses the pros and cons of the issue. That is by far more nuanced what the claimant in question seems to read into and out of it.  For the claim Jerzy Zi\u0119ba makes, one might have to look a bit closer at what Taubes writes, or draws:           The data were consistent: When investigators tracked all deaths, instead of just heart disease deaths, the cholesterol curves were U-shaped for men and flat for women. In other words, men with cholesterol levels above 240 mg/dl tended to die prematurely from heart disease. But below 160 mg/dl, the men tended to die prematurely from cancer, respiratory and digestive and trauma. As for women, if diseases, anything, the higher their cholesterol, the longer they lived (see graph on p. 2540).        These mortality data can be interpreted in two ways. One, preferred by low-fat advocates, is that they cannot be meaningful. Rifkind, for instance, told Science that the excess deaths at low cholesterol levels must be due to preexisting conditions. In other words, chronic illness leads to low cholesterol levels, not vice versa. He pointed to the 1990 conference report as the definitive document on the issue and as support for his argument, although the report states unequivocally that this interpretation is not supported by the data.      The other interpretation is that what a low-fat diet does to serum cholesterol levels, and what that in turn does to arteries, may be only one component of the diet's effect on health. In other words, while low-fat diets might help prevent heart disease, they might also raise susceptibility to other conditions. This is what always worried Ahrens. It's also one reason why the American College of Physicians, for instance, now suggests that cholesterol reduction is certainly worth while for those at high, short-term risk of dying of coronary heart disease but of \"much smaller or ...   uncertain benefit for everyone else.   For a very general assessment of Taubes' work, we might look at his concepts of obesity, how it develops and what to do about that:     However, some of the conclusions that the author reaches are not consistent with current concepts about obesity.   Good Calories, Bad Calories by Gary Taubes; New York: AA Knopf \u2013\u2013 Review by GA BRay (DOI)   And with regards to cholesterol levels, the information from Taubes is quoted really unfortunate. As I read it he still doesn't say that very high blood cholesterol is \"healthy\", and the author merely argues that the possible dangers associated with it were overestimated in the past. This then is by far not the current consensus, but not really a fringy quack position either:  Maryanne Demasi &amp; Robert H Lustig &amp; Aseem Malhotra: \"The cholesterol and calorie hypotheses are both dead \u2014 it is time to focus on the real culprit: insulin resistance\", Clinical Pharmacist, 14 JUL 2017  Uffe Ravnskov et al.: \"LDL-C does not cause cardiovascular disease: a comprehensive review of the current literature\", Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology, Volume 11, 2018 - Issue 10 11 Oct 2018 https://doi.org/10.1080/17512433.2018.1519391   ",
        "id": 2576,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Take different blood components from different people",
        "body": "There are no stupid ideas, this is a very good question. Unfortunately the answer is you can't do this - what determines the blood type is the presence of antigens on the surface of red blood cells. Simply put, antigens can trigger certain responses from the immune system. Here are the four types:  Type A: Only the A antigen on red cells (B antibody in the plasma). The second most common blood type.  Type B: Only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma).   Type AB: Both A and B antigens on red cells (both A and B antibody in the plasma).  Type O: Neither A nor B antigens on red cells (both A and B antibody in the plasma). The most common blood type.  In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a third antigen called the Rh factor, which can be either present (+) or absent ( \u2013 ). In general, Rh negative blood is given to Rh-negative patients, and both Rh positive blood or Rh negative blood may be given to Rh positive patients.  It is possible to give o+ blood to an o- patient, but it carries certain risks, and is only done in very desperate situations and when the patient is beyond a certain age. If incompatible blood is given in a transfusion, the donor cells are treated as if they were foreign invaders, and the patient's immune system attacks them, which can be catastrophic. So the blood type is dependent on what's on the surface of the red blood cell, not some component that can be manipulated.  I hope this clears things up and hope your aunt gets better!",
        "id": 877,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is There a Way to Stimulate Taste Buds After Stroke?",
        "body": "According to this case report,      Testing should be considered if the patient is not meeting goals of   rehabilitation, because altered taste perception may lead to   depression, weight loss, and malnutrition, all of which may act to   confound rehabilitation efforts.   I could not find research about directly re-stimulating the taste buds, but at the very least, supporting the person emotionally and helping them reach nutritional goals should contribute to the rehabilitation efforts by their own body.   It seems that recovery is slow, but possible.     ... by 9 months post stroke [she] had identified several foods that she could   taste and enjoy. She found that tomato sauce with pasta or beef dishes   were the most palatable, and she replaced coffee with tea. She noted   that sweet foods and sugar tasted as expected, and she was able to   enjoy chocolate. One year following the stroke, she continued to   perceive the taste of chicken and potatoes as \u201csawdust.\u201d   Best wishes to anyone recovering from a stroke and their families.  Altered Taste and Stroke: A Case Report and Literature Review",
        "id": 792,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to REALLY treat fungal infection?",
        "body": "I had fungal infection some time ago and nothing helped to cure it, until I started use Ciclopirox.  It cured it completely.  You can try it, but prescription is required for this medication.",
        "id": 2090,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should everyone with trigeminal neuralgia get imaging studies?",
        "body": "Formal Guideline  Please see the guideline.  The answer to your question relies on the mix of guidelines as well as your specific situation.  I can only give you information in general (See above) but should not and cannot accurately say anything about you personally, obviously.  In general, if your pain is well controlled, then it seems like surgery would not really be something you want (there are obvious risks of head surgery).  So the question is what else would the MRI reveal that would change the course of your illness.  If for pain you would not need it, then what else?  Multiple sclerosis (MS) is certainly on the differential for many many symptoms, but if you and your doctor think it is highly highly unlikely based on your history, then it might not be something you want to formally rule out with an MRI.  If the concern is for a growing mass (such as cancer), the MRI can certainly be helpful.    There is no great evidence for a person in your situation.  It will have to be a decision that you and your provider make after considering the risks and benefits.  To answer your secondary questions, your presentation is not consistent with MS diagnostically, as the McDonald criteria requires a person who has had more than 1 attack in just 1 clinically suggestive location, to have some kind of dissemination in SPACE.  You have only one location thus far.  Regardless, progression of MS can take years to decades.  Without further information, it would be hard to say in your case how unlikely it is that you have something that will progress to MS.  You can talk to your provider.",
        "id": 98,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can mercury be removed from the body \"naturally\"?",
        "body": "Apparently the body does remove mercury naturally:     Sixty days after the amalgam removal, the Hg levels in blood, plasma, and urine had declined to approximately 60% of the pre-removal levels. [...] After removal, there was a considerable decline in the Hg levels of blood, plasma, and urine, which slowly approached those of subjects without any history of amalgam fillings.   -- Sandborgh-Englund G1, Elinder CG, Langworth S, Sch\u00fctz A, Ekstrand J. - Mercury in biological fluids after amalgam removal - J Dent Res. 1998 Apr;77(4):615-24.",
        "id": 279,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What would life expectancy be today without medicine and surgery?",
        "body": "Your question is too big to be answered with a formal analysis.  So here is a back of the envelope assessment:  [A] We are worse off today (vs. 1900) because of:   tobacco use obesity iPods (every adult will be deaf in 20 years) motor vehicle accidents, gun violence, immense wars   [B] We are better off today (vs. 1900) because of:   better nutrition (hunger was common in the USA even into the 1960s) public health improvements (e.g. clean water, shoes for all). refrigeration (stomach cancer was #1 in 1900, owing to widespread pickling of foods). safer work conditions.   [C] Important medical developments since 1900:   antibiotics anti-tuberculous medicines hypertension control vaccines infant mortality everything else is rounding error   [D] Not a factor:   genes alcohol (bad, but probably same vs. 1900)   So, life in 2015 = C + B - A.  Your question is whether B - A is better than life in 1900.    Comparing survival curves, the biggest change in survival is the huge improvement in living to age 5.   20% of people dead by age 5 (USA whites, 1900) 8% of people dead by age 5 (USA whites, 1930) 5% of people dead by age 5 (USA whites, 1940) 40% of people dead by age 5 (British India, 1921-1930)   If you look at the curves from 1900 vs. 1940, there is not that much difference once the initial large difference is subtracted.  I was too lazy to go looking for more recent curves, but I doubt it would be much different.  The median survival in 1940 was 70 years for USA whites.  I do not think this early life difference can be explained by an improvement in medical care.  It was public health, i.e. improved living conditions (including adequate food).  You can find interesting historical survival curves in the book Ageing: The Biology of Senescence, 1964.",
        "id": 295,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Undiagnosable Myopia",
        "body": "When small print is closer than ten inches (depends upon severity) to your eyes and it becomes blurrier, that is presbyopia, not myopia. Explore the the link to the American Academy of Ophthalmology.   Presbyopia is age related, starting about 35 - 40 years old.     Try some \"reading glasses\", not normal glasses.  Reading glasses can be purchased at most pharmacies without a prescription or  dollar stores.  Even if there is some other problem, reading glasses are great for reading very small print such as on electronic circuit boards and but allow your eyes to relax at the same time.",
        "id": 551,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Laser treatment during pregnancy?",
        "body": "Ask an OB for further guidance.  Theoretical potential mechanisms of harm (that I doubt occurred) include radiation, electrical shock, inflammation, or stress hormones from tissue trauma.  Stress has been shown to correlate with potential harm in fetal development (for example, increased risk of mood disorders later in life) but the proposed mechanisms generally involve repeated/chronic stress (including anxiety and excessive worry) or severely traumatic events. It is unlikely that one episode of laser hair removal would come near the threshold for harm - BUT there isn't enough evidence to be sure, which is why recommendations say to avoid it.  And it's unlikely that there will ever be a strong body of evidence for its safety/harm in pregnancy.  Evidence for the effects of things during pregnancy is often difficult to establish. It is primarily through retrospective studies that correlations are studied.  (It's unethical to do double blinded RCT studies on human lives, and using animal models to study just a cosmetic procedure would be both expensive and poor animal stewardship.) Also, partially because there are so many potentially-confounding factors over those 9 months, you need a large sample size in order to draw correlations between exposures and outcomes.  (Or enough severe outcomes that even a low-power correlation is sufficient to prompt warnings.) ",
        "id": 1986,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the general prognosis for a patient with an inoperable hip fracture?",
        "body": "No one can tell you what is going to happen to a patient exactly, because every Patient is different. However, the risk are:   Mayo Clinic     A hip fracture can reduce your future independence and sometimes even   shorten your life. About half of people who have a hip fracture aren't   able to regain their ability to live independently.      If a hip fracture keeps you immobile for a long time, the   complications can include:   Blood clots in your legs or lungs Bedsores Urinary tract infection   Pneumonia Further loss of muscle mass, increasing your risk of falls   and injury Additionally, people who've had a hip fracture are at   increased risk of weakened bones and further falls \u2014 which means a   significantly higher risk of having another hip fracture.   If you have a hip fracture you are at a higher risk for negative and life threatening complications and decreased independence and quality of life as you can do less (mobility, etc). Therapy and rehab can help you, however the hip is still fractured and if the patient has dementia they generally do not follow all of what the doctor prescribes.   Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
        "id": 986,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of X-rays on the human body",
        "body": "A person should undergo Xrays as often an they are necessary, because the risk-to-benefit ratio is usually very far in favor of the benefit.  As an example of this idea of risk-to-benefit ratio, lets take getting into a car.  There is always a risk to getting into a car. After all, they move quickly, slide on slippery roads, and hurl towards (and potentially at) each other at a frightening rate of speed. You probably know someone who died in a car accident. Yet, probably without giving it a single thought - except when you're buckling your seat belt - you get into a car several times per day/week. Because the benefit (distance transportation, convenience) is higher than the risk of injury in a motor vehicle accident (this example is actually flawed, but we'll ignore that for the moment.)  Similarly, there is always a risk to getting an xray, but sometimes you just have to get them. The risk is low compared to the benefit. You wouldn't want anyone putting you in a cast without knowing what kind of bone fracture you had, because some kinds need to be casted differently, some need to be casted longer, some need operative repair, and some only need a splint. The benefit outweighs the risk.  There is no completely safe lower limit of radiation. Radiation (especially in fetuses and children) increases the likelihood of cancer. Our information comes mostly from atomic bomb survivors, people exposed at Chernobyl (nuclear reactor accidents), people treated with high doses of radiation for cancer and other conditions, and people exposed to high levels of background radiation, e.g. uranium miners.  Radiation doses are measured in millisieverts (mSv). For comparison's sake, you should know that, depending on where you live,    natural background radiation exposure accounts for an average of 3.1 mSv/yr A seven hour airplane trip exposes you to 0.02 mSv of radiation per trip Backscatter Wave Scanners in airports exposure is just less than 0.0001 mSv per scan (so one average year exposes you to 31,000 times as much radiation as an airport scanner.) a four bite-wing dental series is about 0.005 mSv a two view Chest X Ray doses you 0.1 mSv your average CT scan is going to give you 7 mSv of exposure    Is that safe? What is your chance of getting a lethal cancer from that? The answer is: no one knows. It depends on a lot of unmeasurable things: genetics, your age, your ability to repair the damage, which area of the body is being dosed, whether there are other carcinogens at work (e.g. viruses or co-carcinogens), etc.  The following all give you a (estimated) 1 in a million chance of dying from that event:        Smoking 1.4 cigarettes (lung cancer)   Eating 40 tablespoons of peanut butter   Spending 2 days in New York City (air pollution)   Driving 40 miles in a car (accident)   Flying 2500 miles in a jet (accident)   Canoeing for 6 minutes   Receiving 10 mrem (.1 mSv) of radiation (cancer)      So, you can estimate that (maybe) the risk of dying from a 7 mSv CT scan is about equivalent to driving 2800 miles.  Taken individually:      What is the maximum number of times a person can undergo x-ray scanning?    As often as necessary. As long as the benefit outweighs the risk.     Is their a maximum limit? If so, what are the side effects that the person will be subjected to if he undergoes x-ray scanning more number of times?   No, there's no maximum limit. The risk is cancer. The risk is low, but not negligible. It doesn't go up linearly with every Xray study you have.     Are they life threatening and do they have long term effects on the body of the person?   Yes; cancers are often life threatening.  What can you do about it?   Don't ask your doctor for an unnecessary Xray. Ask your doctor if an Xray they ordered is necessary (sometimes they are ordered to reassure the patient - or their parents, in the case of head injury - that nothing is wrong.) A doctor worth their salt will respect you for asking. Sometimes it's ok to take a \"wait-and-see\" approach. Sprained ankles meeting certain criteria never need an Xray. It's ok to ask. _ If your doctor orders a CT scan of something, ask if an MRI would be better. (They cost more, and are sometimes as good or better than a CT scan.) wear a shield when offered (will shield the parts of your body they don't need to see. ask about the age of the machine (newer machines often use lower dosages than older ones (post 2005 is better).   X Ray Risk.com Risks of Radiation Radiation and Risk Radiation Protection   ",
        "id": 80,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where might \"Counter side Ax\" be located? (Description of tumor location)",
        "body": "Contralateral (opposite site) is the opposite of ipsilateral (same side) in anatomical terminology.  In looking for references for this, I found \"counter side\" used in place of \"contralateral\" primarily in surgical literature, but it is not quite as common as contralateral, and ut isn't listed anywhere I could find with a clear definition. Nonetheless I think this is the most likely correct interpretation of it.  Ax would most likely be \"axillary tail\" (the portion of the breast that extends into the axilla) in this setting, or possibly \"axilla\" as the ipsilateral axillary lymph nodes are generally the first site of cancer spread.",
        "id": 2608,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are steroids effective for treatment of ACEI-induced angioedema?",
        "body": "Unfortunately the answer to your question is we simply do not know.    There have been no trials of antihistamines or corticosteroids for ACEI associated angioedema and these treatments are of unproven efficacy and may be ineffective, despite often be used as standard therapy.  http://www.racgp.org.au/download/documents/AFP/2011/December/201112andrew.pdf",
        "id": 120,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I eat fish everyday or alternate day?",
        "body": "Is it okay to eat fish every day?  Overall, there are few big risk to your health compared to eating beef or some unhealthy meat everyday.    Omega 3 fatty acids could be good for heart health. It lowers triglycerides and total cholesterol.  Some large fish such as tuna, shark and mackerel may have mercury in them       Patients at greatest risk of developing MeHg poisoning are those who   eat fish often and who prefer higher-mercury seafood varieties such as   swordfish or tuna    There are heart and other health benefits shown from eating it a couple times a week, but the same benefits can be gotten from daily consumption. But not more if you eat more.    So your biggest health concerns:   Mercury: Your increasing your risk of exposure. Mercury has shown to be bad for brain health and etc. Omega 3 fatty acids: can be good for your health    Fish portioning",
        "id": 935,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "3 Injections for Hep B Vaccine",
        "body": "   Why is the Hepatitis B vaccine split into 3, any what is the blood test for at the end?   The answer to this is really no different than this same question about any other vaccine that is given in multiple doses. I'll quote some good points and sources below but understanding how vaccines work in general first, and then getting information on the others questions will give you the best understanding and answer to your question.     How Vaccines Work (1)      According to the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Vaccine Education Center, vaccines are made of dead or weakened antigens. They   can't cause an infection, but the immune system still sees them as an   enemy and produces antibodies in response. After the threat has   passed, many of the antibodies will break down, but immune cells   called memory cells remain in the body.(1)      When the body encounters that antigen again, the memory cells produce   antibodies fast and strike down the invader before it's too late.(1)     Why is the Hepatitis B vaccine split into 3 doses?  The human body's immune system (and everyone's is different) needs to program itself at the molecular level to build antibodies for fighting off future [antigens] bugs with similiar biomolecular signatures. Medical studies suggest that it's just more efficient to give people two or three doses to ensure the body builds all it needs to at the immune system level to fight these bugs with matching signatures moving forward rather testing all that have been vaccinated to only revaccinate those found that need more than one dose.     Why Some Vaccines Require More Than One Dose(2)      Every vaccine ever created has to take many variables into   consideration, he explained, including the individual pathogen or bug;   how our immune systems respond to it; what parts of the bug can be   used to generate an immune response that is protective in nature; and   also how long that response will last. Because that equation is   notably complex, sometimes a second (or third) dose is a good idea.(2)      \"Sometimes, if you take a large group of people with one vaccination   you might expect 90 percent [to be protected],\" he said. \"But if you   give a second dose, you may get up to 98 percent.\" Rather than testing   the population to find the 10 percent not protected by the first dose,   \"what is probably a more straightforward strategy is just giving two   doses to insure you have that high level of protection,\" he said.(2)     What is the blood test for at the end?  Essentially, the test afterwards confirms that you indeed have the antibodies in your blood to fight off the Hepatitis B virus so your immune system will know to attack it when it's signature is matched since the vaccine programmed your immune system to do so.     How can I tell if I am protected against hepatitis B?(3)      If someone has received the hepatitis B vaccine, then a simple blood   test can tell whether they are protected If they have responded to the   vaccine series, the blood test will show a positive result for the   hepatitis B surface antibody (HBsAb+). It is recommended that all   health care workers and household members or sexual partners of an   infected individual have their antibody levels tested one month after   completing the vaccine series.(3) ",
        "id": 750,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Piano bank healthy for computer work?",
        "body": "First, congrats on actually being more comfortable sitting up-right.  I've yet to master the talent.  In short, I can't say the relation between old piano players in great health is directly related to or, is the result of a piano bank and an upright posture.   That being said, a majority of the money spent on office chairs are for those ergonomic adjustable features for lazy sitters (myself included).  If I can buy a chair that will posture me for me, count me in.  Now, a backed chair I'm sure was purposed to keep people from falling off the back end but for today's office oriented purpose of keeping you upright, you're able to do without.     Use whatever makes you comfortable and doesn't pull you out of the correct posture.  Just out of curiosity though, does your as* ever start to hurt? That's the only concern I see from using a piano bank at my desk!  ",
        "id": 318,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the absorption rate of powder vitamin?",
        "body": "The absorption rates are different for each vitamin and mineral, so you can't say 98% or 20% for all.   If a nutrient in the powdered and liquid form is chemically the same and the powder or liquid does not contain substances that would stimulate or inhibit absorption, the percent of the absorbed nutrient from both forms should be about the same. Also, at the time when supplements come into the small intestine they would be all liquid because of the presence of digestive juices.  The form of a vitamin or mineral (liquid or powdered) can affect the speed of absorption -- in general, liquid forms would be absorbed faster -- but this does not necessary effect the percent of a nutrient being absorbed.  There are other factors that have much greater effect on the percent of absorption of a vitamin or mineral:   Chemical form. For example, heme iron is better absorbed than non-heme iron Body stores of a vitamin/mineral. The more body iron stores you have, the less iron from supplements will be absorbed (see the source above) Food. Vitamin C from lemon juice stimulates iron absorption. Tannins from tea or coffee can inhibit iron absorption (see the source above). Amount of a supplement. The greater amount of a supplement you take, the lower percent (but not the lower amount) of it will be usually absorbed, because the absorption of certain nutrients is saturable. Personal differences. In different individuals, different percent of a supplement will be absorbed.  ",
        "id": 1201,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to determine if a pill needs to be taken with food?",
        "body": "The FDA requires labeling of prescription medications. Pharmacies will often attach a label on the bottle for patient-dependent behaviors. Therefore the easiest way (in the US) to tell if you need to take a medication with food or on an empty stomach is by reading the prescription bottle:    A patient can also ask for a package insert, which will contain much more information.  For OTC medications, a readable label is also required with quite a lot of the necessary information.  However, supplements are not governed by the FDA, therefore, the makers are under no obligation to include pertinent information, relying on the consumer to know the particulars for that supplement.  The only practical way to know whether your particular supplement should be taken with food is to look up that information yourself.   In the case of glutathione, for example, a reliable source of information will be hard to find, because anyone can make any claim about a supplement and often will (for monetary gain.)  Even so, there exist some resources, such as Examine.com and PubMed. From PubMed:     Research suggests that glutathione is not orally bioactive, and that very little of oral glutathione tablets or capsules is actually absorbed by the body.   So it doesn't seem to matter if it's on an empty or full stomach.  From Examine.com:     There is, currently, no known benefit of orally ingested glutathione that cannot be more readily mimicked by supplementation of N-acetylcysteine and couldn't theoretically be aided by a high protein diet including dietary sources rich in L-cysteine (whey protein).   However, for N-Acetylcysteine, Examine.com gives this advice:     Does Not Go Well With   - Activated charcoal (may reduce absorption of N-acetylcysteine)   as well as a lot of other information.  Examine.com is an interesting and promising site, but its editors aren't donating their time for the love on mankind only. It is a for profit company, but one that at least makes use of easily available scientific research.   This should not be seen as an endorsement. As the disclaimer on that site states:     Examine.com is intended to be used for educational and information purposes only. Examine.com and its Editors do not advocate nutritional supplementation over proper medical advice or treatment and this sentiment will never be expressed through pages hosted under Examine.com. If using any pharmaceuticals or drugs given to you by a doctor or received with a prescription, you must consult with the doctor in question or an equally qualified Health Care Professional prior to using any nutritional supplementation. If undergoing medical therapies, then consult with your respective Therapist or Health Care Professional about possible interactions between your Treatment, any Pharmaceuticals or Drugs being given, and possible nutritional supplements or practices hosted on Examine.com. (Etc.)   TL;DR: You're pretty much on your own as applies to this.  Drug Interactions: What You Should Know glutathione at PubMed Glutathione at Examine.com",
        "id": 469,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is swallowing a tiny amount of toothpaste unhealthy? If so, isn't spitting but not rinsing wrong advice?",
        "body": "Flouridated toothpastes are poisonous but as with anything our good friend Paracelsus comes into play here:     All things are poison, and nothing is without poison, the dosage alone makes it so a thing is not a poison.   By spitting the excess toothpaste out you are simply avoiding ingesting it in sufficient quantities to cause adverse effects.  The advice not to rinse is to allow the fluoride that remains in the mouth to do what it's there for - helping prevent tooth decay, yes you will end up ingesting small amounts of the toothpaste that remains but it's much, much, smaller than the quantity you would have ingested by swallowing the toothpaste rather than spitting it out. As per Crawford et al the lowest dosage of fluoride seen producing symptoms was 1.6 mg/kg (the mean amount in asymptomatic patients was much higher at 3.89 mg/kg) - the classic \"pea-sized\" lump of toothpaste is ~ 0.25g so taking me as an example..  I weigh 59kg, meaning that using the lower 1.6mg/kg figure I'd have to be ingesting 0.0944g of fluoride before symptoms were even a possibility - looking at a relatively typical fluoridated toothpaste it has 1450ppm of Sodium Fluoride which means our initial 0.25g of toothpaste contains about 0.0003625g of sodium fluoride. Which is 0.145% of that initial 0.25g! So even if all of the initial 0.25g were ingested it doesn't even come close to the levels needed to cause symptoms  So it's not sounding as though that small an amount stands much chance of causing a problem. If we look at the other end of the scale the mean dosage of those who were symptomatic is 4.78 mg/kg so at my weight that would mean ingesting 0.28202g of sodium fluoride, which at 1450 mg/kg would mean eating a frankly insane amount of toothpaste! So I won't lose any sleep over the negligible amounts I may ingest from not rinsing, if I do rinse however I'm going to be removing the opportunity for the fluoride to do it's work on the teeth and removing a known benefit for avoiding an essentially negligible risk isn't a sensible trade-off.   So coming back to your three questions:     Even after spitting, wouldn't some toothpaste linger in the mouth?   Yes, that's the point.     After brushing, it's obviously impractical to keep returning to a sink to spit every time you have saliva. So wouldn't you swallow the residual toothpaste?   A tiny bit yes.     If 2 is true, isn't swallowing any amount of toothpaste unhealthy?   Nope. The dose makes the poison and the dose is insufficient to cause health problems.",
        "id": 2526,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What Should Be The Precautions While taking Care of pneumonia patient?",
        "body": "Pneumonia-causing germs can become airborne and hence spread easily from person to person. While taking care of a patient recovering from pneumonia it is preferred to use a face mask so that there is minimum exposure to airborne droplets from the patient formed as a result of coughing or sneezing. Moreover, use of hand sanitizer is advised before and after visiting the patient as common surfaces e.g. table tops, door knobs and bed covers can be rich of body fluids from the patient. when  is-pneumonia-contagious and how we get rid of it  Generally, keeping a distance from people who are coughing or sneezing and washing your hands after every possible interaction can help protect against pneumonia in general.",
        "id": 1342,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a cold or flu typically affect resting heart rate?",
        "body": "Yes.  Most inflammatory processes (including viral infections) can cause elevation of heart rate via cytokines and activation of the sympathetic nervous system. (That's an oversimplification of a complex process.)   Temperature regulation involves the hypothalamus as well, and fever (which is mediated by some of the same cytokine mechanisms) is often correlated with an increased HR.  A marginal increase of resting HR is not usually clinically significant.  Resting HR of an individual can change with level of fitness, as well.  However an increase of resting rate by 20, or resting HR over 100 would be more indicative of a systemic inflammatory response; however, whether that's a concerning finding or just an expected effect of your body fighting infection depends on other factors including individual risk factors, medicines, medical/surgical history etc.  Someone who is concerned should review it with their doctor.  Note: I'm having difficulty finding references to cite outside of paywalls of textbooks, UTD, journals.  Suggestions welcomed!  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2010.02321.x/full#js-feedback",
        "id": 2173,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "H. pylori-caused Bad Breath: how does it smell like?",
        "body": "SUMMARY:   Individuals with H. pylori infection of the stomach can have increased amounts of the following substances in the breath:   Sulfides: hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs smell), dimethyl sulfide (cabbage-like smell), methyl mercaptane (rotten cabbage smell) Isobutane (petroleum-like odor), 2-butanone (pungent sweet odor) and ethyl acetate (fruity odor) Hydrogen nitrate (choking odor) and nitric oxide (sharp sweet-smelling)  Hydrogen cyanide (bitter almonds smell)  The variety of the substances comes from different strains of H. pylori in different individuals and, I assume, from different foods consumed. According to this 2005 review (Table 3), hydrogen nitrate with choking odor seems to be most specific, but not likely diagnostic, for H. pylori. Isobutane, 2-butanone and ethyl acetate smell like ketones in a low-carb diet or uncontrolled diabetes. Sulfide and cyanide smell can appear in various other infections. The mentioned breath odors are not anatomic-specific and may arise not only from the stomach (H. pylori) but also from the mouth (parodontosis), throat (tonsil stones), or lungs (atelectasis). Symptoms, like upper abdominal bloating and excessive belching after meals, can help in diagnosis of H. pylori.     EVIDENCE:  Gastrointestinal diseases and halitosis: association of gastric Helicobacter pylori infection (PUbMed, 2002):     The levels of hydrogen sulphide and dimethyl sulphide in mouth   air were also significantly higher in the [H pylori] positive   patients...   Determination of volatile organic compounds in human breath for Helicobacter pylori detection by SPME-GC/MS (PubMed, 2011):     isobutane, 2-butanone and ethyl acetate were detected in the breath of persons with H. pylori in the stomach...   H. pylori infection increases levels of exhaled nitrate (PubMed, 2005):     ...in H. pylori-infected patients, levels of exhaled hydrogen   nitrate and hydrogen cyanide are found to be significantly   elevated.   Clinical Application of Volatile Organic Compound Analysis for Detecting Infectious Diseases (PUbMed, 2013):  This review again mentions isobutane, 2-butanone, ethyl acetate, HCN and hydrogen nitrate in the breath of H pylori infected patients, but HCN is also detectable in exhaled-breath samples of P. aeruginosa-infected individuals.  DOES HELICOBACTER PYLORI INFECTION INCREASE THE LEVELS OF EXHALED NITRIC OXIDE? (SagePub, 2013):     It seems that H. pylori-associated gastritis is accompanied by an   increased level of exhaled nitric oxide...   According to this study, H. pylori was shown to produce hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan...",
        "id": 2571,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Perforated Eardrum Issue",
        "body": "Perforated eardrums (or ruptured tympanic membranes) are a problem older than mankind. The majority of cases (reported/observed, ~80%) heal spontaneously with little residual hearing loss or other problems, usually in a few weeks.  It is acceptable practice, therefore, to only observe traumatic TM perforations for healing.  If you are still experiencing hearing loss, however, you should see an ear specialist (ear, nose and throat if in the US). They will determine if your hearing loss is due to a chronic perforation (one that has not healed itself), or middle-ear bone damage (or another possible cause) which occurred during the traumatic event. In most cases, there are surgical treatments. If the perforation is still present, a simple patch may be all that's needed. If a bone was injured, the surgery (bone repair or replacement) is more involved. Other injuries are treated dependent on case.  Edited to add: During healing, care should be taken to keep water out of the ear (no swimming; baths or showers with protection from water in ear), and, though I have not seen a study on it, I would recommend against headphones except at a very low volume. The healing membrane isn't as tough as the original.   Traumatic tympanic membrane perforations: complications and management. A prospective study evaluating spontaneous healing of aetiology, size and type-different groups of traumatic tympanic membrane perforation.  Tympanic membrane perforation  Early paper patching versus observation in patients with traumatic eardrum perforations: comparisons of anatomical and functional outcomes.  Spontaneous healing of traumatic eardrum perforation: outward epithelial cell migration and clinical outcome. Lou ZC1.",
        "id": 310,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hazards of mouthwash?",
        "body": "The statement quoted is actually contained under the heading: 4.2: Is this really true? Surely people would investigate the safety, ethics, and efficacy of the products they buy.So this statement is not necessarily true or false; it is just one of the many statements in this heading that may or may not be so.As to whether or not mouthwash may be effective, this article in DetistryIQ has this to say about Listerine:\"These findings support the benefit of adding an antiseptic mouthwash to a daily oral health care routine, especially for those patients who don't brush and floss properly,\" ...\"The findings, however, do not mean that flossing should be replaced with rinsing. I recommend that dentists and hygienists talk to their patients about what's best for their oral healthcare routine, and devise strategies to target difficult to reach areas that are susceptible to plaque accumulation and gingivitis.\"The ADA in this article also says:While not a replacement for daily brushing and flossing, use of mouthwash (also called mouthrinse) may be a helpful addition to the daily oral hygiene routine for some people.It also has some good information in it.I could not find any reputable articles that made the claim in the OP's citation.",
        "id": 1936,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the protocol for allowing euthanasia in a medical facility?",
        "body": "You are asking about the protocol for allowing euthanasia. Usually, you can just look this up in the text of the law.   This is the text of the law from Belgium, for example.   The treating doctor must:   inform the patient clearly about their condition and treatment options  have several conversations with the patient, being certain of the patient's constant suffering  consult another physician, who must review the patient's medical records and the patient themselves  if the patient is not expected to die of their disease, a psychiatrist must be consulted  the patient's request must be in writing    And so on, those laws are way too long to summarize here. This will vary with country. Unless a doctor wants to be charged with some form of homicide, they need to comply with these laws.  ",
        "id": 590,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does \"Hot soup on a hot day keep you cool\"?",
        "body": "Surprisingly when I was looking this up, I figured out it was true. Due to recent research, the below was realised.     When we\u2019re hot, we naturally cool our bodies primarily by sweating, or more specifically by having the sweat evaporate from our skin (that\u2019s important!). Our bodies sense changes in tissue temperature by a network of thermosensors located in the skin and in more central parts of our body, which send input to our brain (specifically, the hypothalamus), which then initiates sweating.      When we take in a hot drink, it appears that the thermosensors located in the stomach become overactive, and send strong signals to our hypothalamus that we are hot. In turn, the hypothalamus reacts by initiating an over-compensatory sweating response. So, when this sweat evaporates from our skin, the heat energy we lose due to evaporation exceeds the heat energy gained by drinking the hot drink. In other words, it is because our body overacted to the hot drink that we end up cooler in the end ",
        "id": 1471,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Peripheral arterial disease and prophylaxis against venous thrombosis",
        "body": "The national guideline center says to seek expert opinion before using stockings for venous thromboembolic prophylaxis when peripheral arterial disease is present since there is insufficient data in this situation.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK116514/  If the decision is made not to use stockings or other devices, or medications, then the patient should be closely observed for the development of venous thrombosis.",
        "id": 2210,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would it possible for me to get tested for past viral infection after vaccination?",
        "body": "There is currently no recommended screening test for HPV in men. The HPV vaccine is preventative for high risk strains of HPV - 16, 18, 31, 33 usually, but does not cure a present infection. Most HPV infections are naturally cleared from the body in 1-2 years, but can remain dormant for much longer. Infections are generally asymptomatic in males but can lead to cervical cancer in females.  So, to answer your question, if you had HPV before the vaccine you could still have it because the vaccine doesn't cure (just prevents), though it is a moot point because there are no common screening tests for men and, even if there was, your body could have cleared it by now.",
        "id": 2407,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does IBS (irritable bowel syndrome) lower the risk of cancer?",
        "body": "The study authors have released a statement on their institutional website that states:     That neither the papers (http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2014/MD/C3MD00323J#!divAbstract, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24755204, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25960429, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26513708, and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25555533) nor the accompanying press release above make any reference at all to cancer or to any health benefits from inhaling (sniffing) hydrogen sulfide. The research is an early stage drug development project and has not yet been trialled in humans.   At present the only contribution that we know that IBS might bring is that the sufferer might get more investigations done which reveal other unrelated conditions.",
        "id": 911,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Law and Ethics - Refusing to treat intoxicated patients",
        "body": "If there's a field of medicine that deals with this issue more than any other, it's emergency medical services. Drunks are a daily staple for them, even in \"nice\" communities. So the following is based on my previous EMS training.  It is always unethical not to do an adequate medical assessment, but that doesn't mean you have to treat the thing they're complaining about.  First, if they're heavily intoxicated then that means they cannot give informed consent. They are not considered mentally competent to make health care decisions under US case law; I expect it's similar in other western countries. So they became your responsibility the minute you recognized their mental incompetence (failing to recognize it is just as bad).  Second, if they're intoxicated then that can mask and/or mimic other concurrent issues. Refusing to at least examine and rule out other problems is therefore negligence. More than one police department has paid a heavy price for jailing \"drunks\" who were in fact diabetics in insulin shock. Intoxication also dulls pain, so even their own pain assessments can't be trusted.  Finally, how intoxicated are they? Remember, being intoxicated means they are your legal and ethical responsibility. Until you've done an adequate assessment to determine that they are mentally competent and not suffering from concealed problems, refusing care will most likely be judged negligence by both medical and legal authorities.   Intoxicated people (by any substance) are the quickest ticket known to loss of license and negligence suits. ",
        "id": 1421,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will swishing water in your mouth after meals widen teeth gaps?",
        "body": "Short answer: No. Using water, mouth rince, floss, toothpics or other means of removing debris between teeth should not cause dental movement.  Long answer: To cause dental movement, a continuous pression or pull has to be applied for many hours per day, over the span of weeks/months/years to make teeth move. That is why head gears have to be worn at least 12h everyday, and why braces are kept on at all times. Other problems, such as a bad occlusion (the way your teeth close together can also cause movements.  Therefore, weak and inetermitant forces (such as cleaning between your teeth) will have little effect on your dentition.  Sources: http://www.gillettedental.com/blog/post/orthodontic-headgear-what-it-is-and-why-it-may-be-needed.html",
        "id": 641,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the risks of using a penile stretcher?",
        "body": "Risks appear to be low, if they are used as intended.      There were no adverse events including skin changes, ulcerations, hypoesthesia or diminished rigidity.   Penile Traction Therapy for Treatment of Peyronie's Disease: A Single-Center Pilot Study     The application of such devices can be recommended in all patients regardless of the penile length, because of the low risk of complications   Non-invasive methods of penile lengthening: fact or fiction?  However, all studies on this I found had a really small sample size. So rare risks could just not have appeared. ",
        "id": 495,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What could be a reason for absence of near reflex in eyes",
        "body": "I think you are mistaking accomodation (pupil movement) for convergence (eyeball movement).  Pupils can constrict and dilate by motion of ciliary muscles, but any other movement is movement of the entire eyeball.  This is from Medscape on Extraocular Muscle Actions.    Vergence includes convergence and divergence, and is the movement of both eyes together in response to proximity of objects desired to keep in focus.  Although it is part of the accomodation-convergence reflex, different muscles innervate it than the pupil.  It is impossible to give a complete differential diagnosis based on the information given, and we do not give personal medical advice so any added clinical correlate would likely cause this question to be closed.    A lesion affecting Cranial Nerve III, which innervates the medial rectus, could cause paralysis of the medial rectus muscle; however, it also innervates \"skeletal muscle of the levator palpebrae superioris, superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles.(innervates all the extrinsic muscles except superior oblique and lateral rectus.)\" (Reference: Wikipedia)  A lesion of CNII would result in visual defects, but could also influence the perception of objects' distance and thereby impact convergence.",
        "id": 2613,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hair graying due to water change",
        "body": "Treatment:    Natural dye: You may not want to use a chemical dye as this will just damage your hair worse. Trying to wash out chlorine buildup. Which will not completely reverse the gray hair, but will help heal the hair and keep it healthy.  Trimming hair ends.       Chlorine and sun can cause split ends, which definitely add to a   damaged look.    Use good hair products to encourage healthy hair and use prevention when around chlorine to prevent extra damage.    There is no complete reversal treatment, because of the amount of damage it does:      The reaction of melanin pigments with chlorine results in change of   hair from natural colour (blond to black) to straw colour of keratin.     Chlorine removes natural oils covering hair resulting in loss of hair   shine and flexibility, as well as making them more susceptible to   mechanical damage.    Your hair probably became gray due to the chlorine in the water or other chemicals. Other factors such as diet, stress and etc can cause graying hair, but because you mentioned the water being the reason I focused on that.   Risk factors for graying hair in chlorine exposed water is:    Previously damaged hair Chemically lightened hair(whitened) Dry hair, thin or fine hair  Permed or relaxed hair   These hair types can get damaged faster and already in a way damaged.   Prevention:    Wearing a swimming cap to cover your hair Wetting your hair before entering the pool and rinsing and washing well after with a good shampoo and conditioner to protect hair.  ",
        "id": 931,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does gallbladder removal affects fat digestion?",
        "body": "The bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. After a meal, fats trigger gallbladder contraction, which results in the release of the bile into the small intestine. The bile helps to digest fats.  The liver is connected to the small intestine by the common bile duct. When your gallbladder is removed, the bile will flow from the liver via the bile duct directly into the small intestine. This continuous flow of the bile can irritate the intestine and trigger diarrhea.  After gallbladder removal, the bile is still delivered into the intestine, so all the fat should be properly digested as before.  Sometimes, during gallbladder removal, a small stone accidentally passes into the common bile duct and blocks the flow of the bile through it. This prevents fat digestion. The undigested fat moves further into the colon, where it is partially broken down by normal intestinal bacteria (which results in gas) and partially excreted in the stool (which results in smelly, floating and pale stools) (Adam).",
        "id": 1596,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How are surgical patients kept still while awake?",
        "body": "I am an anesthetic nurse and have been present at different neurosurgical operations while patients were awake. Mainly brain tumors, but also some stimulation electrodes to fight tremor in Parkinson disease.  There are different techniques used to make sure the patient is well prepared and can deal with the situation - which is in my opinion already the most important part.  a)Patient will be extensively talking with the exact anesthetist that is present during the surgery and the surgeon that is working on them and go through the parts they are awake to be prepared  b) it will be discussed with the patient if they want to be awake throughout the surgery or want to wake up for the part they are needed - opening the skull with a surgical saw is not really pleasing, so that needs to be clarified. Also there will be options to put you to sleep any time, since panic is not a good option while your head is tightly screwed to a table - the patient knows about what and how to communicate at any time during surgery. Also for seizures medication would be started beforehand to lower the threshold for a seizure. A tremor generally isn't a problem as they normally are not strong enough to do harm to a body that is fixated.  c) during surgery a constant contact will be established between surgeon, anesthetist and patient, it has been proven useful to use autosuggestion techniques and tasks patients like to keep them occupied or cope with the situation. Due to this also seizures will be identified early and can immediately be treated, this might include a short general anesthesia.  d) During surgery you can make some stops if patient is feeling uncomfortable, for example sitting up. We had surgeons who stepped away and went to eat and drink for 15 minutes while the patient had some time to recover. Anxiety to a certain degree can be medically softened, but since an awake patient is needed you are careful with it. Short acting agents like Propofol (Sedation) or Remifentanyl (Painkiller and sedation) are often connected via syringe pump, a baseline can be established with a benzodiazepine like midazolam (Which also can be antagonized if necessary). Also the concentrated talking with a good anesthetist and using meditative/autosuggestion techniques calms down most patients remarkably good. Obviously you would also check that local anesthesia is still working and the position is comfortable for the patient.  e) If these things do not help for brain tumors you could try to go for navigation (which is common these days, it is a 3d model of the patient matched with the CT of the brains so you can identify the tumor[1]), stimulation or hope the surgeon has enough experience to exactly stop before entering healthy tissue. Also you would ask pathology to confirm you are not yet in healthy tissue by sending them a sample (This takes about half an hour in which you will just wait) - also the surgeon might decide to stop and to leave the rest inside, which is a complicated decision based on which outcome the incision in healthy tissue might have, if there are real chances to cure the patient even if surgery is perfectly done and so forth. For stimulation electrodes a panicking patient is a no go, so if you do not manage to get them relaxed you will stop the surgery and not place the electrode. I have not seen it  because this is really rare due to the preparation and experienced people all around you.  I am sorry for not providing more sources, but to find something as specific as that summed up in a good way is rather complicated. I have to the best of my knowledge described my experience from three different hospitals in Germany where I have witnessed the practice and information from a specialist who gave a talk on autosuggestion in awake surgery.  [1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYCiKOERYD8",
        "id": 2602,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a significant difference between Xhance vs generic (fluticasone propionate) nasal spray?",
        "body": "I do not recommend constructing your own device to administer fluticasone propionate. Although it is true that there are common mistakes in administration of fluticasone nasal spray, there are some other ways of improving administration and distribution other than using your mouth to blow it up into your sinuses - which raises hygiene/infection concerns.  If I were ever to consider using or prescribing Xhance,  I would certainly have to read about how it filters the exhaled air from the mouth.  There have been rare but serious brain infections from using tap water for nasal irrigation that contained pathogens that were considered safe for oral ingestion, which spread from the nasal passageways into the brain.  The venous/lymphatic drainage of some regions of sinuses drain to the dural sinuses, which is a potential portal for CNS infections.    There are a few ways to improve administration of fluticasone nasal spray.   Watch a video like this one on how to properly spray it.  Many people are just coating their septum or lateral nasal passageways and not getting it into the sinuses. Make sure you blow your nose well before using the spray. Consider nasal irrigation prior to administering the fluticasone.  Talk to your doctor about it - it's not for everyone, but it works great for most people with normal anatomy, and some people don't end up needing medications if they do it regularly combined with allergen avoidance.  It needs to be done properly, so don't try it without educating yourself on it first. Look into what your particular allergic triggers are, and consider methods of allergen avoidance to address the underlying problem.  Triggers aren't always inhaled allergens; foods, soaps, perfumes, etc can also trigger nasal congestion. ",
        "id": 2603,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is sodium added to everything?",
        "body": "First you should know more than 75 percent of the sodium in the average American diet comes from salt added to processed foods (based on American heart association) other impotent food ingredient with sodium are monosodium glutamate (MSG), sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate and etc (1)  ... which added for different purposes like perservant and flavorant. of course sodium exist in foods naturally (vegetable,grain,fruit,meat and etc..) as one of the most important biological Ion we need sodium as an critical nutrition in every day diet(1.2 to 1.5 gram ) of course most of us consume more than adequate need in our diet (about average 3.4 gram in USA) (2)(3)     Sodium plays many roles in our foods (based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ):  1- Mainly To Enhance Flavor (Adds a salty taste,Boosts flavor balance and can enhance the sweetness of sugary items, Masks \u201coff notes,\u201dsuch as bitterness and strange tastes, that can result from food processing, Makes some types of processed foods more palatable)  2- To Preserve Freshness (Increases shelf life, Helps prevent growth of bacteria and other disease-causing agents)  3- To Improve Texture and Appearance (Makes the product seem thicker or fuller ,Enhances color and hue, Helps retain moisture in processed meat products as a trade-off for saturated fat,Stabilizes texture, allowing bread to rise and cheese to stick together ,Prevents unwanted chemical changes to other ingredients in many baked items) (4)  Top Sources of Sodium  Breads and rolls ,Cold cuts and cured meats , Pizza ,Poultry, Soups, Sandwiches, Cheese, Pasta dishes, Meat dishes, Snacks.(5)  For more information checkout American heart association , Medlineplus.     ",
        "id": 770,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What do the European reference intake values used for food labels actually mean?",
        "body": "In this case 8400 kJ or 2000 kcal indicates the amount energy what an AVERAGE weighing human doing AVERAGE amount of work per day needs to meet his/her basal metabolic rate. As so when daily input of energy is 8400 kJ / 2000 kcal this AVERAGE (wo)man neither gains or loses weight.  There are so many factors influencing this basal metabolic rate that I wont dig in to those. Basically these reference values are VERY vague, since same reference dont apply to man weighing 200kg, doing hard manual labor compared to 45kg weighing woman doing nothing demanding work. But naturally byrocrats need some reference values to be able give some guidelines what food should be offered to students in schools and old people in retirement homes.  Each domain of this reference intake is then calculated or defined against current evidence in literature. Humans need salt, but salt intake of >6g is known to cause CV diseases and hypertension (Evidence for Nutrition Actions). Human needs fat but excessive amount of especially saturated fats leads to heart disease and high cholesterol (Cochrane Heart Group) . Too much protein can affect kidney function in population level (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Then the remaining energy intake should come from carbohydrates, maily food substances with low glygemic index (J Am Heart Assoc. 2012,Diabetes Care November 2004) .   So these values are not maximum, they are not minimum but they give the RATIO how you should eat carbohydrates, fat and protein in order to avoid life-style related diseases. The more you weigh, the more you need energy. The harder you work the more you need energy. The more you do strength trainig the more you need proteins. The more you do long duration exercises the more you need carbohydrates.",
        "id": 41,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the test for Endometriosis",
        "body": "The most common ways to diagnose endometriosis are as follows:   Palpation/physical exam Imaging test (MRI, Ultrasound) Laparoscopy*   Laparoscopy, where the doctor makes a small incision to insert a camera tube into the pelvic area for a visual examination, is the only definitive way to diagnose endometriosis. In each case, the doctor is looking for cysts or scars outside the uterus, due to tissue (endometrium) growing where it shouldn't.  If you suspect that she has this, I would suggest talking to her doctor and asking specifically about exams to rule it out, especially given her age and pain during menstruation. (I would also suggest it if the pain is new. If she has had painful menstruation all her life, it's less likely but still can't be ruled out.)  http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Endometriosis/Pages/Diagnosis.aspx  http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/endometriosis.html",
        "id": 343,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would butter on burns help or harm?",
        "body": "Short anwser: Never put butter, oil, etc, on a burn.  This would worsen the burn.  Putting butter, oil, or anything else would trap heat and make the burn deeper. It would also make further treatment harder and would make the risk of infection higher:     Don\u2019t apply burn ointments. Like butter (or mayonnaise), these ointments, usually oil-based, won\u2019t relieve pain but instead will trap heat, slow down healing, and increase the risk of infection.   What to do instead: Once it happens, a burn is actually \"cooking inside\", and this for a while after the exposure, so the first thing to do is to stop this internal reaction using flowing water.  According to official guidelines for general public in France (page 12-14), and sticking to thermal burns here (not chemical nor electrical), you should:   Quickly water the burn    Act right after the burn if safely possible. (You are not supposed to put yourself in danger to save someone: this is the best way to end up with two victims instead of one) Put the burn under flowing water, between 15 and 25\u00b0 Celsius. The tap is fine to to that, just keep in mind to keep the water pressure low enough not to press the burn. While watering, remove the clothes of the victim unless they adhere to the burn (should they adhere, don't pull on clothes).  Evaluate the burn   No blister or blister smaller that 1/2 of the victim's palm ; far from natural orifices ; not on the neck, face or joints ; just red, not black and white: this is a minor burn Any burn that does not match the criteria above, or any large red area on a children, is a major burn  Should it be a minor burn   Keep on watering as long as the burn hurts and the victim doesn't feel cold. Not just a couple of seconds: 5 or 10 minutes is not surprising, it's actually fine. Watering is what prevents (more) blisters from appearing later on. Depending on the pain, aspect and victim's age: watch over the burn or ask a doctor or a physician.  Don't pierce blisters should there be any. Cover them with a sterile plaster.  Should blisters, fever, heat, pain, etc, appear later on, ask for medical advice.  Should it be a major burn    Call the medical emergency services, and, without hurrying (very important! Being calm is gaining time.)  Tell your name, phone number, current location, Tell this is for a burn, and tell the victim's gender and age Describe the result of the evaluation you made.  They will guide you in accordance to the protocols applicable in your country. This guidance will certainly include watering, covering the victim if he/she feels cold...) Do NOT hang up the phone before they tell you to do so  Keep on watering as instructed by the medical assistance. Make the victim to lie down in a way he/she cannot fall (floor, bed...). Sitting down is OK the victim has difficulties to breathe. The victim should NOT sit on a chair but on the ground to prevent him/her from falling.  Protect the victim with a clean linen. The burnt body parts should remain visible. Watch over the victim until the arrival of the ambulance.  ",
        "id": 37,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happened to this guy? (Graphic)",
        "body": "NOT a spider bite even if it was just one deep cut. Spider bites are rare and more than 99% of spider bite cases are usually some person's overactive imagination. Doctors get rather tired hearing these stories and roll their eyes when they hear them.  Whatever happened to the man, it must've become infected. The rubber (or silicone) tubing is meant to keep the wounds open to allow for drainage. It could easily have come about from something that Carey mentioned and was contaminated.",
        "id": 1676,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wouldn't it be optimal for a human to get all the vaccinations that exist?",
        "body": "You should typically only receive vaccinations for which the risk of the disease is higher than the risk of the vaccine.   All vaccines carry some risk - albeit small.   For example, for the flu vaccine, there is a small incidence of patients who can get Guillain-Barre syndrome which causes an ascending paralysis. As a result, if you lived in an area that never got influenza - this likely not be of benefit. Fortunately, or unfortunately, the risk of flu and the side effects of flu are much higher than the risk of the vaccine - thus the cost benefit suggests it is worth it.   Some vaccines, like the Smallpox vaccine, have been retired because the disease has been eradicated. Some older people you might know (including this author) still have the scars on their arms from childhood from the multiple pinpricks necessary to administer the vaccine. This vaccine is one example of a likely unnecessary vaccine to take.   Polio is almost eradicated as well - so it may be just a few years before that vaccine will be unnecessary.   That said, most vaccines have been created for diseases for which the risk of exposure exists - and taking those vaccines for anything to which you face a risk of exposure can easily outweigh any risks of the vaccine.",
        "id": 2272,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the best natural foods to help reduce gynechomastia?",
        "body": "Foods that may reduce Gynocamastia:   Livestrong:       there's no association between any food and breast enlargement in men,   and no special food you need to eat or avoid when you have the   condition.   That said you can try food that are anti-inflammatory dor tenderness, low calorie to decrease total body fat, and avoiding foods that may encourage it.   Low calorie:      fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nonfat dairy foods and lean sources   of protein such as poultry, lean red meat, seafood and beans.   Anti-inflammatory:      tomatoes. olive oil. green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, kale,   and collards. nuts like almonds and walnuts. fatty fish like salmon,   mackerel, tuna, and sardines. fruits such as strawberries,   blueberries, cherries, and oranges.   ncbi.nlh.nim.gov  Showed some evidence to breast growth and tenderness after soy usage.  Medscape.com  Tea tree oil and lavender oil have been linked to Gynecomastia.     including drugs that decrease testosterone synthesis such as   ketoconazole, metronidazole, or cytotoxic agents and drugs that   decrease testosterone action such as marijuana, cimetidine, flutamide,   and spironolactone. Furthermore, some drugs such as isoniazid,   penicillamine, calcium channel blockers, and central nervous system   agents (including diazepam, tricyclic antidepressants, reserpine,   phenytoin, and amphetamines)4 can cause gynecomastia via an unknown   mechanism of action   You need to consult your doctor if you are experiencing any symptoms for other possible interventions or disturbances a change in diet could cause. ",
        "id": 907,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Safe UV exposure time",
        "body": "Any amount of time in the sun is enough to give you skin cancer. Sunscreen should be used frequently during these times..or whenever you go out in general. One common misconception people usually have with sunscreen is the duration and strength of the sunscreen. SPF (Whatever the number is) does not indicate how strong the sunblock is..SPF- Sun Protection Factor is the amount of time you have until it wears off. So, if you have a sunscreen at SPF 15, you'd best be reapplying it every 15 minutes. In high UV index, its best to avoid the sun, but if you must go outside, I'd recommend covering most of your body and applying sunscreen.",
        "id": 1613,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does removal of calculus/tartar above the gum line affect deposits below gum line?",
        "body": "I will answer to each element of your quesiton separatly:  Calculus (Tarter) is calcified bio-film and plaque that is stuck on the surfaces of your teeth. Inside are bacterias, dead or alive, along with their byproducts (and their toxins) that irritate the gums, which may eventually cause an immune response in the gums that will lead to a recession.  Therefore, scaling (removing) the \"half\" that is above the gums will do little or nothing to improve your situation, especially if there is anything left behind, bellow the gums.  The same can be said of any mouthrinces and other products you might try. They will hardly have any effect on the surfaces of the teeth above the gum line, due to the relatively short amount of time most people keep mouthrince in their mouth, the slow diffusion of the active ingredients across the calculus. It will not even reach below the gums wont remove/dissolve sub-gingival plaque or calculus.   On the other hand, if you chose to attempt to perform scaling deeper with picks, you risk damaging your gums, especially since the \"picks\" will be pointed towards your gums, and you will eventually slide them too far and therefore damage even more the soft tissues that surround and support your tooth, potentially accelerating the recession, or worsening the inflamation.  Dentists and hygienists use scalers and curettes, which cause minimal damage to the gums if used properly. Do not attempt to use them at home, on yourself, if you don't know what you are doing or lack good dexterity and technique. There are numerous videos on YouTube about how to use them.  Needless to say, if you have access to a hygienist, a dentist or periodontist (dentist that specializes in the treatment of gums) you will be in good hands.",
        "id": 143,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does masturbation cause hair loss for men?",
        "body": "The short answer is no, it doesn't, at least as long as your not also coupling it with something like auto-asphyxiation, which is so dangerous for many other reasons before hair loss.  First the medical term for the harmless hair loss in males is \"alopecia\" (might help online searches).  The most common kind of male hair loss is Androgenic alopecia (AGA), and the most common mechanism for this is buildup of 5\u03b1-DHT in the hair follicle (ibid).  5\u03b1-DHT comes from testosterone (T) after being modified by an enzyme.  It then shortens the amount of time the hair has to grow:   (1)  The false argument that masturbation would lead to hair loss then goes something like this:   Elevated levels of 5\u03b1-DHT lead to hair thinning   5\u03b1-DHT is derived from T  Masturbation elevates T  Elevated T leads to elevated 5\u03b1-DHT Therefore, masturbation leads to hair thinning.   Putting it in more formal logic may be giving to much credit to those proposing the theory, but it let\u2019s address where the critical problems are.  The first thing to attack is 3.  This was probably not the aim of any study, but is a tangential finding in a few studies. One looked at the T levels of men and self-reported masturbation frequency and found no correlation (they were actually studying sex drive).  I couldn\u2019t find an example of study which took males from a base line \u201cfast\u201d of masturbation, recorded T levels, and then had them masterbate, and I don\u2019t really know who would fund such a clinical study (but that would directly answer the question).  So what does effect T levels?  Other than non-natural sources like steroids, things like overall fitness, vitamin D levels, and mental state.  Also, you don't want to reduce your T levels if you can avoid it, as it is likely providing several positive benefits.  The loss the third statement already puts a hole in the logic, but statements 1 and 4 also pose problems.    It is not the global (systemic) production of 5\u03b1-DHT that is the problem.  In fact any significant amount of 5\u03b1-DHT in the sera is probably a sign of other problems.  Rather, it\u2019s the local production of 5\u03b1-DHT within the hair follicle that leads to AGA.  Further that over production of 5\u03b1-DHT is more closely linked to higher levels of the 5\u03b1-reductase enzyme that synthesiszes 5\u03b1-DHT from T (ibid).  In  turn the enzyme levels are likely set primarily by genetics, with environmental factors like diet and stress adjusting from your baseline (speculation, looking for a source).",
        "id": 702,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true that acid reflux is caused by low acid levels in stomach?",
        "body": "It's neither.  Acid reflux, according to Wikipedia, is caused by:     ... poor closure of the lower esophageal sphincter ...   (second paragraph)  This in turn causes stomach acid to rise into the esophagus, which is regardless of the levels of acid present in the stomach.  The WP reference given is NIDKK, who say that a weak sphincter is caused by:        increased pressure on your abdomen from being overweight, obese, or pregnant   certain medicines, including    those that doctors use to treat asthma \u2014a long-lasting disease in your lungs that makes you extra sensitive to things that you\u2019re allergic to   calcium channel blockers\u2014medicines that treat high blood pressure    antihistamines\u2014medicines that treat allergy symptoms   painkillers   sedatives\u2014medicines that help put you to sleep   antidepressants \u2014medicines that treat depression    smoking, or inhaling secondhand smoke      and make no mention of the stomach contents as a cause.",
        "id": 2721,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a safe way to increase bones length?",
        "body": "As an adult, no, there's no safe way to lengthen your bones.  The epiphyseal plates at the ends of your bones have ossified, so hormonal treatments have nothing to operate on.  There is a technique for lengthening bones in adults, distraction osteogenesis, where the bones are intentionally broken and then stretched during the healing process.  I've never heard of it being used on the fingers (as opposed to the leg bones or the jaw), and it's got a relatively high complication rate.",
        "id": 776,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long will my mild back pain last?",
        "body": "When doing weight lifting exercises, you must also include core exercises in your routine to prevent back problems. Of course, this is in addition of making sure you do the weightlifting in an appropriate way. It's best to let experts monitor you in a gym until you have enough experience to do it all by yourself. And all this applies to someone who hasn't got back problems to begin with. In your case, your back problems requires some evaluation by an expert, if only to make sure you can continue to exercise.",
        "id": 425,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chance of getting sexual transmitted diseases",
        "body": "Assuming that we are talking about the risk of having intercourse one time under the conditions you described, and assuming you do not know if your male partner had an STD, and provided your partner used a latex or polyurethane condom labeled as protective against disease, the risk of contracting HIV, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and trichomoniasis quite low (it is very unlikely that you contracted any of those STDs), although it is not zero.   The risk of contracting genital ulcer diseases (herpes, syphilis, chancroid) and HPV (human papillomavirus) infections, even with proper condom use, is somewhat higher, although it is statistically unlikely that you contracted one of those STDs from one-time intercourse as you described.   Of course, the best advice (which you will see on any authoritative website, journal article, or from your own doctor) is: \"When in doubt, get it checked out.\" And in general, regular STD testing is the best way to prevent the spread of STDs (if you know you have an STD, you can either not have sex or inform your partner(s) and take preventative measures) and to treat them early and more effectively if you happen to contract one. Talk with your doctor, a local health clinic, or other health provider about how often you should get tested.  Here is some related information that might be helpful:  From the FDA (United States Food &amp; Drug Administration):     Will a condom guarantee I won't get a sexually transmitted infection?      When used consistently and correctly, condoms are highly effective in   preventing HIV. They are also effective at preventing sexually   transmitted diseases (STDs) that are transmitted through bodily   fluids, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia. However, they provide less   protection against STDs spread through skin-to-skin contact like human   papillomavirus (genital warts), genital herpes, and syphilis. Although   highly effective when used consistently and correctly, there is still   a chance of getting HIV if you only use condoms, so adding other   prevention methods can further reduce your risk.      How can I get the most protection from condoms?      It is best to read the label on the packaging the condom came in   before using the condom.      Choose the right kind of condoms to prevent disease.      Store them in a cool, dry place. Storing condoms near heat (your back   pocket or glove compartment) can make them weaker and less effective.      Remember to use a new condom every time you have sex.       How does a condom protect against sexually transmitted infection?      A condom acts as a barrier or wall to keep blood, or semen, or vaginal   fluids from passing from one person to the other during intercourse.   These fluids can harbor germs such as HIV and other sexually   transmitted infections.  If no condom is used, the germs can pass from   the infected partner to the uninfected partner.      How do I choose the right kind of condoms to prevent disease?      Always read the label. Look for two things:      The condoms should be made of latex, or polyurethane condoms for   people sensitive or allergic to latex. Tests have shown that latex and   polyurethane condoms (including the female condom) can prevent the   passage of the HIV, hepatitis and herpes viruses. But natural   (lambskin) condoms may not do this.      The package should say that the condoms are to prevent disease. If the package doesn't say anything about preventing disease, the condoms   may not provide the protection you want, even though they may be the   most expensive ones you can buy.      Novelty condoms will not say anything about either disease prevention   or pregnancy prevention on the package. They are intended only for   sexual stimulation, not protection.      Condoms which do not cover the entire penis are not labeled for   disease prevention and should not be used for this purpose. For proper   protection, a condom must unroll to cover the entire penis. This is   another good reason to read the label carefully. (emphasis added)     This is a pretty amazing website that provides links to 28 different STD Risk Calculators: http://www.calculators.org/health/std-risk.php .     Here is a quick, easy-to-read table that tells you which sexually transmitted diseases you can contract depending on whether you have anal or vaginal intercourse and whether or not the 'penetrating' male uses a condom: https://smartsexresource.com/sites/default/files/Anal-Vaginal-Sex-Table-v3.png  The website also has tables for oral sex and other types of sex: https://smartsexresource.com/about-stis/know-your-chances-0    Here is a Fact Sheet from the United States Centers for Disease Control that gives a quick overview of STD prevalence in the U.S. for 2015:  CDC Fact Sheet: Reported STDs in the United States (PDF) \u2013 Summary of trends and highlights of data from 2015 Surveillance    More info on STDs You Can Get While Wearing A Condom - Molluscum Contagiosum, Pubic Lice/Crabs, Syphilis, Genital herpes, and HPV (human papillomavirus).    The U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) offers a Condoms and STDs: Fact Sheet for Public Health Personnel, which is slightly more technical than the public fact sheet, but most readers here will understand it and I like the detail it provides. HTML version | PDF version    From the Advocates for Youth website, Condom Effectiveness provides well-referenced information about the efficacy of condom use for various STDs. HTML version | PDF version",
        "id": 1093,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When was congenital-analgesia (aka congenital insensitivity to pain), the inability to feel pain, clinically documented? How rare?",
        "body": "   When was congenital-analgesia (aka congenital insensitivity to pain), the inability to feel pain, clinically documented?   It was first reported in 1932 in this paper:  Dearborn, G. V. N. (1932). A case of congenital general pure analgesia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 75, 612-615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-193206000-00002  However, I tried reading it, the print is very faded and near-impossible to read.      How rare is it really?   1 in 125 million  From:  Daneshjou, K. et al. (2012). Congenital insensitivity to pain and anhydrosis (CIPA) syndrome; a report of 4 cases. Iranian Journal of Pediatrics, 22, 412\u2013416.  But in this paper on the epidemiology in Japan, it's estimated at 1 in 600,000\u2013950,000  From:  Haga, N., Kubota, M., &amp; Miwa, Z. (2013). Epidemiology of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type IV and V in Japan. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A, 161, 871-874.     Is it hereditary? Or just a sporadic fluke mutation?   It's hereditary:  Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA), also known as hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type IV (HSAN IV)  Kim, W., Guinot, A., Marleix, S., Chapuis, M., Fraisse, B., &amp; Violas, P. (2013). Hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type IV and orthopaedic complications. Orthopaedics &amp; Traumatology: Surgery &amp; Research, 99, 881-885.     So what is the life expectancy of someone with congenital-analgesia?   There's age distribution of the population in Japan:    It doesn't say life expectancy, but it seems that it won't be past 40 years.",
        "id": 1349,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens when you swallow larger chunks of food?",
        "body": "Failure to properly chew food (especially meat) can cause a medical condition known as Steakhouse Syndrome where a bolus sticks in the esophagus.  Whilst this can sometimes resolve itself naturally, in extreme cases surgery is required to dislodge the offending lump of food.  Having had to experience such surgery myself, I certainly wouldn't recommend consuming larger and larger chunks of food as a matter of course.  As for what actually happens if you do consume large chunks of food - they do take longer to digest as they're not completely broken down in the stomach but are passed through in partially undigested form to the intestines.   On the back of this, you may think this would make you feel fuller sooner but actually, the opposite it true. It is signals from the stomach that indicate to your body that you're becoming full. During World War II when food was scarce, the government recommended eating slowly for exactly this reason - that you would give your stomach sufficient time to let you know you were full so precious food would not be wasted.",
        "id": 474,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which background color is better for eyes while working on computers for a long time?",
        "body": " Reading is better for dark text on light background than for light text on dark background.      We investigated the underlying mechanism by assessing pupil size and proofreading performance when reading positive and negative polarity texts. In particular, we tested the display luminance hypothesis which postulates that the typically greater brightness of positive compared to negative polarity displays leads to smaller pupil sizes and, hence, a sharper retinal image and better perception of detail. Indeed, pupil sizes were smaller and proofreading performance was better with positive than with negative polarity displays. Source: Smaller pupil size and better proofreading performance with positive than with negative polarity displays    Higher brightness of light background displays is said to lead to an improved detail understanding.      The findings are in line with the assumption that the typically higher luminance of positive polarity displays leads to an improved perception of detail. Source: Positive display polarity is particularly advantageous for small character sizes ",
        "id": 497,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "At what speed would an average adult human male bleed out, if their arm was amputated?",
        "body": "Rate of blood loss through amputation of an arm will depend on a range of things including initial blood pressure and heart rate of the patient etc. Plus, blood pressure falls as the amount of fluid left in the blood vessels becomes insufficient (Merck MSD Manual, 2019).  How the arm is severed can be a factor too.  Some actions can seal the blood vessels at the ends through heat of the blade, cutting action etc.  However, because heart rate is a factor and increased heart rate due to fear for example would cause faster blood loss, to give a idea, arm blood flow at rest and during arm exercise was measured by Ahlborg &amp; Jensen-Urstad (1991).     Eight subjects performed continuous 30-min arm exercises with an increase in intensity every 10 min (30, 60, and 90 W).      [...]      Total arm blood flow was calculated to be 0.21 +/- 0.04 l/min at rest and 2.43 +/- 0.14 l/min at 90 W.   To convert these figures to US Pints per minute, multiply the figures by 2.11 making the figures   between 0.34 and 0.54 US Pints/min at rest, and between 4.84 and 5.44 US Pints/min at 90 W.   References  Ahlborg, G., &amp; Jensen-Urstad, M. (1991). Arm blood flow at rest and during arm exercise.\u00a0Journal of Applied Physiology,\u00a070(2), 928-933. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1991.70.2.928 pmid: 2022586",
        "id": 2635,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can joint pains be felt even when there is no external activity taking place, unlike muscle pains?",
        "body": "Inflammatory chemicals released into an inflamed joint stimulate pain receptors even at rest:     Proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6 and interleukin-17 are also mediators of pain by directly acting on the nociceptive system. Proportions of nociceptive sensory neurons express receptors for these cytokines, and the application of cytokines rapidly changes the excitability, ion currents and second messenger systems of these neurons. By inducing persistent sensitization of nociceptive sensory neurons (C- and a proportion of A\u03b4-fibers) for mechanical stimuli in the joint (a process called peripheral sensitization), these cytokines significantly contribute to the persistent hyperalgesia typical for many disease states of the joint. In addition, the disease-associated release of cytokines in the spinal cord supports the generation of central sensitization.    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4289196",
        "id": 885,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Vegetable smoothies: are they good for you?",
        "body": "Vegetable smoothies are good to our health especially if you mix fruit too on it. Smoothie doesn't require you to add processed sugar to taste better if you add fruits like banana and apples these are enough to sweeten your smoothie recipe. According to AuthorityNutrition.      \u201cSugar\u201d is Bad\u2026 But it Depends on The Context      Many people now believe that because added sugars are bad, the same   must apply to fruits, which also contain fructose.      However\u2026 this is completely wrong because fructose is only harmful in   large amounts and it is almost impossible to overeat fructose by   eating fruit.   There's a lot of evidence that excessive intake of fructose can surely harm your body but it is not applicable for fruits because fruits are loaded with fiber, water and have significant chewing resistance. And therefore most fruits like apples will take a while to eat and digest, meaning that the fructose hits the liver slowly.  You can also add foods that are rich in protein and healthy fats like Coconut oil, almonds, and avocados. They help to slow the release of sugar during digestion. If you are looking for other recipes try these healthy smoothie recipes that are very helpful to your health.  Aside from that if you have an active lifestyle natural sugar won't affect your health.",
        "id": 735,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does drinking hot liquids help when you're sick?",
        "body": "Hot fluids(including water) can:   Relieve Nasal Congestion Prevent Dehydration Soothe Uncomfortably inflamed membranes that line the nose and throat   By relieving symptoms you can make a person feel as if they are well or getting better. So yes I would say it helps. So just the hotness of the fluid can be a benefit.   From a study:     \u201cThe hot drink provided immediate and sustained relief from symptoms   of runny nose, cough, sneezing, sore throat, chilliness and   tiredness,\u201d they reported, \u201cwhereas the same drink at room temperature   only provided relief from symptoms of runny nose, cough and sneezing.\u201d   So when assessing the opportunities of tea over water, the answer could be antioxidants. Green and Black tea have 10x the antioxidants that are found in fruits and vegetables. Which if you accept that antioxidants help in sickness this could be your answer, just as extra. ",
        "id": 828,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Operating principles of a ventilator in CPAP mode",
        "body": "Sensitivity refers to the level at which the ventilator will trigger a breath.  CPAP provides, as the name implies, continuous pressure. This is known as PEEP. PEEP is the background pressure that the ventilator always tries to maintain, whether a patient is breathing in or out.  When a patient tries to breathe, they suck in air, lowering the pressure to below the level of PEEP. This alerts the ventilator that the patient is trying to breathe, and so the ventilator starts supplying more gas to maintain the PEEP.  If PEEP is set at 8mm/Hg, the sensitivity threshold for a breath might be 5, 6, 7, or some other number below 8. If the patient is weak and can't take big breaths, you might have a high sensitivity, because they might not be able to take powerful breaths on their own. If they are young and healthy, the sensitivity might be lower.",
        "id": 2112,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of not sleeping at night",
        "body": " Increased risk of disease. Heightened blood pressure. Weakened immune system and reduced effectiveness of certain vaccinations. Stress.  Greater risk of death. Impaired creativity.  Moodiness.  Lower GPA.  Poor decisions.  Twitchy eyes. Fertility issues. Sex drought. Weight gain.  Fat Gene activation.  Emotional eating.  Depression.  Increased risk of car accidents.  Slower reaction time. Tired partner. Tremors.   Premature aging.  Dry skin.  Big-time breakouts. Dull skin. Skin sensitivity.   More detail :    http://www.cosmopolitan.com/health-fitness/advice/a34370/terrible-side-effects-of-skimping-on-sleep-in-your-20s/ http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/features/10-results-sleep-loss#1 http://www.healthline.com/health/sleep-deprivation/effects-on-body  ",
        "id": 1482,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Type II Diabetes (T2D) Remission with Age?",
        "body": "There seems to be no scientific evidence to support the claim that diabetes type 2 generally goes away on its own (without drugs, diet or weight loss) in the elderly.  According to one analytical article in BMJ, 2017, remission of diabetes type 2 is \"currently very rarely achieved or recorded.\"  In elderly, remission may be slightly more common. In a large cohort study (Diabetes Care, 2014), \"1.5% of individuals with diabetes type 2 not treated with bariatric surgery or drugs (but treated with diet or weight loss) achieved at least partial remission over a 7-year period. Remission occured in 2.2% of individuals 65 years or older (table 4).  In one randomized clinical trial (PubMed, 2012), intensive lifestyle intervention, including exercise, diet and weight loss, resulted in at least partial remission in 11.5% of individuals with diabetes type 2 within the 1st year of the intervention.",
        "id": 2645,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can gynecomastia breast tissues be dissolved?",
        "body": "No, it's not true that the breast tissue caused by gynecomastia can never go away. According to the Mayo Clinic (emphasis mine):     Most cases of gynecomastia regress over time without treatment.   However, if gynecomastia is caused by an underlying condition, such as   hypogonadism, malnutrition or cirrhosis, that condition may need   treatment. If you're taking medications that can cause gynecomastia,   your doctor may recommend stopping them or substituting another   medication.   So the first step in dealing with gynecomastia is to identify and treat the factor causing it. That may mean treating an underlying condition or it may mean stopping or changing medications. Once that's been addressed all that's needed is time, and the time needed can be measured in months or even years.   If the breast tissue doesn't go away despite appropriate treatment and the sufferer finds the tissue intolerable, two options remain: medication and surgery. Again, according to Mayo:     Medications      Medications used to treat breast cancer and other conditions, such as   tamoxifen (Soltamox), raloxifene (Evista) and aromatase inhibitors   (Arimidex), may be helpful for some men with gynecomastia. Although   these medications are approved by the Food and Drug Administration,   they have not been approved specifically for this use.      Surgery to remove excess breast tissue      If you still have significant   bothersome breast enlargement despite initial treatment or   observation, your doctor may advise surgery. Two gynecomastia surgery   options are:      Liposuction. This surgery removes breast fat, but not the breast gland   tissue itself.       Mastectomy. This type of surgery removes the breast   gland tissue. The surgery is often done endoscopically, meaning only   small incisions are used. This less invasive type of surgery involves   less recovery time. ",
        "id": 2367,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it dangerous to inhale agar-agar jelly",
        "body": "You can't.  Considering that agar melting temperature is approximately 85-95C / 176-185F and coals burns at around 200C / 392F at rest, providing temperature of at least 100C / 212F inside the bowl, agar will ultimately liquefy. You can eventually, still inhale it in its liquid form, just as soon as you have one of the vortex/phunnel bows (i.e the one that prevent leakages).  You've probably seen \"shisha gels\"   They obviously do resemble \"jelly-alike cubes\", but they are actually made of something very different - hydroponic gel (also this) (water crystals) which is often used as artificial weed and is not meant for human consumption. Whether it is healthy or not per se is debatable, I wouldn't use them. Also, there is a known shisha aroma manufactured by Changning Dekang Biotechnology Co,. Ltd that, according to its creators consists of \"natural fruits\", such as orange cores. It also looks like jelly. (see random review if you like)  Vaporizing alcohol as you suggest is a terrible idea unless you want to treat yourself from Pulmonary edema or you are a rat. It goes directly into the bloodstream making you instantly \"drunk\" for a shorter time. You can also very well get poisoned by inhaling too much of HQ flavored vodka. Inhaled alcohol can dry out nasal passages and make them more susceptible to infection not to mention that here is also a potential increased risk of addiction. Alcohol's bolining point would be very similar to agar's melting point - 78C which makes your idea interesting to some extent. (See full description of the process from NCBI. Actually as far as I see, the information provided there is not quite comprehensive as I was hoping) Note that water filtration like the one from the hookah itself is not optional. While it might not \"filter\" or \"detoxicate\" alcohol, it will cool the vapour, that could, otherwise damage your lungs and trachea severely. So use with caution.  Inhaling agar however, is unfortunately *not-very-healthy and it can cause lung polyps and even respirator collapse.     Agar is a thick gel. Agar might stick to some medications in the   stomach and intestines, when taken by mouth - WebMD Interactions section   Coughing mechanism might not be sufficient for purging this kind of substance from your lungs. It of course, depends on how you smoke, but however you smoke there will always be a risk. I am not saying that you shouldn't take it, it is up to you, but I strongly advice you to be smart about that and not take advantage of it excessively.     See side effects of agar, straight from WebMD. Note the emphasis on \"possibly safe when given by mouth: beautiful link~ also check agar's structure If you like to see in plain text that inhaling agar-agar is hazardous, see http://www.sciencestuff.com/msds/C1154.pdf (Although I think it refers to inhaling the powder, not the vapor) ",
        "id": 1973,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference between TENS and EMS electro stimulation?",
        "body": "As you read, both TENS and EMS employ electrotherapy to treat acute and chronic pain, but the methodology differs. (Note that some of the references are to NMES, which stands for Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation, and is considered synonymous with EMS.)  Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulators (TENS) use electrotherapy to stimulate the nerves and active therapeutic healing. Electronic Muscle Stimulators (EMS), on the other hand, sends electric impulses that cause muscle contraction. EMS units are used to prevent atrophied muscles, for retraining muscles (e.g. in partial paralysis), to increase range of motion, and other uses.   Some of the technology is described here.      A TENS unit uses microcurrent to increase the production of ATP, which is adenosine triphosphate and the substance that supplies energy to the body on a cellular level. Although lasting pain reduction may require regular microcurrent sessions, in some individuals the pain reduction begins to last longer and the time between sessions lengthens. This may be due to the increased circulatory action that enables the lymph system to begin clearing the body of accumulated toxins. The sensations of both the microcurrent and conventional TENS treatments are more like tingling sensations than the unpleasant feeling of a small electrical shock.      EMS uses a cycle of stimulation, contraction and then relaxation, to increase blood flow to the area, which decreases inflammation and promotes healing and muscle growth. By stimulating the muscles at their basic structure, an EMS unit causes muscle contractions similar to those obtained by exercise. The EMS units are specifically used to prevent atrophied muscles or for retraining muscles, such as in an individual who has been paralyzed or partially paralyzed. In addition, EMS is used for many other applications such as range of motion improvement, increased circulatory action and the prevention of blood clots.    Both types of therapies are convenient, in that they're used at home, and the patient controls the dose, generally by way of either a knob or a switch. Electrodes are user-replaceable, though placement instructions are given and monitored by a physician or physical therapist. TENS units also have a \"burst\" feature, enabling the patient intermittent increases, which is helpful after strenuous activity or if you're just having a bad day. I personally found that feature very helpful!  A Yale University study entitled Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation for Skeletal Muscle Function(Yale J Biol Med. 2012) discussing electrical stimulation (ES), neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), and functional electrical stimulation (FES) states that the potential that electrical stimulation holds for rehabilitation recovery is immeasurable. It is used to improve muscle strength, increase range of motion, reduce edema, decrease atrophy, heal tissue, and decrease pain.      Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), used interchangeably with electrical stimulation (ES), is typically provided at higher frequencies (20-50 Hz) expressly to produce muscle tetany and contraction that can be used for \u201cfunctional\u201d purposes and can be found in literature as early as 1964. TENS is an alternate form of electrical stimulation that historically used high frequencies for pain relief but is now also administered at very low frequencies (sensory level TENS, 2-10 Hz). TENS propagates along smaller afferent sensory fibers specifically to override pain impulses. When very low frequencies are used, TENS specifically targets sensory nerve fibers and does not activate motor fibers; therefore, no discernible muscle contraction is produced.   This source also has chapters on other subjects pertinent to your question, including, among others:   Parameters of electrical stimulation Pulse width/duration Stimulation pulse patterns Stimulation intensity Dosing of stimulation Limitations of electrical stimulation.   In addition, you may also be interested in the following charts:   For EMS, this describes in detail which muscles are targeted by names, and at which frequencies. This shows placement of electrodes of TENS unit, based on the location of the pain.   For further information, including uses, cautions and case studies, see: Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation Effects of Three Recovery Protocols on Range of Motion, Heart Rate, Rating of Perceived Exertion, and Blood Lactate in Baseball Pitchers During a Simulate Game. Serratus muscle stimulation effectively treats notalgia paresthetica caused by long thoracic nerve dysfunction: a case series Understanding the Differences Between TENS and EMS Units How Does A Tens Unit Work?",
        "id": 227,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to know when it's a migraine, tension, cluster, sinus, or rebound headache?",
        "body": "Coincidentally, I came across this chart in a magazine like 20 minutes after reading your question!! It explains the many differences (and some similarities) between migraine, tension, and cluster headaches. (I apologize for the bluriness of the picture. Additionally, I apolgozie it doesn't also compare sinus headaches, but those are often distinguished by sinus congestion and feeling pressure in the front of your face -- please see http://www.webmd.com/migraines-headaches/guide/sinus-headaches).     P.s. I'm also unsure about the effectiveness of beta-blockers. I tried researching, but only found it referenced as a treatment for migraines (and assummingly rebound headaches). Good luck!",
        "id": 1365,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the clear liquid that builds up inside a blister?",
        "body": "Is this what you mean?    If so, then yes, it is a blister. Wikipedia entry on blister explains what it is. The clear liquid is blood plasma. It is there to prevent further damage to the tissue and cells, which in your case is the pinch-crushing door. Quoting Wikipedia,     This plasma solution helps new cells divide and grow into new connective tissues and epidermal layers.      The clear fluid will be reabsorbed as new cells develop and the swollen appearance will subside.   Therefore you should not take the liquid out. Just leave it be and it will subside in a few days.",
        "id": 1090,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is targeted antimicrobial peptide mouthwash currently available anywhere (including experimentally)?",
        "body": "That trial was from Colgate Palmolive and it doesn't appear to have lead to a commercial product yet.  The approach seems flawed anyway as you'll just create a selection pressure to develop resistance.  More promising alternatives are available in the form of probiotics.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5688201/",
        "id": 2201,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does variance in pH affect Candida Albicans?",
        "body": "Candida albicans is an opportunistic, dimorphic fungal pathogen that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells(pseudohyphae, hyphae and chlamydospores). Morphogenesis is an essential trait in the pathogenic fungus C. albicans in which the transition from unicellular yeast to filamentous form takes place and vice versa,which is required for virulence. Morphological changes occur in response to alterations in the growth conditions. Different parameters directly or indirectly influence the process,of which variation in pH is one of them.(others being temperature, growth media, etc)     Microtubules and microfilaments were observed in hyphal cells.The decrease of external pH did not affect microtubules directly, but long microfilaments   disappeared from hyphal cells within 30 min after changing the external pH at 37 \"C particularly affects long microfilaments, which disappear from the cytoplasm, and consequently trigger the reversion from hyphal growth to yeast growth.   Source.  In the yeast state, Candida is a non-invasive, sugar-fermenting organism, while in fungal state it is invasive and can produce rhizoids, very long root-like structures.  Rhizoids can penetrate mucosa or intestinal walls, leaving microscopic holes and allowing toxins, undigested food particles and bacteria and yeast to enter the bloodstream.  This condition is known as Leaky Gut Syndrome   References  http://www.thecandidadiet.com/ph-levels-candida.htm  http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?PaperID=37056  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candida_albicans",
        "id": 1007,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which lab value skeleton diagrams are used to display results for CBC, Chemistry, coagulation panel, etc?",
        "body": "These skeleton diagrams are used as short hand to avoid having to write units and test names for lab values - you can just look at a diagram of numbers and know what they apply to.  Sodium is always in the same place, as is K, Cl, etc.  The skeletons are as follows:   Na K Cl HCO3 BUN Cr Glu = Chemistry 7 if you add AST ALT Alk Phos TBili Prot Ca = Chemistry 14 (which are usually in vertical form).     Your diagram has just the LFTs, which can be represented as in your diagram, or in others (it varies).  PT PTT INR = coagulation panel pH PaCO2 PaO2 HCO3 SaO2 BE = ABG (Arterial Blood Gas) WBC Hgb Hct Plt = key components of CBC (Complete Blood Count) without diff.    I found this example of writing the CBC diff, but have never actually seen it written out like that.    Per request, this is a Khan academy video on lab values.  I couldn't find any formal resources on fishbone diagrams, they're kind of passed on in medical education...",
        "id": 2511,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why not induce vomiting after accidental pills intake?",
        "body": "TL;DR: The only time you should induce vomiting is if the patient is showing no signs or symptoms and you are directed to by poison control or EMS dispatch.  If you have a pill overdose situation and there are any complications such as altered level of consciousness, difficulty breathing, etc., then you want to get emergency medical (EMS) involved immediately. They will want to know such things as:   Age of patient Symptoms Conscious/breathing? What drug(s) were taken (Locate bottles if possible, but don't delay the call to do so) Alcohol or multiple drugs involved How much was taken (if known)   If the person involved is not showing any signs/symptoms yet, then you could possibly call poison control first. They will also want to know most of the same information.  In some cases where the patient is not showing any symptoms, they may have you try to induce vomiting. The generally recommended method is syrup of ipecac, and if that is not available, then take the person to the nearest ER. You don't want to try to induce by shoving things down their throat. That can cause damage to both you and the patient. If they want you to induce, they will tell you.  Also, speaking from a previous EMS/ER background, if they pump the stomach and/or induce vomiting, they will try and see if they can identify what was taken in the stomach contents that come up. If the person you are with vomits, it would help to try and gather the contents to take with you.  Further reading: http://ncapda.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=79:drug-overdose&amp;catid=33:students&amp;Itemid=7",
        "id": 385,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to improve joint cartilage thickness",
        "body": "Articular cartilage, which covers the ends of bones in all synovial joints is avascular.  Without a blood supply it is unable to heal or regenerate.  Over time the loss of this cartilage is what causes the condition known as osteoarthritis.    The modalities you've listed are indicated for swelling / healing and pain management.  So they'll only help with secondary symptoms that are seen with cartilage loss.  Stem Cells seem to offer the most promise but nothing has been approved yet.  Kobe Bryant had a non FDA approved treatment called Regenokine done in Russia, you can read about the procedure here.",
        "id": 1891,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What exactly is fever?",
        "body": "Fever can be a result of many processes. In context of infectious diseases, the fever is triggered by substances released by the immune cells (substances such as interleukin-1 and -6). Also, pyrexia can be achieved by getting exogenous pyrogens, substances from the bacterial debris that can create the same response. Those substances then interact with one part of the brain that regulates the temperature. That part of the brain serves as a thermostat, meaning it sets the \"default\" body temperature higher in these states. By doing that, the body employs mechanisms to raise the temperature, which result with shaking of the muscles, increase in the metabolic rate, sweating etc. What is interesting is that often people with pyrexia or before the onset of pyrexia feel cold (the default temperature is set to higher point, so the organism feels the current temperature as low). The point of the fever in this context is not fully discovered, but there is evidence that it provides boost to the immune system production capabilities (increased production of cells to fight the infection etc.) and it might hamper the growth of some infectious organisms that are sensitive to temperature changes.       To be hyperconcise - fever implies immune system activation against antigen OR presence of exogenous pyrogens released from some bacteria (not all bacteria).      About failsafe mechanisms - the thermostat here is enough to coordinate between heat production and heat release. If the temperature goes above the \"default\", then the organism has many ways to release excess heat (sweating, inactivity, reducing of the metabolism etc.).    Best reading on this topic - Guyton et Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology 13th ed., ch. 74.    ",
        "id": 1547,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much water is too much?",
        "body": "Water intoxication is possible; it seems that realistic danger starts when you (as an adult) drink 2 liters or more water per hour for several hours in a row. In small children this amount is obviously lower, and in infants as little as 1 cup (237 mL) of water can cause intoxication.   Two things to consider:   Water intoxication does not occur because of toxic effect of water itself, but because a large amount of water causes a drop of blood sodium levels (hyponatremia). So, water intoxication occurs when you drink a lot of water and you do not ingest any (or too little) sodium. If you drink a lot of water (but not >1.5 L/hour) and ingest enough sodium (by eating regular foods) and you are an otherwise healthy young or middle-aged adult, you should not have any problem. It is not possible to say, which exact amount of water can cause intoxication, because--from obvious reasons--no human studies have been done about this, so we can make conclusions only from newspaper reports and \"cases\" described by doctors. Personal differences, sodium intake and the speed of water drinking also affect the outcome.   Here is a more detailed explanation with several reports of water intoxication  The kidney water excretion capacity mentioned in the question is about right (800-1,000 mL of water/hour), but you need to understand this correctly.   If you, as an adult, drink, for example, 3 liters of water in one hour (not in successive hours), this should not really be a problem. First, you have probably drunk that because you were thirsty, so dehydrated, which means you have just replaced the water you have been missing.   Even if you drink 3 liters of water in one hour when you are already well hydrated, this should not be a big problem. Water needs some time to be absorbed and the circulatory system has some capacity to expand. Your blood sodium levels will fall a bit (within normal range) without any damage and your kidneys will eventually excrete the excess of water in 3 hours or so. But, 3 liters in one hour and 3 liters next hour...it can be a big problem.  In conclusion, it's not likely you will get intoxicated with water by accident. For that, you usually need to consciously exaggerate with drinking for several hours in a row while ingesting no or only little sodium.  ",
        "id": 1123,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are effective lifestyle modifications for gastritis?",
        "body": "To treat gastritis naturally there are some lifestyle changes you can do.  1. For starters, stop smoking and limit drinking.  2. Avoid trigger foods and eat smaller meals more frequently to avoid indigestion.  3. Control stress.  4. Limit the use of pain-relievers and anti-inflammatory medications.  5. Consume licorice prior to eating a meal.   6. Ginger has been shown to be quite beneficial for the stomach, so it may also help with gastritis.  7. Drink lots of water (at least eight glasses a day).  8. Marshmallow may help aid in fighting nausea and vomiting.  Besides these you also want to follow a gastritis-friendly diet and also be aware of the foods that can worsen your condition.   Foods you should limit or avoid.   Hot cocoa and cola Whole milk and chocolate milk Peppermint and spearmint  Tea Regular and decaf coffee  Orange and grapefruit juices  Black and red pepper Garlic powder   The foods you should eat with gastritis are also the foods that should always be included in any healthy eating diet. These are whole foods that provide nutrients and can support overall health. Some foods you should eat with gastritis are leafy greens, low-fat proteins, foods containing flavonoids like brightly colored fruits and vegetables, and foods rich in fiber. ",
        "id": 617,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do topical steroid withdrawal relate to adrenal insufficiency?",
        "body": "Good question! The missing bit of information here is that topical steroids are usually not absorbed systemically at high enough levels to cause adrenal suppression. However, they sometimes are. I shall explain.  First of all, regarding the relationship between systemic corticosteroid administration and adrenal insufficiency, please see this answer. The basic idea (which I think you understand) is that exogenous administration of medications that mimic cortisol (a hormone produced in the adrenal gland) suppress the body\u2019s processes for stimulating the hormone naturally. The adrenal gland atrophies due to the lack of natural stimulation. This causes a problem if the medication is suddenly withdrawn, because the body can\u2019t quickly recover the ability to produce cortisol itself. This is called adrenal insufficiency or HPA axis suppression.1   Now to your question:     How do topical steroid withdrawal relate to adrenal insufficiency?   The answer is that if topical steroids are absorbed into the bloodstream at high enough levels for a long enough time to suppress the HPA axis, they will cause adrenal insufficiency. Usually this degree of absorption occurs only with the use of \u201cGroup I\u201d topical steroids, the strongest ones. This list shows the different categories of topical steroids by potency. The \u201csuper-potent\u201d Group I includes:2      Betamethasone 0.05%  Clobetasol 0.05% Diflurasone 0.05% Halobetasol 0.05% Flucinonide 0.1%   The most important factors that determine whether or not HPA suppression will occur are the potency of the drug, the dose, and the duration of use. The Group I agents can cause significant HPA suppression if used for two or more weeks at a dose of ~2g/day. Other factors that predispose to HPA suppression include:   application to permeable areas (face, mucous membranes) occlusive dresssings compromised skin integrity young age   The first list in your question appears to mostly outline local effects of withdrawing topical steroids. These are possible with less potent steroids and do not require systemic absorption. The second list, on the other hand, describes a syndrome of adrenal insufficiency. These are likely only the circumstances described above.     Notes     HPA stands for hypothalamus &#8594; pituitary &#8594; adrenal, the pathway for producing cortisol. List was expanded a bit from that link using Bolognia et al., below.     References    Tadicherla S, Ross K, Shenefelt PD, Fenske NA. Topical corticosteroids in dermatology. J Drugs Dermatol. 2009;8(12):1093.  Walsh P, Aeling JL, Huff L, Weston WL. Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression by superpotent topical steroids. Am Acad Dermatol. 1993;29(3):501.  Bolognia JL, chaffer JV, Duncan KO, Ko CJ. Dermatology Essentials. Appendix 6: Potency ranking of some commonly used topical glucocorticosteroids. \u00a9 2014, Elsevier Inc.  For further reading see:   This powerpoint presentation from the FDA: The FDA Experience: Topical Corticosteroids and HPA Axis Suppression. This elaborates on the special problems of the pediatric population and discusses the likelihood and extent of suppression with lower potency steroids.   Gilbertson EO, Spellman MC, Piacquadio DJ, Mulford MI. Super potent topical corticosteroid use associated with adrenal suppression: clinical considerations. Am Acad Dermatol. 1998 Feb;38(2 Pt 2):318-21. ",
        "id": 302,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a pressure differential between your skin and any internal part of the human body?",
        "body": "Yes, certainly. The human body has several systems which are separated from each other such that fluids cannot freely move between them, and the pressure within each is maintained in a very precise manner.   Examples which come to mind are the cardiovascular system (which has variable pressure all the time, but it also varies in a strictly controlled way), the eye, the inner ear, and the brain ventricles and other parts of the nervous system which are bathed by the cerebrospinal fluid. Whenever the pressure of one of those is disregulated, the health consequences are severe: hypertension, glaucoma, endolymphatic hydrops or intercranial hypertension respectively. This list is not comprehensive, it just gives a few examples for better understanding.   When you have a small wound, the vascular system gets opened, but there is very little blood flow through the peripheral vessels affected, and the body clots it quickly enough that it does not bleed out. If you get a large tear in a major blood vessel, then the blood pressure can indeed lead the body to bleed out.   If you get a large wound directly into the eye, pleural cavity, cranium or labyrinth(!), a pressure differential is not your main problem. ",
        "id": 677,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Significantly reduced absorption of Ciprofloxacin with concurrently administered Sucralfate is utilized intentionally to treat Colitis?",
        "body": "Officially, I requested to Bayer who is innovator of Ciprofloxacin and received 1 in-vitro study article.  The author of the in-vitro study concluded that there's possibility as strategic option for intestinal sterilization but clinical study with patients must be confirmed.  Again, this is a in-vitro study but not human clinical study.  In case you're interested with non-profit purpose, you can find the above-mentioned in-vitro study article at the bottom of below linked post or as attached.  I don't mark this as an answer because this is not the direct clinical evidence I've been looking for.  Link-  Comparison of Antibacterial Activity of Fluoroquinolones with Their Sucralfate-complexes against Clinically-isolated Bacteria_Hitoshi et al_2009",
        "id": 2636,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What exactly is a diuretic and its relationship to dehydration",
        "body": "A diuretic increases diuresis, which means it causes your kidneys to excrete more urine. It has nothing to do with your bladder and both of those definitions you quote are wrong, especially the one saying it doesn't alter the water levels in your body. Diuretics definitely reduce the water levels in your body; that's the most common reason for taking them. The second quote is wrong by saying they cause water to be redirected to the bladder. There's no redirection involved. Water is removed from your system the same way whether you take a diuretic or not. It's simply removed faster with a diuretic.  Wikipedia has a good summary of their medical uses:     In medicine, diuretics are used to treat heart failure, liver   cirrhosis, hypertension, influenza, water poisoning, and certain   kidney diseases. Some diuretics, such as acetazolamide, help to make   the urine more alkaline and are helpful in increasing excretion of   substances such as aspirin in cases of overdose or poisoning.   Diuretics are often abused by those with eating disorders, especially   bulimics, in attempts to lose weight.      The antihypertensive actions of some diuretics (thiazides and loop   diuretics in particular) are independent of their diuretic   effect.[citation needed] That is, the reduction in blood pressure is   not due to decreased blood volume resulting from increased urine   production, but occurs through other mechanisms and at lower doses   than that required to produce diuresis. Indapamide was specifically   designed with this in mind, and has a larger therapeutic window for   hypertension (without pronounced diuresis) than most other diuretics. ",
        "id": 1776,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which has lower rate of getting pregnant and/or a venereal dicease in condom vs pill?",
        "body": "TL;DR  The pill slightly more effective than condom for contraception. Other methods are better still.  The pill is ineffective for preventing STI; condoms are mostly effective.  In Full  First things first. Statistics on contraception efficacy are widely available, so as a bonus you are getting info on several more types than just 'condom' and 'pill'.  How effective is contraception at preventing pregnancy?  Reported in percentages; take the percent away from 100 if you would prefer to know how many women in a hundred will fall pregnant despite using the contraception correctly.  Short-Acting   male condoms: 98% (NB heavily dependent on effective / proper use) female condoms: 95% diaphragms: 92-96% caps: 92-96% COCP (combined oral contraceptive pill): >99% POP (progestogen-only pill): 99%   Long-active Reversible Contraception (LARC)   contraceptive injection: >99% contraceptive implant: >99% (NB: over three years) IUS (intrauterine system): >99% (NB: over five years) IUD (intrauterine device): >99% contraceptive patch: >99% vaginal ring: >99%   'Permanent'   female sterilisation: >99% (1 in 200) male sterilisation: > 99% (1 in 2000)   'Natural'   natural family planning: \u2264 99% (ie up to 99%, depending on how closely it is followed)   (condoms and pills highlighted in bold)  Source: NHS contraception guide; from which the stats are liberally taken.  Note: The CDC also publishes a poster family planning methods. The percentages are the number of pregnancies per year (ie the opposite of the NHS published statistics). They also give actual effectiveness, rather than assuming correct use every time. For condoms in particular, this means only 82% effectiveness (vs 99%); and for the pill, 92% (vs >99%). There is further information available.  Although it isn't an 'accepted' source, there is a Wikipedia page with a table on contraceptive effectiveness; the more important part is in the references section of the article which has plenty of further reading.  How effective are condoms vs the pill for preventing STIs?  STIs need a method of entry to pass an infection from one host to another. Condoms, when used correctly, form a physical barrier preventing entry. The pill gives no barrier to entry.  I have yet to find a (reputable) source which claims that the pill gives any protection for STIs.  On the other hand, the CDC by itself has several resources on condom effectiveness at preventing STIS:   Condom factsheet in brief (PDF warning) Condom factsheet (non-PDF) - has further sources at the bottom of the article Condom Effectiveness ",
        "id": 1641,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should we stop using aluminium foil in food preparation and storage?",
        "body": "The association between aluminum and Alzheimer's disease has been evident for many years. At one point, there was even a discussion that the aluminum in our deodorant was causing an epidemic in Alzheimer's (see this article: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2319278).  Truly, there is something to be said about exposure to high quantities of any metal and having adverse effects in the body. However, given the trace concentrations in our deodorant, and the fact that we aren't eating the aluminum foil with our cheeseburger, it is extremely unlikely to lead to any adverse effects in most people (see this article: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1296988).  Further, at the age of 85, you are at higher risk of Alzheimer's than if you were 55 or 65. It tends to be later in onset (https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=102). Alzheimer's should not be mixed up with age-related dementia is an entirely separate discussion (http://www.alz.org/what-is-dementia.asp).",
        "id": 1447,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is the eye score interpreted?",
        "body": "The information you provided      Right lens\u00a0Sph -0,50 Cyl -0,50 axis 10   Left Lens\u00a0Sph -0,50 Cyl -0,50 axis 170   Type\u00a0CR39 SN ARC   is a little bit clearer than you can sometimes see.  When you look at your prescription for\u00a0eyeglasses, you can sometimes see numbers listed under the prefixes of OS and OD, or OU. They are Latin abbreviations:   OS (oculus sinister) meaning the left\u00a0eyesome prescriptions use LE for Left Eye,\u00a0and OD (oculus dextrus) meaning the right eyesome prescriptions use RE for Right Eye OU (oculus uterque) Occasionally this is used, meaning both\u00a0eyes or literally \"each eye\"   You have given 3 numbers (SPH, CYL and Axis) which I will explain below.  There are other numbers which may be provided, which I will also go into.  The first number: Sphere (SPH)  The further away from zero the number on your prescription is, the worse your\u00a0eyesight\u00a0is and therefore the more\u00a0vision\u00a0correction (stronger prescription) you need.  A \u201cplus\u201d (+) \u00a0sign in front of the number means you are\u00a0farsighted (hyperopia),\u00a0and you find it difficult to see things close to you without correction with spectacles or contact lenses.  A \u201cminus\u201d (-) sign means you are\u00a0nearsighted (myopia), and you find it difficult to see things far away without correction with spectacles or contact lenses.  These numbers represent diopters, the unit used to measure the correction, or focusing power, of the lens your eye requires, and diopter is often abbreviated \"D.\"  The second number: Cylinder (CYL)  This refers to the \"cylinder\" or\u00a0astigmatism, and can be a negative or a positive number. It measures in diopters the degree of\u00a0astigmatism that you have. The bigger this number, the more astigmatism you have. Astigmatism is caused by an irregularly shaped\u00a0cornea, causing visual distortion.  The irregular cornea shape can be described as more like an American football than a basketball.  The third number: Axis  It is not enough to specify how much astigmatism there is; you have to know where the difference in curvature is taking place.  The\u00a0Axis\u00a0is a number anywhere between 0 and 180 degrees, which reveals the orientation of the astigmatism and lets the lab know how to position your lenses.  A fourth number: Prism  This usually means that your eyes do not work well as a pair.  Prism lenses help prevent double vision or headaches.  A fifth number: Base  This simply tells the lab where to put the prism.  A sixth number: Reading Addition (ADD)  This is for varifocal or bifocal lenses and relates to the additional correction in + needed to correct Presbyopia\u00a0in order to focus at close distances.  A second number: Pupil Distance (PD)  Also known as Interpupillary Distance and if separate numbers are used, they refer to the distance between each pupil and the centre of the bridge of the nose.  If one number is given, it is the distance between each pupil.  The information under Type  The first part: CR39, Poly, NXT...  This refers to lens material suggested and dies not have any bearing on your prescription per se.  CR39 is a type of polymer lens, not to be confused with type POLY which is polycarbonate.  For more information on different lens materials used you can go to this webpage from EyeKit who I am not affiliated to.  They are sellers of prescription glasses for sport, leisure and specialist uses, and I do not vouch for the quality of their products.  The second and third parts: SN and ARC  I have not yet been able to determine what these refer to, but again, these do not have any bearing on your prescription per se.  Sources linked  National Eye Institute - Hyperopiahttps://nei.nih.gov/health/errors/hyperopia  National Eye Institute - Myopiahttps://nei.nih.gov/health/errors/myopia  Specsavers - Your prescription explainedhttps://www.specsavers.co.uk/eye-health/eye-test/your-prescription  TermWiki - oculus uterque (OU)http://en.termwiki.com/EN/oculus_uterque_(OU)  WebMD - Presbyopiahttps://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/presbyopia/symptoms-causes/syc-20363328  WebMD - How to Read Your Eyeglass Prescriptionhttps://www.webmd.com/eye-health/how-read-eye-glass-prescription  WebMD - What Is Astigmatism?https://www.webmd.com/eye-health/astigmatism-eyes",
        "id": 1206,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the distribution of corrected visual acuity?",
        "body": "Most people will tolerate a visual acuity of up to 20/40 (being able to read something at 20 feet that a normal person with \"perfect\" vision can read at 40 feet) before seeing a physician. According to this article (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16325714), patients over the age of 65 are more likely to tolerate this level of vision before seeking proper correction, similar to your statement of their vision being \"good enough\".   Other articles that touch on this topic include the following:   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18451738 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18161606 ",
        "id": 648,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can bee pollen be organic?",
        "body": "It seems from this article that for pollen and honey to be considered organic, there are stipulations on land 3km radius being chemical free and hives to be organic by being natural untreated timber or metal and free of lead based paints.",
        "id": 1507,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the blue light emitted by computer monitors deleterious for the human eyes?",
        "body": "   Is the blue light emitted by computer monitors deleterious for the human eyes?   No.  UV from the Sun (or other strong UV sources, such as germicidal bulbs) is harmful.  Blue light from a computer monitor or cellphone contains insufficient ultraviolet light to harm the eyes, the problem is that blue light causes the suppression of melatonin which affects the onset of sleep, and close up viewing and concentration on digital devices reduces the blink rate by half to one third.  The Canadian Association of Ophthalmology is more cautious in their warnings than their American counterpart, but the difference in the recommendation is that most people over 20 years old should be able to tolerate some blue light that isn't towards the UV end of the spectrum.  References:  Canadian Association of Ophthalmology - \"Blue light - Is there a risk of harm?\"  UK Association of Opthalmologists - \"Our position on the clinical evidence and advice relating to visible blue light\"  American Academy of Ophthalmology - \"Should You Be Worried About Blue Light?\"  American Academy of Ophthalmology - \"Should You Use Night Mode to Reduce Blue Light?\"  American Academy of Ophthalmology - \"Computers, Digital Devices and Eye Strain\"  PubSci - \"Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness\" (Jan 27 2015), by AM Chang, D Aeschbach, JF Duffy, and CA Czeisler.  Disclaimer: Neither Stack Exchange nor the author offer medical advice.  Some websites offer a stronger viewpoint, opposing blue light.  PreventBlindness.org's About Page discloses that some of the Board of Directors work for eyewear companies, they offer this advice: \"Blue light and your eyes\" while the website BlueLightExposed.com has no About webpage and offers this advice: \"Blue light and macular degeneration\".  Wikipedia's webpage on High Energy Visible Light is inconclusive for adults.  There are more unbiased \"no\" sources than \"yes\" sources. Blink and take breaks.",
        "id": 1204,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What type of liver is richest in Vitamin D?",
        "body": "The older the animal, the greater the amount of vitamin D stored in the liver. While liver is a somewhat good source of vitamin D, it's also very high in vitamin A. A person eating liver  more often than once or twice a week could possibly overload on vitamin A. Especially in the amount youd need to correct a vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin A is toxic in larger amounts.  Just one serving of 100 grams of beef liver contains 26,000 IU of vitamin A. 100 grams is roughly the size of a woman's palm. The US Institute of Medicine gives an upper limit of 3,000 IU of vitamin A per day. Vitamin D content in beef liver, however, is only 49 IU. The USDA Nutrient Database doesn't even list vitamin D in chicken or lamb liver.  Why not take vitamin D tablets? They're available as D3 (cholecalciferol) and it's converted to calcitriol, the active metabolive used in the body. It's inexpensive and the dose can be better controlled than by eating liver. Your doctor would be best suggesting how much D to take. ",
        "id": 1677,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What exactly is inflammation?",
        "body": "I think you will find all the information you search for in this book (there are plenty out there on the subject).  Anyway in brief terms inflammation is a reaction of the body to a deleterious event (eg too hot, too cold, dangerous chemicals, radiation, toxins etc) that could happen on a small (cellular level), or large scale (organ level) and in a little (a paper cut), or long time (chronic diseases) and provokes cellular damage.    It involves a cellular and humoral response but it's really a big issue, difficult to solve in just a post.  The invisible inflammation you mentioned falls in this field, but it depends on the specific subject since inflammation is involved in practically all the human diseases.  An example  Hope it helps      EDIT i changed the second link since it was not freely available to everyone. ",
        "id": 458,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does birth control affect menstrual normality after stopping use in patients with PCOS?",
        "body": "The short answer: her periods will probably be irregular when she stops taking birth control, unless she's taken other measures to reduce her PCOS symptoms.  Source: I'm a medical student who has PCOS.   The long answer: While on birth control pills, menstrual cycles are entirely controlled by the pills. This means that if the patient takes the pills religiously, their menstrual cycles will be regular, with their period happening exactly when specified by the pills. PCOS is a complex disease with many underlying factors, including genetics and lifestyle (e.g. obesity). Many of its symptoms, including acne and irregular periods, can be controlled by birth control pills, but the underlying genetic issues will still be present and often the underlying lifestyle issues will still be present. Therefore, when a patient with birth control pills stops taking the pills, if they have not done anything else in their life to reduce their PCOS, it is likely that their former symptoms will return. This means if they previously had irregular periods they will probably get irregular periods again.   The exception would be if they have made some kind of lifestyle change to reduce their PCOS, such as losing weight. Weight loss can normalize hormone levels and help with PCOS symptoms (e.g. \"most treatments of obesity...achieve modest reductions in weight and improvements in PCOS phenotype\", see https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3649566/). Weight loss can sometimes restore fertility in PCOS patients who have lower fertility due to PCOS.  Here's my personal experience: I had PCOS, diagnosed by an endocrinologist via an ovarian ultrasound, clinical history, and blood tests. My periods were EXTREMELY irregular. I had a normal BMI but it was on the \"high side\" of normal. I learned in medical school about how PCOS is tied in with sugar consumption (high sugar consumption -> high insulin -> higher androgens -> worse PCOS, e.g. http://imaging.ubmmedica.com/CME/pt/content/p010531a.gif). I also learned that consequently PCOS is sometimes treated with metformin, a diabetes drug. Instead of taking a drug, I eliminated white and brown sugar from my diet and limited myself to an appropriate number of calories per day. I also exercise for an hour a day. Consequently, I lost 25 pounds (current BMI = 20, which is low end of normal) and my PCOS symptoms have entirely vanished: I have clockwork periods, and a recent ultrasound of my ovaries showed no cysts, so I no longer meet ANY of the diagnostic criteria for PCOS. Because I have \"cured\" my PCOS through lifestyle changes, as long as I continue the lifestyle changes I am \"cured\" of PCOS. In contrast, I know someone who is taking birth control pills to hide their PCOS symptoms, and if they stop taking the pills their symptoms do come back. Note - everyone is physiologically unique, and so people respond to lifestyle changes to a different degree. Diet and exercise are great, but may not always \"cure\" someone - the best resource is to talk to your own physician. ",
        "id": 1818,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the long term health risks from repeated cortisone injections?",
        "body": "I'll start off by highlighting a couple of more general studies:   Cole &amp; Schumacher (2005): A general study of corticosteroids, this found that some corticosteroids may be free of side effects (specifically, intraarticular corticosteroids) for a series of short-term injections for a short amount of time (one injection every three months for two years). However, other corticosteroids can cause tissue atrophy, if used for long periods of time - even for periods as short as two years. That said, the authors believe that more general research is needed to draw definitive conclusions. A full pdf of the study is available here. Raynauld et al. (2003): This is a study on general intraarticular steroids, as applied to osteoarthritis, which also found that there were no effects from the injections. Over two years, minimal side effects were noted. This used the same intervals as in Cole &amp; Schumacher: One injection every three months for about two years.   These studies did not specifically address the cortisone shots you're concerned with; instead, they dealt with the more broader class of drugs called corticosteroids. I find the results of these studies interesting, because there are a lot of websites out there that say the exact opposite: That a range of side effects are possible if used long-term, and may very well occur. I highlighted these studies in part to show that more research may well be needed, and that different drugs may work better for different people.  The CDC has a list of potential side effects from the use of corticosteroids. The potential short-term side effects are too many to list, but I'll cover the long-term ones:   Growth problems in children Brittle bones Muscle weakness (see the tissue atrophy mentioned in Cole &amp; Schumacher) Diabetes Eye issues   However - and this is an enormous \"however\" - this appears to be focused mainly on doses taken orally, and perhaps daily. In other words, side effects might change based on the method of intake, although this might be only a minor difference. Additionally, these are the effects of using corticosteroids on a much more frequent basis than you would be having them - and even then, these effects are only possibilities.  These studies are the closest approximations I can combine to address your specific case. It seems that three-month intervals are the longest period of time that has been studied in any depth. In other words, your regimen seems to be a rare one - and a safer one.  Every cortisone shot has the potential for side effects. But the combined effect of these multiple shots would most likely be have been diluted substantially. Studies with intervals of three months brought no side effects (and the risks given by the CDC appear to be due to repeated, short-term doses), and so it seems highly unlikely that your case will be any severer.",
        "id": 154,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does male circumcision really damage sexual sensitivity for men?",
        "body": "The following studies found that circumcision does have a detrimental impact on penis sensitivity.  From a 2013 study by Bronselaer et al.:     The analysis sample consisted of 1059 uncircumcised and 310 circumcised men.      For the glans penis, circumcised men reported decreased sexual pleasure and lower orgasm intensity. They also stated more effort was required to achieve orgasm, and a higher percentage of them experienced unusual sensations (burning, prickling, itching, or tingling and numbness of the glans penis).      For the penile shaft a higher percentage of circumcised men described discomfort and pain, numbness and unusual sensations.      In comparison to men circumcised before puberty, men circumcised during adolescence or later indicated less sexual pleasure at the glans penis, and a higher percentage of them reported discomfort or pain and unusual sensations at the penile shaft.   From a 2008 study by Yang et al.:     There is a statistic difference in the glans penis vibration perception threshold between normal men and patients with simple redundant prepuce. The glans penis perception sensitivity decreases after circumcision.   From a 2007 study by Sorrells et al.:     The glans of the circumcised penis is less sensitive to fine touch than the glans of the uncircumcised penis. The transitional region from the external to the internal prepuce is the most sensitive region of the uncircumcised penis and more sensitive than the most sensitive region of the circumcised penis. Circumcision ablates the most sensitive parts of the penis.   From a 2006 study by Kim et al.:     However, circumcised men were more than three times more likely to report less enjoyable sex lives after circumcision than better sex lives (28 vs eight men). While decreased sensation was the most frequently cited reason (21 of 28 men) for a less enjoyable sex life, complaints about the physical effects of circumcision on their penises and consequent adverse effects on sex life were also prominent (13 of 28; multiple complaints were separately counted).       In summary, we studied the effects of circumcision on sexuality. There were no differences in sexual drive, erection and ejaculation, but circumcised men reported decreased masturbatory pleasure and sexual enjoyment. We conclude that adult circumcision adversely affects sexual function in a significant number of men, possibly because of loss of nerve endings.   From a 2001 study by Boyle et al.:     A survey of the 35 female and 42 gay sexual partners of circumcised and genitally intact men, and a separate survey of 53 circumcised and 30 genitally intact men themselves, indicated that circumcised men experienced significantly reduced sexual sensation along with associated long-lasting negative emotional consequences. ",
        "id": 1243,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there evidence of benefit from the syringe- or vacuum-based tonsil washing procedure in chronic tonsillitis?",
        "body": "Never heard of it and doubt that irrigation of infected tissue would help.  It's also not a listed treatment on the USA ent site http://www.entnet.org/content/tonsillitis",
        "id": 2174,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can pre-ejaculate cause pregnancy?",
        "body": "This \"pre-ejaculate\" that you are talking about does contain a very small amount of sperm, and can absolutely cause pregnancy. To be clear, the alkaline fluid that comes out as the pre-ejaculate is made in Cowper's glands, which do not produce sperm. However, sperm may be present from a prior ejaculation and come out as part of the pre-ejaculate.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564677/  The article above goes into some detail. Basically, there is a 41% chance of the content having sperm, and a 37% chance that the sperm it contains are motile - enough to swim upstream and potentially fertilize an egg.  Actual fertilization depends on a lot of things. However, if you do this enough, the odds of pregnancy increase.",
        "id": 1445,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Negative Effects of Drinking Large Quantities of Diet Pepsi",
        "body": "Diet Pepsi is sweetened with sucralose (diet coke is sweetened with aspartame). Sucralose ha been found in studies to not affect blood sugar levels:     This study demonstrated that, similar to cellulose, sucralose consumption for 3 months at doses of 7.5 mg/kg/day, which is approximately three times the estimated maximum intake, had no effect on glucose homeostasis in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, this study showed that sucralose was as well-tolerated by the study subjects as was the placebo.   Lack of effect of sucralose on glucose homeostasis in subjects with type 2 diabetes  Diet Pepsi contains about 40 mg of sucralose per 8 ounces (about 250 milliliters). At 4 liters per day, that's about 640 mg of sucralose, and at a weight of 125 kilograms that's equivalent to about 5 mg/kg/day, less than the 7.5 mg/kg/day in this study.   Since that study might be called biased because of the funding, here's another one, where patients received a one time dose of 1 gram of sucralose that had no effect on blood sugar: Glycemic Effect of a Single High Oral Dose of the Novel Sweetener Sucralose in Patients With Diabetes  However, 4 liters of Diet Pepsi puts your relative at the upper limit of the Acceptable Daily Intake as defined by the FDA, which is 5 milligrams per day and kilogram. From the FDA:     Generally, an additive does not present safety concerns if the estimated daily intake is less than the ADI.   Your relative might want to reduce his intake. Reducing his intake to a maximum of two instead of four liters would put him firmly below the ADI. Four liters od a pretty high intake of fluids anyway. If this is because of thirst, that in itself is a sign of badly managed diabetes and requires medical attention.   In summary, no, noone can say that drinking diet drinks is completely safe. That's true of most substances, and so far sucralose has not shown to be unsafe. It is generally thought to be better for diabetes patients than drinking sugar-sweetened drinks which make blood sugar control harder. The American Diabetes Association lists diet drinks on their page on What to Drink?, alongside, of course, unsweetened beverages, which are preferable.    But I'd estimate that the smoking and weight puts him more at a health risk than the Diet Pepsi. Smoking and diabetes have been shown to be major health risk. Your relative hopefully has a doctor who knows how to treat diabetes, and needs to talk to them about how to control the diabetes. ",
        "id": 825,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Location of olecranon",
        "body": "Well, the X in the image is just below the olecranon. Pain in X could arise from the olecranon bursa or muscle tendons, for example, and you could still call it \"olecranon pain\" - this is not a name of a specific condition; it just tells a symptom location.   The olecranon is not just a small spot where the black line in the image ends but the entire bony bump from the top of the bone down to X. ",
        "id": 2108,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is there a left ventricular volume overload in patients with Ventricular septal defect?",
        "body": "This happens because with the left to right shunt blood is shunted directly into RVOT and and into pulmonary artery and thus right ventricle is spared but left atria and ventricle become enlarged because of increase flow through the lungs. ",
        "id": 1307,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Maximum recommended daily intake of full fat milk for 12 year old?",
        "body": "I have found no credible source that would mention \"maximum recommended daily amount of full fat milk.\"   MedlinePlus:     The US Department of Agriculture recommends the following daily   amounts of dairy for children and teens:         Two through 3 years old: 2 cups (480 milliliters)   Four through 8 years old: 2\u00bd cups (600 milliliters)   Nine through 18 years old: 3 cups (720 milliliters)      A 12 year old boy drinking 1.5 US pints (710 milliliters) of milk fits in.  Regarding the concern that milk can make blood acidic: The acidogenic effect of foods can be estimated by \"renal acid load\" (the amount of acids secreted through the kidneys). According to this article (Table 2), renal acid load after one serving (240 mL) of full fat milk is 3.6, and after low-fat milk 3.9, which means it is not fat in the milk that contributes to the acidity. Renal acid loads of certain other foods are much higher: one serving of cheese (17-57), meat (14-21), fish (10-32), nuts (16-36).  According to one 2015 systematic review, milk consumption does not seem to contribute to kidney stones.  There is an ongoing debate if milk is healthy or unhealthy and there are opinions that milk is only for children (or even only for small children). Most of research shows that milk consumption as such is not bad for health (PubMed Central). On the other hand, plant-based diets may be healthy enough, even for children (PubMed Central).",
        "id": 2275,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can eating certain food cause appendicitis?",
        "body": "Can fruit seeds and undigested plant residuals cause acute appendicitis     The ratio of acute appendicitis caused by plants is minimal among all   appendectomised patients, but avoidence of eating undigested fruit   seeds and chewing plants well may help to prevent appendicitis.   So yes, eating habits can cause appendicitis, but it is minimal. This is partially due to some appendicitis's being caused by obstruction and the food particles can increase risk. ",
        "id": 1031,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Elderly Father Takes Prevacid for last 20 years, seems to do more harm, how to stop",
        "body": "First, we can't give advice specific to an individual on Health SE.  See rules.  BUT what I CAN do is help guide your next discussion with his doctor.  (Those are great diagrams and will help your doctor when you and your dad go to see him/her. )   The first and most important question to understand is: why was he put on Prevacid (a protein pump inhibitor) in the first place?  Before trying to stop it, you need to know whether there is a medical indication for continuing it. This kind of conversation you want is called a \"risks vs benefits\" discussion.  The decision to start/stop/continue a medication often involves this.   The long-term use of PPIs is a current topic of discussion, as we're reaching nearly 30 years since they came out on the market. Yes the kidney is the major regulator of Sodium, Chloride and some other electrolytes.  But the primary lab values monitored for signs of kidney dysfunction are creatinine, urea nitrogen, often potassium, and sometimes urine tests.   With some labs, there is a tolerated range even outside the reference range for normal.  Sodium and chloride are examples. This is in part due to laboratory variations between readings.  Often the trend of lab values is more important than individual readings - but of course, a significantly out-of-range value is different.  It's a complicated topic.   Discernment in how aggressively to manage abnormal values comes from study, practice, and experience.  This is an example of why it takes so many years of training before you can practice medicine. Don't expect you'll fully understand electrolyte balance after talking with the doc, but DO set a reasonable goal of what you want to understand through the discussion.   Again, I am not commenting at all on your dad's lab values.  We cannot evaluate him online.  But this is some information to guide YOUR understanding and WHAT to ask his doc.",
        "id": 1811,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I mitigate the risk of toxic compounds leeching from a water bottle?",
        "body": "I think the best practice is:   Limit contact time of water (or any other liquid) and bottle: since the total amount of any, bad or not, compound move from bottle to water is directly proportional to time contact, if we reduce the amount of time the water is inside the bottle, we can lower down the amount of toxic compound we drink. (if not only water) Avoid fatty or acid liquid because they are able to corrode the bottle, thus increase the rate at which other compounds go into the liquid.   NB: also metal bottles have an inner plastic coating. I don't know if all have it...",
        "id": 2287,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Avoiding acute mountain sickness, high altitude pulmonary & cerebral edema",
        "body": "I checked literature on this and found that following general measures are helpful to prevent acute mountain sickness, high altitude cerebral edema (HACE) and high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE):   These conditions generally occur at altitudes higher than 2500 meters. Beyond that, one should not ascend more than 300-500 meters per day. Slow ascent, e.g. traveling by road or rail, will increase time for acclimatization and reduce risk of mountain sickness. Taking rest and avoiding exercise for first 2-3 days.  High carbohydrate diet may be helpful One should avoid alcohol and sedatives   Following medicines have been shown to reduce the risk and are generally recommended for persons who are susceptible (e.g. those who suffered such episodes on their previous visits to high altitudes):   Acetazolamide Nifedipine Dexamethasone Tadalafil, sildenafil Other drugs which have been used are bosentan and inhaled salmeterol.    Above medicines should be started one day prior and continued for 2-3 days after reaching high altitude.  If acute mountain illness does occur, following measures are useful to treat these conditions:   Rest Oxygen Hydration Hyperbaric bag or chamber Drugs listed above can be used for treatment also. Dexamethasone is especially useful for high altitude cerebral edema while nifedipine is most commonly used for high altitude pulmonary edema. Nitric oxide (NO) and oxygen - nitric oxide mixture inhalation have also been shown to be helpful. Descent to lower altitude is most important if symptoms do not resolve quickly. Frusemide (or Furosemide), the classical drug for pulmonary congestion, has limited usefulness in treatment of high altitude pulmonary edema. It may cause hypovolemia (reduced blood volume) and hypotension (fall in blood pressure).    Some References:   http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview http://cardiovascres.oxfordjournals.org/content/72/1/41 ",
        "id": 440,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a limit to the duration of swishing with chlorhexidine oral rinse?",
        "body": "The age-old adage \"the dose makes the poison\" applies here.  With ingested medications, dosage is more simple to conceptualize: how much did you swallow.  With topical creams: how much did you apply.  But with swish-and-spit oral solutions where a copious amount is applied topically then disposed of, it's the DURATION of application that determines dosage more than anything.  This certainly applies to chlorhexidine gluconate.  Do not use it in larger quantities, for longer time per application, or more frequently than instructed.    One of many resources that state this is the U of M:     Do not use this medicine in larger or smaller amounts or for longer than recommended.   Aside from chemical irritation and other problems, chlorhexidine can stain teeth in long-term use.",
        "id": 2558,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does anxiety and stress affect the bowels?",
        "body": "One\u2019s mental state has a major effect on bowel function. In fact, there is a high correlation between IBS and stress.   Given the high levels of anxiety and stress commonly seen in patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome, evidence suggests that the syndrome may be linked to a disruption of the stress system. The stress response in the body involves the sympathetic nervous system which has been shown to operate abnormally in IBS patients.  In an article by Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, scientists are inferring that \u2018the little brain\u2019, or enteric nervous system (ENS) is the link between what's going on in the gut and it's effect on the brain, or the relationship between digestion and mood.     Anxiety and depression have been thought to contribute to gastro conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).   Jay Pastricha, MD, Director of the Johns Hopkins Center for Neurogastroenterology states that the main role of the ENS is:     \"...controlling digestion, from swallowing to the release of enzymes that break down food, to the control of blood flow that helps with nutrient absorption to elimination.\"   As described in Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, when your sympathetic nervous system is activated by a stressful event, for example, it initiates a \u201cfight or flight\u201d response -- a mechanism that primes the body for action, particularly in situations that threaten survival. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes vasoconstriction of most blood vessels, including those in the digestive tract. Because the blood vessels in the gastrointestinal organs constrict, the digestive tract will inhibit peristalsis (digestion) and result in a variety of GI symptoms.  The GI tract is generally sensitive to emotion in most people (even those who do not have IBS) as anger, anxiety, sadness, and elation (among others) can all trigger symptoms in the gut. For example, you've likely heard or even spoken the words \"going with your gut\" when making a decision or feeling like you have \"butterflies in your stomach\" when feeling nervous. In people who suffer from IBS however, the ENS may trigger big emotional shifts which can lead to functional bowel problems such as constipation, diarrhea, bloating, pain, and stomach upset.   People with IBS can experience either constipation, diarrhea, or both depending on the individual and how their emotionally triggered symptoms present. According to Mayo Clinic:      For the purpose of treatment, IBS can be divided into three types based on your symptoms: constipation-predominant (IBS-C), diarrhea-predominant (IBS-D), or mixed.   Research also suggests that digestive system activity may affect cognition (thinking skills and memory). As explained by a Harvard Health article:     The brain has a direct effect on the stomach. A troubled intestine can send signals to the brain, just as a troubled brain can send signals to the gut. Therefore, a person\u2019s stomach or intestinal distress can be the cause or the product of anxiety, stress, or depression.   In an effort to provide further evidence in response to \"How does your mental state actually affect the functioning of the bowel?\":  Psychological factors influence the actual physiology of the gut, as well as presenting symptoms. As it relates to IBS, stress can affect movement and contractions of the GI tract or can increase inflammation. Additionally, people with IBS may perceive pain more acutely than other people do because their brains do not properly regulate pain signals from the GI tract. When faced with a stress-causing event, the existing pain can feel worse. As stated in the article, 'The Brain-Gut Connection':      Irritation in the gastrointestinal system may send signals to the CNS that trigger mood changes, which is why a higher than normal percentage of people with IBS and other bowel disorders develop depression and anxiety.  ",
        "id": 287,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is spotting considered a period?",
        "body": "Usually women get a period 2 weeks after ovulation. During menopause hormone levels fluctuate and ovulation may not occur regularly and periods are more spaced out or closer together, heavier or lighter. Some months women do not ovulate at all and don't have a period. There are two main hormones that regulate the lining of the uterus- estrogen (\"the fertilizer\") and progesterone (\"the lawn mower\"). During perimenopause women are still producing these two hormones but sometimes they aren't in the same proportion to each other as they were during younger years. If there's more estrogen than progesterone the lining of the uterus thickens and at some point it's shed (spotting) even if there isn't ovulation.  To answer your question, spotting could be counted as a period if you are in perimenopause. However, if you haven't had ANY bleeding for 12 months and then have spotting you should check with your doctor.",
        "id": 1795,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is replacing one meal a day with nuts bad for health in long term?",
        "body": "There are reasons why eating 200 g of nuts as the sole food at one meal could be questionable:   200 g of dry roasted mixed nuts contains 1188 Calories. This is about half of daily calories coming from a single food, which sounds like a lack of food diversity. Nuts have very high omega-6/omega-3 ratio: 55:1, which might be pro-inflammatory. Regarding omega-6 PUFA, there is controversy whether their effects are pro- or anti-inflammatory. (PubMed, 2017) The idea to spare some time by eating the food on the go sounds attractive, but it is also stressful; I believe one should sit down and eat in peace for optimal digestion. Nuts are high in fats, so they stay a long time in the stomach, which can give a prolonged heavy feeling after eating. ",
        "id": 2392,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a term for depression that is not persistent?",
        "body": "Since you mention several of these episodes weeks apart, a few possible diagnosis come to my mind:  One possible diagnosis for a person with these symptoms could be (rapid cycling) bipolar disorder. While bipolar disorder is often associated with people experiencing very noticeable episodes of mania, bipolar disorder can also present with \"hypomania\" a less severe form of mania where the patient feels good and productive.   Bipolar disorder comes in several forms. One is rapid cycling bipolar disorder is characterized by more then 4 cycles of mania/hypomania and depression per year. Another is bipolar 2, which often presents with hypomania instead of mania.   Another possible diagnosis is dysthymia, which is a mild, but chronic form of depression occurring for more than 2 years. Mild in this case does not mean that symptoms such as suicidal thoughts are not present, and the severity of symptoms can vary over the course of the disease, often with external influences.      Dysthymia symptoms usually come and go over a period of years, and their intensity can change over time. But typically symptoms don't disappear for more than two months at a time   Another possible diagnosis would be cyclothymia, a sort of \"mix\" between the two.   In the end, only a therapist and/or a psychiatrist can make a useful diagnosis, but these are conditions that can show these symptoms and the therapist/psychiatrist would likely explore. (and as always with depressive episodes, excluding hypothyroidism is important)   Sources and further reading  Bipolar disorder, includes definitions for hypomania and rapid cycling bipolar disorder.   Dysthymia overview at the Mayo Clinic website   Cyclothymia",
        "id": 558,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can people who are epileptic be more sensitive to heat exhaustion/heat stroke?",
        "body": "Something that is worth mentioning right out of the gate is a febrile seizure (see also The Epilepsy Foundation). These are sudden seizures, generally experienced by young children, resulting from an especially high fever. The generally accepted (although not fully confirmed) mechanism is via something called respiratory alkalosis (see e.g. Mazarati (2007)). Hyperthermia, among other processes1, triggers an imbalance in blood pH and pCO2, which in turn can increase brain activity, leading to a seizure. Children (generally below the age of six) are especially vulnerable.  With that in mind, it would make sense that heat could be a possible seizure trigger. That said, there are some things to bear in mind. First, children who experience a febrile seizure are likely to never have a seizure again; these seizures are generally not linked to epilepsy, although a family history of seizures may contribute to this. Therefore, there are two questions to ask: Can heat stroke cause seizures, and is this more prevalent for people with epilepsy?  We also need to consider that instances of heat stroke can be quite different. Often, it is convenient to divide cases into two categories: Exertional heat stroke (EHS), and non-exertional/classical heat stroke (NEHS/CHS). Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017 gives a rather nice comparison on page 551. There are a few differences that pertain to our case, some of which I've copied here:  Patient Characteristics |     Classic     | Exertional  -------------------------------------------------------- Age                     | Young children/ |  15-55 yr                         |   the elderly   | -------------------------------------------------------- Fever                   |     Unusual     |   Common -------------------------------------------------------- Activity                |    Sedentary    |  Strenuous                         |                 |   exercise -------------------------------------------------------- Acid-base disturbances  |   Respiratory   |   Lactic                         |    alkalosis    |  acidosis   Notice that respiratory alkalosis is described as more common classic heat stroke, which afflicts children, whereas lactic acidosis is more prevalent in exertional heat stroke. Interestingly enough, I haven't been able to find any information on the latter causing seizures, although I have seen references indicating it can arise as a byproduct of seizures, especially tonic-clonic (\"grand mal\") seizures.  It is, of course, well-known that heat stroke can trigger once-off seizures in people, often including small children (which should be apparent from some of the above). This has been well-studied in, of all creatures, dogs, which have unfortunately high mortality relates, often from being left trapped in a car or other area which rapidly becomes very hot. One book states that an astonishing 35% of dogs who suffer from heat stroke experience seizures in the process; this may arise from cerebral edema (Wikipedia) or something else. I don't have comparable statistics for humans (I assume the mortality rates are better than the 50%+ I've seen quote for dogs), but it's clear that heat stroke can, and often will, cause seizures.  Again, though, these seizures - like febrile seizures - generally do not recur. They are distinct and separate from epileptic seizures. Therefore, our second question is still unanswered.  Countless forums (why people use all caps is beyond me) are full of stories of people with epilepsy suffering seizures purportedly due to heat stroke, heat exhaustion, or something similar. I'm assuming these are cases of exertional heat stroke. However, these seizures are not necessarily caused by epilepsy. They may be entirely coincidental. A person with epilepsy may have a seizure brought on by something unrelated to the primary cause of their epilepsy.  There are some exceptions - but they occur predominantly in children. I stated before that children who experience a febrile seizure are likely to never have another. This is true, but there are underlying conditions which may produce febrile seizures repeatedly, or, rather, make it more likely for heat-related seizures to occur. Two important ones are Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+) and Dravet syndrome, also known as Severe Myoclonic Epilepsy of Infancy (SMEI). The latter may be regarded as a special case of the former. Both are genetic, caused by mutations in the SCN1A gene; they may or may not be inheritable.  Essentially, mutations in SCN1A (or perhaps another gene) occasionally inhibits sodium channels from working properly, which in term can lead to a seizure. The links between high temperatures and the channels are more tenuous, though Sun et al. (2012) have suggested that in cases of GEFS+, heat may impact the voltage across the channels, further impacting their ability to properly function (see also Oakley et al. (2008), studying mice with Dravet Syndrome).  In conclusion, then, it appears that   Heat stroke can indeed cause seizures, especially in children and small animals. Fevers can have the same effects, and may be more severe. However, all of these seizures are normally one-time events. There are underlying diseases which result in epilepsy with heat sensitivity. Repeated febrile seizures may arise as a result. However, these are usually - though not always - limited to young children. Most people with epilepsy likely do not have to worry about being \"triggered\" by heat much more than most people do.   I do think that an appropriate analogy to draw here is with photosensitive epilepsy, as you did. While rapidly flashing lights can lead to a seizure, this is generally limited to a subset of those with epilepsy.    1 Hyperventilation is another possible seizure trigger, acting via a similar mechanism. I'm guessing you're more familiar with it.",
        "id": 1591,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to find a good (or appropriate) doctor",
        "body": "Your strategy is correct.  In my experience there is no other way, really, just keep looking. The signs of a good doctor are:   doctor is genuinely interested in your case and he/she is eager to explain you the particularities of your issue; doctor loves his/her work and tracks studies in the field; after the visit you feel much better, even though, no procedures were performed on you yet and you didn't take any medication.   I come from the country where doctor's are paid very badly by the state and are often incompetent. Yet, recently I saw that one doctor agreed to talk to a patient online off hours (to examine and clarify test results) and then made a visit off hours too. During the visit this doctor made pretty modest (in terms of money) prescriptions and talked a lot about the condition in order to educate the patient. This doc openly stated that she loved her job.  The above passage was just to tell you that there are doctors who love their job, even in not so good countries, regardless of remuneration they will do their best to help the patient and follow Hippocratic Oath.  While you seek for THE doctor, you are free to submit more specific questions here on this website. You are not alone.",
        "id": 573,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will Down's syndrome be ever reversible?",
        "body": "Reversing Down Syndrome in adults is not something being currently researched to my knowledge.   Alerting the DNA throughout the body of a person at this point is purely science fiction,  but even if it were possible the critical structures that were created due to the genetic mutation wouldn't just go away.   Take the simian crease in the hand of many with down syndrome.   If you altered the DNA of the entire person they'd still have the simian crease because it was established early in the early formation of the person as an embryo. The genes for creating a hand aren't re-expressed later.   More importantly, many of the brain structures and pathways are formed in early childhood and puberty and a genetic change after then would have little effect.   Genetic alteration research would first be focused on embryonic intervention,  but in not aware of any studies actively looking at that even.  Most research is focused on early detection,  causes/prevention,  and therapeutic intervention for mitigation of symptoms.  You can see none of the studies currently being conducted by the National Down Syndrome Society or the International Mosaic Down Syndrome Society are related to genetic intervention.  These may also give you a feel for the type of research (here, here, and here). ",
        "id": 1065,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can you increase melatonin?",
        "body": "Light  Light is a big factor in the circadian rhythm of melatonin production:     Melatonin secretion increases soon after the onset of darkness, peaks in the middle of the night (between 0200 and 0400 h) and gradually falls during the second half of the night. However, the melatonin rhythm can be acutely interrupted by exposure to light[1]   Thus, exposure to bright light should be reduced in the evenings to ensure melatonin production for nighttime.   Melatonin production is wavelength dependent and suppressed by blue light. [2] In one study, people were equipped with googles that excluded short wavelength light, while still being exposed to bright light, which resulted in melatonin production similar to what is produced in dim light. [1]   Nutrition  As for nutrition, melatonin is produced from tryptophan, an essential amino acid. It has been shown that eating tryptophan-rich foods increases melatonin production[4].     but the influence is minor if compared with the power of the light\u2013dark cycle   Foods rich in tryptophan are those rich in protein, because tryptophan is an amino acid:     chocolate, oats, dried dates, milk, yogurt, cottage cheese, red meat, eggs, fish, poultry, sesame, chickpeas, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, spirulina, bananas, and peanuts[5]    Supplements  Melatonin is also available as a supplement, and is used for various conditions to do with sleep (circadian rhythm sleep disorders,  delayed sleep phase syndrome, etc)[6] However, for normal sleepers, the effect on both sleep on onset and efficiency appears insignificant in meta-analysis of various studies on the subject[7]  Exercise  Exercise has an effect on melatonin levels. Timing this is important, however; in one study I found (short term, medium number of subjects) exercise in the evenings or at night was more beneficial compared to morning and afternoon[8], in another (short term study, few subjects) this was found for evening, but not for late evening/night exercise [9]  Summary  A combination of tryptophan-rich foods, exposure to bright light throughout the day and dimmed light (or at least avoidance of blue light in the evening), combined with exercise (possibly in the afternoon), probably works best for boosting natural melatonin production. ",
        "id": 614,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health benefits from giving blood?",
        "body": "This \"rumor\" is initially mostly based on a humor. According to humorism  your four juices might be out of balance or gone bad and that might prescribe a course of the ancient practice of bloodletting  to restore that balance, giving you a cure for almost anything.  Since modern medicine largely abandoned humorism as a theoretical framework this line of reasoning is no longer regarded as valid. If someting in your blood 'is bad', simply reducing the volume of it by loosing blood for this purpose \u2013 usually  \u2013  isn't beneficial at all. This historical detour is mainly directed towards the explanation given to you.    Modern medicine can still name you a quite useful list of benefits, reasons and explanations, but they seem to be more accurate than the ancient views:   You are doing something good to help others, being a benefactor usually makes you feel good. An inherent health benefit. You might have saved a life. or three. You get a health checkup, since nobody wants blood that doesn't meet certain standards, like not being infectious. And the first direct benefit you will get: it is quite beneficial for conditions associated with too much iron, like in reducing iron-overload (which can be quickly reached through certain foods or misuse of supplements) or even real diseases like hemochromatosis  (Obviously, anyone having iron deficit is excluded from benefiting. Males being the the main target for this potential benefit. But unexpectedly also beneficial for you if you have e.g.  certain infections like with Staphylococcus aureus of the antibiotic-resitant kind.) Quite a surprising result in a study (that needs replication): Back to past leeches: repeated phlebotomies and cardiovascular risk      BMC Medicine, Michalsen et al. demonstrated a dramatic improvement of   blood pressure, serum glucose and lipids after removing 550 to 800 ml   of blood in subjects with metabolic syndrome.  And:  One more health benefit of blood donation: reduces acute-phase reactants, oxidants and increases antioxidant capacity:     CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that blood donation affected   oxidative status and acute-phase reactants in donors. Blood donation   removes oxidants and decreases oxidative stress by elevating   antioxidant enzyme such as superoxide dismutase. This is one more   health benefit or reason why we should donate blood. Further   large-scale studies should evaluate this mechanism and compare the   same effect of wet cupping therapy.    Summing that up: go and donate (if you are accepted)!",
        "id": 1935,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Faint line on pregnancy test",
        "body": "Any line, including a very faint line, is considered a positive result on home pregnancy tests. To be sure, you may want to wait a couple of days (2 or 3) and then take another test. If you are pregnant, then the line should become darker.  One of the commons reasons for a faint line on a pregnancy test is because you could be very early in your pregnancy. Home pregnancy tests measure the amount of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which increases during the first few weeks of pregnancy, in the urine. It is possible that you are testing too early and the amount of hCG in your urine is not high enough to produce a full dark line. This can change in a matter of days, though. It is also possible that you have miscalculated when your period was due and tested too soon.  The pregnancy test itself could also cause a faint line. If your test has a low sensitivity, it would not pick up as low levels of hCG, and would return a faint line, rather than a dark one. You can usually check how sensitive the test is by checking the side of the box (note: a lower number is better). Your test could also have expired, causing it to not give accurate results.  Some medications do cause false positives on pregnancy tests, but you can rule this out yourself if you aren't taking any medications that raise hCG levels. It is also possible that you could have gone through a chemical pregnancy, a form of very early miscarriage, which would still cause a rise in hCG levels. Still, you should take another test in a few days, preferably with a more sensitive brand, and if you are still unsure about your results, you can consult your doctor.    Faint Line on Pregnancy Test  My home pregnancy test showed a faint line. Am I pregnant?",
        "id": 665,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health effects of wearing ear plugs at night, ear phones during the day",
        "body": "In a nutshell:   mechanical effects - earwax impaction in the auditory canal, external otitis noise exposure (i.e. songs) - some degree of hearing loss.   These are the possible consequences. It doesn't mean you are sure to have them.",
        "id": 1381,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What specialty of doctor should one see for recurrent fungal skin infections?",
        "body": "You can always start with a primary care physician.  Tinea is common, and there are multiple ways to treatment tinea infections that do not require a specialist.  A dermatologist might be warranted for extensive, invasive, multiple-treatment-resistant cases.  In which case the patient's immune system needs to be called into question (e.g. diabetes, HIV).  Infectious disease doctors are overkill for tinea, but the correct choice for HIV.",
        "id": 1841,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Safe alternatives to painkillers/nsaid?",
        "body": "I am really happy that I found Krill oil. It's an omega 3,6,9 oil made from krill. (a sea creature similar to shrimp but much smaller). It makes this choice the strongest choice in benefits of any fish oil, but no yucky taste if you burp. I can't take NSAIDS anymore, but I found that after a few days of taking krill oil, it works as an anti-inflammatory pain killer for me when I take an extra one when pain comes on. No side effects, no drug interactions.  Source:  National Institute of Health",
        "id": 1132,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is wearing eye blinds every night to sleep deleterious for the skin?",
        "body": "I think the answer to this questions would have to be: it depends. Certainly it could irritate skin for some people with very sensitive skin, or if they use blinds made of poor quality material or which contain something they're sensitive or allergic to, or if they absorb and retain sweat in hot weather. But otherwise, blinds are usually just a piece of cloth. It would be no different than wearing any other piece of clothing to bed that fit closely to your skin such as socks or pajamas for infants and small children. Granted, facial skin is often more sensitive than most other areas of the body, but infant skin is usually even more sensitive and infants have been sleeping in fitted pajamas for decades without ill effect.  I can find nothing indicating that eye blinds are known to be deleterious to the skin and can't think of any reason why they would be other than the possibilities I mentioned above.",
        "id": 731,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there current studies about long term development of WPW in children?",
        "body": "There are the following newer studies which are related to that one from 1990:   1992: Usefulness of predischarge electrophysiologic study in predicting late outcome after surgical ablation of the accessory pathway in the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, 1992: Diagnosis and localization of accessory pathways.     The WPW syndrome is a curable disease. The evolution of nonpharmacological methods of accessory pathway ablation has had a significant impact on management strategies in patients with arrhythmias mediated by accessory pathways. Despite an incidence of preexcitation in the general population of 0.1% to 0.3%, curative therapy is underutilized. This review has highlighted the traditional and newer methods of diagnosing and localizing accessory pathways.  1992: Wolff-Parkinson-White disease in childhood: follow up of 36 cases     We have studied 36 patients (19 females and 17 males), controlled between 1973 and 1989, who suffered Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) pattern in their electrocardiogram. Epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, therapeutic and evolutional data were reviewed. The mean age at the time of diagnosis was 4 years and 3 months, with 48% younger than six months of age. The average time for the follow-up period was 4 years and 2 months. There was not familiar occurrence. Six (16%) of the patients had associated heart disease. Seventeen (47%) had type A of WPW, 12 (33%) type B and 7 (20%) were not defined. An echocardiographic study was done in 20 patients (61%). Twenty-seven patients (75%) showed supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), which in 22 of these cases was the reason for seeking consultation. Children without SVT, 9 (25%), did not need any form of treatment. Twenty-four (889) of the patients with SVT required treatment to prevent recurrence. In the 27 studied episodes of SVT, Verapamil IV (55%) and vagal manoeuvres were the most efficient treatments. Seventeen (47%) of the patients presented a persistent WPW pattern and 11 (31%) experienced a normalization of their electrocardiogram with a mean time of 2 years-2 months.  1994: Surgical treatment of Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome in infants and children. 1998: Tuberous sclerosis complex and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.     Ten patients with concurrent diagnoses of Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome and tuberous sclerosis were identified. Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome presented early in life, nine cases being diagnosed in the first year. Eight of the 10 cases were male. In eight cases, the syndrome was associated with supraventricular tachycardias, and in nine with cardiac rhabdomyomata. One child died from cardiac failure secondary to obstruction of the left ventricular outflow tract by a rhabdomyoma. Five of nine survivors showed resolution of Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome on follow up.  2007: Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome in Ebstein's anomaly   There are no specific newer studies which relates to recurrence for patients given drugs compares to those without drugs, however study from 1992 has some follow-up of 36 cases of patients from 1973-1989 who suffered WPW which could be some interest for you.",
        "id": 3,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it mandatory to for a blood pressure patient to take medicines throughout the life span?",
        "body": "If you would prefer to not take medication for high blood pressure, then your doctor can assist with that as well.  They do not have to only write you a prescription.  If you are willing to meet with a nutritionist, that is a great start, then adding in cardio workouts and perhaps something for stress reduction, which can be anything from yoga to painting to walks in nature, whatever works for you, even meditation is great for many.  You should not start doing these things without monitoring your blood pressure ever though.  If you are seeking to make any major lifestyle changes while medicated, your doctor needs to be involved.  If you stay on the medication and manage to decrease your blood pressure, then you will be over-medicated.  If instead you do not decrease it the way you hoped, but reduce your medication, you are left at risk for stroke or other issues from improperly controlled high blood pressure.  So yes, there are people who come off the medications, with a doctors guidance and monitoring, but it is only safe to do so with that help in place.  I am all for doing the things you need to get healthy, but no one needs to die on the way to getting healthy.    http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/14/suppl_2/S99.full",
        "id": 1866,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a good reference for the history of medicine?",
        "body": "There are not too many books, it's kind of a censored topic.  The best work might be the Cambridge History of Medicine:  The Cambridge History of Medicine  Editor: Roy Porter  Date Published: June 2006 ISBN: 9780521682893",
        "id": 1137,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Who should take statins for prevention of heart disease and stroke?",
        "body": "I can offer a UK perspective on this, using guidelines from the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE): Cardiovascular disease: risk assessment and reduction, including lipid modification. There is also a useful summary here.  You mention the case of secondary prevention in cardiovascular disease (CVD), when statins are used in people who have already got a diagnosis of vascular disease (e.g. heart attack or stroke). In the context of primary prevention, determining whether or not to use a statin comes down to assessing the risk of cardiovascular disease.  Several factors influence the risk of cardiovascular disease, including diabetes, smoking, family history, hypertension, dyslipidaemia (high cholesterol), obesity, age and sex, amongst others.  We can estimate the risk using an algorithm such as QRisk (the main one in use in the UK). This provides a 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease. You can experiment with values to see the effect different variables have (smoking is particularly significant). This algorithm is based on studies and meta-analyses referenced on the linked site.   The NICE guidelines recommend this:     Offer lipid-modification therapy to people aged 84 years and younger   if their estimated 10-year risk of developing cardiovascular disease   (CVD) using the QRISK\u00ae2 assessment tool is 10% or more.   Certain disease, such as adults with type 1 diabetes, familial hypercholesterolaemia and chronic kidney disease are recommended to be prescribed a statin regardless of calculated risk.  A 10% 10-year CVD risk means that if we had 10 people exactly like the person in question in every way and followed them up over the next 10 years, we would expect 10 of them to have had a cardiovascular event (such as a heart attack or stroke).    Before easily accessible algorithms embedded in web apps, charts such as the one below were used. They are quite useful for showing the factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease risk.  ",
        "id": 504,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "It is well known that cigarette smoking makes Crohn's disease worse. Is it the nicotine or the toxins, or both?",
        "body": "As suggested by one small human study and one study in mice, nicotine might improve Crohn's disease in the colon but aggravate Crohn's disease in the small intestine.   Nicotine Enemas for Active Crohn's Colitis: An Open Pilot Study (Hindawi, 2008)     Thirteen patients with active rectosigmoid Crohn's diseae...were given 6\u2009mg   nicotine enemas, each day for 4 weeks... Mean Crohn's disease activity   index (CDAI) decreased from 202 to 153\u2014the score was reduced in 6   patients, unchanged in 3, and increased in one. Frequency of bowel   movements decreased in 8 patients and the sigmoidoscopy grade was   reduced in 7.   In a study in mice (PubMed, 2002) with chemically induced inflammatory bowel disease, nicotine (added into the drinking water) treatment improved inflammation of the colon but aggravated inflammation of the jejunum (a part of small intestine).  This evidence if far too weak to make any conclusions/recommendations but suggests that differences in the nicotine effect might be due to disease location (Effect of smoking on inflammatory bowel disease: Is it disease or organ specific? - PubMed, 2007).",
        "id": 2527,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What would happen to the body if the immune system failed to respond to a rhinovirus?",
        "body": "This was answered very well by @anongoodnurse in Biology.SE question What are the effects of the common cold in an immunodeficient person? plus there was a study by Bowden (1997) which indicated that:     rhinovirus was responsible for 25% of community-acquired VRIs [viral respiratory infections] among bone marrow transplant recipients.   In one small study by Greenberg (2003), rhinovirus in the immunocompromised led to significant mortality from lower respiratory infection:     Among high-risk patients with cancer, rhinovirus infections are often fatal. In a study of 22 immunocompromised blood and marrow transplant recipients who were hospitalized with rhinovirus infections, 7 (32%) developed fatal pneumonia. The remaining patients had infections confined to the upper respiratory tract. In 6 of the 7 fatal cases, rhinovirus had been isolated in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid or an endotracheal aspirate before death.   Note that this is in hospitalised patients; it says nothing of non-hospitalised patients.  This conclusion has been disputed according to @anongoodnurse, but it can be seen to corroborate Greenburg's 2003 study.  In a slightly larger study by Murali et al. (2009) among people with hematological cancers:     Respiratory viral pathogens are a common cause of morbidity in patients with hematologic malignancies. ...Both a rapid viral culture with direct fluorescence antibody (DFA) staining and a PCR-based assay (MultiCode-PLx Respiratory Virus Panel) were performed on patients with hematologic malignancies, who underwent collection of a nasopharyngeal swab or bronchoalveolar lavage from October 2006 to April 2007. Eighty-two samples from 70 patients were obtained; all patients had upper respiratory tract symptoms. Respiratory viruses were detected in 10 samples (12%) by conventional virological methods and in 31 samples (38%) by the MultiCode-PLx assay. ...40% of these patients had pneumonia in addition to the upper respiratory tract symptoms. [emphasis added]   @anongoodnurse noted that there is no mention of mortality, but that does not mean a proportion didn't die from pneumonia, just like Greenberg (2003) may have found that those with pneumonia had upper respiratory tract infections.  He may have just not mentioned it in light of the fact that he wanted to highlight the mortality rate of pneumonia in his cases.    @anongoodnurse summarised by saying     So long story short, they have stuffy, runny noses, sore throat, cough, etc. Clearly the virus itself causes damage to the mucosa; that is integral to viral replication. After entering a mucosal cell, the virus replicates, then the progeny virus is released by lysis of the cell. This damage itself causes inflammation (not the same as an immune reaction), pain, etc. The major difference seems to be a more severe and prolonged experience.   for which I would add that fatal pneumonia can develop from the prolonged infection of rhinovirus.     Rhinovirus infections, although usually limited to the upper respiratory tract, can extend beyond the oropharynx and may cause complications in the lower respiratory tract, including pneumonia (Imakita, et al. 2000).   References  Bowden, R. A. (1997). Respiratory virus infections after marrow transplant: the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center experience.\u00a0The American journal of medicine,\u00a0102(3), 27-30. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00007-7 pmid: 10868139  Greenberg, S. B. (2003). Respiratory consequences of rhinovirus infection.\u00a0Archives of internal medicine,\u00a0163(3), 278-284. doi: 10.1001/archinte.163.3.278  Imakita, M., Shiraki, K., Yutani, C., &amp; Ishibashi-Ueda, H. (2000). Pneumonia caused by rhinovirus.\u00a0Clinical infectious diseases,\u00a030(3), 611-612. doi: 10.1086/313723  Murali, S., Langston, A. A., Nolte, F. S., Banks, G., Martin, R., &amp; Caliendo, A. M. (2009). Detection of respiratory viruses with a multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay (MultiCode-PLx Respiratory Virus Panel) in patients with hematologic malignancies.\u00a0Leukemia &amp; lymphoma,\u00a050(4), 619-624. doi: 10.1080/10428190902777665 pmid: 19373660",
        "id": 2655,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a (quasi-)healthy way of resisting sleep?",
        "body": "The answer is \"really badly.\"  There are several drugs to treat ADHD that students are taking to improve focus and study all-nighters before exams.  But, this is a really unhealthy use of those medications.  You most probably will eventually crash (as you would say) because you have to.  This is your body's way of recovering from the damage you are imparting on it by skipping sleep.  It is clearly not a sustainable effort.  Human beings do need sleep for body repair, cognitive function and learning (yes sleep plays a key role in encoding information you have learned during the day).  I am not sure the long term effect of taking ADHD drugs for adults regarding impact on sleep has been studied.  This is probably because ADHD drugs are typically not aimed at adults to begin with, but to treat children with ADHD.  There has been some studies regarding ADHD children (medicated and unmedicated) and their respective sleep patterns vs control groups.  And, the results are not entirely conclusive as expressed in this one study.    The above, nevertheless, should not give one any comfort that using such ADHD drugs over the long term as adults to reduce chronically sleep requirement is safe. That's for a simple reason, attempting to reduce one's sleep requirement is downright unhealthy and dangerous by itself.    However, human beings differ.  A rare minority of the population (1% or 2% of the general population) are called \"short sleepers.\"  These fairly extraordinary individuals can fare very well with much less sleep than the rest of us (probably half the requirement or close to 3 or 4 hours a night instead of the regular 7-8 hours).  Unless, you are a true short sleeper any effort to cut on sleep is not a healthy idea.        ",
        "id": 566,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "We add Sodium with salt but not Potassium",
        "body": "Your kidneys will take care of that for you. They regulate the concentration of electrolytes in your blood. Usually, enough potassium is available in your food (e.g. coffee and bananas are rich in potassium) to prevent a potassium shortage.  Too much medical saline can cause hypernatraemia (too high concentration of sodium) and hypokalaemia (too low cencentration of potassium). However, one needs quite some quantities for that, and the balance is usually quite easily recovered by supplementing potassium.  TL:DR; don't worry about it.",
        "id": 1607,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are \"Class 2\" prescription TENS units any better than OTC TENS units?",
        "body": "No difference, some doctors like to prescribe a script to protect themselves under their medical documentation treating use a patient and also sometimes Insurance requires the script for the TENS unit to be paid for. However it is really easy to buy one on your own without a script on the internet the law is kind of Grey it's not set in stone but it's there to protect people under Medical Care",
        "id": 692,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Reheated pasta GI difference",
        "body": "What happens during cooling and reaheating pasta (or other starchy foods, such as potatoes or rice) is that some starch is converted into resistant starch. \"Resistant\" means resistant to digestion, like fiber.  Resistant starch is less  digestible, so it results in lower glucose spikes:     Replacing digestible starch with resistant starch induces a lower   blood glucose rise after a meal.   Because it's less digestible, it also contains less calories (~2 Cal/g).  Resistant starch is known for few decades, but I don't think it has became a popular way of controlling blood glucose levels or weight, at least not on medical diabetes sites...The preparation sounds complicated and there may be an issue with the taste...  One type of resistant starch is in cooled and reheated pasta; other types are in whole grain products, legumes, green bananas and in foods with added \"modified starch.\"",
        "id": 2375,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sex as a generic medical treatment modality?",
        "body": "Unquestionably, sexual activity has several benefits for the body and mind.    People who have a satisfactory sexual life tend to be happier, friendlier, calmer and sleep better. People who are happier, friendlier, calmer and sleep better, tend to need fewer medical appointments. Then again, sex is a touchy subject.  Unless you are a psychyatrist, most medical professionals would find it very difficult to find out if an individual patient has a regular and normal sexual life, and even more difficult if they are as pleasurable as they should be.  Trying to find out may induce some patients to lie. Worse than that, some may say the doctor is too nosy and never return.    Even if an occasionally uninhibited and outspoken patient says that they have no sexual activity and think they would be much happier if they did, to advise \"go and have sex to improve your general health or to help treat these disorders\" can be risky.  If the patient makes wrong choices and unexpected problems are created, malpractice actions may follow.   All a doctor can do is mention that pleasurable sexual activity is good for one's health. So are a good night's sleep and healthy meals, everybody knows that. I'm sure those who enjoy sex, and know where to get a good partner, will have it whenever they want.  For those who cannot find a partner or who do not enjoy sex at all, it's no use telling them to go and have it for the sake of their health. They simply won't.  ps - Even if a medical professional were sure some sort of sexual therapy would be of great benefit to an individual patient, any sort of prescription would have to be approved by the FDA or an official Secretary of Health.",
        "id": 189,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cold spray vs cold gel vs ice pack vs ice bath for tendinopathy",
        "body": "Please refer to this question for a discussion of the benefits of icing. (It is essentially of unproven benefit.)   There is another more effective therapy for tendinitis: stretching.   I have personally had patients with lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow) unresolved for six months that began a regimen of stretching like below and had their symptoms resolve completely within four days.  (1) Stretch the tendinitis in the direction that hurts the most. This means you have identified where the tendon needs to be more lax.   (2) Hold the stretch for OVER 20 SECONDS. This is the most important part. Most people stretch only long enough to inflame a tendinitis. You are aiming to stretch the fibers.   (3) Repeat multiple times a day. (We often said in medicine, every time a commercial comes on TV is a good reminder.) ",
        "id": 48,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dementia in late 30s, early 40s? Tests?",
        "body": "Before answering your question, let\u2019s first discuss some essential points:  What is dementia? As soon, somebody has \u201cmemory problems\u201d, a diagnosis of \u201cdementia\u201d comes in mind. However, the definition of dementia is much more complex. Dementia is a clinical syndrome of cognitive decline that is sufficiently severe to interfere with social or occupational functioning. Cognitive decline affects different cognitive function such as memory but also language, executive and visuospatial functions. The most frequent cause of dementia is Alzheimer Disease (AD). Other common causes are vascular dementia (VaD), dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) and fronto-temporal dementia (FTD).  Your question      \"determining if dementia can start to show signs in late 30s, early   40s\u201d   Dementia is a condition that can affect younger individuals. Dementia related conditions onset before 65 years of age are defined as \"Early-Onset Dementia\" (EOD) or \u201cPresenile Dementia\u201d. While AD, VaD and DLB are frequent causes of EOD, Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), Alcohol-associated Dementia (AAD), Huntington\u2019s disease (HD), Parkinson\u2019s disease Dementia (PDD), Mixed Dementia (MD) and Creutzfeldt-jakob disease (CJD) and Down\u2019s syndrome are other frequent causes.  Epidemiological findings about the prevalence of EOD are scarce. According to the existing epidemiological studies, the prevalence of EOD ranges from 4.9 to 8 per 100.000 (35-39 years) and 11.9 to 17 per 100.000 (40-44 years) in your specified age group (late 30s, early 40s).  While some of the above mentioned diseases can appear \u201cde novo\u201d (without know risk factor), patients suffering from EOD often have a positive family history for dementia related conditions.  Your question      \"if there's any definitive tests to diagnose dementia\u201d   As already mentioned, dementia is a clinical syndrome which is largely heterogenous in its clinical presentation, aetiology and underlying pathophysiology. As such, each type of dementia related conditions is defined by specific criteria which are based on clinical examination, neuropsychological assessments and neuroimaging studies.   The diagnosis of dementia is associated with important consequences for the patient. As such, in many countries, assessment of dementia is carried out by specialised clinics called \u201cMemory Clinic\u201d, where the patient is seen by a team of different specialists such as neurologist, psychiatrist and neuropsychologist. The patient undergoes a series of clinical (neurological and gait examination) and neuropsychological tests as well as a brain MRI (if no contra-indications) and/or PET Scan (depending on the presentation). The diagnosis of dementia is then discussed in a team composed of all the specialists.   In the last decades, the use of biomarkers (molecules which are specific \u201cmarkers\u201d of a disease) in the cerebrospinal fluid for example are investigated as potential \u201cmarkers\u201d to diagnose a specific dementia related conditions. This has however still to be confirmed in the next decades.  Concerning your experience:  It is of course difficult to draw a conclusion on what happened to you but I hope that the above points brought some clarifications. Additionally, bear in mind that memory is a complex cognitive function that relies on elaborated neuronal cortical networks and is influenced by other cognitive functions such as for example attention. A lack of attention or concentration can impact on the process of memory. This can for example happen in stress situation or emotional situation. Finally, some drugs may also interfere with the process of memory. As such, there are other possible factors that could explain some \u201cblackouts\u201d, that probably many individuals experience without necessarily suffering from dementia. If, in the previous mentionned points, you see a so called \"red flag\" (problems in other cognitive areas, impact on social or occupational functioning, risk factors such as positive family history) which concerns your own history, you may wish to consider seeing your family doctor.  Sources:   Dickerson, B. and Atri, A. at al. Dementia: Comprehensive Principles and Practice. Oxford University Press. 2014. (an excellent reference book for dementia) Plassman, B.L. et al. \u201cPrevalence of Dementia in the United States: The Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study.\u201d Neuroepidemiology 29.1-2 (2007): 125\u2013132 Vieira RT et al. Epidemiology of early-onset dementia: a review of the literature. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2013 Jun 14;9:88-95. Vieira, Renata Teles et al. \u201cEpidemiology of Early-Onset Dementia: A Review of the Literature.\u201d Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health\u202f: CP &amp; EMH 9 (2013): 88\u201395. Gabrieli JD et al. Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Annual Review of Psychology. Vol. 49: 87-115 ",
        "id": 1036,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is effect of wifi signal for the health?",
        "body": "There are studies which support the idea that WiFi frequencies (and others) affect sperm and fertility, and there are studies which say the opposite.Studies in support of the theory The Singaporean Men's Health Website linked to in your question talked about a study published in Fertility and Sterility found that electromagnetic frequencies \u2013 such as those from Wi-fi \u2013 can kill sperm. This study was conducted by Agarwal et al. (2009).  Even more horrifying are studies by De Iuliis et al. (2009) and Blank &amp; Goodman (2011) which can be reported to have found that radio frequencies create EMF interactions with DNA as DNA has properties consistent with acting as an antenna.     The wide frequency range of interaction with EMF is the functional characteristic of a fractal antenna, and DNA appears to possess the two structural characteristics of fractal antennas, electronic conduction and self symmetry. These properties contribute to greater reactivity of DNA with EMF in the environment, and the DNA damage could account for increases in cancer epidemiology, as well as variations in the rate of chemical evolution in early geologic history.   When taken in context, the report states that:     EMF interactions with DNA are similar over a range of non-ionising frequencies, i.e., extremely low frequency (ELF) and radio frequency (RF) ranges. There are similar effects in the ionising range, but the reactions are more complex.   So it is not just radio frequencies which can affect DNA.  Frequencies much lower can also affect it, and therefore, the risks from radio frequencies are also mitigated by frequencies outside of radio and WiFi etc.  Semantic Scholar has a PDF List of References Reporting Fertility and/or Reproduction Effects from EMF or RF (with abstracts) and it mentions both of these articles  Studies which say the opposite  There is only one study which I personally found which states the opposite and that is a Doctoral dissertation by Joseph Martin (2011) stating that:       [T]he data results strongly suggest that there is no statistically significant difference between post ejaculatory sperm cells exposed to radio frequency radiation in the 2,400MHz range and those that are not.   However Agarwal et al. balanced their report by stating that     Due to methodologic variations, interpretations of studies regarding DNA damage are complicated. Aitken et al. (2005) demonstrated that exposure of mice to RF-EMW, 900 MHz, 12 h/day for 7 days led to damage to the mitochondrial genome and nuclear beta-globin locus of epididymal spermatozoa. In contrast,Stronati et al. (2006) demonstrated no significant DNA damage in human lymphocytes exposed to RF-EMW at SAR of 1 and 2 W/kg for 24 h. Results of other studies are equally conflicting   then referenced the 9 other studies.  References  Agarwal, A., Desai, N. R., Makker, K., Varghese, A., Mouradi, R., Sabanegh, E., &amp; Sharma, R. (2009). Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertility and sterility, 92(4), 1318-1325. DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.08.022 PMID: 18804757  Aitken, R. J., Bennetts, L. E., Sawyer, D., Wiklendt, A. M., &amp; King, B. V. (2005). Impact of radio frequency electromagnetic radiation on DNA integrity in the male germline. International journal of andrology, 28(3), 171-179. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2605.2005.00531.x PMID: 15910543  Blank, M., &amp; Goodman, R. (2011). DNA is a fractal antenna in electromagnetic fields. International Journal of radiation biology, 87(4), 409-415. DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2011.538130 PMID: 21457072  De Iuliis, G. N., Newey, R. J., King, B. V., &amp; Aitken, R. J. (2009). Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PloS one, 4(7), e6446. DOI: 10.1371/annotation/9a8a0172-3850-4059-b852-72c330769c1b PMCID: PMC2714176 PMID: 19649291  Martin, J. (2011). Short-term Exposure to Radio Frequency Radiation Appears to Have Little Effect on Sperm Cell Function (Doctoral dissertation)Retrievable from https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/22831/Martin_Joseph_HonorsThesis.pdf  Stronati, L., Testa, A., Moquet, J., Edwards, A., Cordelli, E., Villani, P., ... &amp; Lloyd, D. (2006). 935 MHz cellular phone radiation. An in vitro study of genotoxicity in human lymphocytes. International journal of radiation biology, 82(5), 339-346. DOI: 10.1080/09553000600739173 PMID: 16782651 ",
        "id": 2277,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Anatomy of Knee Locking That Heals in Weeks",
        "body": "   As I can't see you in person.  This is by no means a Dx, please see a physician or physical therapist as soon as possible.  They will be   able to perform an evaluation to determine the extent of the injury     You cannot treat this yourself you MUST see a specialist.    This is only an idea of what may be going on, I cannot tell without an eval.   https://flexcin.com/6-telltale-signs-your-knee-injury-is-serious/ https://www.coreconcepts.com.sg/condition/the-buckling-knee/    ",
        "id": 1793,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are patients with hidradenitis suppurativa overweight due to the disease itself?",
        "body": "The best theory relating the two things I've seen is that HS is caused by high GI, Carb or dairy diet which also can cause obesity.  The sores form mostly where there's friction of skin and being overweight can exacerbate that.",
        "id": 948,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Might there be symptom-less cell damage from rapid hydration?",
        "body": "In water intoxication, cells do not burst but swell. This can lead to swelling of the entire organs; the most dangerous is brain swelling, which is the usual cause of death.  Transitional cell or organ swelling is not already a damage. Brain swelling is different because the swollen brain presses hardly against the skull, which can cause damage.   When you drink excessive amounts of water and do not experience any symptoms within the next 24 hours, it is very unlikely that any permanent damage has occurred in your body. But if you experience symptoms, such as headache, vomiting, confusion, seizures or impaired consciousness, you might later have chronic symptoms related to the brain damage, for example, depression and loss of appetite (PubMed, 2016).      Drinking large amounts of water is dangerous only if it results in dilutional hyponatremia - a drop of sodium in the blood, which results in the flux of water from the blood into the cells. This more likely happens if you:   are already well hydrated and drink excessive amount of water several hours in the row (so the kidneys have no time to excrete it) do not consume any sodium from foods or beverages (but common commercial sport drinks, such as Gatorade, may not contain enough sodium to prevent hyponatremia) have low body weight (children and women are at higher risk) exercise, which, in some people, increases secretion of the antidiuretic hormone (which causes water retention) sweat only little   From the above reasons, the amount of water that causes water intoxication is not a fixed number. Examples:   A 22-year old man drinking 6 liters in 3 hours, was in coma, survived after treatment (PubMed, 2013) A 40-year old woman drinking over 4 liters in less than 2 hours, died (BBC News, 2008)    According to Current U.S. Military Fluid Replacement Guidelines (2003), an adult person should not drink more than 1.5 liters of water per hour during exercise.  Sources:   Exercise Associated Hyponatremia (Clinical Journal of American Society of Nephrology, 2007) Water Intoxication\u2014Considerations for Patients, Athletes and Physicians (Practical Gastroenterology, 2008) ",
        "id": 2677,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is there not enough research on heart stent and exercise?",
        "body": "Why is there not enough research on heart stent and exercise?  There is research of stents and exercise! How much is enough?  In fact there are exercise programmes, known as cardiac rehabilitation designed to help those who have had some forms of cardiac disease or procedures-- including stent insertions. Cardiac rehabilitation has evidence to suggest that it is a beneficial programme for those who have suffered eg heart attacks or who who have had stents.   There is evidence to suggest that exercise shortly following stent insertion is safe too; though perhaps inadvisable in the context of having a sore groin from the femoral access used.  Certain types of exercise, such as high-intensity interval training (HIIT) may protect stent function, though it should be noted that the study that suggested this had a relatively small sample size. It may have other beneficial effects, but again note 1) small sample size and 2) a surrogate marker (heart rate variability (HRV)).  It should be reasonable to conclude that other factors notwithstanding some forms of exercise is not harmful in and of itself following a stent. Of course, context is everything- if those 'other factors' were that a person who has had a stent is terribly unfit and so has very poor heart function, or has other significant co-morbidities, or similar it may not be safe for them to exercise!  And so to the next point:  Why isn't there research to say if me running this marathon is safe? Why wouldn't my doctor tell me it's safe to run in the LA marathon?  'Why' questions can be tricky to answer; but in brief it may be tricky to do good, conclusive research as to whether having a stent affects marathon running. Research or trial design is a very broad topic to go into (it's a science unto itself), but it's hard to do well at the best of times. In this particular case there are several potential pitfalls.  Stent or not, some people die during marathons. This may be due to cardiac arrest or in the context of sudden cardiac death.  So, say you have someone who sadly dies during a marathon, and they have a stent. How do you work out whether they died due to it not being safe to run because they have a stent, or for another reason? Stent or not, were they fit to run- are they a previously fit-and-healthy individual with a background of running before their procedure, or were they a sedentary individual who had a heart attack out the blue and leapt 'off the couch' to get fit after they had to have stents put in?  In the absence of evidence, it's a judgement call. I can't and wouldn't wish speak for your doctor, but if they were to tell you that based on you being previously fit and well, and that you are doing well following the procedure you should be fine; if you then were to have something adverse happen, you may decide they had advised you poorly.  That being said, there is a programme for those with stents (and other medical devices) to be sponsored to enter a marathon; I am not affiliated with them. It's also worth pointing out that one of the requirements is that the putative runner:     Certify they have consulted with a physician who deems the runner medically fit to participate in the race.   So there you go. Run safe.    Citations and Further Reading  Cardiac rehabilitation-  NHS info and a linked British Heart Foundation guide  Impact of Cardiac Rehabilitation on Mortality and Cardiovascular Events After Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in the Community  Early exercise after coronary stenting is safe  High-intensity interval training may reduce in-stent restenosis following percutaneous coronary intervention with stent implantation : A randomized controlled trial evaluating the relationship to endothelial function and inflammation  High-intensity interval exercise training improves heart rate variability in patients following percutaneous coronary intervention for angina pectoris.  Marathon-related cardiac arrest  Cardiac Arrest during Long-Distance Running Races  Risk for sudden cardiac death associated with marathon running",
        "id": 1629,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "High skin melanoma incidence in Australia and New Zeland",
        "body": "One of the causes of melanoma is exposure to UV radiation [1], and Australia is a sunny place!  This reference is also helpful:   \"Australia has one of the highest skin cancer incidence and mortality rates in the world. The reason for these high rates is due in part to the high ambient solar UV levels, combined with a predominately susceptible fair skinned population. With a population of just over 20 million, over 1700 Australians die from skin cancer each year. At least two in three Australians will be diagnosed with skin cancer before the age of 70 and over 400 000 Australians are treated for skin cancer each year.\" [2] Sinclair, C.; Foley, P. \"Skin cancer prevention in Australia\". British Journal of Dermatology. 161: 116\u2013123 (2009)",
        "id": 1862,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to ice a part of the body when falling asleep?",
        "body": "You should not leave ice on a area for over 20 minutes unless instructed that you can by your doctor. This info is given by a Nursing Assistant Textbook. So you could place the ice before going to bed and set a timer to remind you of 20 minutes  passing.   According to this site, further details are:      The tissue thickness of the injured area determines the length of the   ice application. Knees require 15 minutes, while thicker tissue, such   as the quadriceps and hamstrings, requires 20 minutes. Thinner tissue,   such as ankles and feet, requires approximately 10 minutes. Dont   exceed the appropriate time frame. Allow one hour following numbing   before reapplying ice.   The above source should be utilized for placement time amounts. As for protecting the area the amount of time the ice is on and the temperature are what matter in placement. Placing the ice and area between a blanket would allow for possible longer placement, but having only a thin tissue between the same temperature would posdibly indicate a shorter time.   Another site:     If you choose to use an ice bag containing ice and water of your own   mix understand that it is possible to create an ice bag that is too   cold and can damage the skin with a \"cold burn\". Use a layer or two of   damp Turkish towels under this type of ice bag. ",
        "id": 1075,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mental health vs mental illness",
        "body": "Mental health is the term used for the field that includes mental illnesses.  They aren't exclusive or opposing terms, they're used differently.  https://www.mentalhealth.gov/basics/what-is-mental-health",
        "id": 2243,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a cytoscopy be performed partially?",
        "body": "It is prudent to obtain imaging studies to evaluate the relationship of the cyst with the urethra.  Imaging studies are often done by radiologists, though some urologists do some imaging studies as well. Imaging studies include voiding cystourethrograms, MRIs, ultrasounds, etc. From Penile Lumps:      imaging is often required to confirm the diagnosis.   From Epidermoid cyst of the penis: A case report and review of the literature     The differential diagnosis of cystic structures in the genital region includes an extensive range of conditions. Among the more serious diseases, urethral diverticula and urethrocutaneous fistula are important, but can usually be ruled out by both physical examination and the conditions evident upon voiding. When the diagnosis remains questionable, a voiding cystourethrogram should be obtained.   The above prove nothing, really, because we can't know the precise reason for your urologist wanting to directly examine the urethra (I presume the first cystoscopy was for the same reason?) However, you should be able to ask your doctor any questions you have.  If all they want to do is have a look at the urethra (for whatever reason), it's completely reasonable that they stick to the area around the cyst. If they're looking for a connection between the urethra and the cyst, a VCU would seem to be a more prudent choice.  It is hard to code for a partial procedure (e.g. a look at only part of the urethra), and therefore difficult to charge the patient/their insurance. There is no code for \"distal urethroscopy\". As crass as it may sound, that might be the reason for the stated desire to do a cystoscopy.  It's your body to defend against what might be an unnecessary procedure. If you don't get a satisfactory answer, a second opinion may be in order.  If a urologist could answer this question, that would be terrific.",
        "id": 527,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is eating dirt good?",
        "body": "According to Dr. Sera Young of Cornell University, the most likely of the theories is that eating mud protects the body from pathogens, parasites, and plant toxins. It's suspected to be due to the clay's ability to bind things \u2014 perhaps the clay is binding the toxins before they can make you sick. This theory would explain why children and pregnant women are the most common dirt eaters; they are the most susceptible to illness. Clay may even have properties that protect against malaria.  http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Diet/story?id=1167623&amp;page=1",
        "id": 1267,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Just learned the previous two owners of the house I bought died of cancer, should I be worried?",
        "body": "Currently, about 20% of people die of cancer.  As our ability to cure things that aren't cancer gets better, that number will only go up.  If you compute the probabilities, it turns out that for ever five houses where the previous four occupants died while living there, one of those houses will have had two or more occupants die of cancer (exact odds: 18.08%).  In short, what you've encountered is only slightly more unusual than flipping a coin twice and having it come up \"tails\" both times.",
        "id": 1771,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are backboards no longer used as spinal immobilization devices?",
        "body": "I took a quick look at the National Registry site, and their practice tests still show protocols and usage questions for backboard application, so if it is a new national EMS policy, then it isn't showing on the tests.  However, I was able to find a couple of articles on EMSWorld and on JEMS (Journal of Emergency Medical Services) citing current research that shows:   Increase pain/pressure with backboards Increased constriction of breathing with backboards (Due to the straps) Increased airway compromise with collars and backboards (Exacerbated in patients with COPD and other breathing compromises) Increased inability for patients to protect their own airway   The American Heart Association has noted from a 2010 study, that in drowning victims      Routine c-spine immobilization is a Class III (potentially harmful) unless clear trauma is evident in the history or exam, because it may unnecessarily delay or impede ventilations. Writeup   And as of March 2014, at least some of the EMS groups in Kansas were moving away from using backboards in the field.  TL; DR: I can't find it as an official policy, so I would suspect that much like Kansas, it is a local EMS policy decision based on some of the most current research on the subject.",
        "id": 673,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cases of pregnancy due to pre-seminal fluid",
        "body": "This article should give an idea of the likelihood of pregnancy based on the number of sperm available. If you look at the graph of the Probability of Conception vs. the Sperm Concentration, it shows that at more than 10 million sperm/mL (or around 30-40 million total sperm, estimating average semen volume to be 3-4 mL), the probability of conception per month quickly reaches a plateau, while at under this concentration there is a roughly linear drop in the probability of conception to zero at zero sperm. Another study shows a high variability in the number of sperm present in pre-ejaculate. Of the 28 men tested, only 12 produced any detectable sperm in their pre-ejaculate at all. Of these 12, the sample with the highest number of sperm contained 35 million (subject 17). If this man consistently produced this many sperm in his pre-ejaculate, I would estimate the probability of him causing conception per month as 35 million divided by 35 million (from above) multiplied by ten percent, i.e., 10%/month.  In other words, it is possible, according to these studies, for pre-ejaculate to cause pregnancy. However, this evidence also suggests that some men, if their lack of sperm in pre-ejaculate is consistent, may be unable to cause pregnancy in this way.",
        "id": 308,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I describe my eye weakness (disease) to a doctor?",
        "body": "I'm quite sure the description you give here is enough for a doctor.   Please take a look at this: http://www.webmd.com/eye-health/benign-eye-floaters  WebMD is a reliable source. They state:     If you only have a few eye floaters that don't change over time, don\u2019t   sweat it.      Go to the doctor ASAP if you notice:         A sudden increase in the number of floaters    Flashes of light    A loss ofside vision Changes that come on quickly and get worse over time   Floaters after eye surgery or eye trauma Eye pain          Choose a doctor who has experience with retina problems. If you don\u2019t get help right away, you could lose your sight. ",
        "id": 1410,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much would a man 9'6\" (3m) tall likely weigh?",
        "body": "Consider this ideal weight calculator for example. For a 25 yo male with a height of 9'6'' (289 cm), the optimal weight should be around 342 - 462 pounds (155kg - 210kg).  By the way, the tallest man ever was only 8'11'' (272cm) tall (see here).  You might want to read about BMI",
        "id": 2318,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Alternative to caffeine - same effects, different chemical",
        "body": "There is a substance similar to caffeine - theobromine, found in cocoa. They are chemically similar, and have some similar effects*:    the formula above shows theobromine,    and this is caffeine.  Of course, there is the concern if you react like you described to one xanthine derivative (caffeine), would you react in a similar way to another compound from this group. Also the atypical reaction to caffeine might be something you want to have checked further (i.e. consult a physician about it).   There are many chemicals (some found in various herbs) that have various sorts of stimulating effects on the central nervous system, but tampering with the CNS can be very dangerous, and indeed many of these substances have serious side effects, far more serious than caffeine.    An aside: depending on how alert one needs to be, a lemonade can be a quick home remedy: water will keep you hydrated (necessary for alertness), sugar (or honey) will keep your brain \"fueled\", vitamins will help your metabolic processes, and sour taste does have a short-term awakening effect. Of course, like with anything, moderation is the key.    *Various research papers show controversial results regarding the stimulating effects on theobromine (some show some effect, some don't, and some show opposite effects in certain doses). They mostly agree that the effects are weaker than in caffeine, dose dependent, and may depend on previous use of products containing caffeine and/or theobromine. (see ref 4, 5 and 6). Ref:   Drug Bank 4.3 Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases at United States Department of Agriculture Formulae from Wikipedia Hendrik J. Smit, Elizabeth A. Gaffan, Peter J. Roger: Methylxanthines are the psycho-pharmacologically active constituents of chocolate, Psychopharmacology, November 2004, Volume 176, Issue 3, pp 412-419 Geoffrey K. Mumford, Suzette M. Evans, Barbara J. Kaminski, Kenzie L. Preston, Christine A. Sannerud, Kenneth Silverman, Roland R. Griffiths: Discriminative stimulus and subjective effects of theobromine and caffeine in humans, Psychopharmacology, June 1994, Volume 115, Issue 1, pp 1-8 Matthew J. Baggott, Emma Childs, Amy B. Hart, Eveline de Bruin, Abraham A. Palmer, Joy E. Wilkinson, Harriet de Wit: Psychopharmacology of theobromine in healthy volunteers, Psychopharmacology DOI 10.1007/s00213-013-3021-0 ",
        "id": 411,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does relighting a cigarette have a harsher effect on your health?",
        "body": "This appears to be from a very old study     The rate of chronic bronchitis among relighters (39\u00b77%) was higher than the rate (32\u00b79%) among the remaining cigarette smokers. The difference was of high statistical significance (P&lt;0\u00b7001), and the same pattern was maintained when age and consumption were standardized. After allowing for a trend towards lower social class and a preference for plain as opposed to filter cigarettes the rate of chronic bronchitis among relighters was about 15% greater than that of the remaining cigarette smokers.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1610789/  And there doesn't appear to be any subsequent study that replicates the findings rendering the findings preliminary.",
        "id": 2217,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does CO2 laser treatment work well with acne scars?",
        "body": "CO2 laser treatments work by vaporizing the damaged skin cells. After the procedure, you will need to take medication to reduce swelling in your eyes, but you can also ease the swelling by elevating your head when sleeping. You will be itchy for 12-72 hours after the procedure. For the next week, your skin will get dry and peel. Your face will also be red for 2-3 months after the procedure. Other side effects are burns from the laser, scarring, and changes in your skin's pigmentation.  Is it worth it?  It can cost upwards of $2000, but it does seem to work. The burning or scarring from the laser are unlikely, so it is up to you to decide. If you want more reviews go here.    WebMD - Laser Resurfacing",
        "id": 18,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calculate blood coming out from cut blood vessel per minute",
        "body": "You can use the formula for blood vessel flowrate by accounting heart rate and radius using flow rate formula: Q=\u0394P/R  Wherein; flow rate (volume/time); \u0394P = pressure difference (mm Hg); and R = resistance to flow (mm Hg x time/volume).  \"This equation may be applied not only to a single vessel, but can also be used to describe flow through a network of vessels (i.e., the vascular bed of an organ or the even your entire systemic circulatory system). It is known that the resistance to flow through a cylindrical tube or vessel depends on several factors (described by Poiseuille) including: 1) radius, 2) length, 3) viscosity of the fluid (blood), and 4) inherent resistance to flow\"  In practicality, these parameters will be difficult to measure. We also have to take into account that over time the heart rate will increase and blood vessel diameter will decrease as a compensatory mechanism against blood loss.  Source: University of minnesota; atlas of human cardiac anatomy  http://www.vhlab.umn.edu/atlas/physiology-tutorial/blood-flow.shtml",
        "id": 2457,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "\"Narrow\" Pure Androgen-secreting Adrenocortical Adenoma",
        "body": "These patients were all female, and the tumors are described as exceedingly rare.  Were you looking for males?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14668717     METHODS:   A retrospective chart review from January 1946 through November 2002 identified 11 female patients with pure androgen-secreting adrenal tumors.      RESULTS:   The mean age was 23.4 years (range, 1-52). The most common presenting symptoms were hirsutism, acne, and clitoral enlargement. Elevated 17-ketosteroids were found in seven of nine tested patients. Computed tomogram, ultrasound, or both localized tumors in six of seven patients. All tumors were surgically resected, one laparoscopically, all without complications. Five of the 11 tumors were malignant. Mean weight and mean maximal diameter for benign and malignant tumors were 44 g and 4.2 cm and 232 g and 9.8 cm, respectively. Mean hospital stay was 8.5 days, with excess androgen production resolved in all patients. Recurrence and disease-related death occurred in only one patient who had pulmonary metastases at diagnosis. The remaining patients had no recurrence of tumor at mean follow-up of 11.7 years (range, 0.5-32 years). ",
        "id": 209,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the earliest research indicating tobacco products are addictive and/or harmful to the users health?",
        "body": "It very much depends on what you mean by evidence, but if you're talking about major studies that produced meaningful results that actually captured people's attention, it was a series of case-control studies in 1950's, followed by a fair amount of more intensive research in the late 1950's and early 1960's.  It's a somewhat technical paper, but this paper describes both some of the early results, the medical research community's reactions to them, and the broader impacts on medical research as a field.",
        "id": 145,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If your brain tells you that you hear ringing in you ears, tininitus, why is it so difficult to tell it to stop?",
        "body": "Interesting research offers a possible explanation as to why, even when exposed to the same external harmful noise stimulus, some individuals will develop tinnitus and other individuals will not. Extrapolating findings from research on animals may reveal why some people develop tinnitus while others do not.  Animals were exposed to a noise stimulus with the intention of destroying their hearing hair cells:     All nine noise-exposed rats showed similar patterns of severe hair cell loss at high- and mid-frequency regions in the exposed ear.   Subsequently, some of the rats expressed a protein in nervous system cells called GAP-43:     Eight of the nine showed strong up-regulation of GAP-43 in auditory nerve fibers and pronounced shrinkage of the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) on the noise-exposed side, and strong up-regulation of GAP-43 in the medial ventral VCN, but not in the lateral VCN or the dorsal cochlear nucleus.   The GAP-43 protein appeared to be protective in preventing tinnitus:     GAP-43 up-regulation in VCN was significantly greater in Noise-No-Tinnitus rats than in Noise-Tinnitus rats.   It appears that this protein may work in suppressing tinnitus:     GAP-43 up-regulation most likely originates from medial olivocochlear neurons. Their increased excitatory input on inhibitory neurons in VCN may possibly reduce central hyperactivity and tinnitus.   Thus take-home points are as follows:  \u25feSome animals did not develop tinnitus after exposure to a loud noise which caused hearing loss, likely because they produced a molecular response that appeared to suppress hyperactivity of auditory neurons that may cause tinnitus.  \u25feA similar mechanism may explain why some people with severe hearing loss acquire tinnitus but others do not.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/21821100/",
        "id": 1442,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What nutritional flaws are there in an amino-diet?",
        "body": "The appropriate diet must contain at least all essential nutrients:    Water 9 amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, threonine, valine 2 fatty acids (alpha linolenic and linoleic acid) Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, folic acid, biotin, B12, choline, C, D, E and K Minerals: calcium, chromium, chloride, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, sodium, zinc   The Nationalacademies.org has tables of estimated average requirements for most nutrients.  The absence of essential nutrients, especially vitamin B1 and C, iron, potassium and zinc, can lead to nutrient deficiencies within a few months (MDEdge). Symptoms may include fatigue, mental changes, brittle nails, dermatitis, gum bleeding, etc.  Fiber is not an essential nutrient, but can greatly contribute to bowel regularity and can have other health benefits, such as lower blood glucose peaks after meals and better intestinal health.  Most of conventional dietary guides, such as Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015, will tell you it is better to eat natural foods than supplements and extracts.  In the U.S., it is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that dis/approves foods on the basis of the toxin content.  Some people believe that, apart from proven toxins, certain substances or foods are not good for them, based on how they feel after eating that food, for example. This may be an appropriate position, which can be judged by the presence or absence of peace in a given person, and may not be dis/proven by studies.  Anyone who claims that certain foods contain toxins needs to provide some reliable evidence about their harmful effects to be convincing. But then, it's all about what and whom someone believes.",
        "id": 2584,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What causes elevated liver function tests in a young asymptomatic patient?",
        "body": "Two important questions:   Has AST/ALT elevation been present only once in blood sample? Is the elevation more than 3x the upper limit?   Basis for \"normal\" values should be understood. \"Normal\" values indicate confidence interval which includes 95% of healthy individuals. As so, any blood test with slightly elevated value may be normal, since all healthy individuals does not belong to the 95% confidence interval on which the \"normal\" values are based. As so you should not be automatically concerned if your blood level is above \"normal\".  Of course this does not imply that fact that you should refer to your GP for more information and further investigation.",
        "id": 16,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is episodic use of infliximab associated with a higher incidence of antibody formation towards the drug?",
        "body": "Depending on viewing angle: We might observe nothing more than an artefact of measuring antibodies.   If we assume that not all patients form antibodies at the same incidence rate but all patients with the same probability and one and same patient at a constant rate then a quite simple effect of immunogenicity might be observed: in constant administration antibodies are just used up at a constant rate, being active and bound, but not free and measurable. In episodic treatment the rate of antibody production then leads to more free antibodies (not used up) to measure \u2013 and immediately available for action against the biologic, once that is re-introduced to the system.   Thus a simple rephrasing of the introductory quote from the question might read     Interruption of scheduled maintenance anti-TNF therapy or episodic therapy has consistently been associated with higher rates of antibody formation detection.   A recent paper summarises the situation as:     Treatment options include biologic therapies; however, a proportion of patients lose response to biologics, partly due to the formation of anti-drug antibodies (ADAbs). Concomitant immunosuppressive agents reduce the development of ADAbs.      A comprehensive literature search was conducted for articles published January 2009 to August 2015 reporting immunogenicity to adalimumab (ADM), certolizumab pegol (CZP), golimumab, infliximab (IFX), ustekinumab, and vedolizumab in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).       In most of the included studies that evaluated efficacy, the presence of ADAbs was associated with a reduction in efficacy. Efficacy was assessed in a variety of ways, including Crohn\u2019s Disease Activity Index (CDAI) response/remission, Mayo response, endoscopic improvement and treatment discontinuation. In studies of IFX, the proportion of patients achieving and maintaining a response was generally lower for patients with detected ADAbs than those without detected ADAbs ( Supplementary Table 7). ADAbs to ADM were also associated with reduced efficacy and a loss of response, together with a high rate of secondary treatment failure; these associ-ations were shown to be statistically significant in some studies ( Supplementary Table 8). In one study,26 discontinuation of ADM treatment was reported to be very high (83.3%) in patients with ADAbs ( Supplementary Table 8).      The timing of sampling (prior to or just after the next administration) greatly influences the detection rate. Most assays do not detect ADAbs in the presence of drug; since drug concentration is the lowest just before the next infusion, this is the optimal time to sample. This might be one explanation for the formation of ADAbs being reported to be lower in RCTs than in observational studies. Often, a limited number of time points were studied, and insufficient time was allowed for drug levels to decrease prior to sampling. However, it is also likely that improved assay techniques used in observational studies, together with the selection of patients with loss of response, led to higher levels of detection of ADAbs than in RCTs.      S\u00e9verine Vermeire &amp; Ann Gils &amp; Paola Accossato &amp; Sadiq Lula &amp; Amy Marren: \"Immunogenicity of biologics in inflammatory bowel disease\", Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2018; 11: 1756283X17750355. Published online 2018 Jan 21. doi: 10.1177/1756283X17750355, PMCID: PMC5784568, PMID: 29383030.   The above is just hopefully informed speculation, though, based on the lack of information in the studied papers as to how antibodies were measured. That is whether all of these possible values were taken: antigen concentration, the antigen-antibody complex concentration, the free antibody and/or total antibody concentrations.     The antigen-antibody reaction is widely used in laboratory diagnostics, including immunohaematology. It is a reversible chemical reaction:      antigen + antibody \u21c4 antigen - antibody\u2009complex      The forces joining the antigen-antibody complex are not strong covalent bonds but weaker bonds, appropriately named \u201cweak interactions\u201d.   Roberto Reverberi &amp; Lorenzo Reverberi: \"Factors affecting the antigen-antibody reaction\", Blood Transfus. 2007 Oct; 5(4): 227\u2013240. doi: 10.2450/2007.0047-07 PMCID: PMC2581910, PMID: 19204779   Chasing a wild goose: Even more speculative might be the thought that in these processes an effect of continuous reinforcement versus intermittent reinforcement occurs.  One point to observe: Infliximab is quite different to other anti-TNF agents, as they are quite different in their attributes:            A pharmacokinetics simulation of serum concentrations of infliximab, etanercept, and adalimumab at steady state in patients with RA treated with each drug at doses and schedules shown.       Clinical consequences of immunogenicity of TNF antagonists include acquired drug resistance and infusion or injection site reactions. Anti-drug antibodies can form multivalent complexes with the target drug, leading to rapid clearance and inactivation of the drug. Strategies to deal with this include dose escalation or the addition of concomitant immunosuppressive therapy to reduce antibody formation. Studies of the immunogenicity of protein-based drugs have suggested that chimeric antibodies are generally more immunogenic than humanized or human antibodies. However, comparisons of the immunogenic potential of the anti-TNF agents are difficult, largely because of differences in the sensitivity of the assays designed to detect anti-drug antibodies, as well as the interference in the assays of the drug itself.   Jennifer L. Jones: \"Are all anti-TNF agents the same?\", in: Peter M. Irving et al (Eds): \"Clinical Dilemmas in Inflammatory Bowel Disease\", Wiley-Blackwell: Chichester, Hobokem 22011. ",
        "id": 2605,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any non-injection methods of delivering long-acting insulin?",
        "body": "There are no inhaled insulin products that are long-acting, basal products. Today, Afrezza is the only type of inhaled insulin that is available, and it is of course bolus insulin. The only other inhaled insulin product that made it to commercialization, Exubera (PDF), only lasted a year, and was also a fast-acting bolus insulin.  By its very nature, inhaled insulin has inherent advantages for speed of action, from the lungs into the bloodstream. The other aspect is that you only use basal insulin once or twice a day, where you use bolus insulin many times a day -- so being able to use an aerosol for bolus insulin has more attraction.  Either way, you are out of luck :( I don't expect to see a non-injectable basal insulin for many years. I don't know of any such product in FDA trials.",
        "id": 1704,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there evidence that humans should fast intermittently daily for 16 hours because it is healthy in general?",
        "body": "Quality of Evidence First off, I'd be careful with the sources you are citing-- one of them is an opinion letter in a journal, and two are studies in rats.  When looking at studies, the best evidence is that with patient-centered outcomes (5). Increased dentate gyrus neurogenesis or HGH production are interesting results, but it's unclear that those translate into meaningful benefits for you. The papers that are worth changing your daily habits for are the ones that look at endpoints that are meaningful to you: weight loss, increased survival, improved memory, etc. While you can theorize a link between neurogenesis or HGH and a meaningful outcome, science is full of theoretical connections that turned out not to exist in real life.  Evidence for Intermittent Fasting In Humans There is not yet great evidence on the topic, as you mentioned, but there is a decent review published in 2014 comparing calorie restriction (CR) diets with intermittent fasting or alternate day fasting (IF/ADF) diets. It concludes (emphasis mine):     Results reveal superior decreases in body weight by CR vs IF/ADF   regimens, yet comparable reductions in visceral fat mass, fasting   insulin, and insulin resistance. None of the interventions produced   clinically meaningful reductions in glucose concentrations. Taken   together, these preliminary findings show promise for the use of IF   and ADF as alternatives to CR for weight loss and type 2 diabetes risk   reduction in overweight and obese populations, but more research is   required before solid conclusions can be reached.   So while intermittent fasting may not cause as much weight loss as a typical diet, it seems to be similarly good at eliminating fat.  There are several studies out there that look at intermittent fasting and weight loss, but they all have small sample sizes (n&lt;110) and most of them involve women only, so it's hard to extrapolate much from them. However most of them say that the two dietary approaches seem to be similar in terms of weight loss (2-4).  Overall, it looks like intermittent fasting has comparable effects on weight and blood sugar as traditional calorie-restrictive diets.  References:  Review of Intermittent Fasting Effects on Diabetes and Weight Loss  Year Long Weight Loss In Overweight Women  Intermittent Fasting and Weight Loss In Obese Women  Intermittent vs. Calorie Restriction Diets in Young Overweight Women  Patient-Centered Outcomes",
        "id": 2133,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why don't gum abscesses heal on their own?",
        "body": "Good evening,  The reason the abscesses in your mouth won't heal on their own is due to:    The fact that the mouth is one of the areas of the body with the most bacteria Therefore, the immune system cannot get ride of all bacteria, especially when they reside in or around teeth, which are relatively poorly vascularised and doesn't regenerate after being damaged, since the enamel doesn't contain cells that are remain alive after eruption.   If a chronic abscess (one that stays for a long time) is present in your mouth, it means that there is an underlying cause that is not being addressed, as was said in the comments bellow your question. It is not necessarily painful, since there is no build up of puss, which leaves through the opening. An acute abscess could happen if the wound in the gum closes completely and traps the pus in the gums and bone.  One could look at it like bones that are permanently sticking out of the body, a situation which would be unacceptable anywhere else in the body.  As far as dental abscesses are concerned, There are generally two possible causes:  Peri-apical Abscesses:  Cause :    The pulp (nerf) inside the tooth has died (necrotic) and the bacteria have reached the apex (bottom of the tooth).    Diagnosis :    Clinically Performing hot&amp;cold, percussion and electrical test in the mouth Taking radiographs (X-rays) Looking for radio-transparent space around the root of the suspect tooth    Treatment :   Generally a root canal therapy (RCT) is sufficient to prevent entry of further bacteria and enable the body to repair the bone and allow the abscess to heal. Another possibility is to extract the tooth, if it is not possible to perform a root canal or to restore it afterward (with a crown for example).   Periodontal Abscesses:  Cause :    The gums around the tooth have detached from the roots, allowing bacteria to thrive in so-called periodontal pockets between supporting tissues and the root of the tooth. if the top of the pocket closes, it can force the pus to leave via a fistule instead of the gum     Diagnosis :    Clinically Performing the same test as for the first type of abscess, as well as using a probe (like in my profile picture) to measure and detect any \"deep\" pockets Taking radiographs (X-rays) Looking for bone loss and space around the root of the suspect tooth    Treatment :   Depending on the state of the tooth, if it is salvageable, it will require scaling and root planing to clean the area of bacterial debris and to allow the gums to reattach to the root. Another possibility is again to extract the tooth, if there is not sufficient bone and gums to support the tooth   As always, only an exam by a dental professional will allow you to find and treat the cause of your abscess(es).  Sources:    My professional background https://www.coeurdaleneiddentist.com/what-is-the-difference-between-a-periapical-and-periodontal-abscess/ ",
        "id": 1112,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Crizalk 250mg cause extreme forgetfulness?",
        "body": "Crizotinib is an oral receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor indicated for the treatment of patients with advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer.  The common side effects do not include forgetfulness.  If one experiences memory issues, then one should look for another cause such as the non-small cell lung cancer itself, or, paraneoplastic manifestations, as well as simply depression.",
        "id": 2076,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are precooked frozen chicken wings bad for health?",
        "body": "If you are worried about the sodium:      WHO recommends a reduction to &lt;2 g/day sodium (5 g/day salt) in adults (strong recommendation).   from the \"Sodium intake for adults and children\" guideline by the World Health Organisation. This is for healthy adults, sick people may need further restriction.   This means that ~15 grams of these wings would hit your daily sodium intake alone. Since you are probably consuming more than 2 g sodium daily even when you leave out the wings (2 g sodium is somewhat hard to get to even if you watch your intake), chances are that you need to cut out some intake source if you want to match the recommendation. The wings might be the easiest thing, as I doubt that any other food in your diet could reach 12% sodium.   If you are asking not about sodium, but for any potential health effect on you ever, which might occur from you changing your habits to not eat these wings? That's an unanswerable question.",
        "id": 678,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does being infected protect one from further infection?",
        "body": "In general: No. Having ulcers does not protect you from catching the flu. But that \"no\" is an oversimplification. The devil is indeed in the details.  The innate immune system and the adaptive immune system have to be considered. The reasoning given in the question is in principle largely only applicable to the innate system. The adaptive immune system is highly specific. When there is a response to one virus then a different virus will be new to this system. That will result in that system having to start from scratch fighting it. To make matters more complicated, both systems interact and the above explanation is almost a grossly reduced picture of what might be going on.  It depends on what an infection is, where it occurs, what is doing the infection etc. Some vaccines are just a perfect fit for the description in question. But to \"improve resistance to coming infective disease\" would then have to be modified into \"improve resistance to coming infective disease of the same or very similar kind\".  Examples against \"one infection protects against a second\" are quite numerous:     In microbiology, coinfection is the simultaneous infection of a host by multiple pathogen species. In virology, coinfection includes simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more virus particles. An example is the coinfection of liver cells with Hepatitis B virus and Hepatitis D virus, which can arise incrementally by initial infection followed by superinfection.      A superinfection is a second infection superimposed on an earlier one, especially by a different microbial agent of exogenous or endogenous origin, that is resistant to the treatment being used against the first infection. Examples of this in bacteriology are the overgrowth of endogenous Clostridium difficile which occurs following treatment with a broad-spectrum antibiotic, and pneumonia or septicemia from Pseudomonas aeruginosa in some immuno-compromised patients.      HIV superinfection (also called HIV reinfection) is a condition in which a person with an established human immunodeficiency virus infection acquires a second strain of HIV, often of a different subtype. The HIV superinfection strain (a recombinant strain) appears when a person becomes simultaneously infected by two different strains, allowing the two viruses to exchange genetic material, resulting in a new unique strain that can possess the resistances of both previous strains. This new strain co-exists with the two prior strains and may cause more rapid disease progression or carry multiple resistances to certain HIV medications.   On the other hand, if you define infection as \"like, having bacteria\" then being infected by several of them does (or at least might) protect you. That is of course a philosophical stretch in definitions for most aspects of medicine. But there is some evidence of varying degrees for bacteria, fungi, different forms of viruses and parasites infecting \u2013 or less stretchy: colonising \u2013 a host and having more beneficial than detrimental effects.  That does not only involve pure infighting between those species. (Like beneficial microbiome species outcrowding the bad ones, or producing chemicals that are toxic to the unwanted invaders, or just good ones eating the bad ones.) There is also some spillover along the lines of reasoning in the question, for example:     An Ocular Commensal Protects against Corneal Infection by Driving an Interleukin-17 Response from Mucosal \u03b3\u03b4 T Cells   Mucosal sites such as the intestine, oral cavity, nasopharynx, and vagina all have associated commensal flora. The surface of the eye is also a mucosal site, but proof of a living, resident ocular microbiome remains elusive. Here, we used a mouse model of ocular surface disease to reveal that commensals were present in the ocular mucosa and had functional immunological consequences. We isolated one such candidate commensal, Corynebacterium mastitidis, and showed that this organism elicited a commensal-specific interleukin-17 response from \u03b3\u03b4 T cells in the ocular mucosa that was central to local immunity. The commensal-specific response drove neutrophil recruitment and the release of antimicrobials into the tears and protected the eye from pathogenic Candida albicans or Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Our findings provide direct evidence that a resident commensal microbiome exists on the ocular surface and identify the cellular mechanisms underlying its effects on ocular immune homeostasis and host defense. ",
        "id": 1462,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are people with certain blood types more/less susceptible to norovirus?",
        "body": "Noroviruses (NoVs) and Rotaviruses (RVs) recognize histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) (Tan &amp; Jiang, 2014).  HBGA are found on most epithelial cells, which line the gut.  It would make sense then, that certain strains of NoV or RV may have a higher affinity for certain HBGAs; or even not be able to bind to a certain HBGA.  This is not a novel idea and is found throughout virology.  Here is a paper that discusses NoVs and RVs in the context of HBGAs.  References  Tan, M., &amp; Jiang, X. (2014). Histo-blood group antigens: A common niche for norovirus and rotavirus. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine, 16, E5. doi: 10.1017/erm.2014.2",
        "id": 812,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is eating after brushing before bed all that bad?",
        "body": "Short  You should brush, 20-30 minutes after eating on the night (just before you sleep) and, 10-20 minutes before eating your breakfast. Midday brushing, is not essential for most albeit, it's highly dependent on your dietary habits. The same rule applies: 20-30 minutes after eating or 10-20 minutes before eating. The time-rule is influenced/is-in-place to compensate for the time it takes for the normalization of the oral PH after food consumption (\"after a meal\"), and the latter being to ensure that the introduction of food stuffs and liquids will not diminish the concentration of the essential fluoride, contained within toothpaste, on the tooth surface (\"before a meal\").    Long  Not brushing after you eat, before you sleep on the nighttime, can be likened to having oral excrement...  Whenever you eat/have a meal, our oral microbiota ingest and metabolize the food particle left over, essentially feasting on whatever we consume. Like every other living organism, these oral bacteria excrete as they reap. However, this secondary excrement is highly acidic and can have some unwanted effects on your tooth enamel: gradually dissolving it and henceforth leading to the occurrence of tooth decay (cavities).  When you decide to \"hit the hay\" without brushing, considering you have eaten since, plaque may start to harden and hence, calcify on the surface of your teeth. It's important to know that, once calcification of the plaque on the tooth surface has began to occur, we (yourself), cannot remove it with a toothbrush nor with any amount of floss; it can only be removed by a dental hygienist  via a routine cleaning using specialist equipment.  It doesn't just stop there! As plaque begins to build up, your immune system treats it as if it's an infection. Your immune system doing what it does best, triggers the release of in situ Prostaglandins, to trigger an immune response via lipid signalling. As opposed to a \"positive\" immune response, the healthy tissue that adhere the gums to the teeth to the gum surface are attacked and harmed (degenerated) causing it form periodontal pockets and cause gum recession. Periodontal pockets, can predispose plaque formation and hence, foreign bacteria colonisation below the gum line - along the tooth root. This healthy tissue is known as the, attached Gingivae and it doesn't just permit a snug fit, it helps to keep to teeth in place!      Don't get me wrong, inflammation is good thing! Albeit, a long-term presence of inflammation can predispose you to a worrying amount of tissue damage. For example, take the common flu: short-term inflammation is essential for cell signalling, to help route immune factors such as phagocytes, to the site of the harmful bacteria and hence, to ingest and destroy the foreign bacteria -- known as Phagocytosis; helping to make you \"healthier\" again. However, long-term inflammation causes unwanted bodily \"wear and tear\", that has been found to correlate with some very serious diseases and impairments such as, Heart disease, Dementia and secondary Hearing loss.  Yes - non of this will happen over the course of one night. But, if it becomes habitual (not brushing before you sleep -- or flossing), the probability of it happening will steeply increase!  Considering that, this small precaution will help save you a heap of money and pain in the future, is it not worth it? Evidence shows that it may even extend your life!     Conclusion  The amount of saliva produced is greatest when we are awake (during the day), and diminishes greatly during natural sleep and this in fact reduces the ability of our saliva to natural control oral PH and partially digest food particles in our oral cavity. The protein profile (and hence, enzymatic activity) of our salivary rate is not the same during rest as that, when we are eating or when sleeping - less salivary flow. Salivary secretion during wakefulness is, in part, associated with oromotor activity involving the masseter muscles. Rhythmic masticatory muscle activity and swallowing are non-disruptive events that occur during normal sleep. It's hypothesised that the natural lubrication that saliva permits is most-necessary during sleep to protect tissue integrity and health of oroesophageal structures.   Mouth breathers, during sleep need to pay particular attention to oral hygiene as the prominence of \"dry mouth\" is much more evident - this is impirical due to reasons stated above.",
        "id": 636,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can chronic prostatitis not be cured simply with antibiotics?",
        "body": "There are multiple types of prostatitis:    Source: Krieger JN, Nyberg, Jr L, Nickel JC. NIH Consensus Definition and Classification of Prostatitis. JAMA. 1999;282(3):236\u2013237. doi:10-1001/pubs.JAMA-ISSN-0098-7484-282-3-jac90006 Also: J. Curtis Nickel (1999). Textbook of prostatitis. Taylor &amp; Francis. pp. 28. ISBN 978-1-901865-04-2.  Prostatitis Type III and IV are non-bacterial, and as antibiotics are successful at killing bacteria, usage of it has been debated.     Pathogenic organisms can be cultured only in acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis. These conditions should be treated with antibiotics, usually fluoroquinolones, for an adequate period of time. 90% of patients with prostatitis syndrome, however, suffer not from bacterial prostatitis but from chronic (abacterial) prostatitis / chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS). It remains unclear whether CP/CPPS is of infectious origin, and therefore the utility of a trial of antimicrobial treatment is debatable. Treatment with alpha receptor blockers is recommended if functional subvesical obstruction is documented or suspected. Symptomatic therapy for pelvic pain should be given as well.      [...]      Recommended therapies    - Alpha-receptor blocker therapy for newly diagnosed patients not previously treated with alpha-blockers    - Antimicrobial therapy for newly diagnosed patients not previously   treated with antibiotics    - Multimodal symptomatic therapy             Not recommended therapies    - Alpha-receptor blockers for patients with prior   multiple therapies     - Anti-inflammatory monotherapy     - Antimicrobial therapy for patients with prior multiple therapies     - 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor   monotherapy     - Minimally invasive therapies, such as TUNA, laser   therapies, etc.     - Invasive surgical therapies, such as TURP and radical   prostatectomy      Source: Florian ME Wagenlehner et al., Dtsch Arztebl Int. Prostatitis and Male Pelvic Pain Syndrome: Diagnosis and Treatment, 2009 Mar; 106(11): 175\u2013183    Other studies are less critical:     Our review suggests that \u03b1-blockers, antibiotics, or combinations of both are most appropriate for therapy of CP/CPPS, particularly for patients with voiding symptoms. However, the magnitude of apparent benefit with \u03b1-blockers may be distorted by publication bias. Anti-inflammatory medications remain an option for patients presenting with pain. While finasteride and phytotherapy may provide benefit to some patients, these therapies require more evaluation, perhaps in selected subgroups of CP/CPPS patients.      Source: Anothaisintawee, T; Attia, J; Nickel, JC; Thammakraisorn, S; Numthavaj, P; McEvoy, M; Thakkinstian, A (Jan 5, 2011). \"Management of chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a systematic review and network meta-analysis\". JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association. 305 (1): 78\u201386. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1913. PMID 21205969. ",
        "id": 2207,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does eating sweet after food help to digest large meals?",
        "body": "It might speed up digestion:  http://tidsskriftet.no/article/2182039  But speeding up digestion isn't going to bring you the outcome you desire. Also, a larger amount of simple sugars is more likely to lead to increased energy stored in adipose tissue (fat cells).  Big foods - those with larger, more complex molecules with stronger molecular bonds - such as more complex carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, take longer to digest, and a combination of these and fibre further slow the overall process, meaning that the energy being released into blood-sugar will be less likely to become surplus to requirements and lead to those larger spikes in blood-sugar levels which trigger storage.  There are things you can do to stimulate or assist the digestive system, like chewing well to start the process, ingesting bitter foods and drinks to stimulate bile, a shot of vinegar if you have low stomach acidity, or even the sort of enzymes you find in things like lactose free milk which contains lactase (although this turns a disaccharides into two more quickly absorbed monosacharides so it's only really recommended for those who are lactose intolerant). A high fibre diet will also improve your intestinal flora long term, as well as it's short term effects on digestion.  Technically an unhealthy and under-active digestive system would be more likely lead to less fat, as the body loses some of the ability to absorb macro and/or micro nutrients, meaning they pass through the system.  In a depleted state, such as after prolonged starvation, or in a diabetic crash, a quick sugar hit might be needed to kick-start the system, but in general the body can easily find the energy it needs, especially for a process as slow and steady as the average 24 hours it takes to digest a meal.  There are things which can reduce cholesterol re-absorption, such as increased fibre, medication, or supplements (although I've heard plant sterols as a supplement can be Sisyphean). Excess cholesterol isn't really about energy though.",
        "id": 872,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health effects of alcohol when out of date",
        "body": "From what I can gather after reading through several different sites in a search, it will depend somewhat on the type of alcohol (I am assuming schnapps) and the method used to turn it into alcohol.  Archer appears to make liqueur type schnapps, which means that the fruit is steeped in the alcohol base, rather than distilled from the fruit itself. This means it will have a higher sugar content, and will go bad faster.  As near as I can tell, there isn't any adverse health effects reported from drinking out of date alcohol, but the taste can vary wildly, and be anything from a \"flat\" taste, to very harsh and bitter as the sugars continue to break down. This is moderated by temperature and how much air is in the bottle.  So there shouldn't be any health effects, other than possibly bad taste.  http://cocktails.about.com/od/stockyourbar/f/liquor_storage.htm  http://www.guntheranderson.com/liqueurs/storage.htm",
        "id": 457,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does the abbreviation BID mean?",
        "body": "As you've stated BID = bis in die = twice a day.  According to a standard dosage sheet from the University of Florida, BID = every 12 hours.   However, I was reading a forum for nurses [See References] and there seems to be variations on BID (roughly 8-12 hours apart) depending on the hospital.   If possible, contact your nurse/physician for the clearest clarification.     References:  University of Florida Standards: http://professionals.ufhealth.org/files/2011/11/1007-drugs-therapy-bulletin.pdf  Forum:  http://allnurses.com/first-year-after/bid-strictly-every-795661.html",
        "id": 2132,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a link between bed firmness and spine deformations?",
        "body": "We should clarify some terms here. Scoliosis is a deformation, but Lordosis and kyphosis are not. The latter two are normal structural parts of human spine.   Back to your question, we don\u00b4t know.  Altogether the pathogenesis of scoliosis is poorly established and mostly unknown.   In adolescent scoliosis, it seems that presence of scoliosis is mostly associated to genetic factors (Burwell et al.). 97% of patients presenting with adolescent scoliosis have a positive familial history (Dayer et al.).  A recent review article sums the current knowledge of the pathogenesis of scoliosis (Dayer et al.). The interactions in molecular level, brain, vestibular system and in structural biomechanics are extremely complex and authors conclude quite fairly: \"Many factors are potentially involved in the pathogenesis of adolescent scoliosis, leading some authors to formulate a complex collective model from these different concepts.\"  As so there is not currently any explicit evidence which would state the harms of any static risk factors (sleeping) affecting to development of scoliosis. Partly due to this vagueness I think the debate regarding risk of scoliosis is prone to bias and emotional \"truths\" and wisdoms.  In a recent population level study, authors found that sleeping in hammock was inversely associated to scoliosis (Baroni et al.). Still, it's possible that this study failed to take into account the possibility that children with scoliosis might be less likely to sleep in a hammock because of possible back pain in the morning. Correlation (or inverse correlation) does not imply causation.",
        "id": 83,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I re-used Yankee Candle glass bottle for food?",
        "body": "Assuming they're just plain glass (not leaded glass or painted) they should be fine as long as you remove all the wax and wash them thoroughly first. Plain glass is always food safe. In fact, it's so widely accepted as food safe that I can't find good sources saying so.   Just make sure the washing is thorough using hot water and a strong detergent since coatings are sometimes applied to glass jars that aren't intended for food storage. I would put them through a dishwasher cycle.  Consider the lids also. Those may have liners or seals that aren't food safe.",
        "id": 870,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tetanus antibodies",
        "body": "Tetanus antibodies spike after the inoculation, then they slowly go down over time, hence the need for booster shots. As long as they remain within the range of protection there should be nothing to worry about.",
        "id": 1111,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the life expectancy of a sperm in dried semen?",
        "body": "There's no need to worry. Getting pregnant isn't that easy.1  It's unlikely that sperm survive for 2 hours.     On a dry surface, such as clothing or bedding, sperm are dead by the time the semen has dried. In water, such as a warm bath or hot tub, they'll likely live longer because they thrive in warm, wet places. But the odds that sperm in a tub of water will find their way inside a woman's body and cause her to get pregnant are extremely low.   Source: WebMD   But let's assume the sperm has somehow managed to survive on the toilet seat or whatever you are proposing.  The sperm would then have to enter the female body via the vagina and travel through the uterus to the ampulla of the uterine tube for fertilisation.    Image Credit: pathologyoutlines.com  This is basically literally impossible.   But let's assume that, for the sake of the argument, the male sperm actually has travelled there. Even then, one can only get pregnant during ovulation, which is roughly 10-16 days before the female period in the menstrual cycle. Sperm only survives for several days (let's be generous and assume 4 days) in the female body, meaning that timing is pretty important. This means the chance to get pregnant at a random day is roughly 1/7.    1: This is one reason why IVF exists, and why quite a few couples have problems getting a child.",
        "id": 1949,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you take both whey protein and mass gainer at the same time?",
        "body": "You're essentially asking if you can eat food and then eat more food.  Whey protein and mass gainer at the most basic level are: carbs, proteins, and fat.  In the case of mass gainer, it usually has large amount of both carbs and protein.  So, yes, you can consume them at the SAME TIME, just as you can consume 2 or 10 cheeseburgers at the same time.  The underlying question I believe you intended to ask was, \"What is the value/repercussions in doing so?\"  And, the not so simple answer is, it depends  It depends on your target Calorie consumption.  Are you aiming to intake 2000 calories or 5000?  How many calories are you burning during your regular activities and during your athletic activities?  If you're looking for optimal muscle protein synthesis, you would be more interested in BCAAs - specifically Leuceine.   I can tell by your question that you're a novice with regards to nutrition, and a single forum post will not suffice.  Please google \"Jordan Feigenbaum\".  He has written extensively on nutrition in the setting of weightlifting.  As always, read everything with a critical eye.  Best of luck.",
        "id": 348,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Inhaling pills possible?",
        "body": "It is possible to aspirate (inhale into the respiratory system) a pill and it is more common than you might think (PubMed):     It is estimated that roughly 7% of all foreign bodies aspirated in the airways are   medicinal pills.   The length of the vocal cords (the bottleneck of the upper respiratory system) in adults is about 20 mm (PubMed), so this is probably the largest size of the aspirated object.  Upper respiratory tract infection (sinusitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis), dry mouth or a strong gag reflex may increase the risk of pill aspiration.  The aspirated pill usually get stuck in some bronchus and can cause localized inflammation, or, sometimes, aspiration pneumonia, any of which can be quite serious. The pill can be found and removed by bronchoscopy; rarely, a surgery is required.  An aspirated iron pill, for example, can cause a quite severe injury followed by chronic problems (PubMed).   The first aid for aspiration of foreign bodies includes several strong blows on the back, which may or may not help to expel the pill.",
        "id": 2540,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How sperm storage works in testicles?",
        "body": "The ejaculate amount does matter upon the frequency at which the male climaxes. On average, it takes 18 hours for a male to return to its normal ejaculate volume. If the male were to climax repeatedly within 18 hours, the volume would not be as much because the testicles have to \"restock\" their sperm supply for the next ejaculation. This means that untill 18 hours after one, the next ejaculations would be at a decreased quantity. The sperm is stored in the Vas Deferens located behind the testicle, not actually in the testicles. The Vas Deferens is made of smooth muscle that is able to stretch and accommodate the ejaculate volume.",
        "id": 1334,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a neurological or scientific explanation for d\u00e9j\u00e0 vu?",
        "body": "D\u00e9j\u00e0 vu is a French term that literally means \"already seen\" and is reported to occur in 60-70% of people, most commonly between the ages of 15 and 25. The fact that d\u00e9j\u00e0 vu occurs so randomly and rapidly\u2014and in individuals without a medical condition\u2014makes it difficult to study, and why and how the phenomenon occurs is up to much speculation.  A related theory states that d\u00e9j\u00e0 vu is a fleeting malfunctioning between the long- and short-term circuits in the brain. Researchers postulate that the information we take in from our surroundings may \"leak out\" and incorrectly shortcut its way from short- to long-term memory, bypassing typical storage transfer mechanisms. When a new moment is experienced\u2014which is currently in our short-term memory\u2014it feels as though we're drawing upon some memory from our distant past.  What triggers it?  The actual trigger for it in healthy individuals is not exactly known, but we do know those same regions of memory and memory monitoring are involved.  One explanation for d\u00e9j\u00e0 vu is that there is a split-second delay in transferring information from one side of the brain to the other. One side of the brain would then get the information twice \u2013 once directly, and once from the 'in charge' side. So the person would sense that the event had happened before.  https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-babble/201208/the-neuroscience-d-j-vu  http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/whoami/findoutmore/yourbrain/whyisyourmemorysoimportant/whatisdejavu/whatcausesdejavu  http://news.psu.edu/story/141215/2010/02/02/research/probing-question-what-causes-deja-vu",
        "id": 1382,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does boiling milk really make the nutrients in it less useful to the body when ingesting it?",
        "body": "In short: Cooking milk has probably only a minor effect on its nutritional value.   MICRONUTRIENTS:  According to USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors (p. 5), in milk heated for 10 minutes, the vitamin loses are: vitamin B1, B6 and choline: 10% ; vitamin C and folate: 15% ; vitamin B12: 20%. Other vitamins and minerals are not affected.  From the mentioned vitamins,  milk is high only in vitamin B12, so it seems that destruction of 20% of vitamin B12 is the only meaningful negative effect of cooking milk on micronutrients.  Milk cooking appears to have no significant effect on the bioavailability (absorption and utilization) of calcium (ScienceDirect, 2013).  MACRONUTRIENTS:  Proteins are denaturated by cooking and stomach acid (Elmhurst.edu). Denaturation affects only \"the shape\" of the protein molecule but not its composition or nutritional value. Proteins are digested (broken down) into amino acids before absorption and cooking makes them more digestible (concluding from cooked/raw egg protein digestibility study).  Lactose, the major carbohydrate in milk, is not affected by cooking and decomposes to glucose and galactose only at 203.5 \u00b0C (PubChem, section 5.3).  Fats should also not be affected by milk cooking (concluding from the smoke point - the temperature at which fatty acids start to break down - of most oils, which are all well above 100 \u00b0C).",
        "id": 2301,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Research On Chinese Medicinal Treatment For Anxiety?",
        "body": "   Are there studies on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)?   Of course, and the studies are numerous. If conducted in non-Chinese contexts the results are most of the time quite underwhelming or more reason for concern than anything like \"encouraging\". Way too often the theory behind the treatments appears flaky, the evidence for effectiveness regarding desired results is weak and the dangers posed by unregulated and uncontrolled substances ingested looks quite big.     Has any proof ever been found for Qi energy?   None. TCM is very much incompatible with Western tradition of scientific thinking and explanation. What has been found, occasionally, is that despite a \u2013 from a Western viewpoint \u2013 complete garbage perspective concerning the underlying theory, some treatments offered by TCM appear to be effective. But remember that effective and efficient might be two different things here.  Many of the herbs, animals and metals employed are recognised to be pharmacologically relevant. That is 'active'; but often unproven to be more beneficial than detrimental.   If evidence based medicine oriented studies are undertaken, they analyse the effects of the herbs and other methods according to Western scientific standards, \"Qi\" is not featured there.  Someone offering a diagnose and selling a treatment in the way described in the question is not only highly unethical but also quite unlikely to be correct, even according to TCM standards.  One such study that examines TCM a style remedy for anxiety according to western standards (althogh not in humans) is     Antianxiety-like effects of Chimpi (dried citrus peels) in the elevated open-platform test:   Dried citrus peels (Chimpi) is one of the most common natural medicines with qi (energy flow) rectifying and shi (dampness) drying actions, which originates from Citrus unshiu, and/or C. reticulata according to the definition of the pharmacopoeiae of Japan and China. In this study, the pharmacological effects of their extracts and major chemical constituents hesperidin and its aglycone hesperetin on anxiety were examined with an anxiety model of elevated open-platform test using ICR male mice (6-week-old) and total duration of freezing was decreased in fluoxetine-treated mice, which is a simple and highly sensitive to the effects of serotonergic anxiolytics. Moreover, yokukansankachimpihange (YKH), a combination of yokukansan with Chimpi and Hange (Pinellia) was also examined because Chimpi is considered to play a crucial part in this formula against anxious symptoms in dementia patients. The results showed that Chimpi and YKH possess a significant anxiolytic-like effect similar to that of fluoxetine, suggesting that they might be similar to fluoxetine in their pharmacological actions through the serotonergic neurotransmission pathway. Moreover, it also suggested that the major chemical constituent, hesperidin could be an active principle attributed to the antianxiety-like effects with a direct and indirect role via its aglycone hesperetin.   Note the amount of weasel words and speculation displayed in this in vivo test. \"Qi\" is only mentioned as an organising principle with the originating system of medicine, the actual action displayed is then tried to be translatable into Western standard medical language and reasoning. The application of hesperidin alone, without mention of any 'Qi', is under very active investigation:   Biological effects of hesperidin, a citrus flavonoid. (Note I): antiinflammatory and analgesic activity. Biological effects of hesperidin, a Citrus flavonoid. (note II): hypolipidemic activity on experimental hypercholesterolemia in rat. Update on uses and properties of citrus flavonoids: new findings in anticancer, cardiovascular, and anti-inflammatory activity. Neuropharmacological properties and pharmacokinetics of the citrus flavonoids hesperidin and hesperetin--a mini-review.       Sources to consider:  Helaine Selin &amp; Hugh Shapiro: \"Medicine Across Cultures. History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures\", Kluwer: New York, Boston, 2003.  James David Adams Jr &amp; Eric J. Lien: \"Traditional Chinese Medicine. Scientific Basis for Its Use\", RSC Drug Discovery Series No. 31, Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing: Cambridge, 2013.  Kee Chang Huang: \"The Pharmacology of Chinese Herbs\", CRC Press: Baco Raton, London, 21999.  Chongyun Liu &amp; Angela Tseng: \"Chinese Herbal Medicine. Modern Applications Of Traditional Formulas\", CRC Press: Boca Raton, London, 2005.  Kevin Chan &amp; Henry Lee: \"The Way Forward for Chines Medicine\", Taylor &amp; Francis: London, New York, 2002. (Esp. ch4: \"Understanding the Toxicity of Chinese Herbal Medicinal Products\" p 71\u201391.)",
        "id": 2062,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Beyond correlation, why is Frank's sign significant or not?",
        "body": "The pathophysiology of how DELC (diagonal ear lobe creases) and CAD (coronary artery disease) could be related has not been proven, but most likely has to do with the fact that both the earlobe and the muscles of the heart are supplied by end arteries with few collateral arteries - so atherosclerosis could theoretically affect the phenotypes of both your ear and your heart.  Frank's sign is neither sensitive (lots of false negatives) nor specific (lots of false positives), so it's clinical utility is low. That being said, there have been a mix of studies that found a statistically significant relationship between Diagonal Ear Lobe Creases (DELC) and Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) so, in my opinion, the relationship is worth investigating.",
        "id": 2413,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does \"400 mg orally twice daily\" mean \"800 mg of drug per day\"?",
        "body": "Yes, and that the recommended interval for dosage is twice daily.  The convention for BID (twice daily) dosing is to write \"400 mg twice daily\" to indicate the dosage at each administration.  Therefore it would be 400 mg + 400 mg = 800 mg total daily.  With some medications, the dosage is listed as daily total, divided into BID or TID dosing.  For example, \"1200 mg daily divided into BID or TID dosing\" would be 600 mg twice daily, or 400 mg three times daily.  This entry for amoxicillin shows how it can be written both ways, though I have seen better wording in other references (like UpToDate or Epocrates but both require registration or paywall)",
        "id": 2654,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pasta VS Potatoe - Which is worse, and/or better for you",
        "body": "Potatoes have are a great source of many minerals and a healthy option for a carbohydrate.  They may raise your blood sugar rather quickly, but so will your typical pasta. If you eat the skin, that is a decent source of fiber, so that should slow the absorption of the carbs. Potatoes are actually significantly higher in potassium than bananas, go figure. However, it is hard to say whether or not potatoes or pasta are going to be a benefit to your diet depending on the rest of your food intake. Assuming you are not overindulgent in calories or carbs, then I would suggest potatoes. But, variation is always a great idea, so maybe you can switch to pasta occasionally.",
        "id": 1604,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to open my partially closed ear?",
        "body": "The first thing to do is you should go to see a doctor. Your primary care physician can look deep into your ear to see if there is anything lodged in it. It may be a build up of wax, or debris. If so, your doctor can clean it out. If there is nothing blocking your ear drum, and the feeling of blockage continues you should see a specialist.  You could also have an ear infection that could be causing some inflammation. The doctor may prescribe ear drops, an oral antibiotic, or even a nasal spray to help with you  These physicians are called Ear, Nose &amp; Throat (ENT) doctors. They can test to see if there is a problem with how your ear is working.  Here is a web site that explains how the ear works. It is a remarkable and complex instrument. Protect it. Good luck.  https://www.hearinglink.org/your-hearing/how-the-ear-works/",
        "id": 1665,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Constantly aware of hairs in particular region of face",
        "body": "Yes, there is a name for this. It is a paresthesia.    In layman's terms, a paresthesia is defined as:     A skin sensation, such as burning, prickling, itching, or tingling, with no apparent physical cause. (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)   If the sensation were relieved as long as the hair wasn't touching the skin in an unusual way, it would be a true sensation. True sensations wane, though. If you burn toast, you will smell it strongly initially, but soon the smell fades, even if still present, because our sensory system evolved to notice change over presence.      Repeated or prolonged exposure to an odorant typically leads to stimulus-specific decreases in olfactory sensitivity to that odorant, but sensitivity recovers over time in the absence of further exposure.   The loss of sensation is caused by sensory adaptation. If sensory adaptation were not possible, we would feel everything all the time, not ideal for stress-free survival.  Paresthesias are a different matter. Some paresthsias are familiar to all of us: a foot falling asleep after crossing our legs too long, or the tingling of a spot on the lip before a cold sore breaks out.  However, paresthesias can result from some minor pressure or disruption of a single sensory nerve, and they can last from hours to days, they can come and go, and they can be very irritating.    Paresthesias may be present in a wide variety of conditions ranging from vitamin deficiencies to serious illnesses like diabetes, multiple sclerosis, etc. These tend to be caused by nerve damage. Hypocalcemia, hyperventilation, migraines, inflammation, and a wide variety of other \"insults\" can cause paresthesias as well.  Many people experience the kind of paresthesias you describe (albeit in different places), and an etiology will not be found. Often they are benign. However, when in doubt, ask your doctor. The specialist who probably most commonly deals with paresthesias is a neurologist.  Psychophysical and Behavioral Characteristics of Olfactory Adaptation NINDS Paresthesia Information Page  ",
        "id": 804,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Supplements: When and how to take them to maximize absorption",
        "body": "To get the most of your vitamins/minerals is quite simple, really.  There are two types of soluble vitamins/minerals:   Water-soluble Fat-soluble   Absorption of water-soluble vitamins is quite easy, considering almost everything you eat/drink contains water.   However, if you want maximum absorption rate for fat-soluble vitamins/minerals, you'll want to have some fat along with the supplement(s) you consume.   This is why most multivitamin boxes will instruct you to consume the pill with dinner (because it's presumed that fat will be present with your dinner).    Abstract - http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/12/3/162.abstract  'fact sheet' - http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/nutrition-food-safety-health/fat-soluble-vitamins-a-d-e-and-k-9-315/",
        "id": 1058,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can a school be getting an epidemic of whooping cough if most of the students are vaccinated?",
        "body": "Per the CDC:     A: Pertussis vaccines are effective, but not perfect. They typically   offer good levels of protection within the first 2 years after getting   the vaccine, but then protection decreases over time. Public health   experts call this \u2018waning immunity.\u2019 Similarly, natural infection may   also only protect you for a few years.      In general, DTaP vaccines are 80% to 90% effective. Among kids who get   all 5 doses of DTaP on schedule, effectiveness is very high within the   year following the 5th dose \u2013 at least 9 out of 10 kids are fully   protected. There is a modest decrease in effectiveness in each   following year. About 7 out of 10 kids are fully protected 5 years   after getting their last dose of DTaP and the other 3 out of 10 kids   are partially protected \u2013 protecting against serious disease.      CDC\u2019s current estimate is that in the first year after getting   vaccinated with Tdap, it protects about 7 out of 10 people who receive   it. There is a decrease in effectiveness in each following year. About   3 or 4 out of 10 people are fully protected 4 years after getting   Tdap.      Keeping up-to-date with recommended pertussis vaccines is the best way   to protect you and your loved ones.   Given the size of the school and the effectiveness of the vaccine, it appears that ~30 infected kids is within what's expected.",
        "id": 2639,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Type of Flu Shot for Person in Late 30s - Which Standard Dose Provides Most Protection?",
        "body": "Your pharmacist or doctor should be able to decide which one is the best fit for you. Factors that are considered in recommendations include age, allergies (egg or mercury), and your medical history specifically if you are on a continuous steroid therapy or if you are pregnant or breastfeeding.   The medication that you received last year \"AFLURIA\" is not a Quadrivalent vaccine which means it only has the protection of 3 strains of the flu instead of 4. As mentioned in the comments, the strains selected is based on studies by health professionals to figure out the prevalence of a strain in a specific year. To get the extra protection ask for a quadrivalent vaccine and let the healthcare professional make the decision based on what he/she has available and your history. I have not found a study to compare the efficacy of the different quadrivalent vaccines and I do not think there will be one.   I would cite sources for what I said above, but this is all based on my experience as a healthcare professional. If you need additional information CDC website is your best source.  [edit] also, the CDC provide a tool to figure out which vaccines you need at your age and sometimes provide a specific recommendation. Give it a try: https://www2a.cdc.gov/nip/adultimmsched/",
        "id": 1932,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are these eyeglass prescriptions the same?",
        "body": "One of those prescriptions is written in plus cylinder form, the other in minus cylinder form.  This website describes how to convert between the two        Add the sphere and cylinder powers together; this becomes the new sphere power.   Change the sign of the cylinder power, from minus (\u2013) to plus (+), or from plus (+) to minus (\u2013).   Change the axis value by 90\u00b0, remembering that the axis must be a number from 1 to 180.   According to this, the two prescriptions you got are indeed the same.      Going from the first to the second:     -4.00 : +0.75 x 180\u00b0    -4 + 0.75 = -3.25 0.75 becomes - 0.75 180 degrees becomes 90 degrees       -3.25 : - 0.75 x 90\u00b0 ",
        "id": 434,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why would a junkie have a grand mal seizure during withdrawal?",
        "body": "It's not really medically accurate, unless there are other drugs of abuse present, or some other disease etiology. The quote that you reference is correct, heroin addiction by itself shouldn't produce seizures as part of withdrawal symptoms. However, there can be other drugs present (Such as alcohol, which can definitely produce seizures during withdrawal) which could complicate the matter.  Additionally, if the person is a long time heroin abuser, then withdrawal symptoms would most likely start much sooner than a couple of days, possibly even within hours of their last dose wearing off.  The wikipedia site for opioid addiction gives a pretty detailed rundown of opiate addiction and other factors that can enhance or show predisposition to addiction. There are many other sites (Most of them rehabilitation facilities) that give fairly detailed rundowns of the withdrawal process and symptoms that can occur during that time.",
        "id": 422,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is using SAStid soap good for eczema skin?",
        "body": "It seems that SAStid contains salicylic acid. Salicylic acid a keratolytic: it helps to peel the outer layers of the thick skin (1). As so it is helpful in the treatment of warts and psoriasis (2).    With eczema there is no skin thickening or dandruff. So I see no real benefits with that soap. It is obvious that when the outermost layer of your skin is peeled off it increases the loss of humidity from skin resulting to dryness. Since the most common problem with eczema is the dryness of the skin it only makes it worse (3).",
        "id": 280,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you kill someone with a sound?",
        "body": "Sound is merely the vibration of molecules in a wave pattern and so the  absolute theoretical answer to your question is, yes. Something that can vibrate your molecules has the power to kill you. It just requires a great enough intensity or decibel level. (If you get anything loud enough it could shake you apart.) How loud, well a grenade is about 164 dB. You would probably die from the explosion that caused that noise level first though.  In the example of your question, volume would not work, as any sound loud enough to kill you in that way would obviously affect others in the room. That leaves the question of frequency. If in theory you could find a resonance frequency of a particular anatomical structure and produce that frequency for a long enough period and isolate all other structures from it then you could in fact kill someone in that way. For example eyes, in this NASA Technical Report 19770013810 they found the frequency of eyeballs.   While not exactly the same as in your example the theory is plausible though extremely unlikely. There are far to many variables and limits with current technology to implement the headphone assassination. But here are some other sound weapons that begin to enlighten the realm of possibility.   Additional Info: https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/noisehearingconservation/index.html ",
        "id": 428,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long should I wait to drive after taking a painkiller?",
        "body": "Unfortunately, there are no direct instructions in regards to this.      \"This drug may make you dizzy or drowsy. Do not drive, use machinery, or do any activity that requires alertness until you are sure you can perform such activities safely.\" WebMD   If you have confidence that you feel alert, and capable of completing a task that requires your full-attention, then it may be safe for you to do so. The second option being that, you don't take the medicine when you know that it can favour ill-conditions that may pose as an impediment/risk on your personal safety and to those around you. That's not to say that dosing should be seized permanently, just in periods when you know that your alertness is indispensable.  I would recommend that you make sure that you are conditioned to daily functioning on hydrocodone, before you consider driving or operating in a way that may elicit danger.   This may add further guidance on the issue",
        "id": 649,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the temporalis muscle tighten when we are under prolonged stress?",
        "body": "This is part of the flight or fight response which is largely involuntary. Various muscles contract involuntarily including anal sphincters ( you don't want your bowels opening in a fight or flight ), and the muscles around your eyes and neck activate within a couple of seconds.  Can you change an involuntary response? With difficulty, and a lot of training.  https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response  https://mobile.nytimes.com/1986/09/28/magazine/relieving-stress-mind-over-muscle.html  https://m.huffpost.com/us/entry/8809032",
        "id": 2239,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can spinal cord's C3 disc apply pressure on C7?",
        "body": "I think you are misunderstanding what that sentence says - as I interpret it it means that the posterior discs from C3 to C7 are bulging. So all five of them, C3/4/5/6/7 (or rather, the four discs between them) are affected. ",
        "id": 672,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Higher doses of a drug being less effective?",
        "body": "Drugs may have different actions at different concentrations.  So, for instance:     Buprenorphine is 25 to 100 times more potent than morphine.18 Buprenorphine exhibits partial agonist behavior at the mu-receptor and exhibits antagonist behavior at the kappa-receptor. Buprenorphine has a strong affinity for the mu-receptor causing tight binding and therefore competition at the receptor, displacing other opioids, such as methadone and morphine. Also, there is incomplete dissociation from the mu-receptor, causing prolonged activity at the receptor.18 Affinity is quantified using Ki values, and the smaller the Ki value, the stronger the binding affinity to the receptor. The mu binding affinity of buprenorphine compared with other opioids can be found in Table 5. Of note, buprenorphine has a higher binding affinity compared with naloxone and therefore at higher doses where buprenorphine is most likely to be abused, not readily reversed by naloxone. It is only at lower doses where there is some competitive binding, and only then should we reasonably expect some reversal by high doses of continuous infusion naloxone.    http://www.pharmacytimes.com/contributor/jeffrey-fudin/2018/01/opioid-agonists-partial-agonists-antagonists-oh-my",
        "id": 2231,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Research based help for premature ejaculation?",
        "body": "Premature ejaculation has variable definitions, which cause some difficulties in diagnosis. The main treatment methods are psychological counseling, behavioral therapy, drug therapy and surgical treatment.     Drug therapy including topical drugs, serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRi), receptor blockers, type 5 phosphodiesterase inhibitors (PDE5i), etc., of the latest medications can choose hydrochloric acid of dapoxetine (Priligy) treatment.   The oxytocin antagonists shows good results, but they demands further reserches.     Oxytocin is a peptide hormone that is believed to shorten ejaculatory latency times through central and peripheral pathways in animal models. The ejaculatory delay observed with SSRIs may be mediated by alterations in the central release of oxytocin. This has formed the basis of the development of oxytocin receptor antagonists. The first drug used in human clinical trials was epelsiban. This is a highly selective oxytocin receptor antagonist with rapid absorption and elimination. It had been shown to delay ejaculatory latency in animal models. In this multicentre study, men were randomly assigned to placebo or epelsiban (50 mg/150 mg). Study inclusion was based on the ISSM definition of PE, and IELT was measured with the use of a stopwatch. There was no significant difference in the baseline IELT measurements between the groups. Following 8 weeks of treatment, there were no significant clinical or statistically significant differences in IELT between the groups. The authors speculated that efficacy may be linked to centrally acting oxytocin antagonist activity. There is some evidence from animal studies to support this hypothesis. This has led to the development of the most recent oxytocin antagonist. This is a small molecule with good central penetration and rapid absorption with potent antagonism of the oxytocin receptor. A total of 88 men with LPE were randomly assigned to either placebo or active drug (400 mg/800 mg). Inclusion appeared to be based on ISSM criteria. Following 8 weeks of treatment, IX-01 resulted in a 3-fold increase in IELT (1.6 in the placebo group). This improvement was observed as early as 2 weeks after starting treatment. The drug was well tolerated with no serious or severe adverse events; 21% reported at least one adverse event (30% in the placebo group). The dropout rate was high: 21% with the active drug and 27% in the placebo arm. This is obviously encouraging news for the field, and we should expect larger trials involving a more diverse population.   The combination of drug and behavioural therapy shows more effective results.     MATERIALS AND METHODS:   18 patients were enrolled, aged between 25 and 55 (mean: 40), all with primary PE, free of comorbidities and with their partners involved. Six patients were prescribed 30 mg dapoxetine two hours before sexual relations for 3 months (group A); 6 patients began the dynamic rehabilitative treatment (group B); 6 other couples were assigned to pharmacological treatment in association with dynamic rehabilitative behavioural treatment for 3 months (group C). Division of subjects was carried out by simple randomisation, excluding patients with a short frenulum, phimosis, ED, chronic prostatitis or experiencing results from previous treatment.      RESULTS:   Outcomes of treatment were evaluated at the end of the 3 months of treatment and 3 months after discontinuing treatment. In Group A 75% of patients were cured at 3 months and 25% at 6 months. In Group B 25% patients were cured at 3 months and 25% at 6 months. In Group C 75% of patients were cured 3 months and 50% at 6 months. \"Cured\" means a Premature Ejaculation Diagnostic Tool (PEDT) score reduced from an average of 12 to an average of 6 and Intravaginal Ejaculation Latency Time (IELT) values from &lt; 1 to &gt; 6 minutes.   Sometimes keeping to healthy lifestile can prevent medical treatment. First of all the diet that helps cure premature ejaculation includes such foods as green onions, boiled asparagus, ginger, almonds, honey etc. The study devoted to the connection between physical activity and premature ejaculation is being conducted (completion date is January 31, 2017). ",
        "id": 1305,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are taste and smell (and hearing a song from the 90's) such potent triggers for nostolgia? Benefits and Negatives of nostologia?",
        "body": "Yes, basically.  There is some psych literature on this; we romanticize the past, because of a particular, complex way the brain chooses to behave.  In doing so, we typically remember good things from the past and hold on tightly to those things, even though in total one's past could have been more painful than the present, which is sometimes neglected and ignored and thus people hold themselves back and struggle to look forward and be forward-looking.  A psychology / museum curator told me this stuff recently.  Again sorry for not having sources to provide.  Try a Google search or search on PubMed.  I would search for both neurology and psych literature.",
        "id": 1313,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are \"cryptic bacteria\"?",
        "body": "There appears to be a reasonable definition of cryptic bacteria here:     Cryptic Bacteria in our Tissues      The role of bacteria in numerous diseases, including cancers, has been proposed since the early isolation of bacteria from human tissues. Many of these bacteria are difficult to culture and have variable forms viewed by microscope. Because these bacteria are difficult for microbiologists to handle with conventional approaches, their existence and significance has always been questioned. Use of antibiotics to treat chronic, inflammatory conditions has seemed inconsistent with the unproven existence of a bacterial cause. Thus, there is surprise when the inappropriate use of antibiotics leads to a cure. ",
        "id": 2562,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the word for the dead skin on the upper layer of a healed wound?",
        "body": "Frankly, medical terminology isn't necessary and might even lead to increased confusion, especially after being translated. All medical terminology is not universal.   Just state your complaint in plain language as clearly as you can using layman's terms. I doubt that a Japanese doctor needs much more guidance from you than simply understanding your complaint. For example, you might say (in Japanese), \"Doctor, I can't hear as well as I used to and I think it may be due to an injury to my ear canal some time ago. Can you please have a look?\"  I would expect the doctor to examine both ear canals. If your theory is correct, the doctor won't need further explanation. She will see it with her own eyes and know what to do about it. She will probably also want to test your hearing in both ears. I would not be terribly surprised to find that the cause is something other than what you suspect.   Assuming that you don't speak fluent Japanese and he/she doesn't speak fluent English, you might consider bringing a translator along with you since the doctor will no doubt have questions and perhaps need to explain things to you. It's the sort of situation where language barriers can be troublesome and you don't want to risk misunderstandings.",
        "id": 276,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does caffeine make me sleep better?",
        "body": "Caffeine Absorption  Caffeine Capsules -    200mg - 84-120 minutes  So maybe you took the caffeine, were already tired so you napped(2 hours or 120 minutes) just as it was kicking in full blown and then woke up a little later with the effects already in action, but not sleeping the full amount.   Since the capsules take longer to kick in than liquids and gums, you fell asleep before it fully woke you up. And since some say that caffeine works less if you are caffeine tolerant then this may explain.     Other  According to Mens Fitness it could be a variation in your genes (CYP1A2 genes) that show how you metabolize caffeine. There is a test for that apparently, but I don't know how accurate that is.   7 Gene Test      The 7 gene test consists of a panel of seven genetic markers that   enable your healthcare professional to provide you with personalized   nutritional recommendations based on your DNA. This test determines   how your body responds to vitamin C, folate, whole grains, omega-3   fats, saturated fat, sodium and caffeine.    But then again, there appears a lot of reasons to why caffeine makes some people sleep:   Increases Insulin Response. Does not happen for everybody, but the increased insulin could make you tired. It doesn't appear to have much of a affect though.      For most young, healthy adults, caffeine doesn't appear to noticeably   affect blood sugar (glucose) levels, and consumption up to 400   milligrams a day appears to be safe.    Some also say it has to do with vasoconstriction and dehydration due to diuretic effects of coffee.    The above other reasons don't seem to be the case in your case, but they are interesting possibilities. ",
        "id": 838,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Salt and bad sleep",
        "body": "The effect of salt consumption has been assessed in several studies (for a review: Cappuccio FP. Cardiovascular and other effects of salt consumption. Kidney International Supplements. 2013;3(4):312-315. doi:10.1038/kisup.2013.65.) Dietary salt intake has been linked to several diseases, more frequently cardiovascular diseases but also kidney stones and bone metabolism.  According to its last guidance, the WHO recommends max 5 grams of salt per day (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/) Nowadays it is quite simple to exceed these recommendations through the consumption of processed foods. While obviously you try to cook yourself, be aware that other processed foods such as snack foods, soy sauce and cheese contain high content of salt.  A recent interesting study has shown that dietary salt can influence postprandial plasma sodium concentration (in medicine, sodium plasma concentration expressed in mmol/L is the preferred measure for expressing the amount of sodium in blood) and influence blood pressure (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22048126). While the symptoms you describe are difficult to categorise, and seeing your family physician probably makes sense, some of the symptoms might be due for example to increased blood pressure. Checking your blood pressure is certainly relevant.  In your story, I note that your symptoms often arise after having had beers at the pub. Bear in mind, that alcohol consumption can impact on your sleep quality as suggested by a literature review conducted among 107 articles (Stein MD, Friedmann PD. Disturbed Sleep and Its Relationship to Alcohol Use. Substance abuse\u202f: official publication of the Association for Medical Education and Research in Substance Abuse. 2005;26(1):1-13.)  Seeking a professional is certainly a good idea, as according to the US preventive services task force, every adult aged 18 years or older should have their BP measured at least once and rescreened every 3 to 5 years (http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/high-blood-pressure-in-adults-screening). Whether your  blood electrolytes concentration need to be measured or other investigations undertaken, should be decided by your family doctor.",
        "id": 1029,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to reduce stress by directly reducing cholestrol intake?",
        "body": "No. It is not possible \"that reducing cholestrol would lead to a direct, causational decrease in cortisol production?\"  There is a little and a bigger flaw in this thought. Cholesterol is not \"bad\" and it is not an essential nutrient. That means, reduced intake of this substance results usually just in increased synthesis of that substance.     Cholesterol (from the Ancient Greek chole- (bile) and stereos (solid), followed by the chemical suffix -ol for an alcohol) is an organic molecule. It is a sterol (or modified steroid), a type of lipid molecule, and is biosynthesized by all animal cells, because it is an essential structural component of all animal cell membranes and is essential to maintain both membrane structural integrity and fluidity. Cholesterol allows animal cells to function without a cell wall (which in other species protects membrane integrity and cell viability); this allows animal cells to change shape rapidly. (Wikipedia)   Further, it is not true that high cholesterol > leads to/causes > high cortisol >  leads to/causes > high stress.  It is more the other way around. Reduce stress and you reduce cortisol production and bad levels/ratios of lipoproteins (\"high cholesterol\").     The second major physiological stress, the HPA axis regulates the release of cortisol, which influences many bodily functions such as metabolic, psychological and immunological functions. (Wikipedia to compare with.)   Completely blocking cholesterol intake and synthesis would be quite deadly.",
        "id": 2190,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "On the mechanics of chickenpox immunity for newborns and breastmilk antibody transfer",
        "body": "It is true that infants receive antibodies from the mother via the placenta in the final trimester of pregnancy and also in breastmilk.  Passive immunity  This is passive immunity, because the antibodies (usually IgA type) are passed on pre-formed. They can resist infection but do not form lasting immunity, which requires the body to encounter the infectious agent itself (specifically the antigens on its surface). After several weeks or months, the infant will become vulnerable again. It is important to note that the mother must have had the infection in question.  Antibodies in breast milk  This question on the Biology Stack Exchange asks about how antibodies in breastmilk survive digestion in the stomach of the infant. I refer to it\u2019s answers. The structure of IgA antibodies and also the fact that the environment in the stomach of an infant is very different from that of an adult (specifically much less acidic so less protease activity). Their intestine is also more permeable. Thus adults would not derive the same benefit from breastmilk as infants do!  Chickenpox  You mention that you have never had chickenpox. This is a highly transmissible disease and hard to miss. Many adults who have never had chickenpox will actually have had subclinical infection (infection with no symptoms) and will have developed immunity. (Wallace et al.)    Additional sources  Wallace MR, Chamberlin CJ,Zerbini L, et al. Reliability of a history of previous varicella infection in adults. JAMA 1997; 278:1520-1522.  NHS - How long do babies carry their mother\u2019s immunity",
        "id": 1860,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My friend accidentally drank camphor water and also swallowed a piece of camphor",
        "body": "Call the emergency services or the anti-poisoning centre right away. Don't waste your time looking for effects on the internet.  Keep calm, and:   Tell your name, phone number, location,  Tell this is for a poisoning, and tell the victim's gender and age Tell what was swallowed, how, how much and how long ago Don't hang up the phone before instructed to do so   They will guide you and tell you what to do, should something needs to be done.  Don't take any initiative outside the instructions you will receive.  Don't give water, don't give milk, don't to try to make the person to vomit, don't give any medication, and ask the person not to move.  I'll elaborate (and reference) this answer further later should the question be reopen once made more general, but in the interest of the victim do this right now, even if he/she seems to feel good.",
        "id": 181,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do we know that our esophageal sphincters are malfunctioning in acid reflux without endoscopy?",
        "body": "Firstly, I would be reluctant to ascribe those symptoms (recurrent oral canker sores) to acid reflux. In very severe reflux acid can make its way up the oesophagus and can cause chemical burns to the throat and mouth, but there would also be other related symptoms, like nausea, indigestion, heartburn, persistent coughing (caused by acid irritating the larynx) and finally burns to the mouth and a taste of acid in the mouth, especially when lying down. Isolated persistent oral aphthous ulcers is not related to acid reflux.  Secondly, there are no oesophageal sphincters, in the usual sense of a muscular structure. The oesophagus is closed above the stomach when it passes through the muscular diaphragm, which applies external pressure on the oesophagus. This is called a 'functional sphincter', as opposed to an 'anatomical sphincter'. Thus, if this hole in the diaphragm is too big it won't be able to close the oesophagus fully and there will be some reflux of stomach acid into the oesophagus. Depending on how large the hole some of the stomach might be able to go through it, what is called a hiatus hernia. There are no exercises that will close this hole in the diaphragm.   Thirdly, if there is a strong history of typical symptoms then a diagnosis of reflux is fairly straightforward. However some tests are usually required to determine severity and possible treatment. Surgery, in severe cases, is recommended and has good results. There are medications that will help lower acidity levels and can eliminate symptoms in mild cases. This is best decided in consultation with a surgeon. A trial of medications is often worthwhile, to assess response to treatment, before surgery is considered.  Fourthly, diet plays an important role in the management of reflux. Anything you chew or swallow will cause your stomach to produce acid, but there are certain foods that cause much more acid to be produced or are actually acidic themselves. There are many excellent resources on diet available online or from your doctor. ",
        "id": 1411,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What effects does an oxygen saturation between 90% and 94% have on the body?",
        "body": "Reduced oxygen saturation in blood is called hypoxia (though strictly that means reduced oxygen in the tissues). If there is marked reduction in oxygen saturation of blood, it may lead to bluish discoloration of skin and tongue, called cyanosis.   Mildly reduced arterial oxygen saturation may be due to mild respiratory or cardiac diseases. A common lung condition is chronic obstructive airway disease (or chronic bronchitis, most commonly due to smoking). Congenital cyanotic heart diseases like Tetralogy of Fallot are generally discovered and treated in childhood. Arterio-venous malformations in lung is another cause of arterial oxygen desaturation which may be present in otherwise healthy persons. Persons staying at high altitudes have reduced blood oxygen saturation due to low atmospheric pressure leading to reduced partial pressure of oxygen in inhaled air. Sleep apnea syndrome often seen in obese persons may also lead to hypoxia. Other causes include neurological diseases leading to respiratory depression, respiratory conditions such as severe pneumonia, pulmonary embolism (clots in arteries supplying blood to the lungs), pulmonary edema (lung congestion), pulmonary fibrosis etc, but in all these the person is obviously ill.   In an apparently healthy person, mild hypoxia is likely to be due to smoking or pollution related chronic obstructive airway (pulmonary) disease (COAD or COPD), pulmonary arteriovenous malformation or early pulmonary fibrosis.  Mild hypoxia may not result in any symptoms. It may lead to increased hemoglobin level in the blood to compensate for reduced oxygen saturation, as commonly occurs in persons living at high altitudes. The main worry is that the underlying process may progress and hence the cause of desaturation should be investigated.  References:  http://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/hypoxemia/basics/causes/sym-20050930",
        "id": 545,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do anti-inflammatory painkillers speed up healing?",
        "body": "It has been long known that use of NSAID have an effect for bone healing after fractures (1). Therefore the use of NSAIDs is recommended only for certain period after fracture and long-term use should be avoided.  NSAIDs are either non-selective COX1 and COX2 inhibitors (ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen) or modern selective COX2 inhibitors (selecoxib, parecoxib). There is some evidence that non-selective COX1&amp;2 inhibitors such as ibuprofen have a positive effect for the healing of tendons (2)(3). In general the use of NSAIDs are useful in the treatment of ligament injuries but whether the advantage of NSAIDs is due to the matter that reduction in pain results to early mobilization and thus earlier recovery is still controversial (4).  However, the use of selective COX-2 inhibitors is shown to have adverse effect on the tissue healing (4)(5).  As so, the use of ibuprofen does not look like disadvantageous with regard to tissue healing unless where are dealing with bone fracture.  Of course, whether there is really an objective soft tissue damage present after a whiplash is a whole another matter....",
        "id": 283,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How dangerous is it to microwave melamine?",
        "body": "FDA data https://www.fda.gov/food/resourcesforyou/consumers/ucm199525.htm suggests there is increased migration of melamine into food at temps above 160'F but seems to take time to accumulate.  The level that leads to toxicity is estimated through risk assessment.  It seems toxicity is rare but can be severe:     Products with melamine contamination above the levels noted in FDA\u2019s   risk assessment may put people at risk of conditions such as kidney   stones and kidney failure, and of death. Signs of melamine poisoning   may include irritability, blood in urine, little or no urine, signs of   kidney infection, and / or high blood pressure.   No one here can tell you if you're going to get sick.  If you are worried or see concerning signs/symptoms, see a doctor.",
        "id": 2433,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do antibiotics contribute to bone healing?",
        "body": "The antibiotics may have been, because you had surgery.   They broke skin Introduce new particles to the body Your bone was already broken   Since infection can lead to prolonged healing, you could see it working that way.   Fluoroquinolones are known to negatively affect bone growth, this is mostly seen in infants though.   The effect of antibiotics on bone healing: current evidence    Livestrong.com   Vitamin D increases Calcium absorption  Calcium increases bone density   The effect of calcium and vitamin D3 supplementation on the healing of the proximal humerus fracture:  Results of study:     we have demonstrated that it is possible to quantify callus formation   of the PHF with sufficiently high precision to demonstrate the   positive influence of vitamin D3 and calcium over the first 6 weeks   after fracture   All in all Vitamin D, Calcium, and antibiotics all do in a way help bone fracture healing.",
        "id": 861,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are B vitamins typically sedating, stimulating, or neither?",
        "body": "According to this article B vitamins \"help convert our food into fuel, allowing us to stay energized throughout the day.\" However, according to the same article \"Taking a B complex vitamin will not create heightened alertness or energy the way caffeine does.\" So B vitamins don't sedate you, and while they don't give you an extra boost, they do help you keep your energy levels up.",
        "id": 983,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is decaffeinated coffee a diuretic?",
        "body": "While coffee in large amounts can stimulate urine production, it's not enough to produce a dehydration effect, especially in people accustomed to drinking caffeine.  This recent study compared 50 male coffee drinkers in short trials both with and without caffeine, and concluded that in coffee accustomed males, coffee had much the same hydrating effects as drinking straight water.  A study review on 36 years worth of caffeine and tea studies also concluded that caffeine consumption does not lead to excess fluid loss.  The two relevant summaries:     METHOD:      A literature search was performed using the Medline database of articles published in the medical and scientific literature for the period of January 1966-March 2002. Subject headings and key words used in this search were: tea, coffee, caffeine, diuresis, fluid balance and water-electrolyte balance. A secondary search was performed using the bibliographies of publications identified in the initial search.   And from the same review:     CONCLUSION:      The most ecologically valid of the published studies offers no support for the suggestion that consumption of caffeine-containing beverages as part of a normal lifestyle leads to fluid loss in excess of the volume ingested or is associated with poor hydration status. Therefore, there would appear to be no clear basis for refraining from caffeine containing drinks in situations where fluid balance might be compromised.   Now to the caffeine itself: This study examined energy drinks, specifically caffeine and taurine, and concluded that the diuresis was largely controlled by the caffeine, as taurine by itself did not produce the same effects.  The diuretic effect of caffeine is noted in larger amounts, usually the amount found in 3-6 cups of coffee (Depending on how accustomed the individual is to the effect), or 8-10 cups of tea. While decaffeinated coffee still has some residual caffeine, it would not be enough to have the same effect as fully caffeinated drinks.  As far as the excretion of other substances, this study examined the effect of caffeine on excretion of certain elements (calcium, sodium, magnesium and potassium), with the conclusion that all but potassium had higher urinary output levels after caffeine consumption. I am uncertain how that would relate to cardiac function and blood pressure, however.",
        "id": 786,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What evidence is there for and against Alternate Day Fasting?",
        "body": "There is one systematic review on this topic. This study was published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which is the most respected journal in their discipline. As so, I consider this study perhaps the most important publication on this topic. Main conclusion was that the literature is scarce with regard to intermittent fasting. Small studies have been published, and these studies have shown positive outcomes with intermittent fasting. It is evident that these findings must be replicated in a study population reaching 1000+ participants.  Some sources claims that currently they are conducting the largest study in intermittent fasting in Sweden, lead by professor Kerstin Brismar. Apparently the preliminary results are encouraging. No published studies are yet available. Following pages (in Swedish) have some more information: svt.se &amp; Karolinska Institutet. Prof Brismar is a well-known researcher in metabolism and has a great credibility in her field. I am looking forward to their results.  There are hardly any harms with intermittent fasting, I think. But I think it has a great pit fall. One must have strong spirit and psyche, since the human nature has a tendency to give \"rewards\". In this case it means that after two fasting days one should not eat more than is normal (+no candy etc.), since this would ruin the meaning of the diet.  ",
        "id": 175,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is \"water weight\" a real thing?",
        "body": "It sounds like what you're talking about is related to water retention, a specialized case of fluid retention, which causes an effect known as edema.  Edema (and thus generalized fluid retention) can be divided into two categories: generalized edema and localized edema. The first occurs all over the body, while the second occurs in only certain parts of the body.  There are various causes of fluid retention. Some include   Menstruation Pregnancy Diseases of the heart, liver and kidneys Severe arthritis Certain drugs   The specific cause can determine whether the edema is generalized or localized.  Source: The Better Health Channel (approved by the government of the State of Victoria, Australia)  To be even more general, fluid retention is caused by the swelling or increase in pressure of various cavities within the body, including capillaries, the lymphatic system, and the organs I mentioned before. This can eventually cause ruptures to occur, and fluid will leak out. This in turn will cause edema in various parts of the body - again depending on the cause.  Source: Medical News Today  \"Water weight\" appears to be referring to the amount of this excess fluid building up outside of these body cavities. \"Water retention\" refers to the general phenomenon, while \"edema\" refers to the associated swelling.  So yes, this is a well-documented phenomenon, although the term \"water weight\" isn't commonly used.  A final note: As YviDe said, the term may simply be used often in a non-technical way, to refer to some of the weight that is quickly lost in some cases.",
        "id": 658,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can cause foamy urine other than protein?",
        "body": "Source: Bel Marra Health      Proteinuria: This is a condition in which protein is released in the   urine in high amounts. Protein is normally released in the urine but   in small amounts. When these levels become high, the urine can appear   foamy. This can be a sign of an impending kidney problem as the   kidneys are not filtering urine properly and thus release too much   protein. Untreated high blood pressure and diabetes may contribute   to kidney filtration problems, along with other factors like toxins,   infections, or trauma to the kidneys.      Urinary tract infection: When bacteria enter any part of the urinary tract system you may develop an infection. Along with pain,   higher urinary frequency and urgency, and burning while urinating,   your urine may appear foamy as well. You should see a doctor if you   begin to experience UTI symptoms because the earlier the treatment   begins the less of a risk of complications you will have.      Kidney disease: Foamy urine can be a sign of kidney disease resulting from kidney stones or diabetes. A simple urine test will   determine whether you have kidney disease.      Preeclampsia during pregnancy: Preeclampsia during pregnancy results in swollen legs, proteinuria, high blood pressure, and   headaches. This can be a fatal condition to both mother and fetus, and   all symptoms can worsen with its progression.      Vesicocolic fistula: A fistula is an abnormal connection which in this case develops between the bladder and the colon. This allows air,   gas, and bacteria to travel into the bladder. Along with foamy urine,   a person with vesicocolic fistula will have frequent infections.   Symptoms may be similar to those of a UTI.      Rapid urination: Urinating too quickly or forcing urine to come out can be responsible for its foamy appearance. This is because air   is introduced into the urine stream causing the bubbles. This type of   foam typically disappears within a few minutes.      Concentrated urine: If you\u2019re mildly dehydrated, the urine may become more concentrated, so it appears foamy. This can easily be   resolved by drinking more fluids.      Toilet cleaner: Sometimes urine reacts with toilet cleaner which causes bubbles. If you\u2019re unsure if your urine is foamy or whether   it\u2019s the toilet cleaner causing it to foam, you can urinate in a   separate container that has not been treated with the cleaner and   watch for foam. Semen in urine: After sex, small amounts of semen are   left in the male urethra. This small amount won\u2019t cause foamy urine   unless the bladder sphincter malfunctions, causing the semen to go   back into the bladder. In this case, urine will appear foamy.      Other causes: Other causes of foamy urine include amyloidosis, cancer, chemical poisoning, diabetes, heart conditions like an   enlarged heart, high blood pressure, infections, kidney failure, liver   disease, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis, and sickle cell   anemia. ",
        "id": 1355,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the real miscarriage risk from amniocentesis?",
        "body": "I did end up finding some recent studies with a bit more searching.   Miscarriage risk from amniocentesis performed for abnormal maternal serum screening looked at 30.000 women with abnormal serum levels and divided them into two equally sized groups, one undergoing amniocentesis and one not. They found no significant difference in risk of miscarriage, the risk being around 0.5 percent for both groups. According to their abstract, the study size would have been large enough to detect a jump from that 0.5 percent to 0.75 percent, so an increase by 0.25, or 1 in 400.   No statistically significant difference was also found in Loss Rates After Midtrimester Amniocentesis, with a study group of 3.000 women and a control group of 30.000.  Revisiting the Fetal Loss Rate After Second-Trimester Genetic Amniocentesis: A Single Center\u2019s 16-Year Experience looked at a single medical center's results from 1990 to 2006. That included 12.000 women undergoing the procedure and 50.000 who didn't. The control group has a miscarriage rate of 0.26%, the amniocentesis group one of 0.4%, the difference was statistically significant. That's an increase in 0.13%, or 1 in 769.  At least from those studies, the risk of 1 in 200 seems overstated. ",
        "id": 710,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's involved in an extraction of palatally impacted teeth?",
        "body": "Recently, I had the teeth in question removed.  The dentist's assistant told me that the extractions would more or less be the same as those done on teeth with a more normal placement. The dentist told me that there was some chance of having to cut into the tissue if the teeth were too difficult to remove.  The actual procedure was very straightforward: I was given an anaesthetic, which rendered everything afterwards painless, and the dentist then extracted the tooth. The dentist used something that looked like a knife on one occasion. I was told to avoid drinking, smoking, and hot foods, but did not have to make any major changes to my diet. The little pain there was was also very manageable.",
        "id": 442,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calculating HRV from heart rate",
        "body": "Heart rate variability (HRV) is a measure of the variation in the beat-to-beat interval. The heart rate (HR) is the number of heart beats in some unit time (generally expressed as the number of beats per minute). In general, because measures of HR are an average over time, it will smooth out the variability in the heart rate. The amount of HRV cannot be estimated from a measure of the HR at a single time point. Estimating the amount of HRV from multiple measures of HR at different times is possible, but will be corrupted by changes in the average heart rate over time. So in summary, no HRV cannot be estimated from measures of HR.",
        "id": 236,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What causes fibromyalgia to flare up even though medicine is used?",
        "body": "Uptodate discusses secondary failure after an initial response to drug therapy.      FACTORS LIMITING TREATMENT EFFICACY \u2014 Several factors may limit the degree of benefit achieved with prescribed medications or other interventions, including nonadherence to treatment interventions or comorbidities that cause peripheral pain and that require additional interventions to those used for treatment of the fibromyalgia.   However, in general, the effect of medication is modest in fibromyalgia, and should only be part of a multidisciplinary treatment program which includes exercise, cognitive based therapies, and sleep hygiene.",
        "id": 905,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Blood pressure in aorta vs. blood pressure in brachial artery",
        "body": "The mean pressure has to be lower peripherally for blood to flow in that direction. However, it is well known that there is an amplification of systolic blood pressure in the limbs due to reflection of pressure wave from periphery (see http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/51/1/112.full). Vascular stiffness also affects this phenomenon. See figure 4 of this article in American Journal of Physiology: http://ajpheart.physiology.org/content/299/3/H584  The phenomenon of pressure wave reflection is shown clearly in figure 5 of this article in Advances in Physiology Education http://advan.physiology.org/content/37/4/321  This phenomenon is also exaggerated in aortic regurgitation, where it is called the Hill's sign: http://www.learntheheart.com/cardiology-review/hills-sign/",
        "id": 454,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the differences between blackheads and whiteheads? Different oils? Or different outcome?",
        "body": "When things like dead skin or cosmetic build-up get into your pores and plug them up, and that pore is still producing its normal amount of sebum, that's when it becomes a whitehead or blackhead. Whiteheads lie below the surface of your skin and blackheads are at the surface.  Both blackheads and whiteheads, says Dr. Chwalek, occur \"when a pore gets blocked with dead skin cells and oils.\" The difference is that in the case of whiteheads the pore remains closed; whereas with blackheads, the pore is stretched open.   http://stylecaster.com/beauty/the-difference-between-blackheads-and-sebaceous-filaments/  http://www.instyle.com/beauty/skin/difference-between-blackheads-and-whiteheads-and-how-treat-them",
        "id": 1379,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Emergent gastric ischemia",
        "body": "Cocaine use is known to cause gastric ischemia or even perforation (in a 19 year old female student with epigastric pain PubMed, 2010) and in another 5 relatively young people (PubMed, 1991), or intestinal ischemia (PubMed, 1999). When there are no symptoms that would differ from those in food poisoning or infectious gastroenteritis, cocaine use alone should raise suspicion for gastric or intestinal ischemia.  Symptoms and signs associated with gastric ischemia can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hypotension (as a cause of ischemia), abdominal pain (angina) and tenderness, chest pain (angina), vomiting blood and blood in stool (Journal Watch, 2014, PubMed, 2006).  It can also help to know the history of underlying conditions in gastric ischemia that can occur in young people: hypotension (e.g. due to arrhythmia or anaphylaxis), vasculitis, pyloric stenosis (which can lead to stomach distension) and paraesophageal hernia (Springer, 2017).  Diagnosis is by upper endoscopy (MedCrave, 2018).  In conclusion, symptoms and signs of gastric ischemia can be very unspecific, but you can suspect it in a person with sustained epigastric pain and known cocaine use.",
        "id": 2697,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are There Reliable Sulfur-Based Blood-Clotting Products That Target Internal Bleeding",
        "body": "The \"sulfur\" based powder you are referring to is sulfonamide which was an antimicrobial, not a clotting agent. It's not sulfur based, but is often called \"sulfa\", which is where you may be thinking it's sulfur.  It's a white powder that medics used on open wounds, for the antimicrobrial properties. Pretty much every US soldier had sulfa packs and were instructed on how to dust the wounds. While it helped save innumberable lives, penicillin came along and pushed aside the use of sulfa towards the end of WWII.   Sulfa drugs are still used in quite a few different combinations and treatments to this day, however.",
        "id": 798,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does B.D means in a Doctor's Prescription?",
        "body": "As @LangLangC pointed out, bis in die is Latin for twice a day.   However, usually drugs come with a prescription information a bit more elaborate, and twice a day is more commonly abbreviated as B.I.D.    This example and further examples can be found here.  In this example, p.o. (per os, latin for through the mouth) means oral consumption, and b.i.d (bis in dies, twice a day) twice daily. It is not specified if the intake should be before meal (a.c. or ante cibum) or after meal (p.c. or post cibum).  Your pharmacist should have provided you with more information about intake when you received your drugs.  You can find a list of medical abbreviations for prescriptions here.",
        "id": 1969,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are ear infections more likely when visiting high altitudes?",
        "body": "It is true that high altitudes can cause an increased risk of ear infection. JohnP mentioned in his comment that on the National Institutes of Health (NIH) website for acute ear infections, it says that \"Changes in altitude or climate\" can increase the risk of getting an ear infection. The reason for this is also explained on the NIH website. That page describes very succinctly what happens to your ears when you experience changes changes altitude (ie: going up a mountain, flying in a plane).     The air pressure outside of your body changes as altitude changes. This creates a difference in pressure on the two sides of the eardrum.   This difference in pressure can block your Eustachian tube, the tube that connects the back of your nose and upper throat to your middle ear, which can cause an ear infection. A blockage in the Eustachian tube can also lead to something known as ear barotrauma, which is just discomfort in the ear, not a full ear infection, but may look and feel similar to one if it is severe enough. It should also be noted that young children are at a much higher risk for their Eustachian tube to be blocked, which may also be a contributing factor to why your daughter got an ear infection.    NIH: Ear infection - acute  NIH: Ear - block at high altitudes  NIH: Ear barotrauma  WebMD: Blocked Eustachian Tubes  Healtline: Ear Barotrauma",
        "id": 401,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there anything besides sodium to avoid to lower blood pressure?",
        "body": "The aging process itself can cause a stiffening of the blood vessels; also our genes, etc. In general, for people with hypertension, more potassium is better. One might use a salt substitute, like \"Morton's Salt Substitute\", which is potassium chloride. Or drink low sodium v-8 juice, which is high in K. One might also take Magnesium citrate, or Mg-taurate supplements; according to label. One might also take a garlic supplement like Garlicin HC (TM) according to label instructions, or another good garlic supplement (e.g. Kwai).  If one likes celery, this makes a good snack!  And the general advice still applies:  report all supplements you take to your doctor when you visit.   P.S. If a person has pre-existing kidney disease, they should consult a doctor before beginning to supplement  potassium and/or magnesium.   Studies etc. K https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/21403995/  Mg: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/22051430/  Celery:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/25352064/  Also:  https://www.google.com/amp/s/health.clevelandclinic.org/celery-may-help-bring-your-high-blood-pressure-down/amp/ There is a lot more interesting stuff on the web about celery and other than just this. This study addresses the kidneys, high bp  is not good for the kidneys over time.   Garlic:  https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-300/garlic   There is plenty of quality material on the net regarding K, mg, celery and garlic to aid control of hypertension.   NB:  Of course, those with hypertension, even mild hypertension, should be under the care of a doctor and as I said above, the doctor should be informed of the supplements one takes. ",
        "id": 2297,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does 'Sage Salvia officinalis' help reducing excessive hand sweating (palmar hyperidrosis)?",
        "body": "Salvia is a herbal treatment with a long tradition for this indication.      sage leaves   The HMPC has classified sage leaves as a traditional herbal medicinal product.   ESCOP: internally for increased secretion of sweat; externally for inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat, gum inflammation.   Commission E: internally for dyspeptic complaints and increased secretion of sweat; externally for inflammations of the mouth and throat mucosa.      Arzneipflanzenlexikon: Salbei   That means three different bodies, the Herbal Medicinal Product Committee (HMPC), the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP), and the older and defunct Kommission E, came to the conclusion that indeed sage does \"help\" with excessive sweating. What they didn't address was how much sage helped.     The scientific report from Kommission E was published in \"Salviae folium / Salbeibl\u00e4tter\", Bundesanzeiger No 90, 15.05.1985. But it seems to be not online anywhere.  Going by personal experience with sage leaf tea I'd say: it helps quite a lot in a hot summer in people probably not diagnosed or suffering the condition in question. But a German medical newspaper cites:     Professor Karin Kraft: In hyperhidrosis, preparations from Dalmatian sage (Salvia officinalis L.) are mainly used as a herbal option. The antihidrotic mode of action is not known exactly, the tannins contained may be involved.      In the case of focal hyperhidrosis, patting with Salbeitinktur (50 vol.% ethanol) is recommended in folk medicine.      For generalised sweating, tea infusions with sage leaves are helpful: pour 150 ml boiling water over a teaspoon of cut leaves (2g) or a filter bag, allow to infuse for 10 minutes, strain, drink a cup of cooled tea three times a day for two to four weeks.      In addition, there is a finished drug with aqueous sage leaf dry extract. For day sweat, for example during the menopause, 1 - 2 drag\u00e9es are recommended 3 times daily after meals, for nervous night sweat 2 - 4 drag\u00e9es are recommended before going to bed.      The European Medicines Agency (EMA) assigns sage leaf preparations, among other things, the traditional use to relieve excessive sweating; persons up to 18 years of age, pregnant women and nursing mothers should be excluded due to lack of examination data.      The available clinical studies are always open, most of which were already carried out in the 1930s in patients with TB, for example, or in healthy volunteers.      They all support the long-standing assumption that aqueous sage leaf extracts inhibit perspiration in hyperhidrosis.      In an open, uncontrolled study, 40 patients with idiopathic hyperhidrosis received an aqueous dry extract (440mg, corresponding to 2.6g sage leaves) and a further 40 patients received sage tea (4.5g leaves per day).      Sweat secretion dropped to less than 50 percent in both groups.      A therapy trial with sage leaf extract is therefore justified in patients with idiopathic focal or generalized hyperhidrosis.      \"Mit Salbei gegen Hyperhidrose\", \u00c4rzte Zeitung, 2014    But that professor is obviously a fan of herbals and mostly quotes very old studies. Newer studies with updated protocols and standards are like: First time proof of sage's tolerability and efficacy in menopausal women with hot flushes, 2011.  When looking at Palmar hyperhidrosis: clinical, pathophysiological, diagnostic and therapeutic aspects we find that  Palmoplantar Hyperhidrosis: A Therapeutic Challenge. As the International Hyperhidrosis Society remarks on Sweaty Hands:     While most people find that antiperspirants, iontophoresis, Botox injections, or a custom combination of these are enough to manage excessive hand sweating, there are those who seek a more definitive course of action.   Seeking to add Salvia into a treatment course seems to offer a weak but viable opportunity. Relying on sage alone may be not enough in most of the more severe cases. ",
        "id": 2488,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I wash the vegetables after disinfection?",
        "body": "If you are unsure of the quality of the water supply, it is advised to not rewash the produce, as this risks re-contaminating the produce.  With chemical disinfectants, the important bit is to get the balance of chemical to water - the dilution - correct. At a certain point, the chemical becomes harmless for human consumption.  Source: Inspectapedia     Watch out: If you have one of these products, read the label for the required amount of chemical to add and the wait time to use before consuming the water.        Once produce has been disinfected, do not wash it again in tap water. Doing-so removes the disinfectant and in communities where tap water itself may not be sanitary you risk re-infecting the produce. ",
        "id": 2240,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any significant benefits to loud alarms in the ICU?",
        "body": "In my experience with one brand of monitors we tend to set multiple levels of severity of alarms at different volumes. The third tier alarms will be quite quiet and usually reflect a problem with monitoring (ie lead fallen off). The second tier are usually low-moderate volume and persistent. This would indicate an abnormal value that the patient condition has changed and needs attention. The first tier alarms are critical changes that are life-threatening and require immediate attention.  This first tier alarm is heard by all staff in the unit and can prompt other staff that there may be a need for assistance with that patient.  Further to this is the code alarm. This is activated by the nurse and indicates that assistance IS required.  I'm sure that not having adequate response to a cardiac arrest has more deleterious outcomes than loud alarms.",
        "id": 571,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to change person's blood group?",
        "body": "Yes, it is possible. In a bone marrow transplant, all of the patient's bone marrow is destroyed and replaced with donor marrow. Since red blood cells are created by bone marrow, the donor's blood type will determine which type of red cells are produced, as explained here:     Does my blood type change after SCT or BMT?      Yes.  The recipients blood type eventually changes to the donor type.    That means if you had a blood type of A+ prior to transplant and your   donor had a blood type of O, eventually your blood type would become   O.  I may take several weeks, possibly months for your original blood   type to disappear, but eventually it will.   There is also one report of an Australian girl whose blood type changed following a liver transplant. That appears to have been a unique event, but it does indicate that it is possible by means other than marrow transplant.",
        "id": 790,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does intake of processed sugar lower the immune system?",
        "body": "There is some evidence that sugar does suppress the immune system. The study that everyone seems to point to was conducted in 1973, where they fed sugar in 100g doses to people and measured the effect on phagocytosis (where immune cells engulf invader bacteria to destroy it).  The end result was that sugar intake did appear to suppress the ability of the immune system to destroy invading bacteria. This function was suppressed for up to 5 hours in control subjects, while fasting comparisons did not have the same effect. Additionally, they counted the number of neutrophils (type of white blood cells), and they were not diminished, which suggests it was a function blocking mechanism, not that it suppressed the number. So it does limit the effectiveness, but this is not really a suppression of the system.  Part of this may be due to the sugar molecule being structurally similar to Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid), and that it competes for the space and prevents the cells from effectively using Vitamin C to destroy bacteria. (Based off studies Linus Pauling did, but I could not find the study, merely references to it).  There are suggestions that sugar also may contribute to insulin resistence, and that it may contribute to increased inflammation, but these either state more study is needed or are in the incidence of specific other deficiencies (Such as magnesium).",
        "id": 65,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is it like to go under with Succinylcholine?",
        "body": "Succinylcholine, or Suxamethonium chloride, is an 'interesting choice' for this kind or purpose.  As a muscle relaxant with a relatively short duration it will paralyse the victim, cause breathing to stop and then death. Depending on dosage and wether your perpetrator carries a breathing apparatus for mechanical ventilation with him.  If the victim remains conscious she will feel extremely helpless and terrified on the psychological side. Physical reactions during or afterwards might include:        Signs of an allergic reaction, like rash; hives; itching; red, swollen, blistered, or peeling skin with or without fever; wheezing; tightness in the chest or throat; trouble breathing or talking; unusual hoarseness; or swelling of the mouth, face, lips, tongue, or throat.   Signs of a high potassium level like a heartbeat that does not feel normal; - change in thinking clearly and with logic; feeling weak, lightheaded, or dizzy; feel like passing out; numbness or tingling; or shortness of breath.   Slow heartbeat.   Very bad dizziness or passing out.   Very bad headache.   Muscle pain.   Twitching.   Not able to pass urine or change in how much urine is passed.   A heartbeat that does not feel normal.   Chest pain or pressure.   More eye pressure.   Trouble breathing, slow breathing, or shallow breathing.   This medicine may cause a very bad and sometimes deadly problem called malignant hyperthermia. Call your doctor right away if you have a fast heartbeat, fast breathing, fever, or spasm or stiffness of the jaw muscles.   (From: drugs.com/succinylcholine more personal \"review\" stories found here)      But the fun doesn't stop there. From  Generic Name: succinylcholine chloride Brand Name: Anectine:     The average dose required to produce neuromuscular blockade and to facilitate tracheal intubation is 0.6 mg/kg ANECTINE (succinylcholine chloride) Injection given intravenously. The optimum dose will vary among individuals and may be from 0.3 to 1.1 mg/kg for adults. Following administration of doses in this range, neuromuscular blockade develops in about 1 minute; maximum blockade may persist for about 2 minutes, after which recovery takes place within 4 to 6 minutes. However, very large doses may result in more prolonged blockade. A 5- to 10-mg test dose may be used to determine the sensitivity of the patient and the individual recovery time. [\u2026] The dose of succinylcholine administered by infusion depends upon the duration of the surgical procedure and the need for muscle relaxation. The average rate for an adult ranges between 2.5 and 4.3 mg per minute.   SIDE EFFECTS      Adverse reactions to succinylcholine consist primarily of an extension of its pharmacological actions. Succinylcholine causes profound muscle relaxation resulting in respiratory depression to the point of apnea; this effect may be prolonged. Hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylaxis, may occur in rare instances. The following additional adverse reactions have been reported: cardiac arrest, malignant hyperthermia, arrhythmias, bradycardia, tachycardia, hypertension, hypotension, hyperkalemia, prolonged respiratory depression or apnea, increased intraocular pressure, muscle fasciculation, jaw rigidity, postoperative muscle pain, rhabdomyolysis with possible myoglobinuric acute renal failure, excessive salivation, and rash.      There have been post-marketing reports of severe allergic reactions (anaphylactic and anaphylactoid reactions) associated with use of neuromuscular blocking agents, including ANECTINE (succinylcholine chloride) . These reactions, in some cases, have been life-threatening and fatal. Because these reactions were reported voluntarily from a population of uncertain size, it is not possible to reliably estimate their frequency      WARNINGS      SUCCINYLCHOLINE SHOULD BE USED ONLY BY THOSE SKILLED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION AND ONLY WHEN FACILITIES ARE INSTANTLY AVAILABLE FOR TRACHEAL INTUBATION AND FOR PROVIDING ADEQUATE VENTILATION OF THE PATIENT, INCLUDING THE ADMINISTRATION OF OXYGEN UNDER POSITIVE PRESSURE AND THE ELIMINATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE. THE CLINICIAN MUST BE PREPARED TO ASSIST OR CONTROL RESPIRATION.      TO AVOID DISTRESS TO THE PATIENT, SUCCINYLCHOLINE SHOULD NOT BE ADMINISTERED BEFORE UNCONSCIOUSNESS HAS BEEN INDUCED. IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS, HOWEVER, IT MAY BE NECESSARY TO ADMINISTER SUCCINYLCHOLINE BEFORE UNCONSCIOUSNESS IS INDUCED.      SUCCINYLCHOLINE IS METABOLIZED BY PLASMA CHOLINESTERASE AND SHOULD BE USED WITH CAUTION, IF AT ALL, IN PATIENTS KNOWN TO BE OR SUSPECTED OF BEING HOMOZYGOUS FOR THE ATYPICAL PLASMA CHOLINESTERASE GENE.   In conclusion: this will not work very well. Relatively safe and effective in the hands of experts and the right setting, in a criminal plan this will lead to disaster if the plan didn't involve sending the kidnapping victim back in pieces from the start. If you insist on using this drug: for similar effects you might look at curare's effects, which might be easier to come by.",
        "id": 2074,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the T-spot blood test sensitive enough to determine difference between exposure to the tuberculosis and tuberculosis vaccination?",
        "body": "The T-spot blood test for tuberculosis is an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA or  IFN-\u03b3 assay). There are two of these tests (Quantiferon and T-spot) with small differences, but the basic mechanism is the same and they are treated the same for the CDC, which writes:     IGRAs, unlike the TB skin tests, are not affected by prior BCG vaccination and are not expected to give a false-positive result in people who have received BCG   BCG is the tuberculosis vaccine.   While I couldn't find references to primary literature on that CDC site, what I found myself supports this   The paper Discrepancy Between the Tuberculin Skin Test and the Whole-Blood Interferon \u03b3 Assay for the Diagnosis of Latent Tuberculosis Infection in an Intermediate Tuberculosis-Burden Country concludes     the IFN-\u03b3 assay based on the ESAT-6 and CFP-10 M tuberculosis\u2013specific antigens is a useful method for detecting latent TB infections and might help to eliminate the limitations of the TST [tuberculin skin test] in BCG-vaccinated populations in intermediate TB-burden countries.    Tuberculosis contact investigation with a new, specific blood test in a low-incidence population containing a high proportion of BCG-vaccinated persons reaches the same conclusion and recommends the test for vaccinated people. That study used the Quantiferon test, but the two tests have roughly the same sensitivity. ",
        "id": 827,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ways to lessen or prevent episodes of sleep walking",
        "body": "There is no known way to absolutely prevent sleepwalking; however, certain steps can be taken to minimize one's risk. These include:   Get adequate sleep. Limit stress. Meditate or do relaxation exercises. Avoid any kind of stimulation (auditory or visual) prior to bedtime.   http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/how-is-sleepwalking-treated#1",
        "id": 577,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to eliminate brain fog quickly?",
        "body": "It's normal to feel exhausted after 6 hours straight on a computer. Stop taking fluoride and hallogens in water, that will help any latent/semi permanent brain fog, also take breaks, every hours, of 10-25 minutes.   Other poisonous substances can cause \"brain fog\".  Also look for Iodine food source to detoxify fluoride and hallogens (raw cranberry smoothie is good source,think it's 2 onzes for 100%, potatoes are good too, beans also) . Theres also Choline for cognitive functions, and alot of other minerals act on that aswell.  \" Look for fluoride and sodium laureth sulfate free toothpaste, or make your own, it seems sesame oil kills bacteria responsible for decay,although I have not seen enough proof of it.   I recommend eating sunflower seed(3/4 or 1 cup) or pumpkin seeds , or peanuts http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/nut-and-seed-products/3076/2 , to get most of the nutrients everyone need, it helps the mental functions.  (Source USDA)  Get F.Lux(reduces blue light) and reduce kelvins to 3500 you can also get Pangobright for even lower light,although in advanced setting F.Lux lets you do it also. If you don't want you can always wear glare+blue light reducing glasses.  Use zoom to read on computer press Ctrl and scroll up with the mouse wheel (or install an app that does it manually).",
        "id": 618,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Benefits of tea in weight loss",
        "body": "So with everything related with diet there are two effects: whether a particularly diet affects what macronutrients you eat, and the effect of the food itself.  According to NHS advice green tea in the amounts that you would consume by drinking it have limited effects on the metabolism. Missing from this advice is the evidence that in larger doses green tea can have a modest effect on energy expenditure ~5% increase in energy consumption.  I suspect that the benefits of regularly tea consumption may have more to do with behaviour than energy use though, in which case it doesn't really matter which tea you drink. To get an idea what's going on here you might like to track your calories / what you eat during the day to get a feel for the effect that that tea might be having. There can be a bit of a heisenberg effect here.  Coffee on the other hand can act as quite an effective appetite suppressant.",
        "id": 1047,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Optimal length of music break to reduce long term risks of noise-induced hearing loss?",
        "body": "Using noise isolating headphones poses no additional risks beyond regular headphones. Using high quality headphones poses no additional risks beyond wearing hearing aids, and in fact the materials are often the same. The risk of prolonged listening is overall exposure. There are a who bunch of standards for calculating the overall noise exposure dose. This a a nice online calculator.  There is no standard that makes use of breaks. The goal of the standards is to limit your total exposure. As an example, with OSHA, you can be exposed to 90 dBA for 8 hours and 79 dBA for 16 hours. It doesn't care you the 90 dBA period is divided. In other words, OSHA does not care if you take breaks.  That said, there is not a strong evidence base supporting the standards. As I said in this answer of mine, hidden hearing loss is an active area of research. The focus of the research is predominately on non-maximal noise doses. I am not aware of any research looking at the effects of breaks on maximal, or non-maximal, noise doses.  As i said in my other answer, What is known is that there is no way to reverse hearing loss. There is no pill you can take. While hearing aids do restore some level of hearing, you should take care of your ears. If possible, you should stay well below a maximal noise dose.  If you listen to your music at 80 dBA for 16 hours a day with 8 hours of quite at night, that is a 50% noise dose based on OSHA. This is the action level, where an employer would be forced to institute a hearing conservation program. You should attempt to stay even further below this.",
        "id": 1717,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I tell my dermatologist that I took more Epuris than he prescribed, without offending him?",
        "body": "Quick Introduction     She asked to increase to 60 mg, but he refused. She didn't challenge him.   Let\u2019s just analyse what has happened:   your sister is suffering from acne the dosage of medication doesn\u2019t alleviate the acne as much as she hoped they would  she asks that the dosage is increased furthermore the dermatologist refuses  she increases the dosage herself   This seems like there is a lot of miscommunication going on here:   the dermatologist hasn\u2019t understood how severe the problem is to her and didn't communicate clearly what the treatment and prognosis are your sister didn\u2019t understand why the dermatologist didn\u2019t want to increase the dosage     Some Theory  The Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R) categorises patient's perception of an illness into 5 categories:        Identity   Cause   Timeline       Consequences       Cure-Control         Moss-Morris, R., Weinman, J., Petrie, K. J., Horne, R., Cameron, L.D., &amp; Buick, D. (2002). The Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R). Psychology and Health. 17, 1-16.   It is a doctor's job to be aware of the patient's illness perception, but it is also good as a patient to be clear about one's perception.   I've just gone ahead and did that for your sister (from what I got of your description). I'm not saying that her perception of the illness is correct and that this is how the illness de-facto is, but that this is how your sister probably views her acne.    From what I understood from your post, your sister's perception clashes with her dermatologist's perception in three categories: Timeline, Consequences and Cure-Control.   A potential fix  The dermatologist needs to communicate more clearly    why the dosage was not increased, and why an increased dosage is not an all-fix. (Cure-Control) the consequences (Is it really permanent skin-scarring? How to prevent it? What damage control can be done?) (Consequences) the timeline/prognosis: How long will the acne affect her? When will the symptoms get better? (Timeline)   Your sister can achieve this by telling the dermatologist her illness perception and asking the above questions.  Your sister should not blame the dermatologist for the miscommunication, the fault might be on both sides.   Your sister should also not leave before she understands why the dermatologist doesn't want her to take a higher dosage, and if she continues to go against the dermatologist's recommendations, should ask herself why she does it and if a change of dermatologists would be in order.    What you should ('nt) do   Do accompany her to the appointment Do talk with her about what she wants to achieve with this appointment Don't go with her into the patient's room, just wait outside. This is not a fight between your sister and an evil dermatologist, this is just your sister needing to understand why the dermatologist doesn't want her to take more medication and the dermatologist needing to understand why your sister wants to take more medication. Your presence will hamper the communication between them, and you will not be able to do anything as you are neither patient nor doctor.  ",
        "id": 2512,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there no threats and only benefits for using hyperbaric oxygen therapy?",
        "body": "While hyperbaric oxygen therapy does have many benefits, there are potential issues. According to John Hopkins University Hyperbaric oxygen therapy can lead to lung damage, fluid buildup in the ears and vision changes. While these are not common, they can occur from the high pressure that the body is experiencing. A healthy person without indications for its use may want to avoid it, but in reality they will likely be fine as long as the treatment isn't long and they don't have any contraindications for it.   link to John Hopkins article: http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation/complications_of_hyperbaric_oxygen_treatment_134,148/   ",
        "id": 1820,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Deafness and hearing aids and cochlear implants",
        "body": "The NIDCD defines a hearing aid as:     A hearing aid is a small electronic device that you wear in or behind your ear. It makes some sounds louder so that a person with hearing loss can listen, communicate, and participate more fully in daily activities. A hearing aid can help people hear more in both quiet and noisy situations. However, only about one out of five people who would benefit from a hearing aid actually uses one.      A hearing aid has three basic parts: a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. The hearing aid receives sound through a microphone, which converts the sound waves to electrical signals and sends them to an amplifier. The amplifier increases the power of the signals and then sends them to the ear through a speaker.   Things are a little messy because most people consider ear trumpets as an early for of hearing aid despite being completely passive. Additionally, bone Anchored hearing aids work in a totally different manner from most hearing aids. The earlens is also pushing the boundaries of what a hearing aid is.  The NIDCD defines a cochlear implant as     A cochlear implant is very different from a hearing aid. Hearing aids amplify sounds so they may be detected by damaged ears. Cochlear implants bypass damaged portions of the ear and directly stimulate the auditory nerve. Signals generated by the implant are sent by way of the auditory nerve to the brain, which recognizes the signals as sound. Hearing through a cochlear implant is different from normal hearing and takes time to learn or relearn. However, it allows many people to recognize warning signals, understand other sounds in the environment, and understand speech in person or over the telephone.   Hearing aid indications are generally mild or moderate bilateral hearing loss, who has experienced a noticeable communication handicap. There is a push now to fit hearing aids to anyone, especially children with communication difficulties (e.g., this AAA report).  Cochlear implant indications are postlingual onset of severe-to-profound, bilateral sensorineural hearing loss with limited benefit from appropriately fitted hearing aids. These indications are also being pushed and cochlear implants are now used for individuals with single-sided deafness and hybrid systems are being used with individuals with residual low frequency hearing.  As to whether you would want a hearing aid or cochlear implant is a deeply personal question. Those in Deaf Culture tend to be against auditory assistive devices. Hearing aids are low risk and have a limited commitment. Apart from money if you decide you do not like them, you have lost nothing. Cochlear implants are much more expensive, require surgery, and destroy all/most residual hearing. If you do not like the result of the cochlear implant, you cannot go back.",
        "id": 1328,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the angular resolution of the 'ideal' human eye?",
        "body": "In general, resolution varies with distance, but when expressed as angular resolution this takes distance into account; the minimum distance between two points that can be resolved will increase in proportion to distance for a given angle.  The retina is the light sensitive part of the eye. It is packed with photoreceptor cells known as rods (more sensitive and useful in low-light conditions but of lower resolution) and cones (less sensitive so need greater light intensity, but higher resolution). Only cones confer colour vision, whereas rods confer achromatic vision. This is why colour is difficult to perceive in low light intensities.  The fovea is the highest resolution part of the retina. It is packed with cone cells, offering maximum resolution. Interestingly, their requirement for higher light intensity is why it is easier to see faint stars at night by looking slightly to the side of them, as the fovea is not sensitive enough.  This diagram demonstrates the resolution of the fovea.    When a normal eye can just resolve two points, the angle \u03b8 is 1/60th degree (or 1 arcminute). This corresponds to being able to read line 8 on a Snellen Chart, which is also known as 6/6 vision, or 20/20 vision in the USA (this refers to 6 meters or 20 feet, which are equivalent).  So angular resolution does not change with distance, but is best at the fovea and less at other parts of the retina. The maximum angular resolution of 1 arcminute corresponds to about 29cm at 1km distance.",
        "id": 612,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What disorder would cause sweating to appear only on one half of the face?",
        "body": "There are a number of possibilities, from benign to serious.  Sweating is under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, as is vasodilation (facial redness). Anhydrosis of only one side of the face would be due dysfunction of the trigeminal nerve (which also carries sensory and motor components) on that side of the face. The trigeminal nerve can lose function for many reasons, but rarely does it lose only one of it's functions (i.e. the physical exam should help here.)   Ross syndrome is a rare disorder of unknown etiology characterized by segmental an-/hypohydrosis, pupil irregularity (called Adie's pupil), and diminished deep tendon reflexes.  Harlequin syndrome is another possibility.  Horner's syndrome is the broad term for the decreased sympathetic nerve function, and, again, involves more than anhydrosis. It is characterized by the triad of miosis (constricted pupil), partial ptosis, and loss of hemifacial sweating. Horner's is not rare per se, and can occur alone or with a number of illnesses.     Horner syndrome can be congenital, acquired, or purely hereditary (autosomal dominant). The interruption of the sympathetic fibers may occur centrally (ie, between the hypothalamus and the fibers\u2019 point of exit from the spinal cord [C8 to T2]) or peripherally (ie, in cervical sympathetic chain, at the superior cervical ganglion, or along the carotid artery).   Serious disorders should be ruled out, e.g. internal carotid artery dissection (not always symptomatic), malignancies anywhere from central nervous system/trigeminal/apical lung/etc., other causes of carotid ischemia, etc. Since the differential of Horner's Syndrome is large and it is a neurological problem, a neurologist is probably the best bet for a diagnosis here.     Although Horner syndrome is commonly an incidental finding related to a benign cause, it occasionally may be a manifestation of a serious and life-threatening disorder. Careful direction of the history to rule out such life-threatening disorders is vital.   Adie's Pupil in the Ross Syndrome (Good picture here.) Ross Syndrome with Sweating Anomaly Associated with Sj\u00f6gren Syndrome: An Infrared Thermographic Case Study Harlequin syndrome - one face of many etiologies (Also a good picture, and open access.) Horner Syndrome    ",
        "id": 823,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does fried food cause gastritis and other gastrointestinal tract illnesses?",
        "body": "There are many reasons why fried food can be harmful. The chief reason is related to the oil content in these foodstuffs.   It has high oil content which may not be good if consumed in large amounts. Fried food cannot be tolerated by people who have undergone gall bladder removal. Oils are heated at high temeperatures and in many fried-food outlets (or in general practice), reheated many times. This leads to some chemical reactions, some of which include cracking of the hydrocarbon chains and isomerization. These reactions can produce carcinogenic substances (Srivastava et al. 2010). Oil vapours from these food can also cause respiratory distress in some people, especially asthmatics.  ",
        "id": 431,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which type of protein supplement is better suited to promote skin healing?",
        "body": "There are many natural things that are great for healing the skin that you should look into. I know many people who use a dermaroller but you can be in a different situation because of your skin or using essential oils on your skin but don't use too much.  You should probably ask a dermatologist because they can take a look at your skin and give you the best answer. Without seeing your skin nobody can give a definitive answer.",
        "id": 2082,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where I can find infomation about ALL diseases of human beings?",
        "body": "   Is there any book or website about ALL diseases were officially registered ever?   The best you're going to get is the International Classification of Disease (ICD) which is developed by the World Health Organisation. It's currently at version 10. The draft version of ICD-11 can be found here.  In case you're unable to find it, just note that it does not list drapetomania, or the mental illness that compels black slaves to flee their masters. That went out of vogue mid-1800s.  So, the ICD falls short for your requirements: it only lists all currently recognised diseases, not ever.      In order not to read all books I just want to know is there any main source in internet which most doctors use?   Okay, what you're asking for is entirely different than a list of all registered diseases.  The standard reference is something like UpToDate, but it's a paid subscription. Another common one is Best Practice. That one has a free trial.     I need this for filtering and finding disease according its symptoms.   Unfortunately, if diagnosis were as simple as that, then a computer would do it.",
        "id": 1922,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I continue to eat a cereal my cat ate out of?",
        "body": "This really isn't any different from asking if it is safe to share food with another person after watching them eat from the same bowl.  If you have a weak immune system, as with anything else, it is probably better to not share saliva with pets or humans.  Depending on your comfort zone, there shouldn't be any issues though if you wanted to continue eating.  The only stopping factor is really if you find it unpleasant or not.  I know plenty of people who share a glass of water with their pets, for me, I wouldn't cause I don't find it appealing.  So in the end it's really a matter of choice to you, but it is worth noting if you have a weak immune system to not share saliva in general.",
        "id": 1826,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the possible health consequences of using whitening strips?",
        "body": "I found a study which show that teeth whitening using Hydrogen Peroxide can cause oral mucosa irritation, burns or sensitive teeth. However, these were found to be mild in nature and resolved spontaneously without any intervention. Since teeth whitening strips are hydrogen peroxide based, I think the results can be safely extrapolated.  References:   Teeth whitening with 6% hydrogen peroxide vs. 35% hydrogen peroxide, a comparative controlled study ",
        "id": 121,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to clean ears with hydrogen peroxide?",
        "body": "I do not think it is safe but you can use a straw (like for drinking a can of soda) to grab a little peroxide, and then release a few drops into your ear and keep your head tilted to one side, while the peroxide does its bubbling action.  It feels great.  You can also do it to your other ear afterwards.  However, the best thing you can do, if your ears are clogged and need cleaning, is to see a doctor - a primary care doctor is just fine.  He or she can use a special equipment to inject water into your ear with very high pressure, and this releases all of the wax from your ears instantly.  It's worth it to go see a doctor - this process takes less than five minutes for a doctor to complete.",
        "id": 1536,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Please say what my ecg means",
        "body": "This question violates rules; the only reason I'm answering is because it is normal.  It's got a regular rhythm with a normal rate, an axis around 30\u00ba, which is normal. All segment durations are within normal limits, and I don't see any conduction blocks. The \"Possible infarction\" comment is an automated interpretation by the machine (more often than not, not very reliable) and is probably due to the extremely low voltage in aVL and V1 (which I think is probably due to a badly-placed electrode).  Nonetheless, the person who can (and should) give you the most qualified interpretation of this exam is the doctor who ordered it in the first place and has knowledge of your history and any other symptoms you may or may not have.",
        "id": 1568,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health benefits and risks of ingesting Aloe vera?",
        "body": "What is Aloe vera?  Aloe vera is the common name of one particular species of the genus Aloe (member of the Xanthorrhoeaceae family). There are over 420 different plant species and the most commonly used in consumer products. Most commonly used is Aloe barbadensis, Aloe barbadensis (Mill.) or (Miller) or Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (scientific name).  Processing  The primary component of the plant used in most products is the leaf, which can be processed in two ways to make aloe vera juice, powder or concentrate.  The other substance found within the leaf that has been used in commerce, primarily as an OTC laxative drug, is the aloe latex.   For oral consumption Aloe vera needs to be carefully filtered by different processing procedures:   Aloe vera leaf juice  A charcoal filtration process which decolorize and remove some of the components (including anthraquinone which acts as laxative) as some studies shown to be carcinogenic on rats, but not on mice (see Toxicity). NTP did not conduct studies of the Aloe vera gel (decolorized whole leaf extracts).     Aloe vera leaf juice is made by taking entire aloe vera leaves and grinding them up via some type of maceration. Typically some enzymatic treatment is used (such as cellulase) to break down the rind and heavier-weight materials, and then the resulting slurry is filtered, usually with charcoal filtration, to remove any other unwanted materials such as the aloe latex (yellow, bitter tasting exudate that is a powerful laxative). The remainder is aloe vera leaf juice.  Aloe vera inner leaf juice     Aloe vera inner leaf juice is made by removing the rind prior to processing, either by machine or by hand, and then rinsing away the aloe latex. The remaining, gelatinous inner-leaf material is then ground/crushed into aloe vera inner leaf juice.    In some other countries Aloe vera juice is produced using the patented TTS (Time, Temperature, Sanitation) method.  Once Aloe vera gel is filtered out for consumption, then it's considered safe, because without filtration it can be harmful causing potential toxicity when swallowed.   Aloe vera that contains aloin (however it's not for sure) in excess amounts may induce side effects, but there is very little data about what levels of aloin are in most liquid products (according to one research, it's less than 1ppm), however in solid/semi-solid products it could be 10-100 times higher.  If aloin is the cause of the tumors in rats, then the lower the concentration of aloin, then it's less harmful. However more research is needed to answer these questions.  Is Aloe vera regulated?  In US Aloe vera is a dietary supplement and it's not regulated drug, so there is no guarantee of strength, purity, or safety of these products. Currently Aloe vera is approved by FDA as a food addictive for flavor.  In the UK, European Union, China, and Korea content and purity of Aloe is regulated by IASC (International Aloe Science Council Seal of Approval) which established standards to define what is (and what is not) \"aloe vera\" in finished products. The IASC standard states that only products containing acemannan, or the beta 1-4 acetylated glucomannans, can be accurately labeled as aloe vera. Acemannan is a naturally occurring polysaccharide that is present in aloe vera and is used as an identifier of the botanical by analytical means. Products that do not contain acemannan are not considered to be true aloe vera based on this standard.  How can I tell if a product truly contains Aloe vera?  In countries where Aloe vera is regulated, you should check the label for seal-based certification (see: labeling guidance). You may also check the certified products list on IASC website. Also make sure that Aloin content has been removed.  Health benefits  Potential health benefits of drinking Aloe vera juice includes:   support the digestive system and relieve constipation,  For example mixing Aloe with different oils and lemon juice can reach the entire gastrointestinal track to the colon. Oil blocks absorption of two other ingredients too soon so lemon juice can dissolve deposits in GI tract, gall bladder and pancreatic ducts, and after absorption, in the kidneys. Aloe can also heal infection such as erosions in the lining of the digestive track. (book source) enhance natural immunity, improve skin condition and health, naturally contains polysaccharides which provide many benefits to the body such as:   healthy blood sugar levels, liver function, intestinal health: helping to reduce colon cancer, reduce serum cholesterol levels, exhibit immunomodulatory, antitumor, antithrombotic, anticoagulant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities including anti-HIV infection, herpes, and hepatitis virusesstudy,  some other benefits include: hair loss, Helicobacter, atherosclerosis, sensitization, overweight, mycosis, neuroses, sepsis, cancer.   Aloe vera gel is also used as traditional medicine (especially in Asia) for multipurpose skin treatment.  However relatively few studies about possible benefits of Aloe gel taken internally have been conducted.     If you've any concerns or medical conditions, you should speak with your physician before altering any existing treatments.     See:   National Toxicology Program - Aloe Vera (PDF) IASC Aloe Vera FAQ ",
        "id": 22,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Immunity of indigenous tribe",
        "body": "There are apparently several reasons. I found an article (http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/03/native-americans-didnt-wipe-europeans-diseases/) that basically calls out three specific reasons:   Europeans had lived with and near domesticated animals for quite a while, and this helped boost their immune systems. Native Americans, for the most part, were hunter-gatherers who did not keep livestock. Europeans lived close together, and the interaction (and exchange of germs) that this helped boost their immune systems. Europeans traveled a lot and interacted with citizens of other areas to a larger degree, and this helped boost their immune systems.   Recurring theme? Several factors combined to help boost the immune systems of Europeans as compared to Native American tribes.  However, if you read the article (recommended) you will find that it was a two-way street, at least to a degree. For example, one of the best-known diseases acquired in the New World and brought back to Europe was syphillis.",
        "id": 2534,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What percentage of fillings performed today are done with mercury amalgam?",
        "body": "Some recent estimated numbers recently were:  45% of all dental restorations world wide (Heintze 2012), 50% of all American fillings  But      Many developed nations have virtually eliminated dental amalgam. Dental amalgam use is banned in Sweden and Norway; only used in 3% of all dental restorations in Japan and Finland; 5% in Denmark; 10% in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Germany; and 20% in Singapore.      Quoted from Chicago Declaration to End Dental Industry Mercury Use (PDF)     On amalgam use:  WHO Policy Paper (PDF)   SD Heintze &amp; V Rousson: \"Clinical effectiveness of direct Class II restorations\u2014a meta-analysis\"  J Adhes Dent. 2012; 14(5):407-431.  SK Makhija et al.: \"Practitioner, patient and carious lesion characteristics associated with type of restorative material: findings from The Dental Practice-Based Research Network\", J Am Dent Assoc. 2011; 142: 622-632.  Simececk et al.: \"An evaluation of replacement rates for posterior resin-based composite and amalgam restorations in U.S. Navy and Marine recruits\", J Am Dent Assoc. 2009; 140 (2): 207. PMID: 19188417  United States Food and Drug Administration: \"About dental fillings: potential risks.  Last updated 2 February 2017. FDA Web site   World Health Organization: \"Future Use of Materials for Dental Restoration\"  (2011), PDF , p.21  Bio Intelligence Service/European Commission: \"Review of the Community Strategy Concerning Mercury\" (p.213-14), 4 October 2010, (PDF)   BIO Intelligence Service (2012): \"Study on the potential for reducing mercury pollution from dental amalgam and batteries, Final report prepared for the European Commission-DG ENV\", PDF, p.190\u2013191.  World Health Organization: \"Future Use of Materials for Dental Restoration\" (2011), (PDF, p.21.  Letter, Federal Office for the Environment to Francesca Romana Orlando (8 August 2011), (PDF).    Commentary:  Dental mercury amalgam is also an environmental and social justice problem:  Dentistry Today 2018: Berlin Declaration Shows Amalgam Has Entered Its Twilight Era",
        "id": 2660,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I'm scared of certain celestial objects",
        "body": "Welcome to Health SE!  Astrophobia  I did a Google search for [ fear of space ] and looked at what appeared. I think that your phobia is called \"astrophobia\". See, for example, this Wiktionary definition.  Causes  You can try a Google search, and look at some of the results, to learn why phobias develop.  Treatment  Like all phobias, and like all other anxiety disorders, your fear is treatable. See here.  If it's only a tiny problem, maybe you can treat yourself; post a new question asking how. Or you can pay a psychologist the full hourly rate to do the treatment.  If it's a bigger problem (e.g. if you're a primary-school teacher who's just been asked to teach an astronomy unit to your students), your medical insurance will likely cover the treatment. See your doctor.  Disclaimer  P.S.  I'm an IT consultant, not a doctor, so this answer may be full of mistakes.",
        "id": 1633,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can one product work both as a skin moisturizer and a soap?",
        "body": "Ingredients listed on the product from the photo:  White soft paraffin (known as petroleum jelly) and cetostearyl alcohol are occlusive agents that decrease water loss through the skin, so they act as moisturizers (Table 4,  PubMed).  Sodium lauryl sulfate is a detergent (a surfactant), so it acts as a soap.  Water and soap do not remove paraffin, so the product can work as a moisturizer and soap at the same time.  A very detailed, easy to read article: Moisturizers: A Slippery Road (PubMed, 2016)",
        "id": 2546,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are all types of HIV detected in routine blood tests?",
        "body": "The big problem with HIV is its variability. HIV-1 and HIV-2 are genetically 40 percent different - and that's in the most conserved regions. Some of the subgroups of HIV-1 have similar values.   This led to HIV-2 and HIV-1 subgroup O, in the past, often not being detected by standard HIV tests, leading to false negatives.   Subgroup O     False-negative results by HIV serologic assays have been verified when testing some individuals infected by HIV Group O viruses.  This group of viruses, found primarily in Cameroon and Gabon, also has been reported in Europe and the United States. Several \"acceptable\" routine HIV screening assays have been documented to produce false-negative results in up to 20% of sera from individuals infected with Group O viruses.   [University of California, San Francisco]   HIV-2     Diagnostically, HIV-2 infections can present problems. Screening tests designed to detect infection by HIV-1 do not always detect infection by HIV-2 and vice versa.    [University of California, San Francisco]   Blood tests for HIV-1 and HIV-2  Blood tests that are capable of testing for all of these varieties, with an acceptable false negative rate, have been available for some time. The CDC recommendation to test for both in donated blood dates back to 1992, but because of the low incidence of HIV-2 outside of West Africa, did not yet recommend it for routine tests other than for blood meant for donations, in the absence of symptoms pointing to HIV.   The latest recommendation from 2014 specifies that      testing begins with a combination immunoassay that detects HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies and HIV-1 p24 antigen   And further recommends differentiating between HIV-1 and HIV-2. This type of test is also suitable for detecting HIV-1 subgroup O. I assume this recommendation has been in place for longer than 2014.   So, that's the recommendation. Is this actually being used in routine blood tests?   Looking at the section for HIV of one catalog of medical tests, the combined tests appear to be the standard, while the ones marked as either HIV-1 or HIV-2 are for further genotyping. I am assuming this is the standard test. So that would be a yes. ",
        "id": 588,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does taking Vitmain B-Complex with zinc through tablets really help in reversing hair fall",
        "body": "I found an expert answer for your question. May be this will help you to take right decision.  NDTV Doctors:     \"There is no harm in taking a combination of B-complex vitamins with   zinc but there is no evidence that such products have any utility in   controlling loss of hair. Please do not rely on reports in the lay   press because they are not always correct. Sometimes such reports are   sponsored by manufacturers. There is some evidence that anti-oxidant   preparations (such as Vitexid) may help in improving general well   being of most body functions including skin of the scalp. I hope you   are not suffering from dandruff which is a common cause of hair loss.\" ",
        "id": 123,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Risks of blood donation with autoimmune diseases",
        "body": "The World Health Organization published a report entitled Blood Donor Selection: Guidelines on Assessing Donor Suitability for Blood Donation. Based on a review of scientific studies and other literature, it contains detailed recommendations for establishing blood donation programs, including which donors to accept or reject.  It mentions several autoimmune diseases. From the non-communicable section (page 49), we have     5.1.4 Thrombocytopenia   Individuals with thrombocytopenia should not be accepted as blood donors   because of the risk of bleeding at the venepuncture site and because chronic   thrombocytopenia may be associated with serious underlying haematological or   other systemic disease. A past history of autoimmune thrombocytopenia is not   a contraindication to blood donation, even if treated by splenectomy, provided   that the prospective donor has been well for five years with no evidence of   relapse (64).   The specific reason for rejection here is twofold: The possibility of bleeding and of a secondary, more serious condition. The first risk, however, is common for all haematological disease. The section references a selection of guidelines from the UK Blood Transfusion &amp; Tissue Transplantation Services.  There is a full section dedicated to \"Immunological diseases\" (which presumably encompasses autoimmune diseases) (page 57):     5.6 IMMUNOLOGICAL DISEASES   Individuals with systemic immunological diseases are generally unwell and are   therefore not suitable to donate blood. Donors should be questioned about severe   allergy to materials used in blood collection, such as latex or skin disinfectant, so that contact with these materials can be avoided. Passive transfer of IgE by blood transfusion has been reported but does not alter acceptance criteria (129,130,131).      While there is no evidence of harm resulting from blood donation by individuals with a history of anaphylaxis, the permanent deferral of such individuals is recommended as a precautionary measure (70).   Note that the recommendation stems mostly from the assumption that these diseases are severe, and could thus cause serious harm to the recipients of these donors' blood. The referenced sources are three studies on the potential transferability of IgE, and one general set of blood donor recommendations.  A later section discusses general central nervous system diseases (page 58):     5.8 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES   Assessment of the suitability of prospective donors with central nervous system   conditions should take into account the well-being of the donor and the risk of   transfusion-transmission of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD).   It is recommended that almost all donors with central nervous system diseases (epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, etc.) be deferred, for several reasons:   A lack of full understanding of the cause of the disease (see the section on multiple sclerosis) A fear that blood donation could lead to adverse effects on the donor (see the section on epilepsy) The possibility of the transmission of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD).   Some of these have not yet been supported by studies, although attempts have been made to prove/disprove them. The primary concern is that some variants of these diseases are not well-known enough, and there could be adverse effects that physicians are not aware of. This is a concern I've seen cited on various websites of blood donation programs.  Finally, there is a generic section on medications (page 64). This harkens back to the deferral of some donors with thrombocytopenia, insofar as currently having the disease can make one ineligible for donation. In these cases, the medication could be transferred through the blood, thus possible harming the recipient:     6.2 MEDICATIONS   Deferral criteria for medications taken by donors should take into account the   underlying condition for which the medication is taken, the pharmacokinetic   properties of the medication and the effect of the medication on the quality   or safety of the donated blood (146,147,148). Donors should not omit regular   medication in order to attend a blood donor session.      There is no published evidence that medications in donated blood have caused   adverse effects in a patient receiving transfusion, although it is unlikely that   such events would be recognized. European Union legislation requires temporary   deferral based on the \u201cnature and mode of action\u201d of the medication (149).   Again, though this possibility has been studied, there is little evidence to back it up. Blood donation programs are advised to defer these potential donors in some cases out of caution.    There are some autoimmune diseases which will not automatically prohibit blood donation. Among these are asthma and some cases of rheumatoid arthritis and hypothyroidism. These are the less severe autoimmune diseases, and they are also well-known and treatable, meaning that some of the risks mentioned earlier don't apply to them.",
        "id": 562,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which nerve inflammation can affect vision other than the optical nerve itself?",
        "body": "The vision can be sharp when the light is focused exactly on the retina, not in front or behind it. This is enabled by the constant eye bulb length and the ability of the lens to accommodate to near or far objects.  Three cranial nerves that innervate the extraocular muscles and thus the shape of the eye bulb include the oculomotor nerve (n. III), trochlear nerve (n. IV) and abducens nerve (n. VI) (Wikipedia). Additional nerves innervate the ciliary muscles, which control the lens (Wikipedia).  The optic nerve (n. V) conveys visual stimuli from the retina to the brain (Wikipedia). Inflammation of this nerve (optic neuritis) can affect vision (Mayo Clinic). Other mentioned nerves are not typically affected by inflammation, but more likely by other disorders of the nerves or brain, such as multiple sclerosis or stroke. Anyway, nerve function impairment, from whatever cause, is often called palsy, for example, oculomotor nerve palsy.  By far most common causes of impaired vision are changes in the eye bulb length (nearsightedness) and age-related rigidity of the lens (farsightedness), which are usually not associated with the nerves. Then there are various disorders of the lens (e.g. cataracts), eye chambers (e.g. glaucoma), retina and circulation (e.g. diabetes). Wikipedia has a long list of causes of visual impairment. There's a simple to read description of neurological causes of visual impairment on Healio and there's one study about this on PubMed.",
        "id": 2699,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Immune system recovery from chemo",
        "body": "This must depend on the type of chemotherapy, and duration of treatment.  This study looked at lymphocyte populations after chemotherapy for breast cancer and found     RESULTS:   Levels of B, T and NK cells were significantly reduced 2 weeks after chemotherapy (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). B cells demonstrated particularly dramatic depletion, falling to 5.4 % of pre-chemotherapy levels. Levels of all cells recovered to some extent, although B and CD4(+) T cells remained significantly depleted even 9 months post-chemotherapy (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Phenotypes of repopulating B and CD4(+) T cells were significantly different from, and showed no sign of returning to pre-chemotherapy profiles. Repopulating B cells were highly depleted in memory cells, with proportions of memory cells falling from 38 % to 10 % (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Conversely, repopulating CD4(+) T cells were enriched in memory cells, which increased from 63 % to 75 % (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Differences in chemotherapy regimen and patient smoking were associated with significant differences in depletion extent or repopulation dynamics. Titres of anti-pneumococcal and anti-tetanus antibodies were both significantly reduced post-chemotherapy and did not recover during the study (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001).   and concluded that     CONCLUSION:   Breast cancer chemotherapy is associated with long-term changes in immune parameters that should be considered during clinical management.   However, the significance of these findings is still unclear.  Lymphocyte depletion and repopulation after chemotherapy for primary breast cancer 2016 full text  Discussion",
        "id": 2273,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Read an article, aquire a disorder",
        "body": "Similar situations are referred to by their common origin in the health sciences: medical students' disease, second year syndrome, etc.  More generally, hypochondria refers to excessively worrying about having a serious illness to the point of having a psychiatric problem.  \"Cyberchondria\" has been coined to refer to the common modern situation where people may develop symptoms of hypochondria from reading medical advice on the internet, which is often skewed towards more serious illness in particular for symptoms that also have benign causes.",
        "id": 2412,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is medicine used to treat symptoms which are our body's way of telling us something is wrong?",
        "body": "I presume you're taking the teleological view that symptoms are \"good\" and have a beneficial (if not fully understood) purpose, and therefore should not be messed with. That is a cognitive bias (a belief based on a construct, not objective evidence). Taking your example, I would ask you, what beneficial purpose does a runny/stuffy nose serve? Does it facilitate viral removal? Is it necessary to full recovery from a cold? Is long-term immunity to a rhinovirus enhanced if no symptomatic treatment is rendered?  Do you have any evidence that not treating symptoms is beneficial?     ...why do we take medicines to suppress our symptoms?   First, let me clarify that symptoms are neither \"good\" nor \"bad\"; they merely inform (although one can argue that the absence of symptoms is a good thing.) Illness/disease/disorder is present. Thanks to them, now we know, and we can treat (or not treat) the underlying disorder. But the symptoms themselves are merely the body's reactions; they aren't necessarily good. Sometimes mild symptoms aren't treated, but the decision to treat is based on how disruptive (and/or dangerous) they are.   Let's assume only 'relatively benign' symptoms, for example a runny nose, sore throat and cough that typically results from infection with a rhinovirus (the most common cause of the common cold).   People treat a runny nose because it bothers them. It's hard to breathe easily with a runny nose, and the mere presence of nasal congestion causes a mild and very annoying feeling of air hunger in many people. Mouth-breathing dehydrates the oropharynx and upper airway, making a sore throat worse, worsens coughs, and makes sleep difficult, resulting in daytime drowsiness, irritability, etc. Overall, it's uncomfortable. The same applies to the sore throat: it makes eating, drinking, swallowing, and communication uncomfortable. Coughing (and sneezing) causes increased pain in sore throats, can keep people awake, spreads illness through  aerosolized droplets (making for awkward social interactions), etc. The benefit of not treating these symptoms is largely unknown; the benefit of treating these symptoms (which supports the multi-billion dollar cold remedy industry) is that it just makes people feel better overall. They sleep better, cough less, feel less achey, swallow with less discomfort, etc. That's why people treat their cold symptoms.      The morbidity associated with non\u2013influenza-related VRTI is not trivial. ...the total economic impact [in the US] of non\u2013influenza-related [Viral respiratory tract infection] approaches $40 billion annually (direct costs, $17 billion per year; and indirect costs, $22.5 billion per year).   Some of the deleterious effects of rhinovirus infection are known (production of chemokines by epithelial cells resulting in influx of leukocytes into the airway leading to airway pathology; release of inflammatory cell products from neutrophils, cationic protein release from eosinophils, reactive oxygen species, etc., which can cause tissue damage.) However, the benefit of not treating a rhinovirus infection is unknown.  This means that unless and until benefits are shown of not treating symptoms, the risk to benefit ratio of treatment of the common cold is incompletely known. In that event, the practice will favor treatment.  My hope in answering this question is to shed light on the potential harm of teleological arguments, that they need to be discarded in favor of objective evidence. Things are not true because one believes them to be true; to quote Philip K. Dick, \"Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.\"  This answer ignores obvious risks of treatment, such as decongestants in hypertensives, etc. which are present on information labels on OTC medications, and the risks of treatments without well-known benefit, e.g. Vitamin C supplements. The common cold The Economic Burden of Non\u2013Influenza-Related Viral Respiratory Tract Infection in the United States Role of Viral Infections, Atopy and Antiviral Immunity in the Etiology of Wheezing Exacerbations Among Children and Young Adults How Viral Infections Cause Exacerbation of Airway Diseases",
        "id": 671,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Having a 2.4/5 Ghz wireless router next to us is healthy?",
        "body": "According to the FCC depending on the frequency, a few Watts per kg absorbed RF radiation is an appropriate safety limit. Since 20 dBm corresponds to a total emitted power of 0.1 Watt, there is nothing to worry about. ",
        "id": 2316,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Amisulpride and elevated prolactin levels",
        "body": "Antipsychotics cause prolactin elevation by blocking the activity of dopamine at the D2 receptors (1). The presence of dopamine at these receptors inhibits the secretion of prolactin (2). The exact level of prolactin elevation varies between antipsychotic to antipsychotic based on their affinity for the D2 receptors (2).   Tolerance can develop to this particular side effect with chronic antipsychotic   therapy (i.e.: it may become less pronounced over time) (1). Prolactin levels  return to base line within 2-3 weeks of discontinuation of an antipsychotic (1).  Long-term health consequences of hyperprolactinemia  Elevated prolactin levels may cause other side effects, such as bone density decrease (1)(2). However, the notion that this particular event occurs as a result of hyperprolactinemia is controversial, and may occur for other reasons such as lifestyle factors (1)(2). Decreased bone density increases the risk of bone fractures. Fractures in the spine or hip are of high concern because they can result in disability, and a higher risk of death (3).  Hyperprolactinemia is associated with hypogonadism (2). Hypogonadism may prevent normal development during puberty (4).  In women, there is some concern that hyperprolactinaemia may increase the risk of breast cancer (2). Although this idea is also controversial (1)(2).   References   Hyperprolactinaemia and Antipsychotic Therapy in Schizophrenia http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/468929_4 Hyperprolactinaemia With Antipsychotics http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUarticles/hyperpro.htm Osteoporosis - Symptoms and causes http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/osteoporosis/symptoms-causes/dxc-20207860 Male hypogonadism http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/male-hypogonadism/symptoms-causes/dxc-20248457 ",
        "id": 867,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What causes aortic aneurysm",
        "body": "Aneurysm - a pathologic ballooning of a segment of a blood vessel    Source: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/arm/types - Public Domain  In order for an aneurysm to occur, conditions must be present that cause degradation or abnormal development of the structural components of the blood vessel wall.  We can list out common causes into those two categories:  Degradation/Degenerative factors  The usual suspects.  These factors all contribute to inflammation, oxidative stress, and biomechanical wall stress in blood vessels like the aorta. This damage to the structural integrity of the aortic wall can lead to an aneurysm.   Aging Cigarrete smoking Hypercholesterolemia Hypertension Artherosclerosis   Abnormal development  These factors can lead to a weakened and vulnerable aortic wall:   Marfan's syndrome Loeys-Diets syndrome Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV Turner's syndrome Bicuspid aortic valve   Other causes can include infections or chest trauma.  References:  Primary source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine; 19th Ed. (pp 1637-1638)  More reading:   Etiology section in Medscape article on aneurysms \"What causes aneurysms?\" in a webMD article on Heart Disease Aortic aneurysm causes in an emedicinehealth article on aortic aneurysms. ",
        "id": 780,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I poured out a bulging milk carton - am I in danger?",
        "body": "Extremely unlikely. This is simply unpleasant but not dangerous. The gas is mostly carbon dioxide released by bacteria in the milk fermenting the lactose sugar. Other products of the fermentation cause the foul smell.  Drinking the milk is another matter, as there will usually be bacterial overgrowth and a build up of lactic acid which will cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhoea. In rare cases a person could become more seriously unwell.  Sources:  Nonpasteurized Dairy Products, Disease Outbreaks, and State Laws\u2014United States, 1993\u20132006 by authors affiliated to the US Centre for Disease Control.  Wikipedia article on milk pasteurisation",
        "id": 2408,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the effect of smoking before or during early pregnancy on the baby?",
        "body": "While most studies appear to be on women who quit during pregnancy, I found a study that compared pregnancy outcomes in women who never smoked, quit smoking before pregnancy, quit smoking in early pregnancy, and those that smoked during pregnancy. It found      maternal smoking cessation before or during early pregnancy appears to result in appropriate fetal and childhood growth    The whole study Active and passive maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risks of low birthweight and preterm birth: the Generation R Study is available on the internet and I recommend reading it in full and also looking at the references. The differences in birth weight between the babies born to women who quit before and during early pregnancy were not significant.   Another study in 7000 women in the Netherlands also found no difference between women who didn't smoke and women who quit before 18 weeks of pregnancy.      For all active smoking categories in early pregnancy, quitting smoking was associated with a higher birthweight than continuing to smoke. Tendencies towards smaller non-significant beneficial effects on mean birthweight were found for reducing the number of cigarettes without quitting completely. This study shows that active and passive smoking in late pregnancy are associated with adverse effects on weight and gestational age at birth. Smoking in early pregnancy only, seems not to affect fetal growth adversely.   Active and passive maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risks of low birthweight and preterm birth: the Generation R Study  Note that for all of these studies, just  reducing the number of cigarettes per day is counted as continuing to smoke. ",
        "id": 487,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are the percentages next to carbohydrates and sugar not identical, while their amount in grams is?",
        "body": "This is due to the fact that the recommended amount of sugar and the recommended amount of total carbs is different.  I'll give an example using total fat and saturated fat (because in the US, where I'm from, there is no recommended amount of sugar, but that's a whole other story).  The percentages you're confused by are based on the recommended amount of that type of macronutrient. The Food and Drug Administration recommends that Americans eat no more than 65g of total fat in a day. They also say that you should eat no more than 20g of saturated fat.  Therefore, if you ate a food with 10g of saturated fat (and no other fat) the label would look like this:   Total fat: 10g................15% Saturated fat: 10 g........50%   Even though the amount is the same, the percentage is different, because your recommended daily amounts of total fat and saturated fat are different.",
        "id": 2158,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it called Conscious Sedation?",
        "body": "The definitions of conscious sedation and procedural sedation certainly blend through one another, but typically \"conscious sedation\" means the patient appears conscious to the provider or bystander, not necessarily the patient.  In procedural sedation, a patient may appear asleep or be completely dissociated (such as with ketamine).  There are many examples of this on YouTube as people recover from their sedation.  To all onlookers they appear conscious, but in many cases, patients don't remember any of their actions.  This is why you need a buddy to pick you up from the hospital after your procedure.  In neither case should a patient be sedated to the extent that they require airway control.  Facilities (as well as CMS) draw a very definite line between the above terms and general anesthesia.  Many units have specific privileges related to the extent at which they can sedate and where.  General anesthesia typically occurs in operating theater and typically requires airway control, mechanical ventilation, advanced medications such as paralytics, anesthesia gas, and large volumes of analgesics.",
        "id": 2648,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can cold drinks be taken with or after meals?",
        "body": "There is no evidence that cold drinks during or after meals adversely affects health - in fact - the opposite may be true.  In studies of people with pure liquid meals, the temperature of the liquid had essentially no effect on the time it took for the stomach to empty itself (i.e. digest the food). Additionally, it is worth noting that a liquid as it travels down the esophagus is warmed and becomes almost equivalent to body temperatures within minutes. Whatever effect it would have would be gone quickly.   It is worth noting that the body heats up while digesting food (it is a metabolically active process.) That actually suggests that cool drinks actually make it metabolically easier for the body to digest food because it doesn't have to work as hard to cool down after eating. That also suggests that you can burn a few more calories if you have a hot drink after eating because your body will have to work to cool the blood and maintain your temperature (i.e. homeostasis) ",
        "id": 333,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sleep apnea: Which is more reliable, a home sleep study or a lab sleep study?",
        "body": "As a sufferer of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) myself, I was diagnosed using an in home sleep study.  The results can be the same using a lab sleep study but that may depend on the person undergoing the study.  Some have problems relaxing enough when not in their own home.  In home sleep studies, of course, are cheaper to conduct as there are no additional costs such as lab bedding maintenance etc. and the key point to make when diagnosing sleep apnoea is to determine if you do stop breathing during sleep.  That can just as easily be determined at home as it can in a lab, and depending on the testing kit used, it can also determine that you don't suffer from OSA,     when the airflow is blocked for 10 seconds or more (Source: NHS)   but suffer from hypopnoea which is     a partial blockage of the airway that results in an airflow reduction of greater than 50% for 10 seconds or more. (Source: NHS) ",
        "id": 2643,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does conscious sleep impair immunity?",
        "body": "This is currently a researchable topic in neuroscience. Actually its not about light sleep or deep sleep or resting.Neuroscience prefers to describe sleep in the context of the immunity into mainly two stages: REM(Rapid Eye movement)sleep and non-REM.  Every sleep cycle occurs broadly in the given stages: wakefulness ->rest ->non REM->REM-> non REM/wakefulness  You see every stages has varying hours in total sleeping duration and is different at different ages. The REM sleep is the also called paradoxical sleep because the EEG records are similar to that of wakefulness and it is during this stage that we dream. It is actually this stage of sleep that is responsible for boosting immunity.That is why it has been experimentally determined in rats that when they are deprived of REM sleep continuously for a few days they die.  Like I said REM sleep is still under study and  is a matter of greater reasearch.  REFERENCES:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839418/  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4568388/",
        "id": 1783,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a relationship between vitamin D levels and cholesterol?",
        "body": "According to a couple of systematic reviews of studies, there is insufficient evidence about the lowering effect of vitamin D on blood cholesterol levels.   Vitamin D, Evidence Mayo Clinic (data from Natural Standard Research Collaboration)      Many studies have looked at the effects of vitamin D alone or in   combination with other agents for high cholesterol, but results are   inconsistent. Some negative effects have been reported.    Zitterman A et al, 2011, The role of vitamin D in dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease [a systematic review]  (PubMed)      The vast majority of intervention studies did not show an effect of   vitamin D on serum cholesterol levels. ",
        "id": 261,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Food calories by type and weight",
        "body": "In order to know how many calories some food sample contains, you need to know exactly how much of that sample is protein, fat, and carbohydrate. This PDF from UCLA gives a breakdown of the calories per gram of those components:Carbohydrate = 4 calories per gramProtein = 4 calories per gramAlcohol = 7 calories per gramFat = 9 calories per gramOnce you know what these are, the math is fairly straightforward; just multiply each and then add. If there are 5 grams of carbs, then totals calories from carbs equals 5 x 4 = 20; if 6 grams of protein, then 4 x 6 = 24; and so on.Starch is a carbohydrate. But for your other example of \"meat\", you'd need to know the breakdown of that particular meat, so you couldn't just say X amount of meat has y amount of protein, z amount of carbohydrate, and z amount of fat. Each meat is different. That said, the breakdown of each kind of meat (i.e. chicken, lean beef, pork, etc.) is probably close enough that you could get a ballpark figure for whatever kind of meat you're interested in.",
        "id": 1877,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is 88% SpO2 considered a critical level?",
        "body": "There is currently no biological mechanism that would increase a cell's absorption of oxygen in conditions of low SpO2 (unless you're a mutant). The amount taken by the cell is based on the amount of oxygen rich blood cells that reach the outer walls of the capillary to be permeated through and deliver oxygen. So this means that the cells have no way to just grab more oxygen when they don't have enough. The oxygen they get is what is available to them. Now the next part I'm not sure about, but I can give you a theory. When SpO2 goes below 88%, it may cause a failure in which the lungs can no longer support themselves with oxygen because they themselves don't have any to work (to be more exact, the diaphragm). Therefore making the oxygen levels continue to fall, which is not good if you don't like death.",
        "id": 1318,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cheap polarized sunglasses, good or bad?",
        "body": "Quality is not always dependent on actual price and vice versa. Trust famous brands and some glasses have characteristics written. ",
        "id": 1348,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can mold in a building cause fatigue?",
        "body": "Yes, it's certainly possible that there is mold or other agents in the building that can be either causing or contributing to allergy and fatigue symptoms.  Here is a writeup on what is called sick building syndrome (SBS) from National Health in the UK. Here is a writeup on various agents that can cause the same symptoms from a doctor's blog. There is a similar malady titled \"tight\" building syndrome as well. SBS can produce the following symptoms:   headaches and dizziness nausea  aches and pains  fatigue poor concentration    shortness of breath or chest tightness  eye and throat irritation   There are quite a few different writeups on SBS and mold related fatigue, and they all seem to indicate that there can be significant health effects from things such as poorly cleaned and/or designed ventilation systems, agents in the carpet/walls, etc. I would highly encourage you to pursue this and get it cleared up.",
        "id": 477,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a fungal infection transmit in swimming pools?",
        "body": "There are many factors that influence the transmission of infectious agents, and in the case of public swimming pools:   the number of bathers the condition of the pool care taken to disinfect the water    ...will heavily influence the likelihood of contracting a disease.    The air around us is filled with various benign fungi (including other pathogens such as bacterial and viruses). Similarly, pool water can contain bacteria, viruses and fungi [1,2].    These pathogens, whether it be from the air or pool water, have the capacity to infect a host, but normally is combated by the immune system in healthy individuals [ 4].    Individuals with a weak immune system (whether it be due to an ongoing infection, steroids or other immuno-suppresive drugs) or individuals that are immuno-compromised (HIV patient) can get infected by these pathogens [3,4].    In particular, fungal infections are harder to clear by the immune system due to their natural defense mechanism to avoid our immune cells 4.  Therefore, it may be advisable to avoid swimming pools, especially at peak usage as the filtration system may be unable to keep up.   Foot Infections in Swimming Baths Swimming pools and fungi: An environmental epidemiology survey in Italian indoor swimming facilities Opportunistic Infection: A Review Immunity to fungal infection ",
        "id": 661,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Categorizing injuries under the Haddon Injury Control Model",
        "body": "The key, I think, is the relationship between energy transferred and the ability of the receiving tissue to tolerate it.  For example, although the overall kinetic energy of a knife is relatively low the tip/blade pressure is extremely high, more than high enough to part tissues and, critically, cut through arterial walls causing fatal bleeding.  Drowning is more complex.  The pathophysiology that leads to tissue damage and thus death is hypoxia so I would class this as a chemical injury.  However, this is a bit of a cop-out.  Arguably, what kills in the case of the knife wound is not the wound itself but the resulting tissue hypoxia from bleeding so should we not count that as \"chemical\" as well?  Overall, this is probably best used as a guide to \"injury\" in the sense of \"external factor causing direct tissue damage\".  It is definitely not all encompassing.  Finally, I think there could be a good argument made for \"hypoxic\" as a 6th category of injury.",
        "id": 1209,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Combining lactose-free dairy and regular dairy",
        "body": "As you imply in your question, enzymes are catalysts, and as such, participate in a chemical reaction but remain unchanged after that reaction is completed. Therefore, once lactase has converted a lactose molecule into galactose and glucose, it is free to split another. According to this website, lactase can split up to sixty lactose molecules each second, so two lactase molecules can split 120; 4, 240; 16, 960. and so on. IOW, the more the lactase, the faster the conversion. This website provides a graphics that demonstrate how enzymes work.  So to answer your question, yes, there is enough lactase present in a lactose-free product to further catalyze any lactose present in any added dairy products. Whether or not there is enough to catalyze that lactose before it passes into the large intestines is another matter, however. When lactase is added to regular dairy products, they're allowed to \"ferment\" for several hours. Since lactose is not cheap, only enough lactase is added to catalyze a given quantity of lactose in a certain amount of time. My guess is that there will still be a significant amount of lactose present before it's passed into one's large intestines, where it causes the symptoms of lactose intolerance.  There is a lactase enzyme sold on Amazon that can be added to regular milk. It requires five drops for sixteen ounces of milk. If my calculations are correct, it works out to 0.8 ml per gallon of milk. FWIW, the product is excellent. It makes a gallon of lactose-free milk about a dollar cheaper, which adds up.",
        "id": 1772,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the long-term side effects of melatonin?",
        "body": "In long term studies, the effects have been mixed but mild.   In hemodialysis patients, after about six months - melatonin no longer seemed to have physiologic effects but could still be detected at elevated levels in salivary samples suggesting the body adapted to it.   Long term (six months) melatonin in mice improved spatial learning and memory and also protected against aluminum toxicity suggesting that neuronal or axonal growth is improved with supplementation.   Swedish teenagers and children with ADHD have been placed on melatonin for several years without known adverse effects.  Only mild averse effects have been found with long term use of melatonin in humans (dizziness, headache, nausea, sleepiness.) ",
        "id": 704,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the impact of electrolyte intake on weight loss?",
        "body": "You asked for any evidence, and we have this paper, Increased salt consumption induces body water conservation and decreases fluid intake which is interpreted in this newspaper article.   Essentially, a higher salt intake does not induce a corresponding increase in free water intake. But renal excretion of water still continues at a rate higher than that imbibed.  Which meant that the missing water excreted had to come from metabolic breakdown of fat and muscle using increased glucocorticoid production.  This leads to weight loss. But increased endogenous release of glucocorticoids also has adverse health implications eg. osteoporosis, and sarcopaenia.",
        "id": 2147,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do people infected with rabies have a fear of water?",
        "body": "When the rabies virus is spread to a new host, it first attacks muscle cells, which prevents the host's immune system from recognizing the invasion. Next, it binds to neurons at neuromuscular junction. Rabies virus is neurotropic, thus it binds preferentially to neurons, specifically the acetylcholine receptors on neurons. After binding the neuromuscular junction, it uses retrograde transport to travel up the neuron axon. When the virus reaches the neuron cell body, it rapidly spreads to the central nervous system, where it replicates in motor neurons and quickly reaches the brain. Next, it travels to the peripheral and autonomic nervous system and then finally reaches the salivary glands.  So, why does the rabies virus cause hydrophobia? The virus is accumulated in the salivary glands of the host so that it can be transmitted to the next host, often through wounds inflicted by a bite. As the virus spreads through bites, drinking water or swallowing would decrease transmission (by reducing quantities of infected saliva present in the mouth). To prevent this, the rabies virus causes painful spasms in throat and larynx. This causes saliva production in the host to be greatly increased, and also means that drinking, or even thinking about drinking, causes painful spasms in the throat. Since the muscular movements that occur while drinking are involuntary, and the virus has already infected autonomic nervous system and motor neurons, this is what enables it to control the involuntary muscle movements of throat and larynx in the host. This association of swallowing with the excruciating pain, and an inability to swallow, leading to choking, is what leads to fear of water.  Thus the term 'hydrophobia' in this case is somewhat misleading - bathing or a body of water might wouldn't trigger a hydrophobic response (unless ingestion of water was a possibility), as the fear is more specifically fear of choking on liquids due to impaired swallowing. ",
        "id": 1693,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dentist cavity preparation",
        "body": "A dentist will prepare cavity based on principles of cavity preparation. Sometimes it may require extended preparation for the longevity of filling and further caries prevention. Anyway the caries has to be removed completely (all soft areas or infected dentin).  Now I will answer your second question. A cavity or dental caries can be hidden in many cases. The surface enamel may be intact in such cases.In these cases x ray is of great use. Though you cannot identify by bare eyes where the cavity is, a dentist with adequate illumination  can detect the minor colour change of surface enamel if there is underlying caries. It has to be restored as soon as possible in order to prevent further loss of tooth structure.",
        "id": 1177,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference between acute disease and chronic disease",
        "body": "More or less: Yes.  Acute and chronic are ways to classify diseases according to duration.  Acute*:     Acute Illness (1) Any illness that develops quickly, is intense or severe and lasts a relatively short period of time.   (2) Any condition\u2014e.g., infection, trauma, fracture\u2014with a short (often less than 1 month) clinical course. Acute illnesses usually respond to therapy; a return to a state of complete\u2014pre-morbid\u2014health is the norm.   from: Segen's Medical Dictionary. \u00a9 2012 Farlex via The Free Dictionary  Chronic:     Chronic diseases are different. They usually develop slowly, last a long time, and are often progressive and incurable. For many chronic diseases, there is no cure. The long-term effects of a chronic illness may be difficult to predict.   from: Island health  Note that most, but not all chronic illnesses are incurable. Also, although the illness is present all the time, the symptoms don't have to be. The time periods (which can be quite long) when the person doesn't have symptoms and feels well is called remission. When the symptoms appear this is called exacerbation or relapse. Many chronic illnesses that can't be cured can be well-managed and the consequences can be mitigated.  There are other categories between chronic and acute:  subacute - which can refer to duration (between acute and chronic, but closer to acute), to severity (often duration and severity combined: moderate) or it is sometimes used to denote a condition in a person who appears to be clinically well (although there are better terms for this, IMO).  subchronic - usually longer than acute, but limited in time (duration of illness is for about a year).  Subacute and subchronic (along with acute and chronic) are also used in toxicology to refer to classification of toxicity according to duration of exposure.    There is no universal duration time for all illnesses, which would serve as the limit based on which the illness would be acute or chronic. The duration based on which conditions are classified often vary across different fields of medicine (i.e. different organs/organ systems). Consider these two examples:     Acute sinusitis - Duration of illness less than 3 weeks.      Sub acute sinusitis - Duration of illness ranging between 3-6 weeks.      Recurrent sinusitis - Recurrent sinusitis with disease free periods in-between attacks.      Chronic sinusitis - Duration of illness is more than 6 weeks   from: Role of Imaging in Rhinology edited by Geetha Ramamoorthy     Cases of low back pain can be classified according to duration as follows:      Acute: less than 6 weeks      Subacute: between 6 and 12 weeks      Chronic: more than 12 weeks   from: Integrative Medicine by David Rakel",
        "id": 324,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Insulin and cellular glucose capture",
        "body": "No, certain cells like skeletal muscle cells (during exercise), liver cells, red blood cells and the brain do not need insulin for glucose uptake. During exercise, the glucose uptake by muscles is increased so glucose level in the blood drops down. Thus, less (or no) insulin is needed during exercise.  For more details, I found useful information in a biology lecture in Columbia University, New York: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/courses/c2006/lectures11/lect16.11.html  I can summarize it like this: Insulin works on cell surface receptors. In resting skeletal muscle &amp; adipose tissues insulin acts through the receptor GLUT4 which promotes the infusion of glucose to the cell cytoplasm.  In liver and brain: They can take up glucose without insulin -- they do not use GLUT4. They use different transporters (GLUT 1, 2 &amp;/or 3) located permanently in the plasma membrane.  Insulin has no effect on glucose uptake in brain.  In Working skeletal muscle:  Insulin is not required for the uptake of glucose because exercise mobilizes GLUT4 in skeletal muscle. I hope this is clear fo you.",
        "id": 1133,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should fish oil supplements be taken with food?",
        "body": "Fish oil is a fat. Supplements relating to fat and fat solubility have usually one thing in common: the fat digestion and nutrient extraction is usually improved when these fats are consumed like in a normal meal. But this is really just a general rule of thumb. Since real meals containing these are probably better anyway.  But more important are the possible immediate side-effects:     Fish oil is likely safe for most people when taken by mouth in low doses (3 grams or less per day). There are some safety concerns when fish oil is taken in high doses. Taking more than 3 grams per day might keep blood from clotting and can increase the chance of bleeding.       High doses of fish oil might also reduce the immune system's activity, reducing the body's ability to fight infection. This is a special concern for people taking medications to reduce their immune system's activity (organ transplant patients, for example) and the elderly.       Only take high doses of fish oil while under medical supervision.          Fish oil can cause side effects including belching, bad breath, heartburn, nausea, loose stools, rash, and nosebleeds. Taking fish oil supplements with meals or freezing them can often decrease these side effects. \u2026 (emphasis in this paragraph  added) ",
        "id": 1953,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to use olive oil to clean the ear wax?",
        "body": "Based on this systematic review, The safety and effectiveness of different methods of ear wax removal: a systematic review and economic evaluation:     On measures of wax clearance Cerumol, sodium bicarbonate, olive oil and water are all more effective than no treatment; triethanolamine polypeptide (TP) is better than olive oil; wet irrigation is better than dry irrigation; sodium bicarbonate drops followed by irrigation by nurse is more effective than sodium bicarbonate drops followed by self-irrigation ....   However, it should be noticed that:     limited good-quality evidence of the safety, benefits and costs of the different strategies, making it difficult to differentiate between the various methods for removing earwax and rendering the economic evaluation as speculative reference. ",
        "id": 2661,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Migraines and tryptophan",
        "body": "Sumatriptan activates vascular 5-HT1 receptors.  This results in vasoconstriction, which is what is thought to help the migraines.  This is the same idea for giving caffeine, which is also a vasoconstrictor.  Taking tryptophan would likely be ineffective for a variety of reasons in terminating a migraine.  First, it would have to be ingested and absorbed, which takes time, and then it would have to be metabolized to 5-HT (Serotonin).  Even if tryptophan was absorbed in the stomach, it would be ineffective at terminating the migraine in a timely fashion and thus not well tolerated by a patient.  Second, there is little evidence that oral tryptophan supplementation increases serotonin levels (Cynober et al., 2016).  Cynober et al. (2016) states that the subjects urinated out the tryptophan in a \"dose dependent fashion.\"  Further, there was no significant change in their mood with tryptophan supplementation at any dose.  This suggests that the tryptophan is not being metabolized into 5-HT.  This makes sense, since tryptophan is in our diets, and it would be wild to think that our bodies didn't regulate 5-HT metabolism (that is to say that our bodies just automatically made 5-HT every time we ate something with tryptophan in it).  If patients do have a serotonin imbalance, it is likely involved in metabolism issues, say some mutation or problem with co-factors or enzymes.  Therefore, tryptophan likely isn't a solution.  References  Cynober, L., Bier, D. M., Kadowaki, M., Morris Jr, S. M., Elango, R., &amp; Smriga, M. (2016). Proposals for Upper Limits of Safe Intake for Arginine and Tryptophan in Young Adults and an Upper Limit of Safe Intake for Leucine in the Elderly\u20133.\u00a0The Journal of nutrition,\u00a0146(12), 2652S-2654S. doi: 10.3945/jn.115.228478",
        "id": 2615,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should mixtures of antibiotics become standard practice to curb antibiotic resistance?",
        "body": "The issue is that antibiotics are not without side effects and the use of most antibiotics carry a risk for developing Clostridium Difficile.  If you take more than one class of antibiotic, your risk increases based on the risk associated with the second antibiotic if not more.  Furthermore, there's the deleterious effect on the human biome when using antibiotic therapy in the first place:     Mounting evidence shows that antibiotics influence the function of the immune system, our ability to resist infection, and our capacity for processing food. Therefore, it is now more important than ever to revisit how we use antibiotics.   On the other hand, certain bacterial infections are known to develop resistance during the course of treatment, and that's why current antituberculosis therapy uses 4 drugs concurrently.     Given the complications observed in treatment with streptomycin and the efficacy observed for both streptomycin and PAS individually, the MRC decided to extend their first RCT to include the first combination antimicrobial regimen using both of these agents. In this new trial, the MRC found that, in contrast to streptomycin monotherapy, which yielded streptomycin resistance in 70% of cases after 120 days, combination therapy yielded streptomycin resistance in at most 9% of cases and in 0% of cases in regimens with intermittent streptomycin administration every 3 days    http://mbio.asm.org/content/8/2/e01586-16.full",
        "id": 2202,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Gas from cigarette smoke",
        "body": "The answer to your question is thirdhand smoking (THS):  From the American Nonsmoker's Right Foundation (ANRF), \"Thirdhand smoke consists of the tobacco residue from cigarettes, cigars, and other tobacco products that is left behind after smoking and builds up on surfaces and furnishings.\"   So the chemicals from smoking do stick to a person and persist in the area. In regards to whether they pose a threat, research is still continually being done to assess the harm/adverse effects on health. So far, researchers have found that the leftover nicotine from smoking can react with nitrous acid (in indoor air) to form carcinogenic compounds. A different paper reported the reduction in body mass when mice were exposed to THS, explaining the potential for harm in humans.   From what I've read, there hasn't been any strong claims on the threat as seen in secondhand smoke. But it might be wise to consider \"There is no safe level of exposure to tobacco smoke.\", a view that is supported in the final two papers of my references.      References:  American Nonsmokers' Rights Foundation (ANRF) Page on Thirdhand Smoke  Mayo Clinic's Quick Intro. to Thirdhand Smoke  Formation of carcinogens indoors by surface-mediated reactions of nicotine with nitrous acid, leading to potential thirdhand smoke hazards  Early exposure to thirdhand cigarette smoke affects body mass and the development of immunity in mice  Beliefs About the Health Effects of \u201cThirdhand\u201d Smoke and Home Smoking Bans  No Safe Level of Smoking: Even low-intensity smokers are at increased risk of earlier death",
        "id": 468,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is an allergy?",
        "body": "From Medicinenet.com:     A misguided reaction to foreign substances by the immune system, the body system of defense against foreign invaders, particularly pathogens (the agents of infection). The allergic reaction is misguided in that these foreign substances are usually harmless. The substances that trigger allergy are called allergen. Examples include pollens, dust mite, molds, danders, and certain foods. People prone to allergies are said to be allergic or atopic.   Poisons are not \"usually harmless\", therefore one can't be allergic to it, but dairy products are usually harmless and the immune system wrongly considers it a pathogen.  It's important to note that a lactose intolerance is not a lactose allergy, these are different things. An allergic reaction towards milk products is called a dairy allergy.",
        "id": 2314,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are computers bad for health?",
        "body": "Like all things too much of anything is bad for you. As a designer working in the tech industry for over a decade, here's a few things I experienced and that might (I hope not) impact you.    wrists from over use of keyboard and mouse circulation problems from being seated for too long eye sight posture problems social effects of not going out and socializing but using social media to socialize (which isnt really socializing)   Sources:   (study on carpal tunnel syndrome- wrists) http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=196717 (computer vision syndrome) http://www.webmd.com/eye-health/computer-vision-syndrome (American Optometric Association) http://www.aoa.org/Documents/optometrists/effects-of-computer-use.pdf (sitting &amp; posture) https://www.washingtonpost.com/apps/g/page/national/the-health-hazards-of-sitting/750/ (social interaction) https://www.elon.edu/docs/e-web/academics/communications/research/vol6no1/02DragoEJSpring15.pdf ",
        "id": 338,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I've always worn my clear nighttime retainers religiously. Can I get my permanent metal retainers taken out?",
        "body": "The quick answer is no, if you want to avoid crowding of the bottom teeth in the futur.  The reason is that the mandible (jaw) is constantly being remodelled, as shown on the picture bellow.    Notice how near the front teeth, who are in a kind of half-circle, the reformation is inward. The diameter of the arch (half-circle) is reduced throughout life, and therefore the teeth are forced to get crowded to fit in the reduced space. This can even happen to older people who did not get an orthodontic treatment! The top retainer is there to prevent the top teeth from moving back into their original location. Therefore the fact that you wear the top retainer makes absolutely no difference for the bottom teeth.    The second aspect of the question is concerning the health of the gums and periodontal tissues. If you are unable to perform dental hygiene routinely, you should speak to your Orthodontist, and make it known that it is a problem for you.  My orthodontist uses a different design for the bottom lingual wire which only bonds to the canines (see picture bellow), and therefore I can more easily pass the floss.       If you are willing to read some more, a more in-deapth analysis of the concepts can be obtained on the 3rd link in my references.    Sources:   (First image) http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2176-94512014000300026 (Second image and information) https://www.orthodontisteenligne.com/en/patient-info/orthodontic-retention/ (Explaination of Late Mandibular Incisor Crowding) http://www.braceplace.com/assets/docs/Newsletter_23.pdf ",
        "id": 784,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the difference between a maisonneuve fracture and a Weber C fracture?",
        "body": "The Maisonneuve fracture is a special form of the Weber C fracture. What makes it special is that the fracture of the fibula has to be localized within the proximal third of the fibula shaft (see \"The Maisonneuve fracture is a spiral fracture of the proximal third of the fibula\", http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23079149). Weber C includes all localizations of the fracture of the fibula.",
        "id": 232,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Meatus acusticus externus",
        "body": "No, at least not reliably.  Each person is different and some tympanic membranes are situated in a pretty direct angle.  Even in canals with a steep angle, a strong enough jet just ricocheting off the wall can still generate enough force to be harmful.  Don't use any water jet type of thing that was not designed for ears.  Some of the dangers are discussed in this article on cerumen removal: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1413546-overview ",
        "id": 2186,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Aloe Vera and Diabetes",
        "body": "This study did a thorough literature search of all existing Aloe Vera research and found, at best, weak conclusions:     The current evidence suggests some potential benefit of Aloe vera in improving glycaemic control in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. However, given the limitations of the available evidence and the high heterogeneity in study results, high-quality, well-powered randomized controlled trials using standardized preparations are needed to quantify any beneficial effects of Aloe vera on glycaemic control.   On that basis, I am not sure if your premise (Aloe Vera helps in decreasing blood sugar in patients with diabetes) holds true. I do not know of any study that has actually identified helpful substances in Aloe Vera for diabetes and do not think there is any [study].  Diabetes as a disease seems to attract crackpots and crackpot theories. I have a child with Type 1 Diabetes. Every month I must meet 4-5 people who come to me with ridiculous theories and substances that will cure diabetes or improve it: cinnamon, coriander, beet juice, dried mango, pineapple, \"natural substances that reverse diabetes.\" It is an experience common to all of us, parents of children with diabetes or people with diabetes: just look at how mocking savvy diabetes forums are towards the diabetes diet of the day.   The sad truth is that there is nothing. For Type 1s, insulin is the only thing that can help. Many Type 2s will be helped by diet, exercise and some oral medicines -- but, for most of them, they will eventually graduate to insulin too. In fact, that would be true for all of them -- except that some will die of something else first.  There is no magic bullet:(",
        "id": 1681,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Diclofenac patch before or after the effort?",
        "body": "I am quite sure that there is no valid study to address your question per se.  First of all it seems that topical NSAID is pretty much the only some way effective treatment for lateral epicondylitis. Many other treatment modalities show no real effect. A recent meta-analysis in CORR (1) pooled all treatments from valid RCTs and the combined net effect was sad.    A recent Cochrane analysis (2) analyzed the treatment effect separately for each modality. The results were slightly more encouraging although the authors pointed out some methodological concerns.    I would also refer to earlier question in health.SE which I have provided an answer. It was about NSAIDs and tissue healing: Do anti-inflammatory painkillers speed up healing?.  As so, I would conclude that diclofenac patch indeed has some benefits. But from pragmatic approach I would not recommend using those patches before and during an effort. The pain in your elbow is an indicator for microscopic damage, mostly tears, and swelling. If you apply the patch before an effort the signal is suppressed and you might strain your tendon more than it would be physiological or reasonable. This leads to even more severe tendinopathy and I would consider that a vicious circle. Suppressing pain when it is indicating tissue damage is not advisable in my opinion.    (1) Sayegh, Eli T., and Robert J. Strauch. \"Does Nonsurgical Treatment Improve Longitudinal Outcomes of Lateral Epicondylitis Over No Treatment? A Meta-analysis.\" Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research\u00ae 473.3 (2015): 1093-1107.  (2) Pattanittum, Porjai, et al. \"Non\u2010steroidal anti\u2010inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for treating lateral elbow pain in adults.\" The Cochrane Library (2013).",
        "id": 404,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Supplementing Iodine separately from antioxidants? (and separately from what else?)",
        "body": "If you are taking a product that contains both iodine and iodide like Lugol's or Iodoral, the only thing that happens when you add an antioxidant like Vit C is that the iodine gets converted to iodide. This is not a bad thing. But people like Dr. Flechas point to research showing that while the thyroid utilizes iodide, other organs, tissues, and glands utilize iodine, or a combination of both -dide and -dine. So it defeats the purpose of taking in \"dual form\" which the products mentioned above are in. Standard advice for taking iodine, if you don't want it converted to iodide, is to take it at least a 1/2 hour before Vit C or other antioxidants; one hour to be safe.",
        "id": 2185,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Drinking water from glass instead of plastic",
        "body": "Well, I have attended a conference on water conservation in 2014, there was an interesting discussion about the purity of water and water storage. Your question reminded me of that.  To answer your question, We have to make it clear, on how long are we gonna store the water for, we all know that basic material for glass is silica and for plastic it is carbon. Silica is more stable than carbon so it doesn't oxidize soon, carbon too is stable but when compared to the silica carbon relatively oxidizes in a long run. Resulting in browning of the plastic and becoming greasy.  So, if you are storing just for days, or weeks (after opening), it is fine to use plastic. Glass is always a better option.",
        "id": 987,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is the total calculated for influenza vaccination coverage calculated?",
        "body": "These appear to be weighted totals  I don't have the methodology used to to derive these figures, but I would expect that the totals are weighted by age group size (for the last column) and by region population (for the final row).  I used the values for Italian age distribution (NB only goes to 2016, not 2017), and got values closer to the expected values, eg 9.6 for Provincia Bolzano once weighting for age was taken into account.",
        "id": 2165,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Basic CPR practice without a dummy",
        "body": "With a very small budget  If you do not want to spend any (or very little) money on it, I recommend filling a small garbage bag with wet sand and then placing a cushion or pillow over it. I'm guessing if you want to add a realistic touch, you could place some small sticks of wood in the garbage bag to act as ribs.   Unfortunately, the above answer is all based on my guessing; but seems like it would be fun to experiment with. However, the below answer and link will give you instructions to make a DIY manikin that a CPR instructor has made and uses.   Slightly bigger budget  With some patience, time and approximately $14 USD, you can make a manikin out of a plunger, lid, foam, plaster of Paris and a few other common items. I will not go into detail about it, but here is a link to the blog where you can find detailed instructions, pictures and a list of materials.   You mention having the children practice some skills on a human. As long as they are old enough to understand the concept of not actually doing these skills on a person who doesn't need them, I encourage you to teach them on a human. Teach them the anatomical landmarks, how to check for breathing and a pulse and how to open an airway(1) on a real person.   Hope this is helpful to you. If you have any additional questions, please let me know!     (1) Note: If you plan to teach them how to open an airway, be sure to only do the head-tilt chin-lift. If you wish to teach the jaw thrust, that is best done on a doll. ",
        "id": 1760,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can cause infertility in men?",
        "body": "Many factors can influence infertility in men. Some of these are related to sperm themselves (sperm amount, motility and shape), others are related to adequate hormone production, congenital and anatomic disorders, and at times infection.   Assuming you are otherwise healthy without anatomic issues such as retrograde ejaculation or congenital diseases like cystic fibrosis - there are some reversible things to keep in mind to promote male fertility.  *Avoid substance use like cocaine and marijuana *Quit smoking *Maintain a healthy weight -obesity decreases sperm count *Always use safe sex practices!! - STD infection can effect fertility *Avoid prolonged heat exposure while trying to achieve pregnancy (hot tubs) *Avoid long term exposure to toxins (chemical/factor workers) *Mental and emotional stress can temporarily decrease sperm count *Adequate sleep and control of chronic medical conditions *If you note testicular abnormalities on your self exams, see your physician  Hope this helps! Source, your friendly neighborhood physician",
        "id": 1709,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can headphones produce undesirable ultrasounds that can damage my hearing?",
        "body": "The frequency response of a headphone is one of the biggest selling points with a wider and flatter response being \"better\". Ultrasound is typically defined as sounds above 20 kHz. The high end Sennheiser HD 800 S headphones have a flat frequency response out to 51 kHz. Even more reasonably priced headphones can still produce ultra sound (e.g., the Sennheiser HD 25 can produce frequencies up to 22 kHz).",
        "id": 1073,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is putting lime juice up your nose on a queue-tip safe/effective to relieve sinus pressure?",
        "body": "In general, any medical procedure that is not prescribed and performed by a health care professional has to be regarded as unsafe. Basically, in medicine everything is assumed to be unsafe until it is proven to be safe. You can consider what the potential problems with this procedure would be that would likely be looked at first before it could ever become accepted practice. E.g. you can consider what would happen if lime juice accidentally enters your lungs, you could look into the risk of aspiration pneumonia or nasal bleeding due to irritation as mentioned by user19679 in the comments.  Since there may be other adverse health effects that a priori are hard to identify, the only way to know that a proposed treatment is safe and effective is to do clinical trials and publish the results in a scientific journal. This is the start of the process in which the proposed treatment can be evaluated in scientifically rigorous way.  At the end of the process there will have been independent groups repeating such trials, review papers will have been published that have looked at all the results of this particular treatment and compared the results to other treatments. If the treatment has been found to be a viable treatment that can be used under certain circumstances, then there will be been guidelines for doctors about using this treatment that are based on such review articles. ",
        "id": 654,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sensitization and Ischaemia",
        "body": "Increased vascular permeability means fluid leaks more readily from blood vessels. That leakage builds up in the surrounding tissue, which causes edema. The edema squeezes veins, thereby compressing them, which means they can't do their job of draining the tissue efficiently, and that can lead to the vicious circle he mentions.   Vasodilation means the vessels increase their inside diameter, but it doesn't prevent them from being compressed, so no, nothing is counterbalanced.",
        "id": 1527,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How fast is blood replaced in the body?",
        "body": "Calculating from the numbers Wikipedia's articles on bone marrow and red blood cells, the bone marrow in an adult human produces between 200 billion and 500 billion red blood cells a day, taking between 60 and 120 days to produce enough to replace the 20-30 trillion red blood cells in circulation.  Under normal conditions, red blood cells wear out and are replaced on a 120-day cycle; presumably the faster production rate is for dealing with injuries or other abnormal loss of RBCs.",
        "id": 345,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "dangers of keeping blood in a jar",
        "body": "First problem: Blood is an organic substance, and like all organic substances that aren't cooked, refrigerated or otherwise preserved, it will rot. You'll need to freeze or at least refrigerate it.  Second problem: It is a biohazard. Any diseases the donor had (known or unknown) will potentially be in that blood at infectious levels. Any bacteria introduced during or after collection will also grow very nicely in it unless it's refrigerated or frozen. You really should put a biohazard warning label on your art so people know it is potentially infectious. Keep in mind that some viruses can remain infectious in dried blood for weeks (eg, hepatitis B).  Third problem: Blood clots and congeals. After a week you won't have something you can paint with, and it will be black, not red.  You could try adding a chemical such as chlorine bleach or formaldehyde as a preservative, but I'm not sure what other effects that would have.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming_chemicals  http://www.aftermath.com/content/human-decomposition",
        "id": 1413,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can oversleeping be harmful to overall health?",
        "body": "Studies have linked oversleeping with    Cognitive impairment Depression Increased inflammation Increased pain Impaired fertility Higher risk of obesity Higher risk of diabetes Higher risk of heart disease Higher risk of stroke Higher all-cause mortality   You can find the detailed article here: http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/physical-side-effects-oversleeping#1",
        "id": 1021,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to deliberately get cancer?",
        "body": "Yes  A decent share of radiation will do the trick for you, as both Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but also physicists experimenting with the newly found radiation have shown.  There even is a unit (sievert) which measures how cancerous a dose of radiation is. One sievert is equivalent to a 5,5% chance of cancer.  Relevant XKCD for how what radiation has how much sievert:    Furthermore, cancer can be transplanted. This is an issue that has been subject to quite a few conferences.  Related Worldbuilding.SE question.",
        "id": 1979,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I apply dettol & adhesive bandages on dog bites?",
        "body": "Tetanus Vaccine If you get a tetanus shot every five years you are good to go. The recommended dose of tetanus toxoid (vaccine) is every ten years but since:      In a small percentage of individuals, antitoxin levels fall below the minimal protective level before 10 years have elapsed, to ensure adequate protective antitoxin levels, persons who sustain a wound that is other than clean and minor should receive a tetanus booster if more than 5 years have elapsed since their last dose   (Taken from http://cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/index.html chapter on tetanus)   As for your wounds, it is better to wash them with simple soaps and water and leave them to heal without band-aids. The principle is: use solutions that do not cause further damage to the skin and that can be applied to clean most residues and dead tissue with mechanic force rather than chemical action. The most used in Hospital settings is saline solution (H2O plus NaCl at 0.9&amp;), we use it with a syringe so the water comes with pressure.   Here are the general recommendations for wound management/treatment:         Apply direct pressure to any bleeding wound, to control hemorrhage. Tourniquets are rarely indicated since they may reduce tissue   viability.   Examine wounds for gross contamination, devitalized tissue, and   foreign bodies.   Remove constricting rings or other jewelry from injured body part.   Cleanse the wound periphery with soap and sterile water or available   solutions, and provide anesthetics and analgesia whenever possible.   Irrigate wounds with saline solution using a large bore needle and syringe. If unavailable, bottled water is acceptable.   Leave contaminated wounds, bites, and punctures open. Wounds that are sutured in an unsterile environment, or are not cleansed,irrigated, and debrided appropriately, are at high risk for infection due to contamination. Wounds that are not closed primarily (sutured) because of high risk of infection should be considered for delayed primary closure by experienced medical staff using sterile technique.   Remove devitalized tissue and foreign bodies prior to repair as they may increase the incidence of infection   Clip hair close to the wound, if necessary. Shaving of hair is not   necessary, and may increase the chance of wound infection.   Cover wounds (other than contaminated wounds, bites, and punctures) with dry dressing; deeper wounds may require packing with saline  soaked gauze and subsequent coverage with a dry bulky dressing.      http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/emergwoundhcp.asp",
        "id": 569,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can some adoptive mothers induce lactation to breastfeed their adoptive infants?",
        "body": "Yes. This article on the Mayo Clinic site suggests combining three approaches:   hormones before the baby's arrival, if there is time pumping both before and after the baby's arrival feeding the baby through a system that provides nursing pressure (such as this SNS, a bottle you wear around your neck with a thin tube you put on your nipple, so that the baby gets milk from the tube while the mechanics encourage more production)   Searching for \"induce lactation\" will find you a number of personal stories with varying degrees of success, and varying definitions of success. Click carefully - there are also sites dedicated to the subgenre of \"erotic lactation\" which not everyone will want to visit.  On colostrum, it isn't the most nutritious milk, but it does give a big antibodies boost. Nevertheless, milk continues to be a good source of immunities for a long time after that first week, as this 2013 Future Virology article describes:     Human colostrum contains more than 1 g/l IgA, and during the first year of lactation, concentrations are maintained at approximately 0.5 g/day   Since the approach generally involves beginning to pump before the baby is born, even if there was a colostrum response, it wouldn't be timed to the baby's arrival. The people I know who considered this took into account convenience (once a supply, even a partial one, was established), health benefits, feelings of closeness, and not getting glare-stares when using a bottle in public.",
        "id": 1653,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the pros and cons of a glycerin based personal lubricant?",
        "body": "Disclaimer: Some of the sources in this post should likely be considered \"Not Safe for Work\".  Glycerine-based lubricants, which are likely the most common form of water-based lubricants on the market (consider, for example, Astroglide or K-Y) have a number of positive properties to them (when compared to silicon or oil-based lubricants):   They are safe for use with latex-based condoms. Oil-based lubricants can have negative impacts on both slippage and breakage of condoms, which is of course a bit of a problem, as presumably that condom is meant for either pregnancy prevention or disease prevention, both of which rely on an intact and in-place condom. Similarly, they are safe for use with toys of various sorts. Some silicone-based lubricants can interact with silicon-based toys. Because they are water based, they are relatively easy to clean.   There are also a number of drawbacks, compared to alternatives:   As they are water based, they can become tacky over time, and when used in water, may wash off, resulting in an essentially unlubricated surface (water has this same effect on vaginal secretions). There is some suggestion that these products are associated with an increased risk of yeast infections when used vaginally, but at least one study did not find such an effect. There has been some noted damage to cellular tissue from the use of some lubricants, as they may be hyperosmotic compared to the tissue they're coming into contact with. This has been shown in some animal models and human studies, and may not be as much of a problem in some silicon-based lubricants. ",
        "id": 142,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can cause stomach issues in a vegetarian?",
        "body": "In vegans who have abdominal bloating/distension and excessive gas but otherwise feel healthy, the cause can be the ingestion of too much:   Soluble fiber from legumes, oats, barley, rye, figs, prunes, artichokes, sweet potatoes, passion fruit, avocadoes (more foods)   (They are other vegan sources of protein, apart from legumes, such as bread, amaranth, cornmeal, kamut, quinoa, nuts, seeds (especially hemp) and hummus, that have less soluble fiber, so they should cause less gas.)   Foods with high fructose/glucose ratio: apples, pears, mangoes, agave, watermelons, honey and foods and beverages sweetened by high fructose corn syrup (in case of fructose malabsorption) (UWHealth, more foods with high F/G ratio)   There can be certain foods that may irritate you from no apparent reason.  Vegans are often not aware of iron deficiency, but this tends to be common and can cause gastrointestinal symptoms.  To check for celiac disease, one could start a complete gluten-free diet after which the symptoms can improve in few weeks.  If nothing of the above helps, the next step can be to check for eventual food allergies (blood and skin tests), intestinal parasites (stool test), etc.",
        "id": 2140,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Gastrointestinal effect of EC/DR vs. plain naproxen",
        "body": "Summary: There are studies showing a difference in gastrointestinal problems and studies where no difference was observed. At least some of the effect it has on the stomach is not related to whether naproxen is released in the stomach or small intestine.   There are two very small studies here:   Gastroscopic Findings after Treatment with Enteric-Coated and Plain Naproxen Tablets in Healthy Subjects  Comparison of the Gastrointestinal Side Effects of Naproxen Formulated as Plain Tablets, Enteric-Coated Tablets, Or Enteric-Coated Granules in Capsules   that concluded that the negative gastrointestinal effects were lessened in the coated form. However, they don't disappear, pointing towards there being both a systemic and local effect of naproxen for the stomach, independent of how it's delivered.   A slightly larger (though still small) study The efficacy and tolerability of enteric and non-enteric coated naproxen tablets: a double-blind study in patients with osteoarthritis found no significant differences in either efficiency or tolerability, meaning that gastrointestinal problems appeared for both forms.   An overview by Roche Pharmaceuticals contains this passage:     [...] These studies indicated that EC\u00ad   NAPROSYN and NAPROSYN showed no significant differences in efficacy    or safety and had similar prevalence of minor GI complaints. Individual    patients, however, may find one formulation preferable to the other.       Five hundred and fifty-three patients received EC-NAPROSYN during long\u00ad   term open-label trials (mean length of treatment was 159 days). The rates for    clinically-diagnosed peptic ulcers and GI bleeds were similar to what has been    historically reported for long-term NSAID use.   However, A double blind study comparing the efficacy and safety of enteric coated naproxen to naproxen in the management of NSAID intolerant patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Naproxen EC Study Group found a significant reduction of gastrointestinal complaints by at least 15 percent. Again, efficiency was the same.   To me, that looks like it's at least worth taking the EC form, since they both work equally well and the EC form might have an advantage. ",
        "id": 800,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a T2 hyperintense focus in the subcortical white matter?",
        "body": "There are a few terms to define here, and I'll go through them one by one:  T2  This has to do with the type of scan. MRI's are pretty complicated technologically, but the basic idea is that body tissues are full of water, and water molecules respond to magnets. If you turn on a really powerful magnet near body tissues, the water molecules in the tissues will align with the magnetic field. Turn off the magnet and pulse a radio signal, and you'll shake the molecules back into a random alignment and they'll shoot back a radio signal as they move. This is called magnetic resonance.  If you can detect all the little radio signals coming back from all the molecules and figure out where they all came from, you can map out where all the water molecules are, which tells you where the tissues are. Do it precisely enough, and you can make a high-quality image of whatever tissue you're scanning. This is magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI.  The problem is, like with a camera, you only get an image of one side. If you want everything in 3D, you need to repeat this again and again from a bunch of different angles. That's what you're hearing when the MRI machine goes bang, bang, bang, bang, bang... \u2014 the machine is getting the image again and again from every possible angle. It's also repeating images on each location for more information.  There are a few variables you can tinker with to tune the image to what you're looking for, most notably repetition time (TR), how long you wait between each pulse, and time to echo (TE), how long between the radio pulse being sent and the echo being captured. If you set the machine to wait a very short time between pulses (short TR), and a very short time between sending each radio pulse and capturing its result (short TE), you're going to get what's called a T1-weighted image. Much longer TR and TE produce a different image, called a T2-weighted image. Even longer, and you get a FLAIR image.  These are just names for the different types of scans you can get by playing with TR and TE, but the rationale for what makes an image T1- or T2- weighted is based on properties of the water molecules themselves, literally quantum physics. You're welcome to look them up though if you like, and get a really good understanding of exactly what makes the image look that way.  Hyperintense Focus  Intensity on an MRI refers to the brightness of a given spot. But because doctors are doctors, instead of calling it a spot, they refer to a given location on the MRI as a \"focus.\" This term tends to be reserved for when something special is going on there.  To go a bit deeper into intensity, a hyperintensity is a spot that's brighter than you'd expect it to be, and a hypointensity is a spot that's darker than you'd expect it to be. In a T2-weighted MRI specifically, watery tissues shine brightest, meaning that a hyperintensity \u2014 or hyperintense focus \u2014 in a T2 MRI is a particularly watery area, often something unusual. But exactly what it means depends on where the hyperintensity is.  White Matter  Your brain is divided into two basic types of material, white matter and gray matter.  Broadly speaking, the gray matter forms the outermost surface of the brain, the cerebral cortex, which is in charge of most of the actual thinking that takes place in your brain, like getting input from your senses, sending output to your muscles, and connecting the two with, well, your consciousness and most human mental abilities.  White matter on the other hand is like all of the wires that connect the gray matter together, and sits below the surface of the brain.  Structurally, you can think of the white matter as the \"body\" of the brain and the gray matter as the \"skin,\" even though the gray matter does just about all of the actual thinking.  Subcortical  There are really three important sections of the brain when it comes to hyperintensities: the periventricular white matter, the deep white matter, and the subcortical white matter. The subcortical white matter is just a little bit deeper than the gray matter of the cerebral cortex. The deep white matter is even deeper than that, going towards the center of the brain, the ventricles. The periventricular (\"near the ventricles\") white matter is right along the ventricles at the innermost parts of the brain.  Right Middle Frontal Gyrus  The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is divided into four lobes from back to front and bottom to top: the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the frontal lobe. If you only look at the gyri, or outer folds of the brain, you end up with the colored areas below:    The frontal lobe is then divided into a number of sections, the main three of which are the superior, middle and inferior gyri, labeled above as gyrus frontalis superior, gyrus frontalis medius and gyrus frontalis inferior. The middle section, the middle frontal gyrus, is what we're looking for. Because the brain is split into left and right halves, we end up with two middle frontal gyri, the left one and the right one, shown below.  This is the brain of a guy facing you from the front, looking slightly to your right. The part of his brain you're seeing would be just under the forehead. The red sections are the left and right middle frontal gyri. Remember that these parts are labeled from the perspective of the guy whose brain it is, and not from the perspective of the observer. So the red spot to the left is his right middle frontal gyrus.  All Together  Finally, what is a T2 hyperintense focus in the subcortical white matter of the right middle frontal gyrus?  The T2 tells you that the image was made using a T2-weighted MRI scan. The hyperintense focus is a bright spot, likely caused by higher than expected water content. Remember that bright doesn't mean \"compared to the rest of the scan,\" it means \"compared to how that area is supposed to look.\" The subcortical white matter is just the white matter directly below the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain. The right middle frontal gyrus is the left red section in the image above.  So all in all, it's a brighter than expected spot in the layer of white matter just below the outer surface of the brain, in the red section to the left above.  Sources:   http://casemed.case.edu/clerkships/neurology/Web%20Neurorad/MRI%20Basics.htm https://sites.google.com/a/wisc.edu/neuroradiology/image-acquisition/magnetic-resonance-imaging/mr-terminology http://casemed.case.edu/clerkships/neurology/NeurLrngObjectives/NeurLrngObj_Stroke01new.htm http://multiple-sclerosis-research.blogspot.com/2015/01/education-whats-mri.html https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4307690/   Images:   https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gehirn,lateral-_Hauptgyri_beschriftet.svg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebrum_-_middle_frontal_gyrus_-_anteriior_view2.png ",
        "id": 1470,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why my hands are thin and stomach has a lot of fat",
        "body": "People tend to gain weight around the abdomen and hips because we generally have many more millions out fat cells in those areas and very few in the hands. It is possible to gain weight in your hands, but it is not possible to target weight gain in only your hands. Weight gain and weight loss happens systemically; that is, that your entire body gains and loses weight at the same time in proportion to the amount of fat cells in that part of your body.   As for the disproportionate amount of fat cells in your abdominal region compared to your hands, I'm afraid you are just built that way.",
        "id": 159,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does my body know how long a month is?",
        "body": "Just as a small background before answering your question: as suggested in the previous answers, the menstrual cycle is regulated by complex interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis and the uterus. The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. These so called gonadotropins (LH and FSH) stimulate the ovary to release an oocyte that is capable of fertilisation if it encounters a spermatozoid. In the same time, hormones are secreted by the ovary in response to FSH or LH. These hormones influence the endometrium (= the inner layer of the uterus)  The type of hormones released during the menstrual cycle and their concentration divide a menstrual cycle in three phases (see figure below):     the follicular or proliferative phase (D4-D14 of the cycle): it is characterised by the recruitment of a cohort of follicles and the ultimate selection of a \u201cdominant\u201d preovulatory follicle. Additionally, this phase shows increasing levels of estradiol which stimulate the proliferation of endometrium. This proliferation takes time (approx 10 days) as cells composing the endometrium replicate intensively (mitosis) in order to enhance the thickness of the endometrium (remember, the endometrium has to be \u201cprepared\u201d for a possible implantation of a blastocyts (= first stage of an embryon)). The figure below shows the change in the structure of the endometrium. the luteal or secretory phase (D14-D28): the production of progesterone leads to a differentiation of the endomterium which reaches its full maturity. Here again, time is needed, to gain the level of complexity found in the endometrium of the luteal phase: the glands and the arteries in the endometrium begins to entwine, the connective tissue show oedematous changes. Everything is prepared to help the blastocyst to develop in the case of an implantation the menstruation phase (D1-D4): when implantation does not occur, the amounts of estradiol and progesterone drop significantly, leading to a constriction of the arteries found in the endometrium. This results to the expulsion of the so called \u201cfunctional layer\u201d of the endometrium.     Your question     How does my body gauge that amount of time? Is there some kind of   external factor (wake/sleep cycles, etc) or is there some kind of   internal timer?   Therefore the duration of the menstrual cycle is defined by the time needed for all these changes to occur: the proliferation of cells of the endometrium, the development of arteries and the differentiation of glands in the endometrium etc\u2026 Similar example would be the time needed for wound healing for example (where the proliferative phase is characterised by fibroblast migration, collagen synthesis, angiogenesis, migration of new cells) or lung tissue recovery after a pneumonia.  Why the duration of cycle is different from one woman to another is dependent, as you have already suggested, on internal factors (the concentration of hormones, the presence of a concomitant chronic disease for example) and external factors (stress, drugs,\u2026)  The body gauges the amount of time necessary for the cycle, ie the time necessary for all the endometrial changes to occur (in a woman:  approx 28-32 days) through a complex feedback from the hormones produced in the ovary/endometrium which \u201csignal\u201d the hypothalamus and the pituitary on whether a change in the secretion of LH/FSH should occur or not. This hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis is the \u201cmetronome\u201d for the menstruation cycle (see figure below for an overview of the HPO axis)    Several studies have investigated the effect of menstruation cycle phases on sleep and reported that menstrual cycle alter sleep organisation at different menstrual phases. Also, disruption of circadian rhythms is associated with disturbances in menstrual function. For example, female shiftworkers compared to non-shiftworkers are more likely to report menstrual irregularity and longer menstrual cycles. This is likely due to a change in the circulating hormone, strengthening the role of \u201cmetronome\u201d of the HPO in the time regulation of the menstruation cycle.  Sources:   Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson J, Loscalzo J. eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012. p 3028-3033 Shechter A, Boivin DB. Sleep, Hormones, and Circadian Rhythms throughout the Menstrual Cycle in Healthy Women and Women with Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder. International Journal of Endocrinology. 2010;2010:259345 Baker FC, Driver HS. Circadian rhythms, sleep, and the menstrual cycle. Sleep Med. 2007 Sep;8(6):613-22. Epub 2007 Mar 26. www.meducation.net for Figure 2 ",
        "id": 1050,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Heart transplant for people over the age of 65",
        "body": "In short, by having fewer or less serious risk factors than the other matching recipients currently on the transplant waiting list. Age is a risk factor that goes into the calculation, not a contraindication.     Age is not a contraindication to transplantation but increasing age is   an incremental risk factor[5] and it is often associated with other   comorbidity; few UK patients have been transplanted above the age of   65 years.  1   What they're saying there is that with increased age comes increased risk of failure. This is because as we age we don't tolerate and recover from major surgeries as well, and we are also more likely to have other illnesses.  To take a hypothetical example, consider two patients:  Patient 1 is 70 years old, suffering from heart failure but has no other significant health issues such as diabetes, COPD, etc.  Patient 2 is 40 years old, suffering from the same type of heart failure but also has diabetes, hypertension and kidney disease.  There's a decent chance Patient 1 would be the selected recipient in this case because he probably has better odds of surviving the procedure, and possibly even better odds of living longer afterwards. But the reality is that there are almost never just two potential recipients so this is a contrived example. Patient 1 would most likely be in \"competition\" with a dozen other recipients, most of whom will be younger and therefore won't have the age risk factor working against them.  In summary, the older patient's best hope is that he or she is in excellent physical condition apart from the heart problems that landed them on the transplant list. The link I cited above describes many of the risks and contraindications that are taken into account in the UK, which are very similar to the factors considered in other countries.",
        "id": 423,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a negative counterpart to endorphins?",
        "body": "Endorphins are neuropeptides that can bind to opioid receptors, thus exerting an analgesic effect in the brain. You mention a counterpart,  which is a badly defined concept in this context. There are other substances that can bind to these opioid receptors (opiods, for one :-)) and substances that can block opioid receptors without triggering them, like naloxone and naltrexone. Those are called opioid antagonist and for example used for treating substance dependence. They don't cause pain, though.   Pain is transmitted in the body through neurons the same way other signals are transmitted. The difference to other signals is in how the brain interprets these signals. If they are coming from pain receptors (nociceptors), they are interpreted as pain. There is no special neurotransmitter for pain, though as all signal transmission, there isn't just one. Pain transmission is also relatively slow compared to some other neuronal activity, having to do with the mixture of neurotransmitter and the way nocireceptors are structured.   For example, for pain generated by heat exposure:     The nociceptive axons, (...) begin to discharge only when the strength of the stimulus (a thermal one in the example in Figure 10.1) reaches high levels; at this same stimulus intensity, other thermoreceptors discharge at a rate no different from the maximum rate already achieved within the nonpainful temperature range, indicating that there are both nociceptive and nonnociceptive thermoreceptors.   Basically, in this case there are two signals being transmitted, one normal temperature signal and one pain signal.   Stress is not a signal that is transmitted through any pathway in the human body. With high stress levels come changes in brain chemistry, for example in cortisol and adrenaline levels, but again, these aren't exactly counterparts of endorphins.   Sources  Understanding Endorphins and Their Importance in Pain Management   Mechanisms of pain transmission and pharmacologic management  Nociceptors  Opioid antagonists for pharmacological treatment of alcohol dependence - a critical review",
        "id": 398,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "do diphenhydramine and loratadine have same preservatives?",
        "body": "You're asking about compounding here, a complex subject to begin with.   To compare formulations, you need to look at the label ingredients for both pills. I will compare two pills here, Benadryl brand caplets, 25 mg. and Claritin Reditabs by MSD Consumer Care, Inc.  Benadryl caplets:     Medicinal ingredients: Diphenhydramine Hydrochloride, 25 mg   Non-medicinal ingredients: Celluloses, Dicalcium phosphate, D&amp;C Red No. 27, Polyethylene glycol, Polysorbate, Starch, Stearic acid, Titanium dioxide, Wax, Zinc stearate   Claritin Reditabs by MSD Consumer Care, Inc.:     Active ingredient (in each tablet): Loratadine 5 mg   Inactive ingredients: anhydrous citric acid, gelatin, mannitol, mint flavor   Note that the difference in inactive ingredients (what used to be called inert ingredients) is mainly due to the first being a pill to swallow, while the second is a melt-in-your-mouth preparation.  To compare ingredients, you must know the manufacturers and the exact pills you're comparing. You can do that right in the store by looking at the ingredients. That should tell you whether there is an ingredient in common between them.  Diphenhydramine is an antihistamine of the ethanolamine class.   Loratadine is a piperidine histamine H1-receptor antagonist.  Piperidines are structurally related to the the ethanolamines. Because they both block the same receptor, they have a similar 3D structure. Whether you should take it depends partly on how severe an allergy you have to diphenhydramine; if you have a serious allergy, you should probably avoid taking loratadine.    Ask your doctor or your pharmacist for a safe alternative to diphenhydramine.",
        "id": 529,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Standing up while deeply inhaling can cause a blood pressure fall?",
        "body": "There seem to be a couple different issues under discussion. I will attempt to explain the relevant physiology and respond to the query in the title.   Hiccup interruption. Most physical techniques involve stimulating efferent vagal tone. These are effective.1  Commonly used methods (similar to those used to abort supraventricular tachycardia) include:       cold stimulation of the nasopharynx (upside down with ice water in the mouth will do it),   carotid sinus massage, and Valsalva maneuver.   In theory, a sudden increase in afterload could also stimulate vagal tone via baroreceptors. When you describe squatting and breath-holding maneuvers, this is reminiscent of techniques that affect afterload and preload,2 namely:     squatting (vs. standing) increases both preload and afterload;   deep inspiration increases preload to the R heart but decreases venous return to the L heart and thus systemic (including carotid sinus) pressure.   In theory, squatting and exhaling would be the combination that most effectively increases afterload and could theoretically trigger a vagal response. However, I\u2019m not aware of any data suggesting that these are practically effective for termination of hiccups. Orthostasis. You have outlined an effective method of temporarily depriving your brain of adequate blood flow and eliciting symptoms of orthostatic hypotension.3 This is due to decreased preload to the L heart, most marked upon inspiration occurring simultaneous with standing from the squatting position. This tends to trigger the sympathetic nervous system rather than the parasympathetic. It is the latter that is associated with vagal tone helpful for terminating hiccups.      In summary: Yes, standing up while inhaling will cause systemic blood pressure to fall with resulting decreased cerebral perfusion. This is generally unpleasant and does not come highly recommended. This is unlikely to be effective for hiccups.     1. I have elsewhere outlined the physiology of hiccups (=singultus), which provides some background on why such maneuvers are effective.         2. Techniques known to every med student from their application to dynamic auscultation of heart murmurs.      3. Apologies for the self-promotion, really, but I also answered a question about the visual component of this syndrome, one of the lesser appreciated aspects.   ",
        "id": 491,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the pros and cons of various negative ion generators for health benefits?",
        "body": "Some negative ion generators also produce small amounts of ozone, which is a gas that can be lethal if inhaled in concentration. I suppose if you were to find a way to accumulate enough ozone and then intentionally inhaled it you might die. There is no chance of this happening in normal use however, though you can smell a trace of ozone emanating from these devices if you try.    My own lengthy subjective experience with a small 4-needle negative ion generator in my home office is that it has never produced any noticeable positive effects that are claimed by the manufacturer, though I'm quite sure it's technically functional. I suspect it is far too small to have any noticeable effect on the volume of air in the room.",
        "id": 802,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it a bad idea to re-heat drinking water?",
        "body": "Water isn't pure H2O; there are all kinds of dissolved substances in it: minerals, chemicals, etc. This is why scientists use only distilled water in experiments (often twice-distilled).  Some impurities will boil off (some volatile organic compounds, for instance) but some will remain behind. With each boil, you lose some of the water to steam, leaving a more concentrated solution of those contaminants which do not boil off.  For example, add a teaspoon of salt to two cups of water; boil away one cup of water, and you'll be left with water that's almost twice as salty as you started with. (Some small amount of salt may be splashed out while boiling.)  This is why you should always start out with fresh water; otherwise you're feeding your daughter water which has more contaminants than fresh water. If you want to do that for yourself, that's your choice, but your baby deserves better.  Water Quality Groundwater quality",
        "id": 543,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which vessel could a pumping vessel in the left middle side of forehead be?",
        "body": "  Map of the superficial arteries (the arteries close beneath the skin), taken from ClinicalGate, which I believe they have taken from Gray's Anatomy for Students    Map of the deeper arteries, ibid  I'm unsure which you consider the left-mid side of your forehead, but you probably felt one of the larger arteries like the superficial temporal artery or the facial artery, but please check for yourself.",
        "id": 2313,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a blind person react to hallucinogenic drugs",
        "body": "I guess the best way would be to convince a blind person to take some psilocybin mushrooms or LSD. Perhaps they would actually see some fractals and stuff, since those visions are generated in the corresponding areas of the brain. Even if not, then the blind person would definitely feel the psychedelic effects: the acute perception of self and the surrounding.  Upd: found this blind man telling about psychedelic experience https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-uXDUIC2FWM",
        "id": 1263,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do light boxes effectively mimic the effects of natural sunlight to produce vitamin D?",
        "body": "Only two things affect the synthesis of vitamin D, and those are the amount of UVB photons penetrating the skin and the person's age. See my previous answer for an explanation and citations.  So if we disregard age the only question becomes do light boxes supply adequate UVB to synthesize adequate vitamin D? From what I can tell from a review of the products out there, the answer is probably not. Lights adequate to treat SAD aren't adequate to generate vitamin D, and a light that supplied adequate UVB would be dangerous if misused.   But in my mind the final nail in the coffin for light therapy is this study:     All subjects receiving vitamin D improved in all outcome measures. The   phototherapy group showed no significant change in depression scale   measures. Vitamin D status improved in both groups (74% vitamin D   group, p &lt; 0.005 and 36% phototherapy group, p &lt; 0.01).   In short, although phototherapy improved vitamin D levels, it did so only half as well as supplements, and unlike supplements it had no effect on depression.",
        "id": 441,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why Dydrogesterone is no longer available in US? Why dienogest is not approved?",
        "body": "Not sure about the US case, but for UK I found     Dydrogesterone withdrawn   for commercial reasons   United Kingdom \u2014 Dydrogesterone   (Duphaston \u00ae) is to be withdrawn from   the market from March 2008 for commercial   reasons. Dydrogesterone was licensed   for use in several indications,   including threatened or recurrent miscarriage,   dysfunctional uterine bleeding, and   hormone replacement therapy.   A Public Assessment Report has reviewed   evidence for the efficacy of   progesterone and dydrogesterone in the   maintenance of pregnancy in women with   threatened miscarriage or recurrent   miscarriage.   For several decades, progesterone and   progestogens (such as dydrogesterone)   have been used to maintain early pregnancy.   However, this practice seems to   have been based on theoretical considerations   rather than robust evidence of   efficacy. Although the methodological and   ethical difficulties associated with conducting   efficacy trials in these indications   need to be considered, the quality of   much of the evidence is generally poor   relative to today\u2019s standards.      Reference: Medicines and Healthcare   products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) information   release.   The verbiage provided by the FDA is a bit more obscure     We have carefully reviewed our files for records concerning the withdrawal of GYNOREST (dydrogesterone) oral tablets, 5 mg and 10 mg, from sale. We have also independently evaluated relevant literature and data for possible post-marketing adverse events. We have found no information that would indicate that this drug product was withdrawn from sale for reasons of safety or effectiveness.   What I read into that is \"withdrawn for commercial reasons\".",
        "id": 2049,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"axonal features\" mean?",
        "body": "Axonal features means that there is evidence to suggest damage to the axon as opposed to the myelin sheath.  Essentially axonal damage leads to a reduction of amplitude with preservation of nerve conduction velocity whereas demyelination results in a reduction of conduction velocity.  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Peripheral-Neuropathy-Fact-Sheet#3208_5  https://www.slideshare.net/ahmadshahir18/nerves-conduction-study-axonal-loss-vs-demyelination",
        "id": 2124,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often should I shower?",
        "body": "There is no official medical advice on this matter, taking regular showers doesn't yield any known health benefits. Except for certain specialized professions e.g. in the medical field where you need to be sterile, you don't need to take showers except possibly for social reasons. Not taking showers, however, may yield health benefits. While not proven, there are biologically plausible arguments in favor of not taking showers.  Let's start with the reason why most of us take showers. This is not because we're following medical guidelines to prevent certain illnesses, it's simply a matter of us not wanting other people to smell us from a large distance. This smell is caused by bacteria that grow in our sweat, they produce chemical compounds like butyric acid that have a strong smell. As explained here these smells have a biological function in animals.  In our modern lifestyle, we have eliminated this flora on our skin and we're also less exposed to bacteria in our environment. This has been linked to the increased frequency of allergies that we suffer from. As pointed out here:      The results were incredible. Like most of us in the Western world, the families had far fewer types of bacteria living in and on them when compared with people in traditional tribes in parts of the developing world. One hunter-gatherer community was found to not only have a higher diversity of bacteria, but only one in 1,500 suffered from an allergy - compared with one in three in the UK.   Now, taking regular showers combined with and the general approach to hygiene in the Western world may be implicated in many other health problems. E.g., recently Parkinson's disease has been linked to changes in the gut flora. Now, this does not mean that taking regular showers will lead to some illness, but it's also not easy to rule this out. Someone who is healthy who gets some stomach bug for which antibiotics are prescribed may lose a lot of his intestinal microbes; the fact that he like almost everyone else takes regular showers and lives in a very clean environment may then predispose him to his gut flora to get populated by the wrong type of microbes which may cause problems down the line.  So, while we can't say that taking regular showers has been proven to be harmful., the opposite that it's healthy can't be proven either, and from a  broader perspective there are far more reasonable, plausible arguments to suggest that you should not bet on it being good for you.  The real question that should be addressed is how we can stop taking regular showers in a socially acceptable way, because the only reason why we take showers is for social reasons, not for health reasons. Now Dave Whitlock has done an experiment, demonstrating that it's perfectly possible to not take any showers at all:     Showering, for many of us, is an important part of our daily routine. Personal hygeine is a good thing to maintain if you want friends or a job.   However, Dave Whitlock, a chemical engineer, has decided to eschew bathing for 12 years in favour of dousing himself with a live bacteria spray, invented by a company he co-founded. ",
        "id": 1459,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Therapist vs Psychologist",
        "body": "From PsyD to PhD to MSW to MFT and others, psychotherapists have a wide variety of backgrounds, education, exposures, experiences, philosophies, and approaches to treatment.  Much more so than most other treatments, there is a lot of diversity in how they treat patients.  I have asked a similar question to our psychology faculty, as patients sometimes complain that they didn't get what they were seeking from one therapist, then give up.  Especially cognitive behavioral therapy - not all therapists offer it, but it is highly effective for certain conditions. Their answer was to have them try another provider until they find someone who does, or ask one of them to refer you to someone who specializes in something specific.  I think the best bet to land on someone most diverse in techniques would be a PsyD, because their education process is more extensive than MFT/MSW, and is more likely to be clinical-focused than PhD which is sometimes research focused.  But there are excellent therapists of all education backgrounds, so avoid assuming the degree defines skill.  Really, it comes down to trial and error to find what you need.  None of the above write prescriptions. Psychiatrists are MD or DO who go through medical school and specialize in medical treatment of psychological conditions; however, although some are, not many are trained in psychotherapy. ",
        "id": 2305,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is stomach acid an emulsion?",
        "body": "Well, you eat a number of things - protein, carbohydrates, fats, water, alcohol (at times), etc.  Digestion begins in the mouth.The stomach muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance digestion, breaking it into tiny particles called \"chyme\", which can indeed be an emulsion. The stomach doesn't act as a beaker; it has input and shakes things up.  The chyme is passed into the duodenum, where digestion takes place, and continues through the small intestines. Once the food reaches the large intestion, it is pretty much digested, and water reabsorption takes place.  Surprising Facts About Your Stomach",
        "id": 81,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Risk related to dust/particles floating around when scrubbing macadam?",
        "body": "Tar (which is the black, foul-smelling stuff in tarmacadam, often called tarmac or macadam depending on where you live) does have an associated cancer risk, but only for occupational exposure. In other words, the workers who were removing that material should have been wearing masks and such to protect themselves, but you and your daughter were not exposed at dangerous levels.  It's pretty easy to find clickbaity headlines like Is Your Driveway Toxic? A troubling new report you need to see that suggest the very small amounts of dust from these surfaces that come into your house every day an accumulate over time and pose a risk that far outweighs a few minutes of walking past a construction site.  Note that the studies don't say \"people who live near a lot of parking lots get more cancer.\" They just say \"in apartments with a lot of parking lots nearby, the dust had a measurably higher level of a thing we know can cause cancer.\" Still, controlling the general urban-ness of where you live is probably far more important than avoiding momentary exposure at a roadworks site.",
        "id": 1974,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is BPA in can linings a health concern?",
        "body": "There are two sub-questions that must be addressed here.  Is BPA used in can linings, and can it leach into food?  This is definitely true. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (part of the NIH), for example, says that     Polycarbonate plastics have many applications including use in some food and drink packaging, e.g., water and infant bottles, compact discs, impact-resistant safety equipment, and medical devices. Epoxy resins are used as lacquers to coat metal products such as food cans, bottle tops, and water supply pipes.   These epoxies are what is used in the cans for canned foods, and they contain BPA. It subsequently leaks out in minute quantities, although this is thought to be related to the temperature of the can, not aging.  Is BPA a hazard to human health?  This is not quite as clear. The FDA has changed its stance over time as new research showed different conclusions. Its most recent memo reviewed previous studies. One recent one found that adults are exposed to about 0.2 micrograms of BPA per day, while young children and infants are exposed to about 0.5 micrograms per day.1 However, other research had shown that hazardous levels were in general orders of magnitude higher than these doses. Thus, in the FDA's most recent findings, BPA in food cans is not a problem. However, the agency has made it clear that it continues to revise its recommendations as new information is available.2  None of this should be taken to mean that BPA is not hazardous to humans. Higher amounts can prove toxic, as the chemical is thought to disrupt the endocrine system (see Rochester (2013) and Ihde et al. (2015)). This can, in some cases, lead to severe effects, possibly including cancer, and especially when applied to children. It may also cause neurological harm (see Negri-Cesi (2015) and Inadera (2015)).  In short, while BPA may pose a threat to humans in high enough quantities, its presence in canned food linings does not appear to be dangerous.    1 This drastic difference is due to the previous use of BPA in some drinking containers used by infants. The FDA has banned this, but because industry leaders had stopped using it due to consumer pressure, not because of clear health concerns.  2 The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has echoed the FDA's conclusions; see \u0106wiek-Ludwicka (2015).",
        "id": 382,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Quantitatively and relative to the RDI of 900 \u03bcg, when does Vitamin A consumption become harmful?",
        "body": "The quantitive figures for Vitamin A overdose are well established, and widely published.  The RDI in the United States (Different countries may have different values) is 900 micrograms for men, and 700 micrograms for females. 900 micrograms is approximately 3000 IU.  The acute toxic dose of vitamin A is 25,000 IU/kg, and the chronic toxic dose is 4000 IU/kg every day for 6-15 months.  A 1/2 cup of raw carrots contains about 9000 IU of Vitamin A. So if you are a 154 lb man, (70 kg), your toxic dose of Vitamin A is 1,750,000 IU, or right around 98 full cups of carrots for a toxic dose, or 15 cups a day for 6-16 months. I think you are perfectly fine eating two large carrots a day.  https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/  http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/819426-overview",
        "id": 486,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does elevated potassium lead to elevated cortisol?",
        "body": "National Institutes of Health - Health Professionals Fact Sheet on Potassium      Dietary potassium      In healthy people with normal kidney function, high dietary potassium intakes do not pose a health risk because the kidneys eliminate excess amounts in the urine. In addition, there is no evidence that high intakes of dietary potassium have adverse effects. Therefore, the Food and Nutrition Board did not set a UL for potassium.      Source: National Institutes of Health - Health Professionals Fact Sheet on Potassium, Health Risks from Excessive Potassium   Note, the article speaks of dietary potassium, what we would consume in the diet.   A lot of sites on the internet make the (dubious?) assumption that all persons are under the care of a doctor, and hence they would know if they had inadequate kidney function. But of course, for various reasons, not everyone is under the care of a doctor.    Nevertheless, I hope the above information is helpful. I would suggest that people may want to read the entire article on potassium that I linked. ",
        "id": 2321,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Severe asthma and autoimmune skin reactions with no relief",
        "body": "There are numerous causes and sources of irritation for Asthma exacerbations.  Your objective is finding out whether it's irritants (smoke, chemicals, lint, etc) or allergies (pollen, pet dander) that is setting you off.  Once you identify the source, you can then take steps to prevent it.  It also appears that you've been exposed to poor air quality for a majority of your life, and you're STILL being exposed to it.  I don't imagine this will be easy, but you need to find a residence that IMPROVES your ability to breathe.    In terms of medications, Asthma is generally managed with both alpha agonists (ex: Albuterol) and corticosteroids (ex: Prednisone).  You need to work closely with your primary care provider (MD, NP, PA, etc) or with a specialist (Pulmonology/Allergist/Immunology) to determine what medication regimen will provide the best results while also limiting the amount of medications you NEED to take.  This is also true for your skin condition.  In short, you need to identify what causes your flares for both your Asthma and skin condition.  No one will work more diligently than yourself, and in my experience, it is the patients that are involved in their care that are often the best managed. So, keep a log when your flare ups occur.  Include the following:  DATE TIME What were you doing when it occurred? (At rest or duing activity?  Cooking? Eating? Sleeping? Etc) Where did it occur? (Urban/Rural, Indoors/Outdoors, Specific area?) How long did it last?  (If the duration last days, go back and record it) Did anything make it better or worse?  (Resting? Medication? Sleeping? Etc)  You can also include other details that you feel are important.  Best of luck!",
        "id": 361,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When should we sleep?",
        "body": "It's best to choose the time period for sleeping such that it doesn't need to be changed often, as this leads to better sleep quality. If this means that you need to sleep during daytime, then you need to make sure your bedroom is very dark and soundproof (or you need to use earplugs).  Note also that the official time is based on arbitrary decisions, e.g. in China they only have one time zone even though the Sun will rise 5 hours later in the far West of the country compared to the Eastern part. ",
        "id": 2258,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effect of milk on effectiveness of oral tetracycline",
        "body": "Calcium-rich food interferes with absorption of tetracycline considerably:     Milk and other dairy products, antacids containing polyvalent cations, as well as various iron salts ingested simultaneously with tetracycline derivatives, might interfere with their absorption by 50 to 90% or even more.    Interactions with the Absorption of Tetracyclines  However, you can't calculate with that, by for example just taking twice the dosage. The safe method is to not ingest milk or any other calcium-rich food together with the tetracycline. The recommendation appears to be to leave one to two hours between the antibiotics and milk (taking the antibiotics first) :     Do not take milk, milk formulas, or other dairy products within 1 to 2 hours of the time you take tetracyclines (except doxycycline and minocycline) by mouth   The study referenced above recommends an even more cautious three hours. ",
        "id": 712,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens to a woman if she takes testosterone?",
        "body": "The long-term impact of testosterone on women's health is still not clarified enough, so it's not easy to predict them exactly. Some common side-effects of high testosterone level are acne and increased oiliness of the skin and hair. High level of testosterone con also lead to infertility and are commonly seen in polycystic ovarian syndrome. There're side-effects related to high-dozage intake of testosterone: liver-damage, hirsutism, masculinization.     One of the 20 randomized, placebo-controlled trials examined the risk of liver disease in women receiving androgens and showed no change in hepatic enzymes. In the literature, this has been reported only in cases in which the blood testosterone levels increased to supraphysiological levels.      Other adverse effects of the use of testosterone in women, such as hirsutism, deep voice, and an enlarged clitoris, should not be neglected. However, the most common adverse effects are acne and increased oiliness of the skin and hair, which were also reported in 3 of the studies shown in Table 1. In addition, 10% of patients receiving 1.25 mg/day or 2.5 mg/day of methyltestosterone and 45% of those receiving 10 mg/day of the same were reported to have experienced these side effects.      Masculinization is rare and is due to the administration of high doses of androgens. Implants containing up to 300 \u00b5g/day of testosterone initially produce supraphysiological blood peaks, although these are transient and do not induce virilization.   Testosterone intake is connected with some myths and mysconceptions, which was revealed.    Testosterone is a \u2018male\u2019 hormone     Testosterone is the most abundant biologically active hormone in women  Testosterone's only role in women is sex drive and libido     Testosterone is essential for women's physical and mental health and wellbeing  Testosterone masculinizes females     Outside of supra-pharmacologic doses of synthetic androgens, testosterone does not have a masculinizing effect on females or female fetuses  Testosterone causes hoarseness and voice changes     There is no conclusive evidence that testosterone therapy causes hoarseness or irreversible vocal cord changes in women  Testosterone causes hair loss     Testosterone therapy increases scalp hair growth in women  Testosterone has adverse effects on the heart     There is substantial evidence that testosterone is cardiac protective and that adequate levels decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease  Testosterone causes liver damage     Non-oral testosterone does not adversely affect the liver or increase clotting factors  Testosterone causes aggression     Testosterone therapy decreases anxiety, irritability and aggression  Testosterone may increase the risk of breast cancer     Testosterone is breast protective and does not increase the risk of breast cancer  The safety of testosterone use in women has not been established     The safety of non-oral testosterone therapy in women is well established, including long-term follow up       Long-term data exists on the efficacy, safety and tolerability of doses of up to 225 mg in up to 40 years of therapy. In addition, long term follow up studies on supra-pharmacologic doses used to \u2018female to male\u2019 transgender patients report no increase in mortality, breast cancer, vascular disease or other major health problems   The result of testosterone intake relates of dosages and initial testosterone level. Normal testosterone levels for all women values from 0.26 to 1.3 ng/ml. The rate of free testosterone varies with age, for the age 21-39 it's 0,12-3,1 pg/ml.",
        "id": 2081,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the difference between soda water and water?",
        "body": "Chemically speaking, carbonated water is just plain water with carbon dioxide dissolved in it under high pressure.    It hydrates just as well as normal water, because it still contains plain H2O.  There are no additives. It might have a slightly larger effect on erosion of teeth than normal water because it is just a little bit acidic. The effect on the gastro-oesophageal reflux disease is little to none.     Sources:   Joan Gandy, Manuel of Dietary Practices, Chapter on Dental Erosion T. Johnson et al., Systematic review: the effects of carbonated beverages on gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, Wiley Online Library     Further Reading:   Livestrong  Healthline New York Daily News ",
        "id": 1809,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are alternative sleep pattern viable?",
        "body": "Steve Pavlina did an experiment on himself for testing the Polyphasic Sleep. On his blog there is a lot of information about the experiment. http://www.stevepavlina.com/blog/2005/10/polyphasic-sleep/  However, what is written on his blog is not scientific proof, but from his own perspective.  As he wrote on his blog:     This is a treasure trove of free information for anyone interested in learning about my trial of polyphasic sleep. To my knowledge these are the most detailed polyphasic sleep logs you\u2019ll be able to find anywhere on the web. ",
        "id": 116,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Aphthous ulcer in pancreatic cancer",
        "body": "Assuming you are certain that the oral ulceration you are referring to is aphthous stomatitis, pain killers should be considered, especially if  hydration and nutrition are affected. Aphthous ulcers are a common oral mucosal lesion (1); most treatments focus on reducing pain and healing time.   Based on your question, I'm assuming that your father is not using any analgesic or the one he's taking are not effective enough.  Because most treatments are used without research demonstrating therapeutic results (2), it's difficult for me to describe useful treatments.  Still, I've seen severe cases where analgesics, including viscous lidocaine, were used (as buccal tx, NOT swallowed).  Also, when pain has been reduced enough for mastication and swallowing to be tolerable, soft and pH neutral food can help bring satiety. Avoid any hard food that may injure the ulcers, as this will increase pain and healing time.  Please make sure to discuss this issue with your father's MD, especially if he's not eating at all.  References: (1) Aphthous Stomatitis (http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1122381-overview) (2) Systemic interventions for recurrent aphthous stomatitis (mouth ulcers) (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22972085)",
        "id": 1631,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does taking medication lose hyperfocus on ADHD?",
        "body": "Medications help to give control over attention so theoretically they will decrease hyper focus. But they're still stimulants so they can give an ability to controlling attention for longer period. You should be able to spend a lot of time on something but maybe not so unwillingly.  First it's important to understand this \"hyper focus\". It's stronger \"flow mode\" in neurotypical (healthy) people. It's can be used as an advantage but it makes you unable to see danger in your environment - diffused attention is important to see other distractions and decide what to do with them (act or ignore them).  Hyper focus can be explained as being unable to change the thing you're focused at. ADHD isn't about lack of attention - it's a problem with controlling attention and filtering distractions from the environment.",
        "id": 1874,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can semi-occlusive dressings be used to remove scars?",
        "body": "That sounds a bit too broadly defined a question to answer with a general yes or no.  Once a scar is formed it is difficult to remove, if not impossible. Cutting out scar tissue produces another scar. The outcome of this might be worse.   Although quite promising, your second link qualifies: \"The skin healed almost without scarring [\u2026]\"  Scar formation outcomes are largely determined by how the affected tissue came to be wounded and how it is treated immediately and long term afterwards.  Already present scars may be treated, with surgery, chemicals, lasers, etc. This is done mostly to 'improve' them, to make them smaller, less obvious, to camouflage them so to speak. Fresh scars will be more easily influenced than older ones.  If this is the goal then there seem to be some options in that general direction:   Silicone-based scar therapy: a review of the literature. Silicone gel sheeting for preventing and treating hypertrophic and keloid scars. Review of over-the-counter topical scar treatment products. ",
        "id": 1903,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to distinguish a non-inflammatory tendinopathy (a.k.a tendinosis) from an inflammatory tendinopathy (a.k.a. tendinitis)?",
        "body": "Basically, something falls under the classification of \"inflammed\" based on the following five criteria:   Redness Swelling Heat Pain Loss of Function   If any of these apply to your tendinopathy, then it is probably tendinitis. Otherwise, it's probably non-inflammatory.",
        "id": 7,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a temporary change in carbohydrate intake change weight?",
        "body": "Yes. You weight gain is only water weight though. Glycogen stores in the muscles require more water. This is the reason why your body holds on to water after eating carbs. It's perfectly normal. If you go back to your low carb diet the water will exit as you deplete your glycogen stores.",
        "id": 1185,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I wash dental floss pick before passing on the next teeth?",
        "body": "The correct use of dental floss is to use a new portion of the floss for every site. The easiest way to achieve it is through the loop or circle technique, using a new part of the loop every time.   Here is a video  Also, always use the floss before the toothbrush. If you use after, you will remove toothpaste (fluoride) deposited in the surface of the teeth. ",
        "id": 1496,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why cancer is almost twice as likely in more developed countries compared with less developed countries?",
        "body": "Precisely because developed countries have better air quality, nutrition, sanitation, healthcare, etc. life expectancy is higher and cancer is more likely in these countries.  This is because cancer is caused by mutations in DNA which accumulate over time.  Since life expectancy in general is higher in developed countries, there is more time for mutations to accumulate and for cancer to develop in these people.  Less developed countries have lower life expectancy, which means diseases and issues which developed countries have solved or are able to successfully deal with kill large enough portions of populations in undeveloped countries before mutations in DNA can accumulate in these people. For this reason, cancer is often referred to as the problem -- in large part -- of the developed world. ",
        "id": 1083,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "gauge R&R of time varying data: how to discriminate between equipment variation and actual signal variation?",
        "body": "If you measure only your heart rate, you can only provide measures of the \"population\" of your own heart rate. You should not take a sample from one individual as indicative of the population of all persons and their heart rates.   I'm not sure you can understand the variation of heart rates generated from a single device when measured on a non-standardized heart rate. If you had a standardized heart rate and number of different devices, then you could comment on agreement if the heart rates are measured under the same condition. ",
        "id": 1720,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the medical term for a scab?",
        "body": "You'll likely get a response that \"eschar\" means \"scab\".  This is incorrect.    Understanding Why the Term \"Eschar\" is Incorrect  What differentiates this term? Factors such as the dermal layer involved (location) and wound type it is associated with.  \"Eschar\" is a medical term that describes necrotic (dead) tissue found within a full-thickness wound.    \"Sanguineous Crust\" would be a precise medical term for \"scab\".",
        "id": 1916,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical Images and workflow",
        "body": "Take a look at the IHE Radiology Scheduled Workflow integration profile in IHE Radiology (RAD) Technical Framework. This explains a common workflow model.",
        "id": 1997,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How/why is it possible for a body to produce gallstones -- yrs after gallbladder was removed?",
        "body": "So, they never officially confirmed if the problem 9 years ago was from gallstones?  After the gallbladder is removed, a doctor usually cuts it and checks if there is any stone in it, so if it were, you would probably know.  When you have gallstones in the gallbladder you can have additional ones in the ducts. Theoretically, it is possible that a surgeon removes the gallbladder with stones, but some stone remains hidden in the ducts. Ultrasound should detect this. At next ultrasound, you can ask a doctor if any gallstones are mentioned in your medical documentation.  If they find a gallstone in a common bile duct, they can remove it by a type of upper endoscopy called ERCP.  Another quite common cause of the gallbladder-like pain after gallbladder removal is biliary dyskinesia, or more specifically sphincter of Oddi dysfunction (SOD), which can be due to a spasm of the muscular sphincter at the end of the common bile duct (where it opens into the duodenum). The exact cause is not known, but may be partly psychosomatic or related to certain foods (a bit like in IBS). The pain in SOD appears in the upper right abdominal quadrant (usually just at the bottom of the rib cage), builds up to a steady level and then remains constant and lasts at least 30 minutes.  It is also possible that the original problem may not be associated with the bile ducts but with the pancreas. Pancreas can produce pancreatic stones, which can block the pancreatic duct and cause pancreatitis. These stones can be also removed by ERCP.",
        "id": 1506,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name for the symptom of mishearing words?",
        "body": "Receptive aphasia is a type of aphasia in which patients have difficulty understanding (\"receiving\") words as opposed to difficulty speaking them.  There are more than one possible etiology and it is not diagnostic for a specific pathology, but may suggest something wrong with the temporal lobe due to epilepsy, TIA/stroke, brain damage, medication, or psychiatric condition (NOT an exhaustive list).  Of note, anxiety can have various effects on the processes involving speech and memory.",
        "id": 2609,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any social page such as Telegram, send whatsapp for medical consultation?",
        "body": "I'd recommend you to use Figure 1. There's one caveat: cases are not grouped according to speciality; they're all on one page. However, the community is pretty decent and I'm pretty sure there are sufficient professionals that are able to address your concerns.   Description: \"Compelling medical cases for healthcare professionals. Used by healthcare professionals and students for education and collaboration.\"  https://figure1.com/",
        "id": 663,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the medical consensus regarding the effect sugar consumption has on health?",
        "body": "What is the medical consensus regarding the effect sugar consumption has on health?  There is still no concensus about the effects of sugar intake on health, mainly due to lack of long-term randomized clinical trials.  Is eating sugar always bad? Can it be eaten in moderation and present no risk to diabetes and other issues?  According to systematic reviews of studies, there is insufficient scientific evidence to claim that consuming sugar in moderate amounts increases the risk of chronic health conditions, such as diabetes, coronary heart disease, inflammation or cancer, except of dental caries.  The review article linked in the question also does not mention that sugar would be harmful. However, as stated in the \"Conflict of Interests,\" one of the authors and his research laboratory have received funds from several companies that produce foods high in sugar, which can be a potential funding bias.  Should ideally all food be completely without any sugar?  Not necessary.  According to some recent reviews (PubMed, 2007, 2016), sugar is not harmful as such, but mainly when it contributes to excessive body weight.   Decreasing sugar intake can help some people to:   reduce blood glucose fluctuations, which can affect mood (PubMed, 2012) maintain healthy body weight (BMJ, 2013) sleep better (PubMed, 2016) decrease the risk of depression (PubMed, 2015)   Starch from foods with little fiber, such as white bread, pasta, rice and potatoes, is quickly digested into glucose, which is quickly absorbed, so it is similar to sugars in this regard (gisymbol.com).",
        "id": 2706,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Abnormal thyroid function and obesity - known links?",
        "body": "The relationship between thyroid function and body weight is bidirectional and complex.   It is known for decades, if not centuries, that cretinism (only in the end of the 19th century to be associated to hypothyroidism) may be accompanied by weight gain and that thyrotoxicosis may result in weight loss. As early as in 1835 Robert J. Graves described that ladies affected by goitre and palpitations (probably due to hyperthyroidism resulting from the disease which is now named after him) were remarkably thin [2]. Five years later the German physician Karl von Basedow described the same condition, where a lady suffering from goitre, Exophthalmos and palpitations had severely emaciated [3]. In 1883 the swiss surgeon Theodor Kocher described weight gain after total thyroidectomy [4]. Ten years later, in 1893 William Ord described rapid weight loss, after myxoedematous patients were set on treatment with thyroid extreact [5].  Today it is known that over one third of hypothyroid infants have a birth weight greater than the ninetieth percentile [6, 7]. However, an \u201catypical\u201d form of hypothyroidism may be associated to low birth weight [8]. Of course, weight gain in hypothyroidism isn\u2019t restricted to infants, but common in adults, too. Hypothyroidism is assumed to contribute 2.5 to 5 kg (5 to 10 pounds) to body weight [9].   On the other hand, changes in body weight may also result in changes of thyroid function. A number of studies, as recently extensively reviewed [10, 11], described elevated TSH levels and increased total step-up deiodinase activity in patients with weight gain. These changes were reversible after weight loss [12]. On the other hand, low T3 syndrome is a well-known consequence of anorexia and starvation [13, 14].  Probably, these changes represent adaptive responses of pituitary-thyroid axis to type 1 or type 2 allostasis, respectively [15]. The observed mechanisms may contribute to some kind of autoregulation of weight in conditions of changing supply with energy.    To use thyroid hormones as an adjunct treatment in obesity is strongly discouraged, since cardiovascular side effects may be significant [16].  References  1: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2017.00163/full  2: Graves RT. Lecture XII. in: Clinical Lectures. 1835 25-43.  3: von Basedow K. Exophthalmos durch Hypertrophie des Zellgewebes in der Augenh\u00f6hle. Wochenschrift f\u00fcr die gesammte Heilkunde. 1840 13:197-228.  4: Kocher T. Ueber Kropfexstirpation und ihre Folgen. Archiv f\u00fcr klinische Chirurgie. 1883 29:254-335.  5: Ord WM, White E. Clinical Remarks on Certain Changes observed in the Urine in  Myxoedema after the Administration of Glycerine Extract of Thyroid Gland. Br Med  J. 1893 Jul 29;2(1700):217. PMID: 20754379; PMCID: PMC2422016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20754379 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2422016/   6: LaFranchi SH. Hypothyroidism. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1979 Feb;26(1):33-51. PMID: 460987. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/460987  7: Rastogi MV, LaFranchi SH. Congenital hypothyroidism. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2010 Jun 10;5:17. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-5-17. PMID: 20537182;  PMCID: PMC2903524. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20537182/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1750-1172-5-17  8: Mandel SJ, Hermos RJ, Larson CA, Prigozhin AB, Rojas DA, Mitchell ML. Atypical hypothyroidism and the very low birthweight infant. Thyroid. 2000 Aug;10(8):693-5. PMID: 11014314. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11014314  9: American Thyroid Association: Thyroid &amp; Weight. 2016. https://www.thyroid.org/wp-content/uploads/patients/brochures/Thyroid_and_Weight.pdf  10: Pacifico L, Anania C, Ferraro F, Andreoli GM, Chiesa C. Thyroid function in childhood obesity and metabolic comorbidity. Clin Chim Acta. 2012 Feb 18;413(3-4):396-405. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2011.11.013.  PMID: 22130312. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22130312 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2011.11.013  11: Fontenelle LC, Feitosa MM, Severo JS, Freitas TE, Morais JB, Torres-Leal FL, Henriques GS, do Nascimento Marreiro D. Thyroid Function in Human Obesity: Underlying Mechanisms. Horm Metab Res. 2016 Dec;48(12):787-794.  PMID: 27923249. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27923249  12: Reinehr T. Obesity and thyroid function. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2010 Mar 25;316(2):165-71. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2009.06.005.  PMID: 19540303. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19540303 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2009.06.005  13: Rothenbuchner G, Loos U, Kiessling WR, Birk J, Pfeiffer EF. The influence of total starvation on the pituitary-thyroid-axis in obese individuals. Acta Endocrinol Suppl (Copenh). 1973;173:144. PMID: 4542076. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4542076  14: Portnay GI, O'Brian JT, Bush J, Vagenakis AG, Azizi F, Arky RA, Ingbar SH, Braverman LE. The effect of starvation on the concentration and binding of thyroxine and triiodothyronine in serum and on the response to TRH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1974 Jul;39(1):191-4. PMID: 4835133. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4835133  15: Chatzitomaris A, Hoermann R, Midgley JE, Hering S, Urban A, Dietrich B, Abood  A, Klein HH, Dietrich JW. Thyroid Allostasis-Adaptive Responses of Thyrotropic Feedback Control to Conditions of Strain, Stress, and Developmental Programming.  Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2017 Jul 20;8:163. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00163. PMID: 28775711; PMCID: PMC5517413. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28775711 http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2017.00163  16: Krotkiewski M. Thyroid hormones in the pathogenesis and treatment of obesity.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2002 Apr 12;440(2-3):85-98. PMID: 12007527. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12007527",
        "id": 2298,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are \"powered\" vs \"unpowered\" samples in medical studies?",
        "body": "Yes, these are referring to statistical power.  Statistical power is the probability of correctly rejecting a null hypothesis given a certain sample size and expected magnitude of effect (i.e., defining the alternative hypothesis). It should be calculated prior to doing a study. Although it is technically possible to calculate post-hoc power (using an observed effect size), doing so is totally useless.  In the paper you link, they seem to be using the term \"unpowered\" to mean the study was not designed with power in mind (that is, the sample size seems to have been chosen arbitrarily). One could also refer to studies being \"underpowered\" if they have too small a sample size to detect a given effect. In my experience \"underpowered\" is a much more typical term though I've seen the terms used interchangeably in some cases. It's like the difference between saying \"we ran out of milk\" versus \"we don't have milk\": the first phrase tells you more about the process leading to the lack of milk, but both convey the same information about the current state: no milk.  Frustratingly, though, the paper you link has this sentence:     The study used a fairly large sample (n = 80) but was underpowered to detect any statistically significant effects.   This sentence is unfortunately referring to the aforementioned (totally useless) post-hoc power analysis. The study they are referring to in fact was powered to measure a particular effect, the only rationale for describing it as \"underpowered\" is because the effect measured was not significant. Calling it underpowered is effectively assuming that the null hypothesis should have been rejected; by that argument, every single study that does not show a significant result is \"underpowered\" - this is bad logic.  I will say, though, that in the context of meta analysis, one could plausibly mark studies as underpowered post-hoc by applying some universal expected effect rather than actual measured effects.  As far as the phrase \"powered sample size\" - I have not encountered this phrase, I think it's a bit of a language quirk perhaps by translation from a more common phrase in another language. The authors here are clearly using it to mean \"they based their sample size on a (reasonable) power analysis,\" however.",
        "id": 2723,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sleeping heart rate (minimum) vs resting heart rate",
        "body": "I am curious about your endeavor to determine the resting heart rate using the sleeping heart rate. Please note that sleeping heart rate is variable compared to resting heart rate. This is caused by many factors to REM sleep during the night. This is contrary to our ability to control the conditions of a subject/patient to determine resting rate. In fact the average sleeping rate is decreased by 8b/m from resting heart rate.  I am ready to add more information if you still have questions.",
        "id": 1015,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My nose presses in a lot",
        "body": "Your nose is impressively compressible! However, if you don't have any other problems, there's nothing wrong with that.  You're young, and have less bone and more cartilage in your nose relative to it's size than adults have. If you find and press the noses of other kids your age, then do so with adults, you'll notice a significant difference between the adults and the kids, though not all of the kids' noses will flatten as much as yours.  Though noses are different, in this picture you can see a woman and a young child. Their noses are quite different in length. The baby's would be very compressible. The woman, not so much.     This is a young woman's nose with the underlying structures labeled. The septal cartilage, from the top almost to the bottom between the nostrils and the two upper lateral nasal cartilages fuse together and to the nasal bone. (The lower nasal cartilages don't fuse, so the tip of the nose always stays very flexible. Your lower nasal cartilages make up more of your nose than hers, so more of your nose is flexible.)   Your nose will be bendable depending on how long your nasal bone is - it's longer in some than in others, and it's longer in adults than kids. Your nasal bone - the really hard part that projects down from between your eyebrows - may be short, making your nose more compressible.    I said in the beginning \"if you don't have any other problems\". Place your index finger on your upper lip and press hard enough that you can feel your teeth and gums. Now move your whole finger up toward the columulla (it separates the two nostrils on the outside.) Did you feel a hard bone above your lip (it's kind of triangle shaped with the base - against your lip - wider than the tip (which fuses with the septal cartilage.) If you don't have a bone there, you should ask your doctor to check your nose just in case.  Congenital anomalies of the nose are very rare and occur in 1/20,000 to 1/40,000 newborns, so it's highly unlikely you have one. Most of the time they are associated with other facial problems, for example a small chin (I can see yours, and it's fine). If you can breathe normally through your nose, and the only trick you can do with your body is to flatten your nose (great party trick!) you are just fine.  Isolated congenital partial absence of the left lower lateral nasal cartilage: case report Congenital Malformations of the Nose",
        "id": 49,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Getting rid of white spots on front teeth",
        "body": "Currently, there are three options to deal with white spots in frontal teeth after orthodontic treatment:    remineralization, micro-abrasion, and  resin infiltration.   There are several case report about micro-abrasion and resin infiltration, and some clinical trials about all, but a recent systematic review found the evidence of effectiveness was rated as low, that means that the results are inconsistent or there is a high risk of bias, i.e. the manufacturers of the products published the results.   The three options are different:  Remineralization uses fluoride aiming to add something to the surfaces layer of the tooth.   There are some clinical trials showing positive results (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19887683) and others showing no effect (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27480987). But the advantge of a non invasive therapy is that there is no loss of enamel surface, hence there is no irreversible alteration to the tooth surface.   Microabrasion on the other hand smooth irreversibly the surface of the eroded enamel with an acid.   Finally, infiltration, also irreversibly treatment, use an acid to remove a small layer of the eroded enamel and then add a resin layer. From the esthetic point of view this solve the issue immediately, but the lack of prospective studies add an interrogation mark to the long term results.   Hence, from all the three options, currently the remineralization is the only that is non-invasive. ",
        "id": 2004,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The Ethics of extra treatment",
        "body": "You're describing an unexpected intra-operative finding. The possibility of unexpected findings (and their treatment) is usually discussed during the consent for the original procedure. Of course, in this situation, there was no initial discussion. The way this sort of issue is usually framed in medical ethics uses a framework of four principles (see Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics): autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. Here, beneficence (the best interest of the patient), outweighs autonomy (the right of the patient to make his or her own choice) for the life saving surgery, and the same would need to occur for addressing the unexpected finding. One would have to (intraoperatively) consider the risks and benefits of removing the tumor, as well as the risks of a second operation were the surgeon to defer. In, e.g., a laparotomy, a readily visualized tumor would almost certainly be removed and sent to pathology. Other cases (e.g., neurosurgery, with a tumor involving eloquent cortex), are more complicated. This sort of thing is less common now, given the likelihood of seeing any tumor that would be obvious during surgery ahead of time with high resolution cross sectional imaging, but it does happen.   You can read a little about the decision making around unexpected intra-operative findings here, in the context of abdominal surgery.",
        "id": 2596,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fever and severe headache without inflammation markers",
        "body": "Examples of conditions with fever and severe headache in which inflammation is not involved or is not the main process:   Caffeine overdose (BMJ) \"Thyroid storm\" - acute hyperthyropidism (PubMed) Hyperparathyroidism, for example, due to adenoma of parathyroid glands (Annals.org) Cancers and tumors, such as lymphoma, brain tumors, pituitary adenoma (Cancer.net)   Examples of inflammatory conditions with fever and severe headache:   Temporal arteritis (WebMD) Systemic lupus erythematosus or SLE (WebMD) Infectious mononucleosis (WebMD)   Apart from a CT and lumbar puncture, diagnostic tests can include blood tests for thyroxine and parathyroid hormone levels, blood and other tests for the mentioned cancers and blood tests for vasculitis (arteritis).",
        "id": 2498,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How should I account for a blood donation while couting calories/trying to lose weight?",
        "body": "You might as well ignore the calories of food given to you in such a situation:     Burns Calories:   People burn approximately 650 calories per donation of one pint of blood, according to the University of California, San Diego. A donor who regularly donates blood can lose a significant amount of weight, but it should not be thought of as a weight loss plan by any means. To donate blood the American Red Cross requires donors to weigh at least 110 pounds and maintain healthy iron levels in the body.   But aside from citing dodgy evidence (at UCSD this number seems absent from search results, despite being the sole source for every search engine hit giving you concrete numbers on that) it is irrelevant how much you gain or lose on this one occasion since you wil not be allowed to donate often enough to notice any impact on weight gain or loss.",
        "id": 2073,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How are BMI ranges established?",
        "body": "Generally, for determining normal range of any parameter, a reasonably large sample of apparently healthy population is tested for that parameter. The normal range is then taken to be 2.5th to 97.5th percentile value. Values above and below this range are categorized as abnormal (abnormally low or high).   For some parameters, e.g. eyesight, one side of range is better than normal and may be called super-normal and not abnormal.  Round, convenient values are often taken as limits of normal ranges and mild/moderate/severe categories, so that they can be easily remembered and applied in busy clinics. Some of the blood sugar, blood pressure and BMI cutoffs follow this principle.   For some parameters, prospective studies of outcome (life expectancy, morbidity and mortality) may show a particular range to be the best or optimal and such range may be used to determine normality. Yu Chen et al (http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f5446) found a U shaped association between BMI of Asians and cardiovascular deaths.  The risk is often continuous, but the values are categorized into groups so that odds ratio can be calculated. Odds ratio provides easy method to compare risk in different categories. Regarding BMI, the World Health Organization page (http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp?introPage=intro_3.html) also mentions:      The health risks associated with increasing BMI are continuous and the   interpretation of BMI gradings in relation to risk may differ for   different populations.   There are many who strongly oppose conversion of continuous data to categorical: http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/Main/CatContinuous",
        "id": 459,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are plasma donations used for?",
        "body": "As you might very well know blood contains following substances:   Plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen etc.) Clotting factors Glucose Electrolytes   All these are essential for body homeostasis. Human body can suffer from the lack of any of these substances.  Lack of plasma proteins results to swelling of the feet (fluid escapes blood vessels) and ascites (intra-abdominal fluid) due to low colloid osmotic pressure. They are many albumin products available which can be used to substitute the lack of albumin in blood.  They are not that many indications to give frozen plasma to patients (Medscape, British Committee for standards in haematology). The main indication to frozen plasma is the treat the lack of clotting factors. Clotting factors cannot be synthesized compared other substances in the plasma and therefore frozen plasma is manufactured and given to patients.  Common reason for lack of clotting factors is major bleeding (trauma etc.) Therefore frozen plasma is routinely given to patients with major trauma and subsequent bleeding. Patients with haemophilia or coagulation factor deficiency and treated with frozen plasma. Third common indication for frozen plasma transfusion is any kind of liver disease. Liver is responsible for manufacturing coagulation factors and therefore patients suffering fro severe liver disease do not have normal levels of clotting factors in their blood.  Of course there many other indications for frozen plasma transfusion but I think those cover the most important one and give some insight.",
        "id": 377,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is death due to drug-induced respiratory arrest painful?",
        "body": "If you think of committing suicide, you can find help here: 1-800-273-8255    No, it is not painful.  In fact, opiates and and benzodiazepines are used for assisted suicide and for Palliative medicine.     A 1992 nationwide study by one of the authors   (G. van der Wal) on drugs used by Dutch general   practitioners in euthanasia and physician-assisted   suicide showed that more than 40 different drugs   were used. [9] In 30% of patients a single drug was   used, most frequently a barbiturate or an opioid. In   57%, a combination of 2 drugs was given, most often   a benzodiazepine or a barbiturate with a neuromus-   cular relaxant (curare derivative). In this study, 75%   of the drugs were given parenterally, 21% orally, and   3% rectally.   In the U.S., secobarbital is most commonly used.      Currently in Oregon, secobarbital is the medication most commonly prescribed for physician-assisted suicide, followed by pentobarbital.4 The lethal dose prescribed is typically 9 g of secobarbital in capsules or 10 g of pentobarbital liquid, to be consumed at one time.[4\u20136] The contents of the secobarbital capsules or the pentobarbital liquid should be mixed with a sweet substance such as juice to mask the bitter taste. Until the time of use, the medication must be stored out of reach of children and kept away from others to prevent unintentional overdose or abuse.   Inhaling nitrogen gas is another humane form of suicide.     Several organizations and sites in favor of suicide promotethe use of N   2    focusing on the following \u2018\u2018pros.\u2019\u2019 First, deathinduced by N   2 gas is fast. Most people will lose consciousnessafter 12 seconds and then die within minutes. Besides, thismethod offers the prospect of a peaceful death because N   2 exists in the air. In that way, the intense hypercapnic alarm responsecaused by irritant fumes, such as carbon dioxide, is avoided.Moreover, the decedent\u2019s reputation can remain intact, becauseonce the suicide device is removed from the scene, no tracesimplying the manner of death remain. Regarding the equipment,it is easy to obtain without drawing suspicion because it isavailable from hardware stores and via the Internet as well. Moreover, N   2 may serve as a suicidal gas, but when released, being lighter than the air, it disperses quickly, and it is not fatalto anyone that may stand next to the body during recovery. ",
        "id": 1984,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can getting the flu shot make you sicker next year?",
        "body": "I've worked on influenza in the past, and I've never heard that particular justification for missing a flu vaccine before. I confess I can't even find it when I Google for that particular belief.  There are some viral diseases where it's true that prior vaccination (or natural exposure) may cause a severe overreaction of the immune system that results in more severe disease. However, the only common one I know of is Dengue fever, where exposure to one strain makes infections from other strains much more severe.  Were your friend's belief be true, all vaccines that miss a strain (which are functionally similar to not being vaccinated) would be serious problems for the next year, because everyone would be in the position you're describing - immunologically having missed a vaccine - and there's no evidence I can find of that, and absolutely no mention of it in most influenza vaccination guidelines.",
        "id": 73,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Implications of repeated low level head impact?",
        "body": "In March, journal \"Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience\" published three reviews in Article in Press -section related directly to this topic (Ling et al. 2015, Daneshvar et al. 2015, Gardner and Yaffe 2015).  There is major epidemiological evidence stating the association between moderate or traumatic brain injury (TBI) and neurogenerative diseases such as Alzheimers (AD) and Parkinsons disease (PD) (Gardner and Yaffe 2015).   There are several studies investigating association between one time MTBI and dementia. Schofield and co-coworkers stated \"Incident Alzheimer's disease was significantly associated with head injury which occurred within the preceding 30 years\" (Schofield et al. 1997). There have been many recent studies in this topic. Lee et al. stated \"TBI is an independent significant risk factor of developing dementia even in the mild type\" (Lee al al. 2013). Nordstr\u00f6n et al. stated \"In the present study, we found strong associations between YOD (young onset dementia) of non-AD forms and TBIs of different severity\" (Nordstr\u00f6m et al. 2014).  All these studies are cited in recent literature review in which authors state \"Taken together, these studies suggest that there is likely a small, but significant, risk of dementia following a single MTBI that is not solely due to reverse-causation or confounding. It is likely, however, that younger adults may be more resilient or may take longer to develop dementia than older adults who sustain a MTBI\" (Gardner and Yaffe 2015).    CTE (Chronic traumatic encephalopathy) is a neurogenerative disease linked to exposure to repetitive MTBI (Wikipedia). CTE has been associated with mood, behavior, cognitive, and/or motor symptoms (including parkinsonism and/or motor neuron disease). CTE is officially a postmortem diagnosis. Prevalance of CTE among former professional American football players have ranged from 50% to 97%. In one study stage of CTE was associated to years of football exposure, \"lending weight to a true causal association\" (Gardner and Yaffe 2015).   As so there is mounting evidence of the association between (repetitive) MTBI and neurogenerative diseases but there are many epidemiological (\"secular trends\",\"reverse-causation\") and study protocol related (clinical criteria for CTE, quantification of MTBI) issues which warrant further research in this topic. Authors of the recent review state \"Recently, large epidemiological studies have reported that MTBI and repetitive MTBI are also significant risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases, but these associations are not yet aswell established and require further replication\" (Gardner and Yaffe 2015).  ",
        "id": 70,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "To what degree does tactile stimulation affect muscle tone?",
        "body": "I believe the procedure described is called either muscle energy technique (MET) or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNT). More details are on Advantageceus.com (p. 229). Skin stimuli, like scratching or flicking, may be part of the mentioned techniques.  This article on International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine says that \"MET application may reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines and desensitize peripheral nociceptors.\"  According to one PhD dissertation published by Durban University of Technology \"Both superficial and deep somatic mechanoreceptos, proprioceptors and nociceptors are stimulated by [chiropractic] manipulation, which sends strong afferent segmental impulses to the spinal cord resulting in central pain transmission inhibition.\"  Studies:   Effect of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretch Techniques on Trained and Untrained Older Adults (ResearchGate, 2002): \"PNF stretch techniques can be used to produce increases in knee-joint extension ROM in older adults.\" The effect of muscle energy technique on hamstring extensibility: the mechanism of altered flexibility (ScienceDirect, 2003): \"Muscle energy technique produced an immediate increase in passive knee extension.\" The Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Reduces Isometric Strength in Apparently Health Women Short Communication (ResearchGate, 2018): \"30 seconds of stretching by PNF method is already enough to occasion sensibility decrease in muscular proprioceptors, tendinous and articular, as well as in nociceptors...\" Muscle energy technique for non\u2010specific low\u2010back pain (Cochrane, 2015): \"low\u2010quality evidence that MET is not effective for patients with lower back pain.\"   EDIT:  Christopher L (the OP) believes the procedure is called Proprioceptive Deep Tendon Reflex (P-DTR).  The inventor of the technique explains it in detail here. Two other doctors describe it in this document found on the inventor's home page.  The descriptions alone, even if they make sense, are not already an evidence. Scientific evidence about the effectiveness of treatment methods in neurology/orthopedy can come from placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials, but I haven't found even one. The search \"\"proprioceptive deep tendon reflex,\" using operators .gov or .edu, and the search in Google Scholar give no results. ",
        "id": 2537,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do periodontal exams spread infection?",
        "body": "No.   This line of reasoning expects infectious bacteria to be immobile on their own and \"gums\" to be isolated from one another in a regularly closed and healthily salivated mouth. If your practitioner would have put the probe into her own mouth before examining yours, then that would be a great way to spread whatever.  Your own mouth is an ecosystem where one, local, inflamed, infection can easily spread to any other place within your mouth, no probes needed. The bacteria can move on their own and your saliva provides a very convenient way of transportation. Everything that might spread is already there.",
        "id": 1914,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do antibiotic-resistant bacteria present greater danger than related strains prior to development of antibiotics?",
        "body": "Is it possible that antibiotic-resistant bacteria become  stronger, that is harder for the immune system to combat?  Short answer: It depends on the species of bacteria, immune status of an individual, etc.  The authors of this article: The Complex Relationship between Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance (PubMed, 2017) make a vague conclusion that:     Increased virulence [the potential of certain bacteria to cause   disease] may naturally evolve in response to or concurrently with   increased antibiotic resistance...   In one study in mice, antibiotic-resistant bacteria were less virulent than the antibiotic-sensitive ones. Comparison of the virulence of methicillin-resistant [MRSA] and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus [MSSA] (PubMed, 1994)     These results indicate that MRSA is less virulent than MSSA in   normal hosts, but that they are equally virulent in immunocompromised   hosts.   It's not possible to make a general conclusion from a single animal study, though.  Another aspect is that bacteria resistant to one antibiotic are prone to become resistant to other antibiotics. Staphylococcus aureus can become resistant to methicillin (methicillin-resistant S. aureus or MRSA), vancomycin (VRSA) and several other antibiotics (PubMed, 2009). Furthermore, plasmids (the DNA particles in the bacteria that induce antibiotic-resistance) can spread to other species of bacteria, for example, from staphylococci to enterococci.  If there is a genetic component to fighting off bacterial infections, do the generations since antibiotics have a higher percentage of members who are not going to be as good as people were on average 90 or so years ago at dealing with infections?  Antibiotics helped to survive many \"bacteria-sensitive\" people, and their offsprings may be more sensitive too, so it is possible that today there are more individuals sensitive to bacteria than 90 years ago. However, according to one 2015 study in twins, variation in the human immune system is largely driven by non-heritable influences (Cell.com).",
        "id": 2704,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Branch of medicine that falls under scar removal",
        "body": "WebMD lists the following three types of scars:         Keloid Scars:   These scars are the result of an overly aggressive healing process. They extend beyond the original injury. Over time, a   keloid scar may hamper movement. Treatments include surgery to remove   the scar, steroid injections, or silicone sheets to flatten the scar.   Smaller keloids can be treated using cryotherapy (freezing therapy   using liquid nitrogen). You can also prevent keloid formation by using   pressure treatment or gel pads with silicone when you are injured.   Keloid scars are most common among people with dark skin.   Contracture Scars:   If your skin has been burned, you may have a contracture scar. These scars tighten skin, which can impair your   ability to move. Contracture scars may also go deeper, affecting   muscles and nerves.    Hypertrophic Scars:   These are raised, red scars   that are similar to keloids but do not go beyond the boundary of the   injury. Treatments include injections of steroids to reduce   inflammation or silicone sheets, which flatten the scar.         (Emphasis mine, I also omitted acne scars on purpose.)   You seem to either have scars of type I or III.  The first step to take would indeed be to talk to a dermatologist. They will diagnose the scar and possible removal options.  Later on, you might be lead to visit a cosmetic surgeon for the scar removal, or there will be steroid injections.",
        "id": 1743,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "X is related posteriorly to Y",
        "body": "The confusion arises from unnecessary use of Latin terms, especially their -ly forms, and the word order. All this can be simply made more clear.  Eg 1. The iliopsoas is related anteriorly to the fascia lata and the femoral artery, and posteriorly to the capsule of the hip joint.  In the front of the iliopsoas, there are fascia lata and femoral artery, and behind it, the capsule of the hip joint.  Eg 2. \"Sigmoid and rectum are related anteriorly to the bladder.  In the front of the sigmoid and rectum lies the bladder.  Eg 3. \"Medially, this muscle is related to the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae and vessels.\"  Medially to the muscle, there are bodies of the lumbar vertebrae and vessels.",
        "id": 2673,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why I should avoid to exercise after blood donation?",
        "body": "Most blood donors are a bit weakened from giving blood, despite feeling often great. The amount of blood removed from circulation reduces your possible performance level and you might tire more easily as the reduced volume of blood also means a reduction in oxygene availability. This small  measurable level of performance reduction can reach up to three weeks. Judd, TB., Cornish, S.M., Barss, T.S., Oroz, I., Chilibeck, P.D. (2011). Time course for recovery of peak aerobic power after blood donation. Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 25(11). .  Apart from these slightly negative impact factors the American Red Cross simply issues the recommendation:     After you give blood:      Take the following precautions:      Drink an extra four glasses (eight ounces each) of non-alcoholic liquids.   Keep your bandage on and dry for the next five hours, and do not do heavy exercising or lifting.   Because you could experience dizziness or loss of strength, use caution if you plan to do anything that could put you or others at risk of harm.    For any hazardous occupation or hobby, follow applicable safety recommendations regarding your return to these activities following a blood donation.   Eat healthy meals and consider adding iron-rich foods to your regular diet, or discuss taking an iron supplement with your health care provider, to replace the iron lost with blood donation.   If you get dizzy or lightheaded:  Stop what you are doing, lie down, and raise your feet until the feeling passes and you feel well enough to safely resume activities.        The main reason being the possible risk of dehydration.     Blood banks encourage the donation of whole blood by donors 50 weighing kg or who have a greater hemoglobin level of 125 g/L or greater. Following the donation of a 450-mL unit of whole blood, plasma volume, which is acutely reduced by 7% to 13%, recovers within 24 to 48 hours. This results in a decrease of the hemoglobin level of 10 to 20   g/L. Recovery of the hemoglobin level to normal requires time and an adequate iron supply. Full recovery of the hemoglobin to baseline takes 3 to 4 weeks.   It is theoretically possible that peak athletic performance may be affected during the 3 weeks it takes for hemoglobin recovery. Although there are compensatory mechanisms in anemia to improve oxygen delivery to tissues, it is not clear that they occur acutely or with such minor decreases in hemoglobin concentration.   Athletes should wait 12 to 24 hours to resume strenuous exercise after blood donation and should be sure to stay well hydrated the day after a blood donation.    Ritchard G. Cable: \"Execise and Blood Donation\", JAMA. 1993 Jun 23-30;269(24):3167.   More information and a nice selection of links at Jena Walther: \"Donating Blood and Exercise: What Athletes Should Know\" (National Academy of Sports Medicine) February 6, 2016.",
        "id": 2420,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are vitamin C and desloratadine better absorbed when taken shortly after eating?",
        "body": "Desloratadin is slightly soluble in water and very soluble in ethanol. While that would often indicate an at least slightly better if time-delayed absorption with food, this is apparently not the case:     Following oral administration of desloratadine 5 mg once daily for 10 days to normal healthy volunteers, the mean time to maximum plasma concentrations (Tmax) occurred at approximately 3 hours post dose and mean steady state peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of 4 ng/mL and 56.9 ng\u00b7hr/mL were observed, respectively.       Neither food nor grapefruit juice had an effect on the bioavailability (Cmax and AUC) of desloratadine.       R. Manivannan et al.: \"Formulation Development and Evaluation of Desloratadine Tablets\", International Journal of PharmTech Research CODEN (USA): IJPRIF ISSN : 0974-4304 Vol.2, No.3, pp 2101-2106, July-Sept 2010. (PDF) ",
        "id": 2652,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Neutralize bile in stomach",
        "body": "You can neutralize bile by bile acid sequestrants, such as cholestyramine or colestipol. However, these and other medications, such as H2 blockers and metoclopramide, may not be very effective (Drugs.com, UpToDate, PubMed).  The following may prevent bile reflux symptoms:   Lifestyle modifications: avoiding large meals, lying down after meals, eating before sleep and smoking; maintaining health weight  Baclofen, which prevents excessive relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter and thus entering bile from the stomach into the esophagus (PubMed) Ursodeoxycholic acid, which promotes the bile flow (Drugs.com) ",
        "id": 1833,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Warning Symbol on Nippy Junior+",
        "body": "I finally found the symbol on page 5 of the quick reference guide (http://nippyventilator.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/NIPPY-Junior-Quick-Reference-Guide.pdf) for the ventilator. It is just an indicator that the disconnect alarm has been set to low sensitivity.",
        "id": 833,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When dettol turns white, what does it indicate",
        "body": "Dettol upon contact with H2O turns milky like white.   When H2O is added to the dettol liquid its oil droplets become suspended in the water droplets, creating something called an Emulsion.   It is that state of emulsion that causes the colour to change with its response to light.",
        "id": 587,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is this dot on the iris?",
        "body": "It is difficult to tell from that photograph what the pigmented area represents; a good photograph of the iris is hard to get without a slit-lamp (an instrument for close examination of the eyes.)  Because irises are normally pigmented, they are subject to the same kinds of lesions as other pigmented tissue. The iris can have \"freckles\" (though not caused by the sun), pigmented moles, melanomas, etc. Because the iris is also composed of layers, an absence or indentation of part of the outermost layer of the iris (called a crypt) can be spot-like in appearance.  The following is a photograph of a benign nevus (mole) of the iris:       Iris nevi are, by definition, pigmented and flat. They are common, may be multiple, and occur more often in blue-eyed patients. Iris nevi are also rarely present at birth and like all other ocular nevi become apparent around puberty.    The following is of an iris nevus taken through a slit lamp:    Here, you can also see freckles on the iris.  The fact that all three photographs feature a spot in the lower half of the iris isn't coincidence. Approximately 80% of them occur in the lower half of the iris.  Lesions in the iris can also be caused by trauma, congenital abnormalities, illnesses, infections, etc.  Iris melanomas can also occur, and arise from iris nevi. Usually they are low-grade tumors, but can be problematic to vision/ocular health, and can become metastatic.**  While the lesion shown in the photograph is statistically likely to be a benign iris nevus, it is impossible to say. The safest course of action is to ask your doctor what it is (even a good office opthalmoscope will afford better visualization that the photograph) and if it needs to be checked further.  **Considerable controversy exists regarding the histopathologic classification and the malignant potential of iris melanomas.  Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coppereyesyo.jpg#/media/File:Coppereyesyo.jpg Image: Hayes Optometry Adult Ophthalmic Oncology: Ocular Diseases Iris Melanoma",
        "id": 622,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible that paracetamol + ibuprofene is much better for fever than ibuprofene alone? If yes, how?",
        "body": "Ibuprophen is an non-steroidal anti-inflamatory drug (NSAID). As it's name indicate, it reduces inflammation, which can reduce the discomfort of a fever.   Paracetamol (called Acetaminophen on my side of the pond) is an analgesic which reduces pain. While not an anti-inflammatory, it does help reduce the symptoms by cutting down on the amount of aching and fever that you feel.   This is a recommended combination when trying to manage mild to moderate pain without resorting to morphine or other opioid medication. A counter-indication to this combination is gastro-intestinal bleeding. Don't forget to follow the posologie and recommendations of each individual medication ",
        "id": 1136,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What criteria should I pay attention to when choosing a place to perform an MRI?",
        "body": "A higher Tesla magnet generally equates to a higher quality image. Closed (the traditional round-shaped magnet bore) or oval MRIs generally produce a higher quality image than open MRIs, so avoid an open MRI unless you're severely claustrophobic. A newer MRI machine would be preferable to one installed, say, 15 or 20 years ago, all other factors being equal. That's really about it. The skill of the radiologist who will be reading the MRI is certainly important, but that's not something you can easily compare or choose.",
        "id": 1003,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does applying ice patch to flea bites help heal faster?",
        "body": "Yes, it can help heal faster and alleviate symptoms which are interrelated.  fleabites.net     Applying an ice pack on the site of bite to prevent swelling, itching   and soothe the skin.   And based on what the article says:     you can also use several natural products and home remedies to treat   and heal the flea bites on humans faster   The Naked Scientist. Com  This article shows how reducing swelling can increase healing speed.      Cold slows down blood flow to an injury, thereby reducing pain and   swelling. Cold therapy slows circulation, reducing inflammation,   muscle spasm, and pain. It should be used if the area is swollen or   bruised. ",
        "id": 1017,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it known how often unvaccinated children are contagious with symptom free diseases?",
        "body": "Unvaccinated members of a population contribute to the susceptibility of the rest of the population to disease, especially vulnerable people who cannot be vaccinated. This fact is true whether or not infectious individuals are asymptomatic for a long time or a short time.   Many (if not most) infectious diseases are contagious before symptoms clearly manifest - including all 4 of the ones you listed.  Infectious diseases rarely fully announce themselves before they are contagious, actually, and often viral shedding is highest at or before onset of symptoms. For example herpes simplex: it actually sheds the most before the stereotypical blister forms. The duration of the asymptomatic period of diseases varies widely - some are carried and spread for years without ever knowing it.  Yes, you can catch AND transmit many diseases before you even know you have it. Each infectious disease has a specific mode of transmission, and survive different lengths of time outside the body - ranging from minutes to years.  Some respiratory viruses hang in the air in tiny particles for minutes to potentially hours - and not just by coughing or sneezing, many are transmitted just by breathing out.   Without consistent and correct hand hygiene, fecal-oral transmission diseases can spread rapidly whether the person is symptomatic or not.  (Especially kids - what kid is 100% perfect with hand hygiene?)  Some infectious diseases shed in unpredictable cycles, others shed constantly.   The epidemiology of infectious disease transmission and the impact of vaccination are both crystal clear.  Creating herd immunity - minimizing the prevalence of a disease in a population to drastically drop transmission rates (especially for those who cannot be vaccinated for medical reasons) - requires everyone's participation. Vaccination is therefore an issue of both public health and community responsibility.     In no uncertain terms: an unvaccinated person poses a health risk to both themselves and to their community.  There is an entire catch-up schedule for a reason - doing it now, even if it's a late start, is far better than never doing it. If a child already has a disease, unless they are acutely ill, it is generally not harmful to give the vaccine for it.  Sometimes it's okay even when they're acutely ill.  (But one should always talk with a doctor for advising on one's individual case.)  With a few diseases, giving the vaccine can actually help the body prevent the disease from fully developing - if given early enough.  But do note this is NOT a reliable treatment, it is a there's-a-chance-it-could-help-so-it's-better-than-nothing type strategy, and only with certain diseases.  The ideal situation is to be protected before ever being exposed to a disease. Again in no uncertain terms: although there are estimates of disease prevalence, including asymptomatic cases, it is impossible to be certain that an asymptomatic unvaccinated child doesn't have an infectious disease - unless you test them for it. ",
        "id": 2324,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does applying pressure on both sides of your head damage brain cells?",
        "body": "If someone squeezed your head hard enough to cause brain damage, that means they squeezed your head hard enough to fracture your skull. I assure you that you would know without doubt if they squeezed that hard.   Your brain is fine.",
        "id": 1079,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "STarT Questionnaire Meaning",
        "body": "STarT Back stands for Screening and Targeted Treatment for Back pain.",
        "id": 1573,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Anorexia and drinking water",
        "body": "The short answer is: No.   However, A number of psychological factors contribute to Anorexia nervosa and some patients might also have issues with water intake.  It is interesting to note that Anorexia nervosa is stongly related to impaired water metabolism (water balance in other words), at times (rarely) leading to water intoxication and even death.     Fluid intake, personality and behaviour in patients with eating disorders, Abraham, S.F., Hart, S., Luscombe, G. et al. Eat Weight Disord (2006) 11: e30. doi:10.1007/BF03327750  Hart, S., Abraham, S., Franklin, R. C. and Russell, J. (2011), The reasons why eating disorder patients drink. Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev., 19: 121\u2013128. doi:10.1002/erv.1051  Paul Jacquin, Olivier Ouvry, Patrick Alvin, Fatal water intoxication in a young patient with anorexia nervosa, Journal of Adolescent Health, Volume 13, Issue 7, 1992, Pages 631-633, ISSN 1054-139X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1054-139X(92)90379-P.",
        "id": 1787,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Left Ear Numb for over 24 hours",
        "body": "The chair back has obviously pressed upon the nerves in your neck that innervate your external ear. These nerves arise from your cervical spine and are called cervical nerves. (C2 and C3 nerve in the second picture in this article.  I can't say when the numbness will go away, but it could possibly last for a prolonged time (weeks...)  I don't know what you could do to help you, but, if the numbness persists, go to the doctor.",
        "id": 937,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it bad to wash yourself with cold water",
        "body": "Cold water definitely doesn't cause arthritis but it certainly helps to release muscle stress. Infact hot and cold therapy is suggested to patients with arthritis. When you run you cause wear and tear in your muscles and also sweat causing your body temperature to rise. Cold water brings your heated muscles back to homeostasis faster than your body will. Arthritis is caused by inflammation of joints which is caused by excessive wear and tear and unless you allow your body(immune system) to heal those microtrauma in your leg muscles caused by running you might eventually cause inflammation which is what arthritis is. A healthy immune system is protective. It generates internal inflammation to get rid of infection and prevent disease. But the immune system can mistakenly attack the joints with uncontrolled inflammation, potentially causing joint erosion.  Here is a link for more information: http://www.arthritis.org/about-arthritis/understanding-arthritis/what-is-arthritis.php",
        "id": 1060,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I am totally new and I want to self-learn about nutrition and human health. Where should I start?",
        "body": "That's awesome you'd like to learn about exercise science!    Honestly where I'd recommend starting is getting a membership to a local gym and if you have a family, friend or co-worker that could act as your workout buddy that would be ideal.  Along with the actual doing -- to slowly start I'd recommend subscribing to a magazine or two (Men's Health, Muscle and Fitness etc..) something that will get your feet wet.  I was in your shoes right after high school -- 8 years, 3 degree's and too many certs later, I never would have believed it.  Once I started seeing results I became obsessed &amp; have since entered the rehabilitation side as well.  Bottom line who knows where this will lead you -- just stick with it and don't overload your plate to start.  If you ever have any questions feel free to contact me -- I'd be happy to help you out!",
        "id": 1659,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is Quark Naturally Fat Free",
        "body": "I'm not familiar with food labelling laws/common practice in Iceland, but in Australia we're bound by rules set out by Food Standards Australia and New Zealand. On our ingredients lists, if the product is made with what was originally full-fat milk, it's entry on the ingredients list will be 'Milk' or 'Milk Solids'. If it's made with low fat/skim milk, it will be listed as 'Skim Milk' (though this could just be companies electing to declare they've used low-fat options to increase consumer appeal).   While I'm no cheesemaker, I do make my own low-fat yoghurt just by using skim milk (and our commercially available low-fat yoghurts list 'skim milk' on their ingredients lists). According to  Given that this is a particular brand of quark, and quark has a varied amount of fat in it according to the wiki article, I'd say that the manufacturer simply makes the cheese out of low-fat/skimmed milk and either doesn't have to or chooses not to declare as such on the ingredients list (the one you linked to simply said 'milk').  The fat doesn't go anywhere, its likely that it just wasn't there to begin with. ",
        "id": 1545,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Drawbacks of sitting with one leg on a chair",
        "body": "Drawbacks of the way you are sitting are:   Confine your legs to one position, which can increase pressures under the knee cap and slow circulation to the legs. Prevent you from using your feet to scoot around and navigate your work area. Be tricky to get in and out of.   so, I would recommend you try change your habit of sitting, maybe difficult but it's good for both your health  and your work.",
        "id": 1246,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How are drugs distinguished between approval for pediatric use and not?",
        "body": "For US FDA approval, for example, drugs approved for pediatric use are drugs that have been studied and to some degree shown safe and effective in children.  However, many trials and often use of drugs and devices in children is not approved, yet drugs are still used. It is up to physicians to weigh the risks and benefits.  Typically, randomized controlled trials are not performed at high enough power to contrast between safety and efficacy of different drugs unless they are truly extremely different. Therefore, you cannot conclude that a pediatric-approved drug is safer than an unapproved drug merely because it is approved, you can only conclude that no one has paid for a sufficiently large study in a pediatric population to support adding the indication.    Murthy, S., Mandl, K. D., &amp; Bourgeois, F. (2013). Analysis of pediatric clinical drug trials for neuropsychiatric conditions. Pediatrics, peds-2012.  Neville, K. A., Frattarelli, D. A., Galinkin, J. L., Green, T. P., Johnson, T. D., Paul, I. M., &amp; Van Den Anker, J. N. (2014). Off-label use of drugs in children. Pediatrics, 133(3), 563-567.",
        "id": 2480,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the connection between health, exercise, and meditation?",
        "body": "Apart from the mental benefits of meditation, there is some evidence for organic/physical benefits as well.   Dean Ornish, the well known cardiologist who helped former U.S. President Clinton with his diet - and the creator of the only FDA approved prescribed and reimbursed diet for cardiac disease, also has done studies on meditation and health.   He found that telomeres, the ends of chromosomes that slowly get eroded away with aging, actually regrow with meditation. He reported these findings at the Exponential Medicine Conference in San Diego in 2014.   Telomere shortening is believed to be one of the foundational causes of aging.   It is unclear whether his work has been duplicated elsewhere, but it is a striking and considered highly significant physical finding with implications for health and longevity. It is one of the few actual cellular changes that have been found related to meditation.",
        "id": 2271,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Prepare tea directly in water boiler - dangerous?",
        "body": "Although the initial question seems crazy enough from the start, the preamble to this answer has to make it clear that you should not use a water boiler with tea \u2013 or anything else but water \u2013 in it. This answer has to assume that the question is about: only green tea or plain water used directly in the boiler.   Doubting that there are really people so much after the IgNoble that real studies have been conducted to test this. Even if called unsolicited advice: just don't do that. Reasons and alternatives follow:  The boiler should not contain any plastic (which might leach plasticzers and other chemicals into the water) or heat spirals that are not made out of stainless steel (since some of the old type spirals may leach nickel and other metals into the water). [What to use then? Glass and stainless steel, or a traditional pot/kettle.]  Boiling tea, and especially green tea, will absolutely ruin the taste.     Steeping too hot or for too long results in the release of excessive amounts of tannins, leading to a bitter, astringent brew, regardless of initial quality.   If you want to go the convenience path that seems to have inspired this idea: put your tea into a cup and put that into a microwave:      And, extraordinarily, Mr Gorman advocates something which - had they been invented - Orwell would surely have balked at; using a microwave to make tea.   Mr Gorman, whose organisation represents tea packers, brokers and importers, said: \"Usually when people's tea goes cold they reboil the kettle and make another cup. But doing this you are guaranteed to give yourself a dull cup of tea. You need freshly drawn water for a good cup because reboiling it takes out all the oxygen and nitrogen out of it.\u201d      He added: \"A better solution is to put it in the microwave for 15 to 20 seconds. When you microwave tea all you're doing is from a scientific point of view is just moving the molecules around and getting it back up to a decent temperature. It is not impacting the flavour at all.\"   Cleaning the water boiler with strong detergents may leave some of these detergents behind. That is presumably the most dangerous health problem with the approach outlined in the question (provided that the kettle itself is really fit for food grade application).  If the discolouration bothers you or starts to impact the boiling efficiency: soak it in soda. Tea stain will then come off so easily that you might use a very mild and eco-friendly simple soap to keep it shiny clean. Rinse thoroughly.  You won't attempt brain surgery with shards from your kettle? So it becomes an argument of common sense that you will not need absolute sterility. Boiling fresh water of decent quality will kill enough microorganisms (that will be in there in very small numbers to begin with). Even baby bottles are now free from this germ-o-phobe advice.  Keep in mind that high quality tea like Gyokuro or Fancy White should be prepared with a water temperature of below 70\u00b0C! Tea can also be cold brewed (no sterilisation at all).  Finally, the inventors of tea have the following to say:  Yixing clay teapot:     Yixing teapots are meant for use with black and oolong teas, as well as aged p\u01d4\u2019\u011br tea. They can also be used for green or white tea, but the water must be allowed to cool to around 85 \u00b0C (185 \u00b0F) before pouring the water into the pot. Yixing teapots absorb a tiny amount of tea into the pot during brewing. After prolonged use, the pot will develop a coating that retains the flavour and colour of the tea. It is for this reason that soap should not be used to clean Yixing teapots. Instead, it should be rinsed with fresh water and allowed to air-dry.   How to Season an Yixing Teapot:     Other info: Never use anything but water to clean an yixing pot. Soap will be absorbed and create a permanent soapy flavor in the tea you steep. Always allow your yixing pot to dry completely between uses, and before replacing the lid and storing. A teapot stored wet with the lid on will mold. If your teapot molds, reboil for 10-15 minutes and re-season. Take a picture of your pot when you start using it so that you can compare in a year to see how it has grown.    tl;dr  While this 'boiling the tea directly in the kettle' is not a good idea for a number of reasons, the negative health impacts from the tea residue alone should be negligible.",
        "id": 1967,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the flu only happen in winter?",
        "body": "This is a really interesting question, because it really isn't as easy as people being a bit more susceptible in the winter. There's no definitive answer yet.  Influenza Seasonality: Underlying Causes and Modeling Theories says:     In temperate climates, flu infections at whatever level of intensity are characterized by a flu season. In these areas, the disease is thought to exist at a low level throughout the year but exhibit a marked seasonal increase, typically during the winter months. Influenza epidemics and outbreaks occur in tropical areas as well, although the timing and impact are not as well defined   The exact reason why this flu season happens are not known, but a few things come together that are good for influenza:   Dry, cold air favors transmission - especially dry air is good for it, both for transmission and survival on, for example, surfaces.  Heating during the winter decreases humidity inside, while the cold air outside is always less humid. Vitamin D is thought to help against infection - during the winter, vitamin D production by the body is lower.    Things that are debated:   Crowding and being inside more might be a factor, with people being closer together because they spend a lot of time indoors.   As for the second question:     If nobody was sick before winter, where are the viruses coming from?   Well, there's a whole different hemisphere \"down\" from where you probably are, where they have the flu season while the Northern Hemisphere is mostly healthy :) Air travel is convenient for influenza. Even without it, we'd still have influenza during the winter, though - as mentioned above it does occur in tropical areas and can spread from there. Also, humans aren't the only species to carry around influenza - wild birds are one of the primary sources of influenza.     Do people with a constantly weakened immune system (e.g. AIDS) catch flu in summer too?   Well, everyone can - it's unlikely, but it does happen. And as flu season passes, there just aren't many people around that you can catch it from.",
        "id": 844,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term use of St Johns wort",
        "body": "The main use of St John's Wort is for depression but there are supposedly other uses (WebMD, n.d.) which may or may not work.  The only study I can find on the effectiveness of St John's Wort against mild to moderate depression is Brattstr\u00f6m (2009) which you linked to in the comments. The study looked at safety (adverse event frequency) and influence on depression (HAM-D, CGI). One key point I would like to make is that the report states that symptoms of depression did subside;     Mean HAM-D scores decreased steadily from 20.58 at baseline to 12.07 at week 26 and to 11.18 at week 52. Mean CGI scores decreased from 3.99 to 2.20 at week 26 and 2.19 at week 52   however;     Two hundred and seventeen (49%) patients reported 504 adverse events.   General Safety of St John's Wort  The adverse events reported by Brattstr\u00f6m (2009) could have been for a number of reasons and Brattstr\u00f6m only attributed 30 (6%) to the treatment.  There are many drugs which St John's Wort interacts badly with including antidepressants and birth control pills (WebMD, n.d.; British National Formulary, 2019).     Because of this, France has banned the use of St. John's wort in products. In other countries St. John's wort is only available with a prescription.   Yet, St John's Wort is available in tablets over the counter here in the UK.  The NHS here in the UK points out that,      It should be noted that St. John\u2019s wort is an unlicensed herbal medication, so would not be prescribed by a general practitioner (as the newspapers suggest). St. John\u2019s wort can have serious interactions with a large number of commonly used medications (e.g. warfarin), by affecting enzymes in the body involved with the metabolic processing of drugs; therefore a discussion with a doctor is important. Additionally, St. John\u2019s wort must not be started while another antidepressant is being taken (NHS, 2008).   WebMD also states     St. John's wort is\u00a0POSSIBLY UNSAFE when taken by mouth in large doses. When taken by mouth in large doses, it might cause severe skin reactions to sun exposure. Women may be at risk of severe skin reactions even at usual doses of St. John's wort. Wear sun block outside, especially if you are light-skinned.   St John's Wort and Major Depression  The NHS covers this too;     The findings [of a systematic review and meta-analysis] \u2013 that it is more effective than placebo and the same as standard antidepressants (albeit safer) - apply mainly to people with mild to moderate depression. The authors say that for severe major depression, the evidence is \u2018still insufficient to draw conclusions\u2019.   Long Term Use  The answer to your question     Are there any side effects or reduced efficiency of long term use of st Johns wort?   depends on what you call long term for one thing.  Brattstr\u00f6m (2009) conducted the study over a 1 year period calling it long term.  If you are talking about longer than this, as St John's Wort only helps with mild to moderate depression, I would wonder about the efficacy of St John's Wort in your case.  Therefore, I would suggest seeking advice of your doctor again.  As long as you check with your doctor before taking it, plus   you are not taking other medications which interact badly with St John's Wort, and you are not suffering any side effects   then it is generally considered safe\u00a0(WebMD, 2017) but must be used with caution, in the same dosages prescribed by the doctor or indicated on the packaging.  References  Brattstr\u00f6m, A. (2009). Long-term effects of St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) treatment: A 1-year safety study in mild to moderate depression.\u00a0Phytomedicine,\u00a016(4), 277-283. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.12.023 pmid: 19299116  British National Formulary (2019) St John's Wort Interactions [Online] Retreived from: https://bnf.nice.org.uk/interaction/st-johns-wort-2.html  NHS (2008) St John's wort for depression [Online] Retrieved from: https://www.nhs.uk/news/mental-health/st-johns-wort-for-depression  WebMD (n.d.) St John's Wort [Online] Retreived from: https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-329/st-johns-wort  WebMD (2017) St. John's wort - ART-20362212 [Online] Retreived from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-st-johns-wort/art-20362212",
        "id": 2588,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the minimum titer of typhoid?",
        "body": "The minimum infectious dose for a disease like typhoid is hard to obtain, because the most controlled method of obtaining this information is via human challenge studies, and those are essentially no longer performed due to some ethical issues. That means one must look at older data or observational studies, which have some methodological drawbacks.  A somewhat older review suggests the necessary dose to provoke clinical disease was &lt;10^3 organisms. Public Health Canada characterizes the infectious dose for enteric fever (which is another name for typhoid fever) as ~ 10^5 organisms.  In terms of which organs can be effected - in the most severe cases, complications can be fairly systemic, with the most dangerous complication being haemorrhage due to intestinal perforation.",
        "id": 95,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a woman tell which ovary, during ovulation, released the egg? Can she feel pain (due to follicle rupture) particular to one side?",
        "body": "The rupture of the follicle is totally painless as it is not innervated. However, some women experience ovulation pain. It is particular to one side, and the mecanism that cause pain are not fully understood. It is maybe due to the excessive size of the follicle that stretches the ovary or to irritation the abdomen. On mayo clinic . com, it is said     Mittelschmerz [middle-pain, aka ovulation pain] pain occurs on the side of the ovary that's releasing an egg (ovulating). The pain may switch sides every other month, or you may feel pain on the same side for several months.   So it is apparently possible for some woman to guess what ovary ovulated on this cycle.",
        "id": 1521,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Irritable Bowel Syndrome Constipation - Soluble Fibre Foods",
        "body": "I, also, have IBS-C. I recently discovered that approaches that cause your stool to retain water aren't as effective, for me, as increasing my consumption of mucilage. I have tried: increased soluble fiber, increased insoluble fiber, Miralax, Linzess, drinking lots of water, Milk of Magnesia, etc. I either have the runs or constipation. With the approach of retaining water in the stool I find no happy medium.   However, I very recently discovered that an increase of consumption of mucilage helps. Some things I have tried are: Aloe Vera Juice, true Marshmallow root, and Slippery Elm Bark. I want to try raw okra soon.   This Wikipedia article gives a list  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucilage",
        "id": 523,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many people have been instantly killed by smoking?",
        "body": "Short answer: maybe a few, but not instantly.  Nicotine poisoning exists but rarely is it fatal. Especially, when it is delivered through smoking.  There have been very few incidents of death by nicotine poisoning reported.  References:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine_poisoning http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073809004459 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073810000459 ",
        "id": 1446,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the long-term physical effects of anorexia?",
        "body": "Gynecological effects  Meczekalski et al. (2013) found that, in addition to fertility problems and related, issues,     Rates of birth complications and low birth weight may be higher in women with previous AN.   Related gynecological effects were much more severe in women with the disease.  This article also states that     First-degree female relatives and monozygotic twin offspring of patients with anorexia nervosa have higher rates of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Children of patients with anorexia nervosa have a lifetime risk for anorexia nervosa that is tenfold that of the general population (5%). Families of patients with bulimia nervosa have higher rates of substance abuse, particularly alcoholism, affective disorders, and obesity. Traits such as impulsivity, negative affect, perfectionism, and low self esteem are risk factors that may largely be genetically determined.   Neurological effects  Wagner et al. observed that by one year after recovery from anorexia, white matter, grey matter, and cerebrospinal fluid levels were back to normal, comparable with levels observed in a control group without a history of anorexia. In other words, this effect dissipated after recovery.  Kaye et al. (1999) found that levels of a metabolite of dopamine continued to stay low one year after recovery. This could be responsible for mood swings associated with the disease before, during, and after recovery.  Bone effects  Mehler &amp; Brown (2015) note that while bone mass loss effects are common in anorexia patients, these patients may never recover, especially if the disease strikes during adolescence. The chances of a fracture over the course of a lifetime are about 60% higher, as found by Faje et al. (2014), which studied 310 adolescent (ages 12-22) females with anorexia and 108 without. Specifically, they found that the control group had about a 20% chance of fracture, while the group with anorexia had about a 30% chance of fracture.",
        "id": 630,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can/Does Vortioxetine/Brintellix treat OCD?",
        "body": "There isn't much literature on this, so my best guess might have to suffice.   OCD is on the anxiety spectrum of disorders. Vortioxetine is ineffective for GAD and therefore may not help remediate OCD symptoms.  Edit  Upon doing more research, I found evidence that both supports Vortioxetine as a treatment for GAD, and evidence that claims it is equivalent to placebo. Talk about confusing!   In regards to OCD, Reference 5 states that their evidence suggests newer \"agents (ADs) should be tested more comprehensively.\". It doesn't state that any of the newer antidepressants (which includes Vortioxetine) were ineffective. Based on Vortioxetine's mixed results for GAD, and the very vague and tentative for OCD, Vortioxetine is possibly an effective treatment for OCD.  References   (Against) A randomized, double-blind, fixed-dose study comparing the efficacy and tolerability of vortioxetine 2.5 and 10\u2009mg in acute treatment of adults with generalized anxiety disorder., http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/24424707/?i=4&amp;from=vortioxetine%20anxiety&amp;sort=[relevance] (Against) A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, duloxetine-referenced study of the efficacy and tolerability of vortioxetine in the acute treatment of adults with generalised anxiety disorder, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/24341301/?i=5&amp;from=vortioxetine%20anxiety&amp;sort=[relevance] (For) Vortioxetine, a multimodal antidepressant for generalized anxiety disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis., http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/25851751/?i=2&amp;from=vortioxetine%20anxiety&amp;sort=[relevance] (For) Vortioxetine (Lu AA21004) in generalized anxiety disorder: results of an 8-week, multinational, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/22898365/?i=14&amp;from=vortioxetine%20anxiety&amp;sort=[relevance] An updated review of antidepressants with marked serotonergic effects in obsessive-compulsive disorder., http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/24766145/ ",
        "id": 438,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does papaya really work against Dengue, Malaria and other mosquito borne diseases?",
        "body": "There's a review article on the effect of Papaya extracts in the treatment of Dengue fever, the main issue being thrombocytopaenia.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4071726/  The best data quoted from that paper says:     A study conducted in Malaysia had a more systematic approach in evaluating the use of papaya leaf juice in the treatment of dengue. The juice was obtained from the papaya leaves under hygienic conditions from trees that were grown without insecticides or pesticides. An open-labeled randomized controlled trial was conducted on 290 patients between the ages of 18 and 60 years with platelet counts \u2264100,000/\u03bcL. The patients were confirmed to be suffering from dengue using a rapid dengue bedside test. Patients in the intervention group were administered fresh juice from 50 g of C. papaya leaves once a day 15 min after breakfast for 3 consecutive days. In addition, they received the standard treatment for dengue. The controls only received the standard treatment. The final analysis was conducted on 111 patients from the intervention group and 117 controls. The study found that there was a significant increase in the platelet counts in the intervention group at the end of 40 h when compared to the counts 8 h after the intervention began. This significant increase was not observed in the control group. An increase in arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase and the platelet-activating factor receptor gene expression was also observed in the intervention group. These genes are associated with increased platelet production.[7]   The study itself http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3638585/ concludes     the administration of CPLJ in DF and DHF is safe and does induce the rapid increase in platelet count. It may play a valuable role in the management of DF in the near future.   Carica papaya leaves juice (CPLJ).  Patients with dengue fever (DF).  Dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF).",
        "id": 884,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lifetime cancer risk for people with healthy lifestyle",
        "body": "First of all, your numbers are good, but they depend on when one was born, and are higher for younger people:     The lifetime risk of cancer increased from 38.5% for men born in 1930 to 53.5% for men born in 1960. For women it increased from 36.7 to 47.5%. Results are robust to different models for projections of cancer rates.   Trends in the lifetime risk of developing cancer in Great Britain: comparison of risk for those born from 1930 to 1960  (This is for Great Britain, but at least for the US and similar countries, I don't expect too much deviation)   Cancer Research UK has done a bit of legwork as it relates to your question. Their rough estimate is that 4 out of 10 cancers are preventable through a healthy lifestyle. From their section on preventable cancers:        Smoking is the largest single cause of cancer in the UK, linked to an estimated 19% of cancer cases in the UK each year. Lung cancer has the highest proportion of smoking-linked cases.   Diet (too little fruit, vegetables and fibre; too much red and processed meat and salt) is linked to an estimated 9% of cancer cases in the UK each year. Upper aero-digestive tract cancers (oral cavity and pharynx, oesophageal, and larynx) have the highest proportion of diet-linked cases.   Overweight and obesity is linked to an estimated 5% of cancer cases in the UK each year. Uterine, kidney and oesophageal cancers have the highest proportions of bodyweight-linked cases.   Alcohol is linked to an estimated 4% of cancer cases in the UK each year. Upper aero-digestive tract cancers (oral cavity and pharynx, larynx, and oesophageal) have the highest proportion of alcohol-linked cases.      That's about 37 percent, all added up. They have more information on all these on the website I linked.   I did a bit of looking around myself, just to see.   Male  The main cancer risks for males are:   Prostate, at about 15 percent  Lung, at about 7.5 percent  Colon, at about 5 percent  Bladder, at about 4 percent  Skin, at about 2.5 percent  Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, at about 2 percent  Kidney, at about 2 percent    That adds up to about 38 percent.   Let's see how lifestyle factors impact them.   For prostate cancer, the four factors you link possibly don't have an impact. Diet might be involved, but we don't really know how:     Men who eat a lot of red meat or high-fat dairy products appear to have a slightly higher chance of getting prostate cancer. These men also tend to eat fewer fruits and vegetables. Doctors aren\u2019t sure which of these factors is responsible for raising the risk.   For lung cancer, smoking is of course the major risk factor. For non-smokers, risk of lung cancer is reduced by about 85 to 90 percent  For colon cancer, about half of the cases are linked to lifestyle.   For bladder cancer, about half of the cases are linked to smoking alone.   Skin cancer is caused by sun exposure, but also genetic disposition.  The risk factors for non-hodgkins-lymphoma are unknown.   For kidney cancer, risk factors include obesity and smoking, with an estimated 40 percent of the risk coming from lifestyle factors.   So, as a back of the envelope calculation, if the risks for prostate and non-hodgkins-lymphoma don't decrease, the lung cancer risk decreases by about 90 percent, and the other listed cancer have a risk decrease of about half, we end up with about 25 percent of the original 38 percent for these 7 cancer types. A reduction of 35 percent.   Female  The main cancers differ for females:   Breast, at about 12 percent  Lung, at about 7 percent  Colon, at about 4.5 percent  Uterine, at about 3 percent    All others are below 2 percent. These four add up to 26.5 of the lifetime risk.   The relationship between breast cancer and lifestyle factors seems to be complicated, with it maybe being linked to obesity and also linked to number of children.   About 40 percent of Uterine cances are linked to obesity.   Lung and colon cancer were also on the list for males. Another back of the envelope calculation reduces the risk of these four cancers from 26.5 to 16.5 percent. A reduction of 38 percent.   Disclaimers   These are very rough calculations  These are based only on lifetime risk of developing cancers, not lifetime risks of dying from cancers  We really don't understand cancer all that well for many of them the cancers I didn't list here, like bladder/cervix/pancreatic cancer also make up quite a few percent of the lifetime cancer risk, combined  ",
        "id": 615,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Awkward: TWINS, but from DIFFERENT DADS? How rare is heteropaternal superfecundation (statistics)?",
        "body": "From this answer on Biology.SE (given and researched by me):  Yes, this is possible through something called heteropaternal superfecundation (see below for further explanation).  Of all twin births, 30% are identical and 70% are non-identical (fraternal) twins.  Identical twins result when a zygote (one egg, or ovum, fertilized by one sperm) splits at an early stage to become twins. Because the genetic material is essentially the same, they resemble each other closely.  Typically during ovulation only one ovum is released to be fertilized by one sperm. However, sometimes a woman's ovaries release two ova. Each must be fertilized by a separate sperm cell. If she has intercourse with two different men, the two ova can be fertilized by sperm from different sexual partners. The term for this event is heteropaternal superfecundation (HS): twins who have the same mother, but two different fathers.  This has been proven in paternity suits (in which there will be a bias selecting for possible infidelity) involving fraternal twins, where genetic testing must be done on each child. The frequency of heteropaternal superfecundation in this group was found (in one study) to be 2.4%. As the study's authors state, \"Inferences about the frequency of HS in other populations should be drawn with caution.\"  So, to answer specifics, it's rare, the offspring are half-siblings without any further specific name, and yes, before (and since) DNA testing, there were cases of different race children, but as it is rare, there are not many. ",
        "id": 1516,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Body acne (extreme condition)",
        "body": "If I understand your question right, the problem is not acne by itself but dark spots or postinflammatory hyperpigmentation after acne has gone.  Here is one medical article (Emedicine) that describes the treatment. The treating substances include hydroquinone, tretinoin cream, corticosteroids, glycolic acid (GA), and azelaic acid. I don't think you should try these treatments on your own; ask a dermatologist about it.  I personally do not believe that home remedies would help, because dermatologists and studies do not really mention them.",
        "id": 1386,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which one is more harmful for your kidneys, drinking more or less water?",
        "body": "Background reading  Even though your fluid intake can be highly variable, the total volume of fluid in your body normally remains stable. Homeostasis of body fluid volume depends in large part on the ability of the kidneys to regulate the rate of water loss in urine.  Normally functioning kidneys produce a large volume of dilute urine when fluid intake is high, and a small volume of concentrated urine when fluid intake is low or fluid loss is large. The Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH)/sometimes called arginine vasopressin   controls whether dilute urine or concentrated urine is formed. In the absence of ADH, urine is very dilute. However, a high level of ADH stimulates reabsorption of more water into blood, producing a concentrated urine.     When water intake is low or water loss is high (such as during heavy   sweating), the kidneys must conserve water while still eliminating   wastes and excess ions. Under the influence of ADH, the kidneys   produce a small volume of highly concentrated urine. Urine can be four   times more concentrated (up to 1200 mOsm/liter) than blood plasma or   glomerular filtrate (300 mOsm/liter).  The kidney is crucial in   regulating water balance and blood pressure as well as removing waste   from the body. Water metabolism by the kidney can be classified into   regulated and obligate. Water regulation is hormonally mediated, with   the goal of maintaining a tight range of plasma osmolality between 275   to 290 mOsm/kg.     Substianting the answer     In addition to regulating fluid balance, the kidneys require water for   the filtration of waste from the blood stream and excretion via urine.   Water excretion via the kidney removes solutes from the blood, and a   minimum obligate urine volume is required to remove the solute load   with a maximum output volume of 1 L/h.         The kidneys function more efficiently in the presence of an abundant   water supply. If the kidneys economize on water, producing a more   concentrated urine, there is a greater cost in energy and more wear on   their tissues. This is especially likely to occur when the kidneys are   under stress, for example when the diet contains excessive amounts of   salt or toxic substances that need to be eliminated. Consequently,   drinking enough water helps protect this vital organ. In cases of   water loading, if the volume of water ingested cannot be compensated   for with urine output, having overloaded the kidney\u2019s maximal output   rate an individual can enter a hyponatremic state     Concluding remarks  Note: Is it very important to understand that both dehydration or overhydration both pose equally disastrous effects on health. While the former is associated with orthostatic hypotension, delirium and morbidities the latter has been reported to be associated with water intoxication and hyponatremia, proteinuria etc.    References   Water, Hydration and Health. Barry M. Popkin, Kristen E. D\u2019Anci, and Irwin H. Rosenberg. Nutr Rev. 2010 Aug; 68(8): 439\u2013458.doi:  10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00304.x. Principles of Anatomy and Phisiology G. Tortora: Urinary system Excessive fluid intake as a novel cause of proteinuria. F Clark et al. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2175005/ ",
        "id": 2095,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does forehead cooling affect me?",
        "body": "You are possibly reducing some of the causes of the symptoms, but for numerous reasons and maybe a secondary diagnosis the headaches themselves may return. Head cooling is a typical treatment for headaches and migraines.  Migraines- Mayo Clinic     Ice packs have a   numbing effect, which may dull the sensation of pain.    Heat works as well.      Hot packs and  heating pads can relax tense muscles. Warm showers or baths may have a   similar effect.   How it works possibly:      It is thought that cold constricts the blood vessels (a process known   as vasoconstriction), possibly creating decreased downstream blood   flow and lessening the pain you may feed. A cold pack may also reduce   edema (swelling).     The potential neurologic effects of cold therapy on migraine may be   rooted in the fact that the cold inhibits your ability to feel the   pain, a process called analgesia.    So applying cold is not just masking the symptoms, but may also be working at the root of the problem. ",
        "id": 932,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can an MRI influence the treatment in case of an elbow tendinopathy?",
        "body": "I think it is mainly due to the evidence indicating poor accuracy (sensitivity and specificity) of conventional MRI. It means that false-positive or false-negative findings may be detected in MRI of elbow (1):     MR arthrography is more accurate than conventional MRI of the elbow at 3 T.          [In 54 out of 79 patients, the diagnoses made on MRI and MR arthrogram examinations were the same.]    In 16 [out of 79] cases, MR arthrography showed tendons and ligaments to be torn that appeared intact on conventional MRI.    In 9  [out of 79] cases, MR arthrography showed intact tendons and ligaments that appeared to be torn on conventional MRI. These nine cases are most likely the result of the tears healing, with fibrous tissue allowing the tendon and ligament tissues to coapt (1).      Hence, due to these common misleading results of MRI, physicians weigh more on their own physical examination and clinical judgement.       Do not forget that high-quality evidence (e.g., systematic reviews or meta-analysis based on randomized clinical trials) for this subject has not yet collected or reported; which makes this debate controversial. ",
        "id": 899,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Root canal before trying to get pregnant",
        "body": "The anesthetics used for the root canal are not very long lasting. An example of the longer-acting local anesthetics is Bupivacaine. The average half-life of Bupivacaine Hydrochloride in adults is 2.7 hours (that is, within 2.7 hours, half of the total dose absorbed is metabolized. In people with liver  or renal failure, it may be longer, as it is metabolized by the liver.  While various factors may increase or decrease the half-life of bupivacaine, it is exceedingly unlikely that there will be any bupivicaine left in her system a week from having a root canal, let alone a month.  Of course, the exact drug(s) used by her dentist may differ.  Bupivacaine",
        "id": 158,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any proven benefits of electric toothbrushes over manual toothbrushing?",
        "body": "There is some very good evidence that replacing a manual toothbrush with an electric toothbrush can help in reducing plaque and the risk of gingivitis.   The Cochrane Oral Health Group published a review1 that summarized over 50 studies from 1964-2011. A majority of the studies tested the effects of a rotating oscillating electric toothbrush against a manual toothbrush. Overall, they found a 21% reduction in plaque and an 11% reduction in gingivitis.   There are some things that weren't found by the studies that were reviewed, mainly what the long-term dental benefits of electric toothbrushes. Also, side effects were rarely reported, so there was no sufficient evidence of whether electric toothbrushes can be harmful to your teeth.   A study done in 20082 tested oscillating powered toothbrushes against manual toothbrushes over a 9 month period. It started with a 3 week period of oral care. Then some people brushed twice daily with either an oscillating powered toothbrush, a manual toothbrush, and a manual toothbrush and flood together. The powered toothbrush was able to keep the levels of plaque lower than the other two groups and also help prevent gingival bleeding. Another 2010 study3 also found very similar results in which the oscillating toothbrush help reduce plaque and prevent gum bleeding. From these studies and many others, we can see that oscillating toothbrushes are better for your teeth than manual toothbrushes.  There is another type of electric toothbrush, sonic toothbrushes. They work by vibrating the brush head at sonic speeds. Though there are more studies done on oscillating toothbrushes, there have been a few done on the effectiveness of sonic toothbrushes. This 2015 study4 found that sonic toothbrushes were significantly better at reducing plaque than manual toothbrushes. An earlier study published in 20145 also found that sonic toothbrushes were more effective at plaque removal. They also found that for a short time (1 week), the sonic toothbrushes were better at reducing the risk of gingival inflammation. After 3 weeks though, the amount of papillary bleeding (bleeding in some parts of the mouth) were the same between those who used sonic toothbrushes and manual toothbrushes. Overall though, it seems that sonic toothbrushes are also better for your oral health than manual toothbrushes.  So we can see that both main types of electric toothbrushes are better than manual toothbrushes. But which is better, sonic toothbrushes or oscillating toothbrushes? In fact, a handful of studies has been done on this topic.  A 2013 study6 tested the two types of powered toothbrushes. Both the sonic and the oscillating toothbrushes were able to significantly reduce plaque and risk of gingivitis, but the results showed the oscillating toothbrush performed better than the sonic toothbrush. Three 2014 studies7, 8, 9 agree with the conclusion that oscillating toothbrushes are better at reducing plaque and gingival bleeding than sonic toothbrushes. All of those studies were performed very similarly and had some of the same researchers between them. From these results, we can see that oscillating toothbrushes are superior to sonic toothbrushes.  For both electric toothbrushes, we can see that risk of gingivitis and the amount of plaque on the teeth are reduced. You did ask more thing which I will answer more directly.     Are there really any long-term benefits associated with electric toothbrushes?   Well, from the trials I've mentioned, we can see that this is most likely the case. The longest trial I directly mentioned2 was 9 months long and it showed that 9 months of consistently using an electric toothbrush did help reduce plaque and gingival bleeding. Manual toothbrush can keep your teeth clean, but it takes more work than an electric toothbrush.  Why doesn't everyone use an electric toothbrush if they are proven to be better?  Well, there are a few things that come into play10. Even though electric toothbrushes are more effective at cleaning teeth and they don't take as much work as manual toothbrush, some people aren't willing to pay so much for a toothbrush. Some of the cheapest electric toothbrushes cost only $5, but the higher quality ones can go for over $100. You can get a five pack of manual toothbrushes for under $5. Another con of electric toothbrushes is that they are a hassle. They are bigger, and they require batteries or they have to be charged. Some people just don't want to deal with that. Lastly, electric toothbrushes can be easily broken. If you drop it, that might be it and you just lost $10. Now, electric toothbrushes are becoming more popular, but some of these cons are still holding people back.    [1]  Powered/electric toothbrushes compared to manual toothbrushes for maintaining oral health  [2]  PComparison of the use of different modes of mechanical oral hygiene in prevention of plaque and gingivitis  [3]  Manual orthodontic vs. oscillating-rotating electric toothbrush in orthodontic patients: a randomised clinical trial  [4]  Is a new sonic toothbrush more effective in plaque removal than a manual toothbrush?  [5]  Toothbrush efficacy for plaque removal  [6]  A 12-week clinical comparison of an oscillating-rotating power brush versus a marketed sonic brush with self-adjusting technology in reducing plaque and gingivitis  [7]  A randomized clinical trial evaluating gingivitis and plaque reduction of an oscillating-rotating power brush with a new brush head with angled bristles versus a marketed sonic brush with self-adjusting technology  [8]  A randomized 12-week clinical comparison of an oscillating-rotating toothbrush to a new sonic brush in the reduction of gingivitis and plaque  [9]  A six-week clinical evaluation of the plaque and gingivitis efficacy of an oscillating-rotating power toothbrush with a novel brush head utilizing angled CrissCross bristles versus a sonic toothbrush  [10]  Manual Toothbrush VS Electric Toothbrush: Pros and Cons",
        "id": 171,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Race and bone marrow donor search",
        "body": "What was once defined as 'scientific racism' is incompatible with what we know to be science or anthropology. Inter-group differences, supposed to be large in broad terms and used to qualify people, turned out to be much smaller than intra-group differences. And the classifications into 'better' or 'worse' turned out to be completely bogus.  But that does not mean that genetics do not exist or that systematic genetic differences do not exist. For societal classifications these turned out to be meaningless as well. For medical reasons there were some important variables identified that pertain for example to bone marrow transplants. Certain features of the immune system are more often grouped in similar ethnic groups than between dissimilar ethnic groups.  The National Marrow Donor Program summarises it as      How does a patient's ethnic background affect matching?   A patient\u2019s likelihood of finding a matching bone marrow donor or cord blood unit on the Be The Match Registry ranges from 23% to 77% depending on ethnic background. Patients are more likely to match an adult donor of their own ethnic background.   Compare that to blood types. Yes, they exist. As do different colours of skin. But that doesn't mean that A is 'better' than B. They are just differently arranged molecules on blood cells.      Despite the large number of registered potential donors, the NMDP and unrelated HSC registries worldwide continue to face difficulties in identifying matched donors for some patients, in particular racial/ethnic minorities. (PUBMED)      Multiple dimensions of self-identification, including race/ethnicity and geographic ancestry were compared to classifications based on ancestry informative markers (AIMs), and the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes, which are required for transplant matching. Nearly 20% of responses were inconsistent between reporting race/ethnicity versus geographic ancestry. Despite strong concordance between AIMs and HLA, no measure of self-identification shows complete correspondence with genetic ancestry. In certain cases geographic ancestry reporting matches genetic ancestry not reflected in race/ethnicity identification, but in other cases geographic ancestries show little correspondence to genetic measures, with important differences by gender. However, when respondents assign ancestry to grandparents, we observe sub-groups of individuals with well- defined genetic ancestries, including important differences in HLA frequencies, with implications for transplant matching. While we advocate for tailored questioning to improve accuracy of ancestry ascertainment, collection of donor grandparents\u2019 information will improve the chances of finding matches for many patients, particularly for mixed-ancestry individuals.   Hollenbach et al.: \"Race, Ethnicity and Ancestry in Unrelated Transplant Matching for the National Marrow Donor Program: A Comparison of Multiple Forms of Self-Identification with Genetics\", PLoS One. 2015; 10(8): e0135960.   They are not incompatible, as racism would describe it. The request with its specifics is just betting on the increased likelihood of finding a donor from a pool of a minority that has an increased likelihood of containing a match but a decreased likelihood of donors from that pool already registered. They might as well find a match from someone grouped into another ethnicity. It is a game of probabilities.  Directly about the situation in Israel:     HLA haplotype frequencies in a volunteer bone marrow donor registry should reflect the frequencies of potential transplant recipients served by that registry, a challenge in a country with diverse subethnicities of immigrants from Eastern and Western cultures, such as Israel. We evaluated the likelihood of finding suitable donors for hypothetical patients drawn from defined subethnicities in the Ezer Mizion Bone Marrow Donor Registry (EM BMDR) from donors both within and outside the registry now and during the coming decade. On average, bioinformatics modeling predicts that, given current donor recruitment trends, 6/6 high-resolution HLA match rates for Israelis, which currently stand at 40% to 55% for most subethnicities, will rise by up to 1% per year over the next decade. Subethnicities with historically lower rates of interethnic admixture are less likely to find matches outside of their designated group but will benefit from expansion of the registry, whereas ethnically directed drives will enhance matching rates for currently underrepresented subethnicities. Donor searches for the same cohort using a large extramural registry was of only slight benefit for most of the 19 EM BMDR subethnicities evaluated, confirming that local donor registries that reflect the ethnic diversity of the community being served are best equipped to serve the needs of their respective communities. Contemporary trends of an increasingly multiethnic admixture in Israel may impact the effect of ethnic profiling in assessing future match rates for EM BMDR.   Halagan et al.: \"East Meets West\u2014Impact of Ethnicity on Donor Match Rates in the Ezer Mizion Bone Marrow Donor Registry\", Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Volume 23, Issue 8, August 2017, Pages 1381-1386, DOI. ",
        "id": 2542,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "\"Cuddle\" Parties boost oxytocin? To what degree does it help with pain management and sleep?",
        "body": "This is the first time I've heard about a \"Cuddle Party\" and I'd probably feel the same way as you about it.  From Medical News Today:     Here are some key points about oxytocin:-   \u2022 Oxytocin is a neuropeptide produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland.   \u2022 Oxytocin is released during sex, childbirth and lactation to aid reproductive functions.   \u2022 This neuropeptide exerts multiple psychological effects, influencing social behavior and emotion.   \u2022 Oxytocin is prescribed for a variety of obstetric and gynecological reasons, including to aid in childbirth.   \u2022 High levels of the \"love hormone\" have been observed in couples in the first six months of a relationship.   \u2022 Oxytocin has an anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) effect and may increase romantic attachment and empathy.   \u2022 Research shows that oxytocin may have beneficial effects for people with autistic spectrum disorders.   \u2022 Oxytocin appears to play a role in protecting the intestine from damage, with potential for use in treatment of irritable bowel disease   I get the impression that natural production of oxytocin is a result of emotional/sexual activity and I'm not sure that cuddling relative strangers (even if they're acquaintances) would replicate that.  Personally, I'd put this down to another one of those attention-seeking fads and let other people get on with it...  I'd say that any benefit from these events is more psychological than chemical.",
        "id": 1551,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is really the cause of HIV?",
        "body": "HIV is short for Human Immunodeficiency Virus, so you're asking what causes the virus. Well, that doesn't make much sense and I don't think that's what you meant to ask. I think what you meant to ask is what causes AIDS, or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS is the disease that is caused by the HIV virus. You are correct that the means of contracting the disease such as unprotected sex is not the actual cause of the disease. That's only the way you become infected with the virus. It is the virus that causes AIDS, not the way you caught the virus in the first place.  A pretty good overview can be found here https://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/hiv-aids-101/what-is-hiv-aids/.",
        "id": 791,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the correct way to insert the end of the enema tube?",
        "body": "I'll assume you're doing enemas because a doctor ordered it. If not, then I recommend you just don't do it at all. Enemas are not harmless and unless there's constipation they have no benefits. And even then they shouldn't be used routinely. There are safer, healthier ways to manage constipation.  I'll also assume you're sure you're using the device correctly, that it doesn't have some sort of valve that is blocking flow.  That said, it sounds like you're simply not inserting it far enough. The tip needs to go 2-3 inches into the rectum to get past the anal sphincter. One inch isn't enough. You need to use some lubricant on the tip, preferably something water-based. Your local pharmacy should have a number of choices. But in a pinch you can use stuff like Vaseline, or even a plain vegetable oil such as olive oil.  Although this article is written as instructions for nurses giving enemas to patients, it covers things you need to know about enemas.  https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/gastroenterology/how-to-administer-an-enema/203226.article",
        "id": 1216,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What vitamins or dietary supplements for internal taking are useful for injured skin?",
        "body": "The process of wound healing is extremely complex and combines several processes that occur after the injury. According to 'Bioengineering In Wound Healing: A Systems Approach,'     These processes include coagulation, inflammation, angiogenesis, fibropalacia, epithelization, contraction, and remodeling.   Wound healing is not always a linear process, as it depends on multiple local, system, and environmental characteristics. When the healed wound completely restores the anatomy and function of the initial tissue,      the regeneration is complete and scarless.    However, fundamental conditions required for tissue regeneration are not favorable in mammals.      \u2026the wound must close fast to enable survival and thus, in most cases in mammals, a tick fibrous tissue \u2014 a scar \u2014 is formed at the injured site.   Although several systemic and genomic studies have identified potential cellular and extracellular factors that mediate the formation of scars, the exact mechanism that induces proliferative scar tissue formation instead of healthy tissue is unknown.     Current data show that alterations in coagulation, inflammation, angiogenesis, fibroplasia, contraction, remodeling, mechanical tension correlate with the formation of scars.   Inflammation plays an important role in the body\u2019s response to the injury and in all stages of wound healing.     The inflammatory response includes the response of local inflammatory cells and recruitment of inflammatory cells from the circulation.   Multiple studies show that inflammation continues to play a critical role in wound remodeling,     \u2026probably leading to scar formation.   Wounds create damage at the system\u2019s protective layer and provides a new, nutrient rich ground for microorganisms.     Microbiota play a role in both wound-healing abnormalities: chronic, non-healing wounds and hypertrophic scars, and also healing improvement.   Advances in molecular biology have allowed for an improved understanding of wound healing.     For optimal healing, complex molecular processes must be appropriate and precise.   The depth of injury is of particular interest as it determines if a wound heals with scarring or not.      Injury that is restricted to the epidermis is referred to as an erosion; if the injury were to go deeper, involving the dermis, then it is referred to as an ulcer\u2026Erosions heal without scar, while dermal injury often heals with scar.   Many factors influence the time needed for a wound to heal\u2026     \u2026by secondary intention: wound depth (i.e. deeper wounds take longer than shallow wounds), anatomic location (e.g. concave surfaces do better than convex surfaces), vascular supply, shape (I.e. the narrower the diameter, the faster the closure), underlying comorbidities (e.g. Diabetes, tobacco use), and secondary infection...the balance between degradation and synthesis determines if a scar will be normal or abnormal.    Your \"normotrophic\" scar type is said to cause the least harm and typically forms as a result of an adequate reaction of the body to an injury. A chapter on Normotrophic Scars in the \u2018Atlas of Scar Treatment and Correction\u2019 states the following,     If the wound passes all stages of cicatrization without deviations, a normotrophic scar is formed. In time, such scars become level with the skin, assume a whitish color, become thin, and do not pose any physical discomfort to their bearers. Normally, they do not require correction except for aesthetic improvement of the scar appearance, its surface effacement, and acceleration of the color normalization process.   What vitamins (dietary supplements or some other substances) for internal taking will be useful for the skin?   There isn't one specific vitamin, supplement, or \"some other substance\" that is useful for the skin. However, your nutritional status in general can greatly influence wound healing, as wounds increase the energy, vitamin, mineral, and protein requirements necessary to promote healing. In fact, without adequate nutrition, the process of wound healing can actually be negatively impacted.   According to \u2018Nutrition\u00a0in\u00a0Wound\u00a0Care Management: A Comprehensive Overview.\u2019      The role of nutrition in wound healing may be overlooked in the wound care patient\u2026it is often multifaceted, with many\u00a0nutritional\u00a0components playing a variety of roles in the\u00a0wound healing\u00a0process. Suboptimal\u00a0nutrition\u00a0can alter immune function, collagen synthesis, and\u00a0wound\u00a0tensile strength, all of which are essential in the\u00a0wound healing\u00a0process.   The above abstract determined that nutrition is a common denominator for all wound patients, regardless of the type of wound. In summary,     \u2026it appears that some nutrients are necessary only if deficient, whereas others may become conditionally essential and serve a therapeutic role.    Nutrition also influences skin structure. An abstract titled \u2018The Effects of Dietary Macronutrient Balance on Skin Structure in Aging Male and Female Mice.\u2019 evaluated the associations between macronutrients, energy intake, and skin structure in mice.     We evaluated the associations between macronutrients, energy intake and skin structure in mice fed 25 experimental diets and a control diet for 15 months using the Geometric Framework, a novel method of\u00a0nutritional\u00a0analysis.   Skin structure was associated with the ratio of dietary macronutrients eaten and the nature of the effect differed between the sexes.     In males, skin structure was primarily associated with protein intake, whereas in females carbohydrate intake was the primary correlate. In both sexes, the dermis and subcutaneous fat thicknesses were inversely proportional. Subcutaneous fat thickness varied positively with fat intake, due to enlarged adipocytes rather than increased adipocyte number. We therefore demonstrated clear interactions between skin structure and macronutrient intakes, with the associations being sex-specific and dependent on dietary macronutrient balance.   An abstract on 'Nutrition and Chronic Wounds' discusses nutrition as related to the patient with chronic wounds. The review provides knowledge of basic nutrition, the epidemiology of malnutrition in the chronic wound patient, and how to screen patients for malnutrition. It also recognizes that     \u2026even obese patients may suffer from protein and micronutrient malnutrition.\u00a0   Macronutrients are discussed in detail:     Macronutrients are defined by ASPEN Guidelines and Standards as \u201cnutrients present in the body and required in the greatest amount (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids).\u201d Amino acids are the building blocks of protein throughout the body. Some individual amino acids (arginine, glutamine, and methionine) have been supplemented in addition to the protein in the diet as adjunct pharmacologic nutrients for wound healing. Carbohydrates may be used to provide carbon skeletons for amino acid synthesis but only for those amino acids that are nutritionally dispensable (nonessential). Indispensible (essential) amino acids must be provided in the diet as a component of protein fed or as a keto-acid for all indispensible amino acids except lysine, threonine, and histidine. Fatty acids and cholesterol are nutrients that can be catabolized via beta oxidation to form cellular energy (ATP) and have important cellular functionality such as insulating membranes for nerve axons and are also necessary to form the lipid bilayer essential for organelle and cell membranes.    Micronutrients are also discussed in detail:     Micronutrients are defined as \u201cnutrients present and required in the body in minute quantities (e.g., vitamins, trace elements).\u201d Micronutrients include the vitamins and certain minerals. These minerals are often referred to as trace elements. Certain minerals, such as calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus (macrominerals), which are present in large quantities in the bone and other tissues, are not considered trace elements. One of the most common functions of micronutrients, and some macrominerals, is to serve as necessary cofactors for enzymatic reactions. Essential (or indispensable) nutrients are those that cannot be synthesized in the body, such as vitamin C and minerals.\u00a0   'Nutrition Basics' by Washington State University, outlines specifics related to macro- and micronutrients including role in the body, recommended daily allowance, and food sources. This might be a useful resource in determining appropriate macro- and micronutrient related food choices that may promote wound healing and possibly reduce the appearance of scarring.  Additionally, 'The importance of patients\u2019 nutritional status in wound healing,' concurs,     Wound healing\u00a0is dependent on good\u00a0nutrition\u00a0and the presence of suitable polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet. Protein deficiency has been demonstrated to contribute to poor\u00a0healing\u00a0rates with reduced collagen formation and\u00a0wound\u00a0dehiscence. High exudate loss can result in a deficit of as much as 100g of protein in one day. This subsequently needs to be replaced with a high protein diet. Vitamins are also important in\u00a0wound healing. Vitamin C deficiency contributes to fragile granulation tissue.\u00a0   Although it is possible that you may not achieve complete scar prevention, the information described above may provide some insight about the role of nutrition in wound healing and scar appearance. Because your injury is located on your face, it is also important to be conscious of simple facial movements, as this may also affect the healing process and contribute to scar formation. However, as with any health-related question or concern, it is always best to consult with your primary care physician or treatment specialist before making any drastic changes to your normal dietary regimen.",
        "id": 2031,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating fruit is not so healthy?",
        "body": "First, a couple of facts:   Fructose is not only in fruits, but also in table sugar (sucrose), which is glucose + fructose, and thus in many sweetened foods. Various fruits contain fructose, glucose and sucrose in various proportions. Fruits high in fructose are apples, pears, mangoes, grapes, agave, watermelon and others (check on Nutrientsreview.com)   Conclusions of some studies:   Fructose and metabolic syndrome: Metabolic Effects of Fructose and the Worldwide Increase in Obesity (Physiological Reviews, 2010)      ...fructose intake >50 g/day...was associated with increased   postprandial triglyceride excursions...      There is, however, no unequivocal evidence that fructose intake at   moderate doses is directly related with adverse metabolic effects.   So, >50 g/day of fructose can raise triglycerides, but this alone is not already metabolic syndrome.   Fructose and obesity. A critical examination of the evidence relating high fructose corn syrup and weight gain. (PubMed, 2007)      Based on the currently available evidence, the expert panel concluded   that HFCS does not appear to contribute to overweight and obesity any   differently than do other energy sources   I posted only 2 studies, which represent what I believe: Fructose does not contribute to metabolic syndrome and obesity (significantly) more than glucose or other energy sources (proteins, fats).",
        "id": 1127,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why cannot the body all by itself defeat and eliminate acne?",
        "body": "This is the anatomy of a hair follicle    You can see that there is no muscle to control the size of the pore where the hair exits the skin, so there is no way that the body can control normally the size.  The primary problem is not with the Propionibacterium acnes but with excessive oil production which then causes a blockage in conjunction with dead skin creating a fertile environment for the bacteria to proliferate.  Commensal bacteria on the skin are not controlled by the immune system ( white cells, antibodies, complement etc can't migrate through intact skin to reach the bacteria ) but by competition with other bacteria, moisture etc.  Oil or sebum production is driven by sex hormones testosterone, 5-testosterone (DHT) and 5-androstene-317diol, and unless there's some evolutionary advantage to do so, there won't be any selection for those individuals who less likely to produce excessive oil.  Since male hormones are important, then evolution may be selecting more for those with high male hormone levels which produces more of an advantage then the temporary disadvantages of acne.",
        "id": 927,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a definition of a clean tooth, or a dirty tooth?",
        "body": "In essence, toothpastes work by mechanical surface abrasion, so they scrub the plaque and remains of food from your teeth. They can even be ranked by their abrasive effect measured by standarized methods (e.g. Relative Dentin Abrasivity), althought this might be misleading, so do not follow such rankings blindly:     RDA values are not intended and should not be used as prediction tool of dental abrasion, since it does not reproduce the complex multifactiofial nature of the toothbrushing abrasion process clinically.   Additionaly to their main purpose, toothpastes may supply fluoride or other substances which can affect tooth remineralization (self-repair), reduce ability of the plaque bacteria to produce acid, or maybe raise pH acidity level in the mouth.  There is no definition of \"clean tooth\" or \"dirty tooth\", but there were attempts to measure how many times a day teeth should be brushed so they will be \"clean enough\" to maintain oral health. Quote from \"Tooth brushing and oral health: how frequently and when should tooth brushing be performed?\" (2005):     (...) there is consensus in the literature that (meticulous) tooth brushing once per day is sufficient to maintain oral health and to prevent caries and periodontal diseases. Tooth brushing is also regarded as an important vehicle for application of anti-caries agents, such as fluorides. However, most patients are not able to achieve sufficient plaque removal by performing oral hygiene measures at home. Therefore, tooth brushing twice daily is recommended by most of the dentists in order to improve plaque control. This rule is followed by most of the patients taking care for their oral health and has shown to be effective in maintenance of oral health in numerous studies.   It should be noted that tooth brushing may not be sufficent to maintain oral health under some conditions like improper diet (highly acidic food or drinks), improper drinking technique, regular attending of public pools (so called \"swimmer's erosion\") or maybe even using old toothbrush (supposedly you can disinfect them with vinegar but I've never done that). Here it is advisable to use an alkaline mouthwash as those bad effects (and probably many others) are connected to low pH. When mouth pH levels are low tooth enamel begins to demineralize (even without bacterias). Additionaly, low pH is a good environment for some species of bacteria which produce even more acid.  UPDATE:  It seems there might be a may to actually see 'dirty' tooth after all. You might want to use plaque disclosing products which contain dye reacting with plaque. There seems to be wide variety of such products: tablets, mouthwashes, flosses. You can find many videos on YouTube showing how to properly use the tablets. After using such product you can see where the plaque is, how efficent your toothbrushing (or any other method of plaque removal) was, what places were left etc.",
        "id": 1172,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can ingesting a mosquito make you sick?",
        "body": "Positively, no.  HIV is not spread by mosquitoes.   You cannot contract any disease from swallowing  a mosquito.   Here, is a very large list of all the things that you could have caught :) If you were bitten.",
        "id": 652,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Weird Sleeping Hours",
        "body": "Changing a sleep cycle, especially drastically, takes time for you body to adjust to. It's pretty self induced jetlag and you're trying to yank your entire circadian rhythm to another setup. According to webmd, and answers on Quora, jetlag can last 4-5 days, but varies by person and time adjustment. (Three days was almost there!)  Your circadian rhythm, sleep playing a large part, entails a lot of aspects, all which need to adjust to a different sleep schedule. Consider how your eating, exercise, and the rest of your daily rhythm comes into play.   Lastly, consider using other sleep hacks to help adjust. Searching for adjusting to jetlag will provide plenty of tips. Here's a really long answer I wrote on Cognitive Sciences Stack Exchange on sleep hacks.   Best of luck!",
        "id": 326,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pills in cold car overnight - still okay?",
        "body": "Drug shelf life is usually measured at 25 deg C but accelerated testing for stability is done at higher temperatures as this adds energy to the system degrading the drugs faster.  So, storing drugs at lower temperatures increases shelf life.  https://pharmlabs.unc.edu/labs/kinetics/arrh.htm  Arrhenius Equation  When a new drug product is being formulated, it is desirable to determine the stability of the drug entity in the drug product so that a shelf life or expiration date may be assigned to the product. The shelf-life is the length of time required for the product potency to be reduced to some percentage of its original value. For most products, this is the T90 or time at which the product retains 90% of its original potency. Although the drug's stability at room temperature is of primary interest, a stability study at room temperature would take too long to be useful as a screening procedure for new formulations. Therefore, such screening studies are conducted at elevated temperatures in accordance with the Arrhenius equation:  ",
        "id": 2187,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can breathing techniques lessen anxiety?",
        "body": "Neuroscience is complex; this is a simplification.  To summarize: yes, breathing techniques and other meditation and biofeedback methods have been shown to be effective for reducing anxiety and panic, as has been cognitive behavioral therapy.  Psychotherapy is a critical part of treatment of anxiety disorders.  Some people benefit from medications like SSRIs as well. BUT because anxiety might be a symptom of a medical condition, it's important to see a doctor to be formally diagnosed, and receive individualized treatment recommendations.  Generalized anxiety disorder is, at its root, over-activity of the sympathetic nervous system.  It is when the normal human \"fight or flight\" response is extended and/or exaggerated.  Panic attacks occur when that gets stuck in a positive feedback loop.    Physical symptoms of anxiety or panic are due to this sympathetic hyper-activation: increased heart rate, blood pressure, respirations, alertness, sensory awareness (including pain), sweating, speed of reaction, gastrointestinal upset, etc.  It helps to understand that anxiety and panic disorders develop more frequently in people who have experienced severe traumatic stressors, especially during childhood, during which their neurological system becomes conditioned to overreact.  During \"fight or flight\" much of our mental processing gets caught up in the limbic system (center of emotion) rather than engaging the frontal cortex (center of logical reasoning), which is why anxiety can impair clarity of thought, decision-making, and memory.  Deep breathing, mediation, and certain biofeedback techniques can activate the parasympathetic nervous system, thereby decreasing sympathetic tone.  With practice it can interrupt even the positive feedback loop of panic.  This not only reduces the physical symptoms, it allows our frontal cortex to engage in processing input and thoughts more logically.  The long term impact of these techniques can be profound.    Resources below are as a supplement for professional evaluation and treatment.   References   Harvard patient education on relaxation techniques for anxiety WebMD information on deep breathing exercises Example of many studies on effects of diaphragmatic breathing on mood and attention PsychologyToday on breathing techniques One of many papers looking at adverse childhood events as risk factors for anxiety, depression, PTSD   Resources   Individual therapy (search for therapist in the USA) Free app iChill developed by the Trauma Resrouce Institute Seattle Children's Hospital resources for breathing techniques Book Transforming Anxiety by Childre (HeartMath Institute) ",
        "id": 2363,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is the H2O molecule an antigen despite its tiny size and simplicity?",
        "body": "The pathogenesis behind Aquagenic Urticaria isn't definitively known - and the extreme rarity of the condition makes studying it difficult (only ~100 cases published!)  It does appear to be an allergic-type response - as shown in the linked article from your question the wheals are formed when histamine is released and AU appears to respond to antihistamine treatment in most cases.   One theory (Czarnetzki et al ) is that the patient isn't having an allergic reaction to the water itself but rather a water-soluble antigen present at the epidermal layer - and that when the antigen is dissolved in the water it then diffuses through the epidermal layer causing the mast cells to release histamine and produce the wheals.   However that is probably not the full story - since there have been reported cases where there was no signs of a histamine response and treating with antihistamines proved ineffective (Luong et al)  So to summarize - no definitive mechanism as been determined, but it's probably not a case of simply being allergic to H2O molecules.",
        "id": 2658,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you monitor possible Lyme disease after a treated infection?",
        "body": "Patients successfully treated for Lyme Disease do not need monitoring of any kind (there is no advantage to this.) There are no recommendations for routine antibody levels post Lyme (in fact, it is discouraged, because no one knows what the levels signify), nor yearly exams or other.  It is the responsibility of the patient (and the patient should be so instructed) to return if they are having continuing or new problems.  A bit of background:  The diagnosis and (standard) treatment of Lyme should be swift and proactive, not reliant on positive antibodies. The possibility of Lyme should be present in a physician's mind when seeing a patient with typical signs and symptoms (and should be treated before any confirmatory testing is completed), as well as any illness which presents a diagnostic challenge. Unfortunately should doesn't always translate to is.     Antibody test results generally are not useful for the diagnosis of early Lyme disease because only a few patients with single EM [erythema migrans] will have a positive result because the rash usually develops before antibodies are detectable. The antibody test result is often negative in the acute phase even in those with multiple EM. Even in the convalescent phase after antimicrobial treatment, antibody test results are negative in approximately half of those with single EM and a quarter of those with multiple EM.    This is an interesting question on a lot of levels, some of the answers to which are still being worked out.  Typically when a person is first exposed to a pathogen, the early antibodies made are of the IgM class, followed temporally by IgG. IgM should not be made on re-exposure, but re-exposure should kick up the level of IgG. However, Borrelia burgdorferi infections are not typical.  In people treated early for Lyme, often IgG never develops. IgM, on the other hand, can persist for two decades or more (studies are still ongoing) as well as IgG in those who formed these antibodies. IgM, therefore, is not as predictive of initial infection as in other infections. Antibodies can't be relied upon to make a diagnosis.  Many patients who receive early and appropriate treatment for Lyme disease continue to live in or frequent regions where ticks are endemic, therefore repeated tick bites are quite common.      In 1 study of persons from New York with recently recognized Ixodes scapularis tick bites, 59 (17.6%) of 335 subjects reported new tick bites during a 6-week follow-up period...   This was 6 weeks! In one study, the reinfection (not to be confused with continuing symptoms following treatment) rate within the 5 years following initial successful treatment was ~50%.   Reinfection is usually accompanied by recurrence of EM and/or the fever, myalgia, and arthralgia common with initial Lyme Disease, though there is some (not strong) evidence that symptoms may be less severe on reinfection. So suspicion should remain high in people who live in endemic areas, of those counties near to endemic areas because of the spreading of the bacterium, time of year (most new infections occur in July, June, August and May, in descending order; there's no reason to suspect reinfection is any different), etc.  In the foreseealbe future, there will be tests to determine the presence of bacterial DNA in joint fluid, tissue samples and other, which will help in the diagnosis of the illness, success of treatment, and reinfection. But medicine isn't quite there yet.  Edited to add:      If this patient were to be bitten by another tick in the future, would it be possible to make a determination of Lyme Disease? If so, how?   No, it wouldn't be possible to test for the diagnosis. If a person in an endemic area presents with a tick bite in which the tick was starting to become engorged, a single 200mg dose of doxycycline has been shown to effectively prevent 80+% of new infections, so that's always an option (one I'm not quite sure of.) If the patient goes on to develop the rash or flu0like symptoms, a full course of antibiotics is then given.  TL;DR: There are insufficient studies about the immunology of reinfection. The diagnosis and treatment will depend on the discernment of the patient + physician. If the person is in an area with high infection rates, the index of suspicion and willingness to treat should be high.         Lyme disease is diagnosed based on symptoms, physical findings (e.g., rash), and the possibility of exposure to infected ticks.      Current diagnostics are less than optimal for early disease because it can take weeks for a detectable immune response to be sufficiently measured. So the early stages of disease which when treatment is typically most effective unfortunately are when serum diagnostics are least effective. - CDC Webinar Sept 2012      Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme Disease) &lt;-- decent overview with some mistakes Persistence of Immunoglobulin M or Immunoglobulin G Antibody Responses to Borrelia burgdorferi 10\u201320 Years after Active Lyme Disease Antibiotic  Treatment  Duration  and  Long-Term Outcomes of Patients with Early Lyme Disease from a Lyme Disease\u2013Hyperendemic Area Reinfection in Patients with Lyme Disease some statistics (not all up to date but still helpful) more statistics ",
        "id": 390,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do you need to consume iodised salt?",
        "body": "Iodine is absolutely an essential mineral, and is required for proper functioning of your body. It is a component of the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (also known as T3) and its precursor form T4 (thyroxine). This hormone is involved in quite a few processes in the body, and acts on nearly every cell in it.   A deficit of iodine can cause a number of diseases, including goiter (swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck), hypothyroidism (can cause increased sensitivity to cold, fatigue, weight gain, constipation, and depression), gastric cancer, and cretinism (presents as severely stunted development and growth, both physical and mental, but unlikely to affect a healthy adult).  Now, iodized salt is not the only source of iodine in one's food. It can also be found in fish, shellfish, and kelp products, milk and eggs from iodine-sufficient farm animals, and plants grown on iodine-rish soil. The recommended intake of iodine varies between 150 &micro;g per day for healthy adults to 250-290 &micro;g/day for pregnant and lactating women, respectively. Children require somewhat lower amounts. On the other hand, the recommended upper limit is around 1100 &micro;g (1.1 mg) per day for adults.   A quarter teaspoon (1.5g) of the iodized sea salt in my cabinet provides \"45%\" of the recommended daily value of iodine (the label doesn't provide mass). Assuming they're using the 150 &micro;g value, that's 67.5 &micro;g iodine in a serving that provides one quarter of your sodium for the day. The table in this section of the Health Professional Fact Sheet for iodine from the NIH's Office of Dietary Supplements provides some values for iodine levels in various other food sources:    So, bottom line, you are likely getting sufficient iodine in your daily diet, even without using iodized salt. Now, I don't want to discourage the use of it at all, as there is absolutely nothing wrong with it from a health perspective (except from overconsumption, but that applies to most everything). Not everyone (especially in America, the UK, and some other countries) eat very healthy diets, but since the use of iodized salt in restaurants and for food manufacturers is required by law, Westerners are not likely to be under-iodinated.  Of course, the best way to tell is to go to your primary health care provider, explain your situation, and ask if they'd be willing to order a thyroid function blood test. It looks at the levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH, from the pituitary gland) along with thyroid hormone itself. However, as long as you aren't experiencing any of the symptoms of hypothyroidism and don't have a goiter, you're probably OK.",
        "id": 809,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Keeping a heavily bleeding patient awake. Why?",
        "body": "No!  With brain injuries, it is not recommended anymore to keep patients awake because     people with a concussion need to sleep to recover. In the days before head CT scanning was widely available, the only way to know if someone had life-threatening brain bleeding (which occurs in less than 0.1 percent of those with concussion) was to observe him for a decrease in his level of alertness that resulted from the blood pressing on vital brain structures. This usually happened within six hours of injury. It was thought that if you could keep someone awake you could prevent him from lapsing into coma, which of course did not work.   While some people on the internet claim that someone awake with a higher blood pressure and a faster pulse will have better survival chances, (actually, this would mean that they bleed more, not less), there is no scientific evidence that this will indeed improve survival chances.  Emergency services usually check whether the patient is still able to stay awake to assess his situation based on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). Saying \"Stay with me, buddy\" will then be used to asses the verbal response.  However, this is only used to assess the current life-threatening dangers (for example in the various Triage systems). Keeping someone awake will not benefit their survival chances.  Mostly, trying to keep someone awake only creates very dramatic scenes for movies.",
        "id": 1800,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I am not a student of medicine but a research scientist in Algorithms. I wish to contribute to medicine and am looking for a starting point.",
        "body": "Since you wish to contribute to research, I suggest you go to PubMed and read as many recent papers published on the topic to acquaint yourself with the latest developments to see if there is anything that you can contribute towards.",
        "id": 1473,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I sleep with my bra on?",
        "body": "To answer your question with the best quality evidence would require a double blinded prospective controlled study. Clearly that's not going to happen. But we do have a case control study looking at the bra wearing habits of those with breast cancer, and those without, to see if there is a dose response relationship. And there was none in this group.     We conducted a population-based case\u2013control study of breast cancer in the Seattle\u2013Puget Sound metropolitan area that compared 454 invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) cases and 590 invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) cases diagnosed between 2000 and 2004 with 469 control women between 55 to 74 years of age. Information on bra-wearing habits and other breast cancer risk factors was collected from study participants through in-person interviews. Multivariate adjusted odds ratios (OR) and their associated 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using polytomous logistic regression. No aspect of bra wearing, including bra cup size, recency, average number of hours/day worn, wearing a bra with an underwire, or age first began regularly wearing a bra, was associated with risks of either IDC or ILC. Our results did not support an association between bra wearing and increased breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women.   http://m.cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/early/2014/08/27/1055-9965.EPI-14-0414.abstract  Other studies have suggested a link, but this can be explained by the fact that those more likely to wear a bra are more likely to be overweight leading to a larger breast size, and obesity is a well known risk factor for cancer. Larger breasts also imply more breast tissue, and therefore more risk for breast cancer.",
        "id": 890,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In-ear earphone to sleep",
        "body": "Asking for earphones/headphones which have a good sound quality is not on-topic for this group as this generates opinion related answers at best.  Some people's idea of good quality can be very different to others.  To highlight this I wonder where you get the idea that sound quality is poor when there are no sound specifications provided on the website.  If you are after something which can be safely used whilst asleep to take noise away, then as far as earphones/headphones is concerned, it seems that the SleepPhones you linked to would be more comfortable based on the testimonials.  As a personal opinion, if you go for them it may be best to go for the wireless ones to prevent strangulation by the cord on corded phones.  Aside from this, there are earplugs which you can buy to remove sound.  However if having music helps you sleep then this will not be the answer for you.  To select the right earplugs for you, you may want to look at Cooper Safety's Webpage and read up on the information on NRR values. Specifically, the section on How does NRR change decibels of exposure?  They also list on the page, typical sound levels in decibels (dB) of various sounds in order for you to estimate the dB levels you want to cancel out.  I wish you luck in your search for something which is right for you.",
        "id": 1770,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to help cure a disc protrusion",
        "body": "Sounds like you are talking about trying to help a possible disc pathology in your lower back region because you referenced the abdominal area. For lower back discs most of the time it is due to a flexion intolerance, in my opinion, and from the work of Prof Stuart McGill &amp; Dr Craig Liebenson which you can see here http://chirocentre.co.uk/lower-back-bent-over-forward-flexion-intolerant-spine/  Lower back pain from a lumbar disc source of pain tends to get worse from poor controlled lumbar spine flexion. That's why the McKenzie exercises are recommended physical therapists and chiropractors. Abdominal hollowing is one train of thought however, I follow the thinking of the work coming out of the Prague School of Rehabilitation method more which recommends using abdominal breathing instead. So pushing your stomach out when you breath in and pulling it in when you breath out. They also have other exercises or postures they recommended to help out. I made a massive Youtube playlist for people to watch if they want https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLlQpsUduPwnH4Umm3fKrBG3V_ZrtlXU--",
        "id": 670,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are medical units pertaining to blood-tests, etc. standard/universal? Or vary from country to country?",
        "body": "While the measured quantities are the same across border, both names and units can vary.  The main difference is often the unit used for the concentration of each analyte : either mass per volume or mole per volume (eg: glucose 1g/L = 5.5 mmol/L), sometime variation on the unit prefix (eg: haemoglobin 120 g/L = 12 g/dL). It is of course possible to convert a value in another representation: here is a list of normal values (PDF) in different units.  This is mostly a result of differing medical traditions/habits (AMA style guide regarding units, wikipedia on units and reference ranges)",
        "id": 1485,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do pupils dilate when someone says a lie? Other physicial symptoms when someone is lying?",
        "body": "The phenomenon you are describing of the pupils dilating when telling a lie has to do with the way the muscles around the eye are wired to the nervous system, and more specifically, the autonomic nervous system.  For better understanding, I suggest reading the chapter about neurotransmission in any introductory pharmacology book, such as Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (chapter 6 in 12th edition), or Goodman &amp; Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (chapter 8 in 12th edition). However, I will try to explain it briefly here.  The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates bodily functions that occur without conscious control (involuntary actions). This system is divided into two branches: The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system; each can be described by a short general statement, as follows: The sympathetic system is more active in a \"fight or flight\" situations, and the parasympathetic system is more active in a \"rest and digest\" state. In other words, the sympathetic nervous system adjusts your body to deal with some kind of threat to your safety, whereas the parasympathetic nervous system adjusts your body to conserve energy and be efficient when resting (i.e. good sleep,good digestion etc.)  Now, lying usually involves some level of tension or anxiety (unless you are a very good liar), because you might be worried to a certain degree that the lie will be revealed. This tension subconsciously triggers the sympathetic nervous system, which will cause certain effects throughout your body. Sympathetic stimulation to the eye will cause contraction of the radially oriented pupillary dilator muscle fibers in the iris and will result in mydriasis (dilation of the pupil). An opposite effect is achieved when the eye receives parasympathetic stimulation (i.e. when you are calmer, maybe after confessing the truth...), and the pupil undergoes miosis (constriction).  In short, since lying usually involves tension, and tension is associated with increased sympathetic activity, the pupil will dilate following sympathetic stimulation.  This point leads us to the other part of your question: other physical symptoms of lying are actually other manifestations of increased sympathetic activity (for a more thorough review, please see the texts I recommended above). Among others, common effects are: rise in blood pressure,increased heart rate, and increased sweating.",
        "id": 1335,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I am confused about this hot sauce nutrition label",
        "body": "Per 100 gram:   Sugars = 20 g x 4 kcal = 80 kcal Fiber = 2 g x 2 kcal = 4 kcal Protein = 1 g x 4 kcal = 4 kcal In total: 88 Kcal (368 kJ) and not 10kJ as stated.   Carbohydrate total is also wrong. It should be 22 g (not 20 g): 20 g of sugar and 2 g of fiber.",
        "id": 2322,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What to substitute for milk, in search of sufficient calcium and nutrition?",
        "body": "If you are eliminating milk only, then many of the other dairy sources still hold true as valuable sources of calcium. For example, an 8 ounce serving of fruit yogurt has ~ 300mg of calcium. This would also allow for cheese, which is also in the neighborhood of 300 mg for a 1.5 ounce serving. This makes it fairly easy to avoid milk.  If you eliminate dairy, then your three best sources out of native food are going to be canned salmon, sardines and tofu. The salmon and sardines have calcium because they have the bones included. Tofu is ground up soybeans, and it has about 800mg of calcium per 1 cup. The canned fish is 200-300 depending on the size of the can/serving, etc.  However, what makes it easier is to add fortified foods to your list. A single cup of calcium fortified orange juice has 500mg of calcium. That gets you half way there, and if you make a turkey sandwich with enriched bread and throw on some kale you can easily get to your daily requirement.  If, however, you avoid enriched foods and all dairy, then you probably will need to either eat a lot of tofu or be prepared to eat a lot of varied foods. You can also consider supplements such as vitamins or similar.  For reference from a US based source, the University of California has a reference page on calcium in food, as does the National Institute of Health. Also, google will bring up nutritional information on foods when searched.",
        "id": 110,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can low libido be a side-effect of schizoprenia medications?",
        "body": "Yes they can.  Co-occurring conditions like depression may also contribute to low libido.  This is a good article that discusses the details.     The mechanisms by which antipsychotic drugs may cause sexual   dysfunction are as follows:          histamine receptor antagonism,    dopamine receptor antagonism,    dopamine D2 receptor antagonism,    cholinergic receptor antagonism,    alpha-adrenergic alpha receptor antagonism      A primary theory is that antipsychotics that have dopaminergic receptor antagonism     \"may decrease the libido by inhibiting motivation and reward.\"    Of those medications, haloperidol, risperidone, and amisulpride are also known to raise levels of prolactin, which inhibits testosterone production.  This has a higher association with sexual dysfunction.  Olanzapine, clozapine, quetiapine, and aripiprazole are less likely to do so.  Bupropion inhibits reuptake (increases amount) of norepinephrine and dopamine. It is one of the antidepressants least likely to be associated with sexual dysfunction.  Doctors:  You should talk with your psychiatrist that prescribes you this combination of medications and seek his/her advice.  These are common side effects.  You should also talk with your primary care physician.  They can do the endocrinology tests for prolactin and/or testosterone IF they feel they are appropriate.  They will likely ask that you discuss your meds with your psychiatrist as well, as they are the experts.  Another possibility is to talk with a urologist, who are the experts in male genitalia and everything about them.  But a primary care doctor is generally better at putting the whole-person picture together, if you have additional medical issues that are not being addressed.   A sexologist is not a medical doctor (at least in my understanding it is a branch of psychology) and as such is not going to be able to do those tests or prescribe anything like testosterone - if that is necessary.  They are, however, extremely helpful in addressing all other contributing factors to low libido and erectile dysfunction!  An important point:  This is not medical advice; talk everything over with your physician before making changes, and for anything regarding your unique situation.  But overall, managing schizophrenia is paramount to anything else, as uncontrolled symptoms affect ALL quality of life aspects not just sex. I sincerely applaud anyone who maintains their schizophrenia well managed on medications, as it is easy to think \"I feel fine maybe I don't need it\" and fall into relapse of symptoms.  It can be a very difficult condition to treat because med adherence is so important.   Libido can be adjusted with things like sexual therapy and possibly medications, but when a condition like schizophrenia is well managed, you don't want to mess with changing those meds unless it's under your psychiatrist's careful guidance!",
        "id": 1893,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which of these things is needed for a first time pregnancy checkup?",
        "body": "I am going to try and tackle this. If anything isn't covered or is unclear, please leave a comment.      1) Initial Consultation    That is, I assume, just the initial doctor's visit - taking your wife's health history, weight, blood pressure, etc. That is, of course, completely reasonable.      2) Initial Consult - Fetal Medicine   I am not completely sure what is meant with this. It might be giving you information on how to have a healthy pregnancy (what to do, what to avoid), or on how to deal with problems with the fetus if they occur. I'd need more information on this.      3) Follow up Visits -(11 visits)   Reasonable. Over the course of 36 weeks (from initial visit to estimated due date), a normal schedule for a healthy is one visit every month until the last trimester, where visits might be every two and later every week (when going over the due date, for example). One visit during month 3, 4, 5, 6 = 4 visits. Every two weeks during months 7, 8, and 9= about 7,which works out to more or less 11. It could also be 12  or more if problems arise or there are risk factors, but I am assuming a pregnancy with no risk factors here. For comparison, the NHS lists 10 such visits in its example schedule.The NIH lists a few more, with one weekly appointment in the last month.      4) Routine Laboratory tests:    a) CBC -(2 tests)   Yes, reasonable. This is a complete blood count, for detecting things like anemia (low hemoglobin), which can be used problem during pregnancy, or high infection markers. Again, the NHS has more information on this (they call it FBC - full blood count) .     b) Blood Type &amp; Antibody   Blood Type - reasonable. At the very least you need to know your wife's rhesus type to know if  rhesus incompatibility could be a problem.  \"Antibody\" is not enough information. I'd need to know what antibody tests this means.     c) HIV    HIV status is usually checked during pregnancy to prevent  passing HIV to the child.      d) Hepatitis B   Same with hepatitis B     e) Rubella    Rubella infection during pregnancy is very dangerous for the fetus, checking whether the mother is immune helps determining whether the mother needs to be careful to stay away from people who might have it.     f) C/S Urine    This is for diagnosing urinary tract infections. I think it might be argued whether this is really necessary to do at the beginning of a pregnancy, but it's also not invasive and treating a UTI means it can't turn into a worse infection.      g) Urinalysis Dip Sticks \u2013 ( 11 Sticks )   Reasonable. A Urinalysis at every visit can detect issues such as diabetes, kidney problems, or pre-eclampsia. These issues need to be treated, and can turn dangerous (especially pre-eclampsia).      5) Ultra Sound Examinations -( 3 Scans)    Three ultrasound examinations are standard with the NHS. More may be needed for complicated pregnancies. Ultrasounds are not harmful for baby or mother. This seems reasonable.      6) Glucose Screening   This is screening for pregnancy/gestational diabetes. As mentioned above, diabetes during pregnancy [can be dangerous], but can be treated when detected. It's only recommended by the NHS and the Mayo Clinic if risk factors are present. Talk to your doctor if you are unsure, but the test itself is non-invasive (if not particularly pleasant, or so I hear).      7) Vaginal Swab    For ruling out Group B Strep and STDs, which may affect the infant during delivery. A PAP smear is routine during pregnancy and not dangerous.      8) RPR    This is a test for syphilis. Many US states mandate screening for this at the first prenatal visit. . Syphilis during pregnancy should be treated.   All in all, I think this looks reasonable and doesn't differ too much from recommendations in other countries, for example the NHS guidelines. ",
        "id": 332,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "GI Load questions",
        "body": "Glycemic load is calculated on the amount of carbohydrate with a known glycemic index. You can't therefore calculate a glycemic load for different foods with differing indices. Diabetics instead calculate the total amount of carbohydrate in a meal, and may adjust based on fat and protein present in order to work out their insulin dose.",
        "id": 906,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical puzzle: can blood flow in arteries be non-pulsatile?",
        "body": "No, not in a normal human (non surgical intervention) simply because of the mechanism of how the blood is pushed through the body.  It isn't like a faucet, where you have constant pressure and regulate by opening or closing a valve in varying degrees. The heart has 4 chambers that alternately relax and fill, then squeeze and empty.  The arterial pulse is from the left side of the heart. Oxygenated blood enters into the left atrium, and from there it is pushed into the left ventricle. When this portion of the heart contracts, this is what pushed blood out through the arteries to deliver oxygen to various systems (organs, muscles, skin, etc.) This surge is what you feel when you articulate a pulse.  However, Yes it is possible in a surgical intervention which has been pointed out. There are LVAD's (Left Ventricular Assist Device) which will produce a pulseless human. When reading up on it, I did find an interesting study that suggests LVAD use may stimulate heart regeneration.",
        "id": 314,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a \"keep side\" feature in a patient record?",
        "body": "This is excerpt of mesothelioma staging from the info booklet of American Cancer Society:  http://m.cancer.org/acs/groups/cid/documents/webcontent/003119-pdf.pdf  \"Mesothelioma is in the pleura lining the chest wall on one side of the chest. It may or may not also affect the pleura lining the diaphragm (the thin breathing muscle below the lungs) or the mediastinum (the space between the lungs). It may also have spread to the pleura covering the lung.\"  I can't find direct referral to usage examples of \"keep side\" in medical records.  In case of 0,1,2 value one of them can be mediastinal (between lungs) location.  Once again I logically came to this conclusion and can't claim it.  It will be still guess unless you contact to data providers or researchers of the study and ask them to specify. ",
        "id": 1257,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hemeatology vs Hematology",
        "body": "It's just a misspelling of haematology, which is the British spelling of hematology. Hematology and haematology are synonyms, and there is no such word hemeatology.  From the Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (emphasis mine):      hematology       noun he\u00b7ma\u00b7tol\u00b7o\u00b7gy      Medical Definition of hematology       plural hematologies  :  a medical science that deals with the blood and blood-forming organs       hematologist or chiefly British haematologist -j\u0259st\\      noun      Variants of hematology      or chiefly British haematology   \\\u02cch\u0113-m\u0259-\u02c8t\u00e4l-\u0259-j\u0113\\ ",
        "id": 1441,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Green Tea: Would it cause any harm?",
        "body": "Aside from its wonderful taste, green tea (obtained from the plant Cammelia sinensis, (L.) Kuntze, Theaceae) contains caffeine, and this might be the reason for your possible addiction. Studies have shown that caffeine withdrawal symptoms exist and that their intensity is correlated to the amount of caffeine that was being used previously, and the frequency of use. That being said, tea contains other ingredients: catechins, flavonoids, caffeic acid derivatives etc. While tea has been proven to have many beneficial effects (there have been extensive clinical studies in China and Japan, which have proven that tea consumption is correlated with decreased risk of some types of cancer)  7 - 8 cups of tea per day is way too much!  Why? There are two main reasons:  Caffeine  Aside from being addictive, too much caffeine can cause an overdose. Possible symptoms are: restlessness, tremor and elevated reflex excitability. An overdose can also cause headaches or dizziness, abnormal hearth rhythms, dehydration or sleep problems. According to PDR overdose occurs in doses corresponding to 300 mg of caffeine (approximately 5 cups of tea as a beverage). Even in \"regular\" amounts, caffeine can affect blood pressure, so people with these problems ought to be careful. Tea is, of course, not the only source of caffeine, so when deciding on the daily amount of tea, all sources of caffeine should be taken into account.  Possible anemia  Tannines in tea precipitate iron. If this happens in your digestive system it means that iron becomes insoluble, and cannot be absorbed. This decreases the effective uptake by your body, while regular loss via excretion and  desquamation remains the same, so over time you start having less and less iron at your body's disposal, which can lead to anemia. There were several studies that have proven this effect - many were epidemiological and observational. There was a clinical trial involving patients with haemochromatosis which also proved that drinking tea reduced iron absorption from the GIT.    Possible solutions:  Drinking decaf tea might solve the first problem, but won't solve the second. Moderation is the key. Also, drinking tea with or right after meals (especially those which are the greatest source of iron) should be avoided most of the times. Drinking tea is an indulgent ritual for many, so perhaps switching one or two cups a day for a herbal tea might help.    An interesting aside: PDR cites studies which have proven that tea mouthwashes can reduce growth of some cavity-associated bacteria and reduce formation of plaque (the 2nd goes for oolong). But tanines can deposit on your teeth causing them to turn yellow, so rinsing your teeth with tea is a double-edged sword.    References:   Caffeine - Medline Plus Caffeine withdrawal - Johns Hopkins Medicine Impact of tea drinking on iron status in the UK: a review. Clinical trial on the effect of regular tea drinking on iron accumulation in genetic haemochromatosis PHYSICIAN'S DESK REFERENCE (PDR) FOR HERBAL MEDICINES, 2nd Edition, Medical Economics Company, 2000 ",
        "id": 346,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Antidepressant response post MAOI tachyphylaxis",
        "body": "All Anti-Depressants poop out equally for TR patients.  Having just now signed up on this site, it seems a prerequisite to post is that you ought to have at least minimally researched the question, since the site compels ME not to ask for clarification. Either your or Kramer's interpretation (or both) of the phenomenon of tachyphylaxis, especially related to MAOIs is misfounded.  Here is the quotation from your source [emphasis mine]:      ADT tachyphylaxis (\u201cpoop-out\u201d) was initially recognized in patients receiving monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) before the advent of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in the early 1980s.(1,4,5,7) Patients who lost their initial response to a MAOI responded poorly to subsequent treatment and revealed greater depressive severity after relapse than before the new treatment was initiated.(7,8) SSRIs were introduced in the United States in 1988 and ADT tachyphylaxis was subsequently identified with these drugs as well.(3,9,10) Fava et al found that 26 of 77 depressed patients (33.7%) who had achieved full remission of symptoms on fluoxetine 20mg daily experienced a recurrence of symptoms (ADT tachyphylaxis) between 14 and 54 weeks despite maintenance treatment.(10) In another small study, 15 patients who had lost their response to antidepressants failed multiple treatment strategies including augmentation with mood stabilizers and, in some cases, electroconvulsive therapy.(11)   In other words, ALL Anti-Depressants, as any above-his/her-weight-punching psychiatrist will tell you, will poop out, and often not just for 2-3 AD trials, but even 15 or more. This is called by any definition \"Treatment Resistant\".  The difference between (I assume you mean) MAOIs that covalently bond versus those that do not (Non-selective versus RIMAs) is an important one, and points out why RIMAs like Moclobemide are no better than SSRIs, and why irreversible, non-selective MAOIs raise Serotonin levels > ~2000% over baseline, while SSRIs like Vortioxetine only raise it a few hundred percent.   I hope a poster or referee will call me out on this, as I've got magazines of ammo on this. As the OP's thesis bears no relation to any of his references, I feel free for now, not to give any of my own.      REFERENCES   Cohen B, Baldessarini R. Tolerance to therapeutic effects of antidepressants. Am J Psychiatry. 1985;142:489\u2013490. [PubMed] Frank E, Kupfer DJ, Perel JM, et al. Three-year outcomes for maintenance therapies in recurrent depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47:1093\u20131099. [PubMed] Byrne SE, Rothschild AJ. Loss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59:279\u2013288. [PubMed] Lieb J, Balter A. Antidepressant tachyphylaxis. Med Hypotheses. 1984;15:279\u2013291. [PubMed] Lieb J. Antidepressant tachyphylaxis. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990;51:36. [PubMed] Nierenberg AA, Alpert JE. Depressive breakthrough. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2000;23(4):731\u2013742. [PubMed] Mann JJ. Loss of antidepressant effect with long-term monoamine oxidase inhibitor treatment without loss of monoamine oxidase inhibition. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1983;3:363\u2013366. [PubMed] Donaldson S. Tolerance to phenelzine and subsequent refractory depression: three cases. J Clin Psychiatry. 1989;50:33\u201335. [PubMed] Solomon D, Leon AC, Mueller TI, et al. Tachyphylaxis in unipolar major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:283\u2013290. [PubMed] Fava M, Rappe SM, Pava JA, et al. Relapse in patients on long-term fluoxetine treatment respond to increased fluoxetine dose. J. Clin Psychiatry. 1995;56:52\u201355. [PubMed] Sharma V. Loss of response to antidepressants and subsequent refractoriness: diagnostic issues in a retrospective case series. J Affect Disord. 2001;64:99\u2013106. [PubMed] ",
        "id": 1902,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it ineffective to drink cold water to cool down when you are warm?",
        "body": "This is an interesting question and I will take the bait.   Using the definition from here, and considering 2000 grams (2l) of water at about 0 degrees Celsius which the body must heat to about 37 degrees Celsius the lost heat effort is not that big: 37 deg * 2000 g = 74Kcal (out of about 2000K calorie per day)  This article dives into the results of a study that deals with this exact question:     Sure enough, unlike previous studies, the new study found that   drinking hot water triggered a sweat response that more than   compensated for the heat of the drink. Cold drinks produced the   opposite response, with a reduction in sweat cancelling out the   cooling power of the drink.   So, sweat cancelling might be greater than the cooling effect of the drink.  However, this happens only if sweat evaporated completely:     The caveat is that your sweat must fully evaporate in order to produce   the desired cooling effect. If you're exercising hard, or wearing too   many clothes, or in a very humid environment, you may produce sweat   more quickly than it can evaporate, in which case it's no longer   desirable to ramp up your sweat rate further.   This tackles the thermodynamic aspect of drinking cold water. However, efficiency might measured through hydration. This article suggests that drinking cold water is more efficient than drinking warm water:     (..) cold water is absorbed more quickly into your body than warm   water, helping you rehydrate more quickly   As a conclusion, taken into the account both thermodynamics and hydration, I would say drinking cold water is more effective. Of course, if you do not have some throat issues that might get worse when drinking cold liquids. ",
        "id": 2378,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does tolerance develop to medicinal use of dextroamphetamine?",
        "body": "The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) of Australia states that tolerance does develop upon repeated use 'Tolerance and dependence of the amfetamine type develop on repeated administration of  dexamfetamine.' (1). This document only  mentions tolerance in the general sense.   One article on the use of amphetamine and its derivatives for Treatment Resistant Depression (TRD) note that its effect on psychomotor retardation does not attenuate over time. (2). However, they do note that tolerance does develop to its effects like 'hyperthermia, hypertonia, and anorexia' (2)  In the same article, it is mentioned that other authors have observed declining efficacy over time (2).  These are the most pertinent sources I could find on the question within humans. Animal studies seem to support the notion that tolerance does indeed develop (3).  Considering that the TGA remarks on the  tolerance phenomenon, and that there is evidence from other sources to support this notion, I'm inclined to suggest that tolerance does indeed develop with repeated use.   References   https://www.ebs.tga.gov.au/ebs/picmi/picmirepository.nsf/pdf?OpenAgent&amp;id=CP-2017-PI-01667-1 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181580/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1257363 ",
        "id": 675,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "100% Witch Hazel or 86% for face?",
        "body": "With out a little more information, I'm not sure I can provide a meaningful answer.  In response to comments, I thought I would make it clear that both products are likely the same (double distilled witch hazel).  You should continue using the new bottle as before, assuming you were properly using it in the first place.  I doubt there are any truly 100% witch hazel products, other than the plant itself, that are commercially available.  The \"100%\" product is normally labeled as \"essential oil.\"  This would be opposed to the \"extract\" which has a higher concentration of solvent (in this case ethanol), which can be removed in sequential distillation steps.   Double distilled extract is what is most commonly used medically, and it has 14% ethanol by volume as you described.  Any medical recommendations you received would almost assuredly be about this concentration. Did it perhaps say it was 100% Witch Hazel in a 14% ethanol solution?  While not clear, that would be accurate.  Browsing my institution's ordering system, the highest concentration I could find was from a chemical supply company, and that was with 8% ethanol.  I don't think this would provide you any advantage, and you should probably just by a reasonably priced generic from your local retailer.",
        "id": 700,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "\ufffcHow do diabetics manage their diet and meal planning?",
        "body": "Normally, the approach to the diet is a bit mathematic thanks to the Carbohydrate Counting. The Insulin Sensitivity Factor(ISF) and the Insulin-Carbohydrate(I:C) ratio help to calculate the right amount of Insulin needed for each meal. If needed the ISF it's helpful the make some corrections to the Blood Sugar level, even before the meal, to be added to the normal amount of insulin. For example for a 150gr meal of rice (28gr carbs/100gr) and with a I:C ratio of 1u:10gr, you will need 4.2 units of insulin to compensate the meal.  Let's assume that you have a BG of 175, with a target of 120, there is a delta of 55, with an ISF of 30mg/dl per U, you'll need 1.8 units of insulin. In total for your meal, you will need 6 units of insulin to reach the BG target .  In conclusion, a diabetic person have to spend as much time as a normal person planning the meals. The difference (unless you already know that) is that you should know the weight and the macros of (almost) everything that you're eating.  Here is how to calculate the ISF and the I:C:  (ISF) - http://www.bd.com/us/diabetes/page.aspx?cat=7001&amp;id=7605  (I:C) - http://www.bd.com/us/diabetes/page.aspx?cat=7001&amp;id=7303",
        "id": 1262,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is constantly using oily moisturizer bad for your skin?",
        "body": "Your skin will not make enough protective lipids regardless of whether you use moisturizer or not. With your skin, it's actually better if you use it every day, at least on areas where you get eczema.  Eczema (or Atopic Dermatitis) is an incompletely understood skin disorder, in which the normal skin barrier function (permeability) is compromised, allowing the skin to dry out more than normal skin. The cause of the dryness in AD is thought by some to be a deficiency of a naturally occurring fatty substance in the skin called ceramide. Others believe it's an abnormal or missing protein which causes the skin barrier to be compromised, allowing allergens and irritants to cause immune responses more easily, triggering the itch/chronic inflammation (this might explain the response seen with topical steroids).   Whatever the case may be, moisturizers do provide a barrier of some type to the skin and help to decrease transepidermal water loss; therefore they are highly recommended for AD. Not using moisturizer will leave you open to more problematic eczema. Your skin will not make enough protective lipids regardless of whether you use moisturizer or not. You should use it every day, at least on areas where you get eczema.  Other things which help Atopic Dermatitis involve water temperature when bathing (the cooler, the better), patting your skin dry instead of vigorous rubbing, applying the moisturizer immediately after bathing when your skin has already been moistened by the water, getting a reasonable amount of sun on affected areas, avoiding wool and heavy clothing that might make you sweat, using \"gentle\" soaps (only soaping up areas that need cleaning), showering briefly twice a day instead of once (applying moisturizer afterwards!) etc.  There are some new ceramide-based moisturizers that have been shown to be helpful in AD. Some are very expensive while others are more reasonably priced. Some dermatologists have recommended TriCeram. You can spot test it (one arm or one affected area) to save money while evaluating how well it works for you.  Determining what kinds of moisturizers work best for you involves trial and error, but whatever works, from petrolatum or Aquaphor, coconut oil (frectionated coconut oil and Johoba oil absorb into the skin a bit better so are less greasy), or another type, don't be hesitant to use it. Your particular skin needs it.   Ceramide-dominant barrier repair lipids alleviate childhood atopic dermatitis: Changes in barrier function provide a sensitive indicator of disease activity Study Supports Theory That No Single Genetic Defect Explains Atopic Dermatitis Atopic dermatitis - Mayo Clinic ",
        "id": 51,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rheumatism as \"Wind-wetness\"",
        "body": "\"Rheumatism\" isn't one disease. It's not even a set of closely related diseases, it's just a name for anything affecting the joints and/or connective tissue. As such, there is a wide range of illnesses and causes for these illnesses.   What most people mean when they say rheumatism is arthritis, which is yet another word for a wide range of illnesses, though at least a more narrow one for ones affecting the joints. Most prominent among those diseases are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.   Osteoarthritis is also known as \"degenerative arthritis\". As the name says, it is a degenerative disease, the primary cause is damage from mechanical stress, whether from repetitive movement or mechanical injury. It is not caused by getting cold.  However, people with arthritis often feel worse when experiencing high humidity combined with low barometric pressure.   Rheumatoid arthritis has a very different cause - it is an autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks the joints and as a response, the joint capsule swells. While autoimmune diseases are still being understood, they often have a genetic and an environmental component. This environmental component can be an infection, which could coincide with someone getting very cold. This connection is very weak at best, though.   However, proving a negative is hard, so there is no evidence that windy or wet weather can't cause arthritis. However, when looking at epidemiological data for rheumatoid arthritis      The incidence appears to be highest in Pima Indians (5.3%) and Chippewa Indians (6.8%), and lowest in people from China and Japan (0.2%-0.3%)    As I understand it, Japan actually has a \"rainy season\" for several weeks a year.   Is it impossible that some form of arthritis (which is the umbrella term for a wide range of diseases) often appears in regions where it is windy? No, of course not. But this belief has all the marks of confirmation bias - if you live in a wet and windy climate, you get wet or cold a lot without suddenly developing joint pain. However, the one time it does happen, it's the weather's fault... And because high humidity makes osteoarthritis worse, that might be the first time someone really notices their condition.   Sources and further reading  Overview of Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Diagnosis of Rheumatoid Arthritis  Causes of osteoarthritis  Causes of rheumatoid arthritis  Overview of Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Diagnosis of Rheumatoid Arthritis  Weather and osteoarthritis",
        "id": 47,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Spirit's tincture from medial spirit (which includes Chlorhexidine)",
        "body": "Chlorhexidine is intended for local use only. From PubMed Health:     This medicine may cause serious and permanent injury when placed in the eyes, ears, or mouth. Carefully follow all instructions before using this medicine to prevent these serious side effects.   Martindale: The complete drug reference, 34th edition lists the following potential side-effects:   multiple episodes of cyanosis and bradicardia (in an infant whose mother sprayed her breasts with chlorhexidine when breastfeeding) mild giddiness, unusual laughter, and an increased appetite (in an elderly lady who mistakenly drank 30 mL of 4% chlorhexidine) gastritis (mistaken ingestion) pharyngeal oedema and necrotic oesophageal lesions, increased aminotransferase concentrations and liver necrosis (150mL of 4% solution)   You may say that the concentration of your solution is lesser than in most of these examples. The quantity, however, that you intend to use is much larger. Even though you probably intend to use it over a prolonged period of time, not at once, the fact that chlorhexidine is not intended to be ingested remains.  Edit: As rumtscho has pointed out in comments the tax may be significantly lower because the liquid might contain other ingredient(s) that make it unsafe to drink. Bottom line is that if something is not intended for peroral use, it should not be ingested (even if you find a way to remove chlorhexidine).",
        "id": 1254,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the way to get rid of the redness that appears on the skin immediately after threading the upper lips?",
        "body": "I've actually had to look up this procedure first. From what I've read in this article the procedure itself seems sanitary.   Still our skin surface contains bacteria. When the hair is removed, the bacteria can enter through the pilo-sebaceuous duct.    Image source: http://www.aknicare.co.uk/science.php  This is why it would be good to disinfect the skin prior to the procedure. The choice of antiseptic will depend on your skin sensitivity. 70% ethanol is a very effective antiseptic, but if you have sensitive skin (and the area above the mouth is sensitive in its own right) then ethanol can cause irritation.   Another, somewhat milder antiseptic is boric acid, but if it is absorbed and has systemic effects it can be toxic. This is why its use in cosmetic products has been restricted in the UK. (Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference, 34th edition) This is why (if you chose to use it) it should be used on intact skin only. (An aside: The use in children under 3 years of age is now forbidden. This is because children have more permeable skin, and absorption is more likely than in adults.)  You can always ask your pharmacist or dermatologist to recommend you an antiseptic that would be good for you to use on this sensitive area.    After the procedure you can use a bit of talc powder to lessen the irritation.   From Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference:     Purified talc is used in massage and as a dusting powder to allay irritation and prevent chafing. It is usually mixed with starch, to increase absorption of moisture, and zinc oxide. Talc used in dusting powders or as talc poudrage should be sterilised.      Inhalation of talc can cause respiratory irritation; prolonged exposure may produce pneumoconiosis.    Because the area is right under your nose, you should just be careful not to inhale talc when you apply it, and you can apply a thin layer (there is no need for a thick layer). The microbiological quality of talc powder is very important, so make sure to purchase a reliable brand.",
        "id": 160,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do Elderly benefit from Vitamin D supplements?",
        "body": "According to some studies, adequate vitamin D intake from foods and supplements may prevent bone weakness (osteporosis) in elderly, but according to others it may not.  Efficacy of optimization of vitamin D in preventing osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures: A systematic review  (PubMed, 2006):     ...vitamin D intake of 10-17.5 \u03bcg/day (400-700 IU/day) or more is   effective in preventing bone loss in late postmenopausal women and an   intake of 17.5-20 \u03bcg/day (700-800 IU/day) or more together with a   calcium supplement reduces the risk of osteoporotic fractures.   Vitamin D (Linus Pauling Institute, updated 2017):     The results of a meta-analysis of 23 randomized controlled trials with   more than 4,000 participants (mean age, 59 years) showed little   evidence for an effect of vitamin D supplementation on bone mineral   density at any of the five skeletal sites examined...      A prospective cohort study that followed more than 72,000   postmenopausal women in the US for 18 years found that those who   consumed at least 600 IU/day of vitamin D from diet and supplements   had a 37% lower risk of osteoporotic hip fracture than women who   consumed less than 140 IU/day of vitamin D (73). However, daily   supplementation with 400 IU of vitamin D3, in combination with 1,000   mg calcium, did not significantly reduce risk of hip fracture compared   to a placebo in 36,282 postmenopausal women from the Women's Health   Initiative trial...   According to Mayo Clinic:   Uncontrollable risk factors for osteoporosis include age over fifty, female sex, Asian heritage, small body frame and osteoporosis in family members. Controllable risk factors include insufficient intake of calcium and vitamin D, excessive intake of protein, sodium, caffeine or alcohol, physical inactivity, smoking and chronic diseases (hyperthyroidism, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, etc).   Logically, vitamin D supplements could help to prevent osteoporosis in people with insufficient vitamin D intake or sun exposure, but since this can be corrected by adequate vitamin D intake from foods and by sun exposure, the supplements may not be necessary.  In people without vitamin D deficiency but with other risk factors for osteoporosis, vitamin D supplements would be much less likely effective, as suggested by the above studies.",
        "id": 2548,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does sleeping chest-side down hurt the spine?",
        "body": "I am a massage therapist, and I do recommend the cushion systems for stomach sleepers, which allows the head to remain straight and the spine aligned during sleep. Also, from the point of view of a yoga practitioner, I would suggest that sleeping on the stomach will put more pressure on the abdomen and chest during sleep, making the organs and lungs work harder during what should be a parasympathetic cycle. The body cushion systems will also alleviate this too. ",
        "id": 319,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it okay to reduce DHT in my body?",
        "body": "The problem is that dihydrotestosterone (DHT) does much more than contribute to hair loss. It also plays a crucial role in male sexual development and mood regulation. When DHT levels are reduced, either intentionally or unintentionally, it can impact these functions in unwanted ways and cause:   Impotence, Lower sex drive, Difficulty achieving orgasm, Abnormal ejaculation, Gynecomastia (male breast development), Depression.  However, these side effects only appear in a small minority of men. As with any medication, you should discuss with your hair loss physician whether DHT blockers or other pharmaceutical treatments offer a viable and effective option for addressing your hair loss issues.  References:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3481923/  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4064044/  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5023004/  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4339524/",
        "id": 2506,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Water vs. Coffee when hungry at work",
        "body": "Short answer:  A pack of raisins.  Yes, I've read your question through and through. Please, bear with me for a while, to see the longer answer:  The problem with concentration when you haven't eaten arises primarily because of the lack of nutrients, i.e. glucose.     Glucose is virtually the sole fuel for the human brain, except during prolonged starvation. The brain lacks fuel stores and hence requires a continuous supply of glucose. [...] Fatty acids do not serve as fuel for the brain, because they are bound to albumin in plasma and so do not traverse the blood-brain barrier. In starvation, ketone bodies generated by the liver partly replace glucose as fuel for the brain. (1)   So basically, you can't focus because your brain lacks fuel. It's somewhat similar to a car: yes, you can add water to the radiator (and need to), and yes you can add sparks to make your engine start, but without fuel it just won't run.  Caffeine will not only fail to solve your problem, but can actually be harmful on an empty stomach. It can hurt both your stomach and can make you feel even less focused after a short while.     Caffeine increases energy metabolism throughout the brain but decreases at the same time cerebral blood flow, inducing a relative brain hypoperfusion. (2).      Caffeine may increase an individual's sensitivity to hypoglycemia through the combined effects of reducing substrate delivery to the brain via constriction of the cerebral arteries, whilst simultaneously increasing brain glucose metabolism and augmenting catecholamine production. [...] Under laboratory conditions, acute ingestion of caffeine markedly enhances the symptomatic and sympathoadrenal responses to hypoglycemia in both healthy volunteers and patients with type 1 diabetes. (3)   To sum it up - caffeine will make you more alert for a short while, but it will eat up little fuel that you had left, and leave you almost completely without it. For the half hour, 40 minutes perhaps, you will feel better, but then the problems will start - even stronger sense of hunger, worse problems with focusing on your work and possibly light-headedness and hand trembling might occur.     Heartburn is the most frequently reported symptom after coffee drinking. It is demonstrated that coffee promotes gastro-oesophageal reflux. Coffee stimulates gastrin release and gastric acid secretion [...] Coffee induces cholecystokinin release and gallbladder contraction[...] (4)   Caffeine will stimulate the release of gastric acid and bile, which are meant to digest food. But, since there will be no food to digest it will begin to \"digest\" your stomach instead (well, not literally, but it can cause you pain and problems, especially if you make a regular practice of it).  Water might leave you feeling fuller for a while, but it won't solve the underlying problem (lack of brain fuel), and large quantities of water, drank in a relatively short time span, on an empty stomach, might leave some feeling a bit sick (the smaller the stomach volume, the worse it gets). It's not dangerous, but can be uncomfortable.  The solutions:   Do you ever forget your keys? Your mobile phone? Well make a habit of not forgetting your snacks. It is simply a matter of priorities, and health is a priority. (And do make sure that the snacks are as healthy as possible). Have a contingency snack plan: keep a bag of raisins (e.g.) in your purse. If you change purses, keep a bag of raisins in every purse, or next to something that you won't forget (e.g. your keys). Keep a pack of raisins (or something similar) at work (in your desk perhaps).   For 2 and 3 - just remember to occasionally check those places and expire dates - no one likes to find a 10-month old bag of raisins in their purse/desk/key drawer.    References:   Each Organ Has a Unique Metabolic Profile Caffeine and the central nervous system: mechanisms of action, biochemical, metabolic and psychostimulant effects. The best defense against hypoglycemia is to recognize it: is caffeine useful? Coffee and gastrointestinal function: facts and fiction. A review.   ** an important note: ref. 3 discusses caffeine as an indicator of hypoglycaemia in diabetic patients, BUT I can access and link just the abstract and there is no room in it to discuss how dangerous hypoglycaemia is in patients who receive insulin therapy - in these cases hypoglycaemia can be deadly, and something that would amplify the symptoms is used only so they can recognize the condition and eat something. Without food to follow immediately, caffeine is not a good solution.",
        "id": 426,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "anyone give me a list of Healthy Foods to Crank Up my Sex Drive?",
        "body": "Maca &lt;--- Really healthy in general also.  Horny Goat's Weed &lt;--- Haven't tried it myself.  I think generally you're looking for herb-aphrodisiacs. Try a google search and I'm sure you'll find lots of resources.  That said, improving nutrition in general is key to most health-issues I believe. Avoid refined carbs (sugars), eat more fiber, if you live in Europe (like me) take a vitamin D supplement in the Winter, take a multisupp aswell, supp with magnesium and potassium also. Aim for correcting potential micronutrient deficiencies - you'll have to research a little to get a general understanding. A good one for overall health is fish-oil. Also some regular exercise does wonder for your sexdrive, doesn't have to be fitness, running is a fantastic tool imo.",
        "id": 1599,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much T4 increase do you get per mcg of levothyroxine?",
        "body": "First of all, thyroid hormones are actively taken up into cells and accumulate there. Therefore, the apparent volume of distribution for T4 is 10 liters rather than 5 liters (1). Secondly, I would assume a slightly lower proportion of free T4 (0.02%) (1). That results in 90 pmol/L.  This is still above the reference range for FT4. However, T4 is rapidly converted to T3, rT3, 3,5-T2, thyronamines and iodothyroacetates (2). In combination, these mechanisms end up in plausible concentrations.  This scenario also explains, why even slight variations of parameters can end up in dramatic changes of hormone concentrations, e.g. in allostatic load (3).   J. W. Dietrich, A. Tesche, C. R. Pickardt &amp; U. Mitzdorf. Thyrotropic Feedback Control: Evidence For An Additional Ultrashort Feedback Loop From Fractal Analysis. Cybernetics and Systems Vol. 35 , Iss. 4, 2004. doi 10.1080/01969720490443354 Hoermann R, Midgley JE, Larisch R, Dietrich JW. Homeostatic Control of the Thyroid-Pituitary Axis: Perspectives for Diagnosis and Treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2015 Nov 20;6:177. doi 10.3389/fendo.2015.00177. PMID 26635726 Chatzitomaris A, Hoermann R, Midgley JE, Hering S, Urban A, Dietrich B, Abood  A, Klein HH, Dietrich JW. Thyroid Allostasis-Adaptive Responses of Thyrotropic Feedback Control to Conditions of Strain, Stress, and Developmental Programming.  Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2017 Jul 20;8:163. doi 10.3389/fendo.2017.00163. PMID 28775711 ",
        "id": 1847,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much of the difference in brain size is attributable to gender, not physical size?",
        "body": "This is an excellent question. In my attempt to answer it I'll cite sources from the best research on the subject to date, and we'll conduct our own investigation.  Body size vs. Head size vs. Brain volume  In your question, you asked how body size (weight and height) relates to brain volume by gender. Body size is related to brain volume through another measure, head size. Larger body, larger head, larger brain.a Men and women have different body sizes, and different head sizes as well.      Conducting our own investigation  Sample  In the paper you referenced, Gur et. al. looked at 80 healthy (40 male and 40 female) volunteers aged 18-45 years. They used an automated parcellation approach, meaning they used automated image processing on the brain images to derive their measurements.  In our investigation, we'll use data frome the publicly available Human Connectome Project, or HCP. We'll look at 896 healthy (393 Male and 503 female) volunteers aged 22-36 years. HCP also used an automated parcellation software, called FreeSurfer.b We'll use IntraCranial Volume - the volume inside the cranium - to represent head size.  Total Brain Volume - Males vs Females       We see here that men have larger brains than women. We can also see from the linear model results that the estimated mean difference from our sample is a substantial 153.9 milliliters (as compared to ~200 milliliters in Gur et. al. 2001). For reference, this is about 2/3 one of those half pint boxes of milk you used to get at school lunch.  But how much is total brain volume related to head size?  TBV vs ICV    We can see right away that these two measures are highly correlated. It makes sense. Typically, bigger animals -- with corresponding bigger heads -- have bigger brains:    But what you want to know is whether the difference remains after accounting for head size. In other words, is the difference disproportionate to head size?  Adjusting TBV by ICV  Here we use a method called residualizing to remove the effect of ICV on TBV we observed above. You can find the code we're using here, and a reference describing the procedure in detail here.  Let's check the graph of TBV vs ICV again, to make sure the effect is removed.    Revisiting TBV in Males vs Females  Here we'll reexamine the difference between Male and Female brain sizes using the adjusted values.    The difference is still statistically significant, but smaller. The linear model estimates the adjusted average difference to be 23.6 milliliters (compared to 153.9 before). Going back to the milk reference, this is about 1/10 the box, or one sip.    Conclusions  We found that the difference in brain volumes between men and women is partially, but not completely explained by their difference in head sizes.  The difference is smaller, but still there after adjusting. Now your next question may be, so what? Do these differences in brain volume explain anything about behavior or ability? That's where papers like the one you referenced come in.   Gur et. al. suggest in their paper that females compensate for smaller total brain volume by having increased gray matter, and therefore more tissue available for computation. Other studies conclude that in order to understand gender differences in cognitive ability, you have to look closer at the parts of the brain that are activated during different tasks.c  The HCP data could help us test these ideas too, but that's outside the scope of your question.",
        "id": 709,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the negative health effects of Absolute Zero Monster Energy",
        "body": "So far daily caffeine intake has not proven to be too dangerous. [1] Side effects include anxiety, jitteriness and insomnia[2], which may affect your psychical balance, and may worsen several psychiatric disorders. You may also search for effects and complications of insomnia, as this is one of the major problems.  Note that large coffeine intake may be dangerous in pregnancy.  \"I consider these important otherwise i can't get into gear in the morning and begin to fall asleep at my desk in the afternoon. My lifestyle choices are irrelevant to this question.\" - in my opinion this may have more serious effect on your health than caffeine intake, but as you already noted thats not your question.  1 - pubmed  2 - Wikipedia",
        "id": 374,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why isn't there a larger effort to reverse and block the effects of androgens on skin?",
        "body": "Why, oh, why? Looking into the mirror was sometimes a waking nightmare.  This is partly an XY-Problem and secondly not a pessimists complaint but an overoptimistic expectation. So, let's re-analyse and maybe rephrase or reframe the objectives first.   What are the real goals here?   To be healthy To also look healthy, that is: looking good and beautiful.  What are the goals as formulated in the question?  Severely disrupting several systems of not yet fully understood complexity in an adolescent body; that is an ever changing system that just started the biggest remake changes in the course of maturing a body into adulthood.  This in an attempt to achieve real goal No. 2 without regard to real goal No. 1.   Reasons for progress on this to be perceived as too slow  That \"puberty wreaks havoc on the skin\" is a correlation based on time. In puberty certain unpleasant skin disorders may manifest themselves. True. But this is not a monocausal explanation like in \"puberty causes acne\". And this is easily evident from the question itself:  That \"[\u2026][anti-androgen]5 [\u2026] are prescription only. Almost all of them are specific to either men or women.\" \u2013 Well, having \"anti-sex-hormones\" differentiated for the different sexes seems required. Men and and women have different levels of hormones. My guess here is that absolutely nobody wants zero androgens in his system. And considering the side-effects: Topical agents may have a systemic effects. If it gets into your skin to affect cells there, it is in your system, almost free to travel anywhere.  \"Usually, androgens are to blame for these\u2026\" Meaning that with certain levels of androgens (you were never free of them, maybe they are useful?) a certain number of people are more prone to develop skin issues? That is one part of a probably true explanation.     Acne vulgaris that is \u201cthe end of my life forever\u201d for one teen can be ignored by another. Acne rosacea can be embarrassing beyond belief and a huge social handicap, or a minor nuisance.(2)   Acne is not an illness like tuberculosis where you have one pathogen clearly causing a sharply definable set of symptoms. What is colloquially called acne is better described as a syndrome where many symtopms, many causes and many treatment options are available now and will become available in the future. As it's stated in the question \"this is a goldmine\". But one mine that is still a bit difficult to explore and extract the wealth from.     Acne is an extremely complex disease with elements of pathogenesis involving defects in epidermal keratinization, androgen secretion, sebaceous function, bacterial growth, inflammation, and immunity. In the past 30 years, much has been worked out, and we now have a fairly detailed understanding of the events that result in an acne pimple, although there is also much left to be discovered.(1)   Among the so-called causes for acne there are really just a number of factors identified as contributing to the state of unpleasantness. Colloquially:  Hormonal imbalances, oily skin, bacterial infections and:     Genetics, Diet, Hormones, Stress, Comedones (plugs in pores),[\u2026](2)   Or in another systematic:     Genetics, Androgens, Inflammation, Neuropeptides, Bacteria, The Acne Biofilm, Evidence Supporting a Link Between Acne and Nutrition, Smoking, Antimicrobial Peptides in Acne, Acne and Antimicrobial Lipids, Natural and Artificial Suntanning, Acne and Environmental Pollution (Chloracne), Myths and Beliefs of Acne Pathogenesis: Diet, Smoking, Hygiene, [\u2026] Drug-Induced Acne, Body-Builder Acne, Acne Cosmetica\u2026 (3)     This multitude of causes, often found in countless variations or combinations, means that to arrive at \"The Acne Gel\" with just an anti-androgen in it is bound to fail.  Only if a condition is really classified as a androgen- or androgen-receptor disorder is there any reason to act upon this alone. Androgens are not \"bad\". Simply blocking, or yet destroying, the complete signalling pathway for that may yield quite unpleasant results.      Both estrogens and androgens play important parts in skin and hair physiology, [\u2026]Further studies with androgen-dependent skin are required to determine whether estrogen receptor \u03b2 has a regulatory role on androgen receptor expression in the hair follicle in parallel with its role in other androgen-dependent tissues.      Androgens affect several functions of the human skin, such as sebaceous gland growth and differentiation, hair growth, epidermal barrier homeostasis and wound healing.    \"Just removing this one bad guy\" is just not an option. Or just imagine human skin without collagen, you would fall apart to see this:     Collagen, the major macromolecular component of skin, is responsible for maintaining the structural integrity of the tissue as well as for providing important functional characteristics, such as pliability and thickness. We have been studying the structure and regulation of collagen in mouse mutations affecting the skin. In the course of these studies, we found that there are significant differences in collagen content between the skin of wild-type male and female mice, which become evident at puberty. Furthermore, male mice with an X-linked mutation in the androgen receptor gene (formerly called testicular feminization and abbreviated as ArTfm) showed decreased levels of collagen, indicating that the androgen receptor pathway contributes to the observed differences. These findings demonstrate that there are striking differences in the collagen content of skin between male and female mice, and provide a biochemical explanation for these differences.   (An important side note should be allowed in reaction to the comment below: the odour dependent an androgens that is manufactured in the skin is what attracts the ladies (well to a certain extent, or likeminded identities), \"the stink\" found often in the same place is mainly manufactured by the bacteria on the skin feeding on accumulated waste there. )  Conclusion  \"Irreversibly damaging\" anything looks like a good idea? Most of those suffering from acne in their youth stop suffering from acne in adulthood. Starting to manipulatie anyones genes without first getting a much better understanding of all the complexities of these processes \u2013in general\u2013 seems very pre-mature.  While I am by no means an expert in guessing the path of the future, I am convinced that there are better ways to treat acne now and even better treatments \u2013 without crispering genes \u2013\u00a0will become available. If a condition within this spectrum of unpleasantness is identified with certainty to be influenced positively by androgen receptor sensitivity modification then a treatment doing just that (but temporarily) will come quickly.     Understanding the complex relationships that form the background for these three diseases is essential in order to provide the \u201cdeliverable\u201d(3)   Of course, only funding research into overly specific directions, like genetic modification or topical anti-androgens, may have detrimental effects in the long run. Please consider this the next time you have to vote on anything.  References   1 Guy F. Webster, Anthony V. Rawlings (2007):\"Acne and its Therapy\", Informa Healthcare: New York.   2 F. William Danby (2015): \"Acne: causes and practical management\", Wiley: Chichester, Oxford.   3 Christos C. Zouboulis Andreas D. Katsambas, Albert M. Kligman (2014): \"Pathogenesis and Treatment of Acne and Rosacea\", Springer: Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London. ",
        "id": 1954,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are Drug toxicity, Infectious toxic disease, Hypoxia & Malignancy all Acquired Metabolic Diseases?",
        "body": "When you classify diseases by causes, you put a disease in a certain group according to what happens first in that disease. For example, pheochromocytoma, a tumor of the adrenal medulla, releases excessive amounts of the hormone adrenaline, which can result in hyperglycemia. So, is pheochromocytoma a malignant, endocrine or metabolic disease? It's a malignant disease, because a tumor develops first.  Now, you can argue that pheochromocytoma is also an endocrine and metabolic disease at the same time. But an increased level of adrenaline and glucose in the blood are not diseases; they are just abnormalities that result from a disease.    Metabolism is the term for a set of chemical reactions that occur in the cells of living organisms to sustain life.  Metabolic diseases are diseases that originate from errors in the molecules and enzymes involved in metabolism, most of which are genetic.  Drug toxicity, infections, hypoxia and malignancies can all affect metabolism as a result, but the problem does not start on the level of molecules or enzymes, so these are not metabolic diseases.  In most cases, \"metabolic disease\" refers to \"inborn error of metabolism.\" But there seems to be no strict definition of metabolic disease, so you can find various very confusing lists of metabolic diseases, such as this one, which even includes dehydration...  If we agree that metabolic disease is an inborn error of metabolism, then inflammatory disease cannot result in metabolic disease, but a metabolic disease (hemochromatosis) can result in inflammation (hepatitis).  But you asked about acquired metabolic diseases. From your list, hypoxia can result from a metabolic disease, or, sometimes, causes further metabolic problems, so it is sometimes mentioned as a metabolic disorder. More examples from Oxfordmedicine.com:     ...systemic acquired metabolic diseases that affect the central and/or   peripheral nervous system: hypoxia, hypoglycemia, hyperthermia,   disorders of serum electrolytes, vitamin deficiencies, and exogenous   intoxications, particularly alcoholism and intoxications by drugs,   methanol, and heavy metals.   You can think that the above conditions result in metabolic disorders, but they themselves are not metabolic disorders.",
        "id": 2688,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the HPV vaccine be effective if you are already infected?",
        "body": "The HPV vaccine is most effective when preventing you from initial infection. While common, it's possible you haven't been infected with HPV. Even if you are, there is some benefit to still being vaccinated if you're HPV positive. The reason for this is that there are a number of different types of HPV virus, and the vaccine should provide you some protection against types you have not already acquired. From this MMWR report, \"Human Papillomavirus Vaccination: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices\":     In the phase III trials, among females aged 16\u201326 years who had HPV   vaccine type DNA detected at study enrollment (either seropositive or   seronegative), there was no efficacy against progression to disease or   impact on clearance of infection of that type (114,120). However, HPV4   had 100% efficacy for prevention of CIN2+ attributable to types not   already acquired (120). Among persons seropositive to the relevant HPV   type but HPV DNA-negative, too few cases were detected to evaluate   efficacy, but disease incidence was low and all cases occurred in the   placebo group.   and     HPV vaccination can provide protection against infection with HPV   vaccine types not already acquired. Therefore, vaccination is   recommended through the recommended age for females regardless of   whether they have an abnormal Pap test result, and for females or   males regardless of known HPV infection, HPV-associated precancer   lesions, or anogenital warts. Females who have abnormalities on   cervical cancer screening are likely to be infected with one or more   genital HPV types. With increasing severity of Pap test findings, the   likelihood of infection with HPV 16 or HPV 18 increases (70), and the   expected benefit of vaccination decreases. Females who have had HPV   testing as part of cervical cancer screening might have information   about their HPV status. Males or females with AIN are likely infected   with HPV. The presence of anogenital warts or a history of anogenital   warts indicates present or past infection with HPV, most often HPV 6   or HPV 11. Although vaccination is still recommended, patients should   be advised that vaccination will not have any therapeutic effect on an   existing HPV infection, HPV-associated precancer lesion, cancer, or   anogenital warts.   In short: It is likely still worth getting vaccinated to protect you from other strains of HPV.",
        "id": 290,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are dentists special compared to other doctors?",
        "body": "Long story short : The current setup in North America and elsewhere is due to historical reasons, and continues to this day due to difference in the training of Dentists and all other MDs.   Dentistry used to be considered as a completely separate, non-medical profession. This is still apparent in the way dental and medical insurance are considered separately.   Over the years, the implication of oral health on general health, but especially of the general health on teeth and surrounding tissues have become more apparent.   The reason the programs won't merge completely for the foreseeable future with m\u00e9decin is that training for the clinical aspect of Dentistry starts in second year of the degree, while MDs (including surgeons) start clinical training in their chosen field after completing their 4th year and choosing their specialty.   Here is a non-scientific article that adresses your question partially (not sure your question is strictly medical) https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/03/why-dentistry-is-separated-from-medicine/518979/",
        "id": 2087,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Prediabetes cause coronary heart disease?",
        "body": "I checked myself and found that yes, prediabetes is also a risk factor for coronary heart disease.  Prediabetes is the condition when fasting blood sugar is 100-125 mg/dl or 2 hour blood sugar is 140-200 mg/dl (more than 125 fasting or >200 after 2 hours will be diagnostic of diabetes).  A number of longitudinal studies have shown that prediabetes is associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease which may cause angina, heart attack and sudden death.  Hence, lifestyle modification is advised to all persons with prediabetes. These include regular exercise, maintaining ideal body weight, stopping smoking,  keeping blood cholesterol and blood pressure under control.  Persons who have other risk factors of coronary heart disease also, such as high blood pressure, obesity, increased blood lipids etc, may also be treated with metformin, a commonly used drug for control of diabetes.  These interventions reduce the risk of progression to diabetes and occurrence of its complications including coronary heart disease.  Some also recommend use of aspirin and/or statins for persons at high risk for coronary heart disease.  Reference: http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/30/3/753.full.pdf+html",
        "id": 466,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should antioxidants such as turmeric, resveratrol, glutathione, etc. be taken at bedtime, and if so, what explains it?",
        "body": "This question has an implicit claim in it: that taking antioxidants is effective in the first place. As that is very much in doubt now from the start, it explains very well why there is no consensus over when to take them. Especially if all these substances  are all lumped into that one basket called \"antioxidants\".     Our Cochrane review from 2008 demonstrated that antioxidant supplements seem to increase mortality. This review is now updated.      We found no evidence to support antioxidant supplements for primary or secondary prevention. Beta-carotene and vitamin E seem to increase mortality, and so may higher doses of vitamin A. Antioxidant supplements need to be considered as medicinal products and should undergo sufficient evaluation before marketing.      Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C:  \"Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases\", 4 March 2012.   That makes the question unanswerable for all substances simply labeled \"antioxidants\", or leads to the conclusion that for this effect they are named for it doesn't matter. But it is questionable whether that being an antioxidant is a good thing or how much one would benefit from it. In my view that category represents mainly an outdated attempt of making sense of things.  We therefore would have to look at each of these substances and evaluate their effectiveness or mechanisms of action etc.  As an example, let's look at turmeric, a very promising agent for a variety of ailments, that I love, personally:     Background         Turmeric, a plant related to ginger, is grown throughout India, other parts of Asia, and Central America. Javanese turmeric (Curcuma xanthorrhiz) is a different plant and not discussed in this fact sheet.      Historically, turmeric has been used in Ayurvedic medicine, primarily in South Asia, for many conditions, including breathing problems, rheumatism, serious pain, and fatigue.      Today, turmeric is used as a dietary supplement for inflammation; arthritis; stomach, skin, liver, and gallbladder problems; cancer; and other conditions.   Turmeric is a common spice and a major ingredient in curry powder. Its primary active ingredients, curcuminoids, are yellow and used to color foods and cosmetics.      Turmeric\u2019s underground stems (rhizomes) are dried and made into capsules, tablets, teas, or extracts. Turmeric powder is also made into a paste for skin conditions.      How Much Do We Know?      We have a lot of research, including studies done in people, on turmeric for a variety of health conditions.      What Have We Learned?      Claims that curcuminoids found in turmeric help to reduce inflammation aren\u2019t supported by strong studies.      Preliminary studies found that curcuminoids may         Reduce the number of heart attacks bypass patients had after surgery   Control knee pain from osteoarthritis as well as ibuprofen did   Reduce the skin irritation that often occurs after radiation treatments for breast cancer.   Other preliminary studies in people have looked at curcumin, a type of curcuminoid, for different cancers, colitis, diabetes, surgical pain, and as an ingredient in mouthwash for reducing plaque.   The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) has studied curcumin for Alzheimer\u2019s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and prostate and colon cancer.         What Do We Know About Safety?   Turmeric in amounts tested for health purposes is generally considered safe when taken by mouth or applied to the skin.   High doses or long-term use of turmeric may cause gastrointestinal problems.      National Center for Complementary and Integrative Medicine, 2016   Or to put more bluntly,         There is little reliable evidence to support the use of turmeric for any health condition because few clinical trials have been conducted.         Preliminary findings from animal and other laboratory studies suggest that a chemical found in turmeric \u2014 called curcumin \u2014 may have anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antioxidant properties, but these findings have not been confirmed in people. (As quoted from Turmeric: Tasty in Curry, Questionable as Medicine, 2014)   The above is not meant to wholly dismiss curcuma, or the question, but a reminder to see it as Turmeric: lots of potential, but beware of the hype.  As the question is quite broad and about a lot of those substances or preparations, let me close with: digestion, metabolism etc. at night time are different. That probably effects bioavailability and pharmacodynamics a lot. I suspect that it is the effect or the same effect size for all the substances mentioned.  Although that is speculation, it is also the current line of inquiry for researchers:     Further randomized, double blinded clinical trials with a greater sample size, homogenous test and tasks of cognitive or memory function, as well as longer duration of treatment and follow-up are compulsory to achieve more conclusive results. In addition, it is suggested to conduct future clinical trials by evaluation of resveratrol products with improved bioavailability by the use of novel methods such as nanoformulations or in combination with metabolism inhibitors.      Mohammad Hosein Farzaei &amp;  Roja Rahimi &amp; Shekoufeh Nikfar &amp; Mohammad Abdollahi: \"Effect of resveratrol on cognitive and memory performance and mood: A meta-analysis of 225 patients\", Pharmacological Research   Volume 128, February 2018, Pages 338-344. DOI ",
        "id": 2483,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are yawns and hiccups pscyhosomatically contagious or are they just reflexes/impulses?",
        "body": "Yawns are \"contagious\" in that other people (and even dogs) often yawn in response to seeing someone else yawn. The reason people yawn is unclear, but it is thought to have evolved to serve a physiological need, but changed to serve mainly a social function in the animals that exhibit it. This is supported by the fact that yawns are not contagious to autistic children.  Hiccups are caused by a reflex, and have not been shown to be \"contagious\" this way; their co-occurrence is coincidental.  However, because hiccups can be caused by eating quickly or laughing, which people like doing in a group, co-occurrence may be a little likelier than purely random.",
        "id": 1314,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "about one-piece dental implant",
        "body": "The simplest answer is that both types of systems are more or less equal.  Long answer: It's actually the dentist that needs to be aware of a few concepts:   The angle of the bone in which the implant is placed relative to the position of the crown that will be on top of it. they are not always in line. The ideal scenario is second from left, while the worst one is 3rd from the left. Nobody wants a screw to show up in the front of the crown! To remedy this problem it is possible to use the second stage in a 2-piece system to reangulate the crown.  Amount of gingival tissue between the bone and the mouth. If the gingiva isn't very thick, it might be advantageous to remove the intermediate step, so that as little as possible metal shows through the gingiva. Ability of the bone to endure immediate loading of the implant. If both the implant and the platform come in one piece, the implant will be exposed to forces in the mouth immediately after being placed, while the two piece option permits us to temporarily bury and avoid putting immediate stress on the implant, thereby enabling it to better integrate the bone, especially if the later is of poor quality.  To address your concern about a micro crack appearing between the two pieces, it is most often due to the insufficient tightening of the screw. At least 15-25 Newtons need to be applied, using an implant screw, to sufficiently tighten the the pieces to avoid the appearance of a micro crack and further of the screw.   My source, excluding professional formation:  http://www.oralhealthgroup.com/features/the-one-piece-implant-design-prospective-case-report/ ",
        "id": 814,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is an annual stomach x-ray (barium meal) an acceptable radiation risk for a resident of Japan?",
        "body": "Update version of the Japanese Guidelines for Gastric Cancer Screening (Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology, 2018)     Radiographic screening is recommended for population-based and   opportunistic screenings as its benefits outweigh its harms   (Recommendation Grade B). Endoscopic screening is also recommended for   population-based and opportunistic screenings as its benefits outweigh   its harms (Recommendation Grade B). Both screenings are recommended to   individuals aged 50 years and older.   These guidelines do not mention how often should the checkup be done, but another source recommends annual screening by gastroscopy only to people 70 years or older.   The optimal screening interval for gastric cancer using esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy in Japan (BMC Gastroenterology, 2012)     A screening for gastric cancer using esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy may   be appropriate annually for healthy people over 70 years old, every   two or three years for people 60\u201369 years old and every four years for   people 50\u201359 years old. People younger than 50 years old may only need   repeat screenings every five years or more.   BARIUM SWALLOW RADIATION EXPOSURE  Examples of radiation doses during various radiological investigations (See the table here: Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 2010):   Barium swallow: 1.5 mSv (which equals 6 months of radiation exposure from natural background) Standard abdominal X-ray: 1.2 mSv CT of the abdomen and pelvis: 10 mSv   So, barium swallow results in only slightly greater radiation exposure than a standard abdominal X-ray. Most experts estimate the risk of the test like this (hps.org):     Fluoroscopic studies such as esophagrams and swallow studies are very   low-dose/low-risk procedures, where the little radiation exposure and   resultant absorbed dose do not result in any risk when compared to the   medical benefit of answering your physician's question concerning your   health.   GASTRIC CANCER RISK FACTORS  According to one systematic review, PubMed, 2018), main risk factors for gastric cancer include:   Male sex, being East Asian, family history of gastric cancer Age (only 10% of all gastric cancers develops before 45 and most of them between 60-80 years of age) High consumption of salty or smoked food Smoking, excessive alcohol drinking, lack of physical activity Infection with H. pylori of the stomach, or Human papilloma virus   The frequency of tests for gastric cancer can be adjusted to risk factors in a particular person.",
        "id": 2667,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does excercise increase body mass?",
        "body": "Yes, although your success will depend on many factors. The best way to gain muscle mass is by lifting heavy weights. You will also need to make sure you eat enough, especially enough of protein. How much mass you gain and how quickly depends on how you work out,  and also on your genetic make up. Some people gain muscle easier than others.  There is a lot of very good information online. Simply google it and follow some of the excellent guides that are out there. Look up what exercises are the best for what you want,  how many repetition you should aim for etc. You can also ask for a personal trainer at the gym to create a plan for you. My general advice to you is; whatever you choose, stick to it. Gaining muscle - just like losing weight - is a long process and you will not see results overnight. Think of a tangible goal (gain 5 kgs, squat 50 kgs etc) and work toward getting there, step at a time. Good luck!",
        "id": 1271,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stretching in the morning",
        "body": "I have L5-S1 injury because not stretching properly done before lifting weights.  Always warmup your body parts, set your goal which body part you are training, warm it up first and then do the sets, reps.  Streching daily is a good sign to start any training or lifting.",
        "id": 1072,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible for obesity to occur as a result of medical conditions and not just over-eating?",
        "body": "As far as medical conditions, it could be a thyroid problem, or the need to encourage serotonin, and I am sure many other things a doctor would know about so ask a doctor.   Another article: magnesium &amp; obesity https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/pubag/downloadPDF.xhtml?id=46295&amp;content=PDF  People should be aware it is calcium, Vitamin D ratio with magnesium!  Vitamin D can overwork magnesium to metabolize vitamin D and we have people taking some high doses of vitamin D. Most Americans get too much calcium in ratio to magnesium. Etc.  Bottom line, most people need more magnesium through diet preferably, and probably supplements too. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180226122548.htm. People with kidney disease should ask a doctor before taking a magnesium supplement. Always tell your doctor about the supplements you are taking at each visit, if any; very important. ",
        "id": 2432,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are anti-inflammatories prescribed for an epididymis inflammation?",
        "body": "This is a wonderful explanation of inflammation, although a bit technical.  Key passage:     Inflammation, the immune response of body tissues to injury or infection, is an important component of innate immunity. The inflammatory process involves a complex biological cascade of molecular and cellular signals that alter physiological responses, ultimately resulting in the familiar clinical symptoms of pain, swelling, heat, and redness (1, 2). At the site of the injury, cells release molecular signals that cause a number of changes in the affected area: vasodilation, increased blood flow, increased vascular permeability, exudation of fluids containing proteins like antibodies, and invasion by several different types of leukocytes, including granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes (3).   Inflammation does help fight disease, but it also can cause harm to the body's tissues in different ways. This is why healthcare providers often treat inflammation with things that bring down inflammation (ibuprofen and NSAIDs), excessive swelling (ice on sprained ankle), etc. That helps prevent further damage and reduce formation of scar tissue.  A very simplified analogy:  Inflammation is like a war zone on home turf, with your body's cells against bacteria/virus invaders (OR injured tissues OR sometimes for no reason).  Our body cells sometimes go all out spraying napalm and dropping bombs.  You may win the war but often with collateral damage.  The war zone can keep burning for a very long time - the fires often keep burning for a while the war is over, and leave areas of scorched land behind. NSAIDs are like firefighters to suppress the burning flames.",
        "id": 1638,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is a CT scan specific to an organ?",
        "body": "In general, a CT scan of an organ is intended to check only that organ, not the entire body region, even if some other organs are seen on the image. A CT of one organ can accidentally reveal a disorder in some other organ, though.  Below is a CT image of the kidneys that reveals tumors (red arrows) in both kidneys. The image also shows parts of some other abdominal organs that are on the same horizontal level. A single CT investigation of the kidneys will give more images on different levels, but it still won't show the entire abdominal cavity.    Picture 1. A CT of the kidneys (Image source: Wikipedia)  On the other hand, a doctor who is searching, for example, for a cause of abdominal pain, can order a CT scan of the \"abdomen and pelvis\", which will show all abdominal and pelvic organs. Such investigation usually gives more than just 3 images you can see below.    Picture 2. A CT of the abdominal cavity (source: Wikipedia)  A contrast substance used during a CT scan of a single organ can provide more details about that organ and possibly some nearby organs, but not of the entire body region.",
        "id": 2702,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lesion of the Nn. fibulares",
        "body": "This anatomy site doesn't provide reputable citations, but I don't see any obvious inaccuracies and it has a reasonable section on potential clinical presentations of superficial fibular nerve injuries:     There are two relatively common pathologies involving the damage to the superficial fibular nerve; entrapment and direct damage (e.g from a comminuted fracture).      Superficial Fibular Nerve Entrapment      Superficial peroneal nerve entrapment (also known as nerve compression) can cause pain and paraesthesia over the lower leg and dorsum of the foot. Entrapment frequently results from ankle sprains or twisting of the ankle, as this causes the nerve to stretch in the lower leg.      Another cause of nerve entrapment occurs at the point where the nerve exits the deep fascia of the leg, the nerve becoming compressed by this fascia. Surgical decompression of the nerve therefore is used to provide relief from the symptoms and pain.      Direct Damage to the Superficial Fibular Nerve      The superficial fibular nerve may be damaged by fracture of the fibula, or by a perforating wound to the lateral side of the leg.      As the muscles that the superficial fibular nerve innervates are evertors, injury to the nerve may result in a loss of eversion. A loss of sensation over the majority of the dorsum of the foot and the anterolateral aspect of the lower leg could also result.   ScienceDirect provides summary pages with excerpts from relevant publications on many topics, including the fibularis muscles, which largely verifies the claims from the anatomy teaching site. I'll include two especially useful excerpts here.     Chapter 32 - Leg Injuries. Zetaruk &amp; Hyman. Clinical Sports Medicine. 2007.      Presentation      Athletes with compression of this nerve present with pain, numbness or paraesthesias in the distribution of the superficial peroneal nerve (i.e. anterolateral lower leg and dorsum of foot, including second to fourth toes) during exercise and occasionally at rest.            Examination      Clinical examination reveals decreased sensation most consistently over the dorsum of the foot after exercise. Tinel's sign over the site of the compression or pain with passive ankle flexion/supination may be elicited. Pressure over the site of entrapment while the patient actively plantarflexes and inverts the ankle may reproduce symptoms. A fascial defect may be detected on palpation.      Treatment      Initial conservative treatment may include modification of aggravating activities and prevention of recurrent ankle inversions using bracing. Surgical decompression is the definitive treatment.      Chapter 19 - Compression and entrapment neuropathies. Bouche. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2013.      Superficial Fibular Neuropathy      Superficial fibular nerve compression or entrapment is unusual. Peroneal compartment syndrome is an uncommon disorder in which the muscle swelling and necrosis are limited to the fibular muscles. It can be due to excessive exercise, blunt trauma, or rupture of the peroneus longus. Fracture of the fibula may damage only the superficial fibular nerve...Causes were varied: muscle herniation, varicose veins, anterior and/or lateral compartment syndrome, anterior fasciotomy, or contusion. There was decreased sensation and pain over the dorsum of the foot at rest or during exercise. Reduced nerve conduction velocity of the superficial fibular nerve below 44 m/s was considered abnormal.   You'll notice that these articles make little mention of motor defects, including your hypothesized \"constant supination of the foot,\" like those motor deficiencies that occur with comparable brachial plexus injuries. This is because the eversion action of the muscles supplied by the superficial fibular nerve is supplemented by muscles innervated by the deep (profundus) fibular nerve (whereas brachial plexus injuries \"knock out\" entire muscle groups that work in opposition to a still-active group).   With superficial fibular nerve pathologies, the supinating action of the muscles supplied by n. fibularis profundus isn't so strongly unopposed that a remarkable club foot presentation appears, but long-term superficial peroneal nerve dysfunction still limits function in the lower leg and can be treated non-invasively:     Evaluation and treatment of peroneal neuropathy. Baima &amp; Krivickas. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2008.      If the patient has isolated superficial peroneal nerve palsy, he may benefit from a shoe insert with a lateral wedge to prevent supination of the foot from weakness of the evertors. ",
        "id": 2532,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to cook in Corelle/Vitrelle on 250 degrees celsius?",
        "body": "Buy a small shallow rectangular pyrex dish, bake and eat out of that, it can handle your temperature and if you want one with a lid you could setup your breakfast fish the night before in the fridge.  You absolutely must preheat the oven.  I think that I  saw that you can even go from freezer to preheated oven, but best to ask the makers at pyrex.com they make corelle and corningware too",
        "id": 281,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "To heal a tendinitis, how to decide when to exercise, stretch and rest?",
        "body": "Purely anecdotal, but I've never seen good results from pushing tendinitis (and bursitis, and really any connective tissue inflammation). Decades of (amateur) athletics have taught me that the magic to treating tendinitis is to identify it early and stop aggravating it.   A little bit of tendinitis is a lot easier to work through than a lot of it.   In the \"good vs bad pain\" continuum, tendinitis is very much on the \"bad\" spectrum. In large part this is why proper training spends so much time ensuring that you don't develop overuse injuries (such as tendinitis) since it is so debilitating and can easily sideline progress for weeks.",
        "id": 6,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is defibrillation commenced before CPR in ventricular fibrillation?",
        "body": "The timing of the first defibrillation attempts depends mostly on when defibrillation is detected. If it is witnessed - that is, the patient is being monitored and the alarm goes off, you're right there at the bedside, and the patient is in V Fib, it's fine to shock first.  However, whereas this used to be the norm - shock first - it no longer is, partly because the goals of CPR and ACLS (advanced cardiac life support) are changing. A bit over a decade ago, the goal was restoration of a perfusing rhythm.   The new Advanced Cardiac Life Support guidelines call for CPR to be initiated immediately, assuming the paddles aren't right there and ready to go the moment someone goes into VFib. It needs to be noted, though, that this recommendation does not rest on defibrillation with the aim of return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), but on improved neurological outcomes.   If the heart is in V Fib, there is no effective blood circulation; the heart and all the other organs are starving for oxygen. While setting up to defibrillate, the hypoxia continues, and the damage becomes more severe, especially to sensitive tissue like the brain. Compressions circulate blood; even blood with lower oxygen saturation is better than none. The brain is less hypoxic, then, and neurological outcomes improve if defibrillation is successful.  This, not ROSC, is what the new ACLS recommendations are based on, because ACLS is not considered highly successful if the patient leaves the hospital only to be hospitalized elsewhere in a persistent vegetative state. And CPR first has been shown to provide better neurological outcomes.  VF/Pulseless VT Delaying Defibrillation to Give Basic Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation to Patients With Out-of-Hospital Ventricular Fibrillation A Randomized Trial",
        "id": 245,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should ideal dietary fibre quantities relate to the amount of food one consumes?",
        "body": "Recommendations for dietary fiber intake are usually based on age/calorie intake:  The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020 (p.97) recommendation for men age 19-30 (2,400 - 3,000 Cal range) is 33.6 g and for girls age 4-8 (1,200 Cal) is 16.8 g of fiber per day.  According to Food and Drug Administration, the \"daily value\" for dietary fiber in a 2,000 Cal diet is 25 g.  It may be more important to think about the soluble/insoluble fiber ratio: Most metabolic health effects suggested so far are associated with soluble fiber and bowel regularity with insoluble fiber. ",
        "id": 2497,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to identify Axis and Atlas of cervical spine",
        "body": "The atlas can be felt. It's the first protuberance you feel at the top of the spine. The axis is the second one.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4486993/",
        "id": 1191,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are football (soccer) players more likely to have bow legs (genu varum)? What can be done to alleviate it if that's the case",
        "body": "It looks they are relevant according to these two researches:   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4538725/     Results:      Both soccer players and controls had genu varum. However, the   incidence of genu varum was higher in the soccer players (P = 0.0001)   and it was more prevalent in the 16-18 year age group (P = 0.0001).   The results revealed a statistically significant association between   the degree of practices and the prevalence of genu varum (P = 0.0001).   Moreover, previous trauma to the knees and practicing in load-bearing   sports led to an increase in the degree of genu varum (P = 0.0001).   and  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19183958     Little is known about the relationship between sport participation and   body adaptations during growth. Our aim was to investigate whether   soccer participation in youth is associated with the degree of genu   varum. The design was a retrospective cohort study. Three hundred and   thirty-six male soccer players, and 458 male non-soccer players (aged   from 8 to 18) were recruited and included in the study. The   intercondylar (IC) or intermalleolar (IM) distance were clinically   measured with a specifically designed instrument. The results of this   study revealed a statistically significant increase in degree of genu   varum in both groups from the age of 14. However, at the age of 16-18   years a significant higher degree of genu varum was observed in the   soccer players compared to the non-soccer players (P = 0.028). Intense   soccer participation increases the degree of genu varum in males from   the age of 16. Since genu varum predisposes to injuries, efforts to   reduce the development of genu varum in male soccer players are   warranted. ",
        "id": 460,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Genetically Modified Banana?",
        "body": "One could argue that the vast majority of foods we eat contain some ingredient that is in some sense \"genetically modified\". There is not, as yet, a widely accepted legal definition of GMO. See the LA Times article \"GMO food labels are meaningless\" for more on this topic.  All bananas you eat are genetically modified. Bananas do not grow in nature without seeds; we have engineered them that way for the consumer. It is impossible to say exactly what the nature of the genetic engineering that occurred in these bananas without asking the company directly, and they may not wish to divulge that information. They could have modified genes to ripen the bananas quicker, improve their vitamin content, make them more resisant to disease, preserve their shelf life, etc.  There is little point on extensively discussing here whether genetically modified bananas are safe to eat, because there are people on both sides of that argument who will never agree, on principle. According to a 2016 report by the National Academies of Science there was \"no substantiated evidence that foods from GE crops were less safe than foods from non-GE crops.\"",
        "id": 1746,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true that measles vaccine lead to poor sexual potency for men?",
        "body": "The official stance on this 'issue' is:     MMR vaccine side-effects   (Measles, Mumps, and Rubella)      What are the risks from MMR vaccine?      A vaccine, like any medicine, is capable of causing serious problems,   such as severe allergic reactions.      The risk of MMR vaccine causing serious harm, or death, is extremely   small.      Getting MMR vaccine is much safer than getting measles, mumps or   rubella.      Most people who get MMR vaccine do not have any serious problems with   it.      Mild problems         Fever (up to 1 person out of 6)   Mild rash (about 1 person out of 20)   Swelling of glands in the cheeks or neck (about 1 person out of 75)         If these problems occur, it is usually within 6-14 days after the   shot. They occur less often after the second dose.      Moderate problems         Seizure (jerking or staring) caused by fever (about 1 out of 3,000 doses)   Temporary pain and stiffness in the joints, mostly in teenage or adult women (up to 1 out of 4)   Temporary low platelet count, which can cause a bleeding disorder (about 1 out of 30,000 doses)         Severe problems (very rare)      Serious allergic reaction (less than 1 out of a million doses) Several   other severe problems have been reported after a child gets MMR   vaccine, including:   - Deafness   - Long-term seizures, coma, or lowered consciousness   - Permanent brain damage      These are so rare that it is hard to tell whether they are caused by   the vaccine.   And this leads to the recommendation:     MMR (Measles, Mumps, &amp; Rubella) Vaccine      What You Need to Know      Why get vaccinated? Measles, mumps, and rubella are serious diseases.   Before vaccines they were very common, especially among children.      Measles    Measles virus causes rash, cough, runny nose, eye irritation, and   fever. It can lead to ear infection, pneumonia, seizures (jerking and   staring), brain damage, and death.       Mumps   Mumps virus causes fever, headache, muscle pain, loss of appetite, and   swollen glands. It can lead to deafness, meningitis (infection of the   brain and spinal cord covering), painful swelling of the testicles or   ovaries, and rarely sterility.       Rubella (German Measles)   Rubella virus causes rash, arthritis (mostly in women), and mild   fever. If a woman gets rubella while she is pregnant, she could have a   miscarriage or her baby could be born with serious birth defects.   These diseases spread from person to person through the air. You can   easily catch them by being around someone who is already infected.      Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine can protect children (and   adults) from all three of these diseases.      Thanks to successful vaccination programs these diseases are much less   common in the U.S. than they used to be. But if we stopped vaccinating   they would return.      Who should get MMR vaccine and when?      Children should get 2 doses of   MMR vaccine:      First Dose: 12-15 months of age Second Dose: 4-6 years of age (may be   given earlier, if at least 28 days after the 1st dose) Some infants   younger than 12 months should get a dose of MMR if they are traveling   out of the country. (This dose will not count toward their routine   series.)      Some adults should also get MMR vaccine: Generally, anyone 18 years of   age or older who was born after 1956 should get at least one dose of   MMR vaccine, unless they can show that they have either been   vaccinated or had all three diseases.      MMR vaccine may be given at the same time as other vaccines.      Children between 1 and 12 years of age can get a \"combination\" vaccine   called MMRV, which contains both MMR and varicella (chickenpox)   vaccines. There is a separate Vaccine Information Statement for MMRV.      Some people should not get MMR vaccine or should wait. Anyone who has   ever had a life-threatening allergic reaction to the antibiotic   neomycin, or any other component of MMR vaccine, should not get the   vaccine. Tell your doctor if you have any severe allergies. Anyone who   had a life-threatening allergic reaction to a previous dose of MMR or   MMRV vaccine should not get another dose. Some people who are sick at   the time the shot is scheduled may be advised to wait until they   recover before getting MMR vaccine. Pregnant women should not get MMR   vaccine. Pregnant women who need the vaccine should wait until after   giving birth. Women should avoid getting pregnant for 4 weeks after   vaccination with MMR vaccine. Tell your doctor if the person getting   the vaccine: Has HIV/AIDS, or another disease that affects the immune   system Is being treated with drugs that affect the immune system, such   as steroids Has any kind of cancer Is being treated for cancer with   radiation or drugs Has ever had a low platelet count (a blood   disorder) Has gotten another vaccine within the past 4 weeks Has   recently had a transfusion or received other blood products Any of   these might be a reason to not get the vaccine, or delay vaccination   until later.   Which leads to the conclusion that there might have been a slight misunderstanding in doctor-patient communication? As a very, very rare reaction this is a perfectly possible secondary outcome scenario. (Meaning two things here. First: this might be caused only indirectly, because two: if you have a reaction or experience more serious side-effects it is more than likely that these performance issues are not of primary concern)   As something to base a general recommendation against vaccination for men this seems implausible, to say the least. If this is indeed a myth portrayed  accurately than some more reading might be required.  Regarding sexual and reproductive health this vaccine actually improves outcomes in preventing mumps related swollen testes (mumps orchtitis) and infertility (from mumps epididymitis) , and possibly impotence (erectile disfunction).",
        "id": 2075,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why patient has to be awake during cardiac catheterization?",
        "body": "There are a couple reasons it's not preferred.  The procedure is not extremely invasive or very painful and can usually be tolerated awake.  Most procedures that CAN be tolerated awake ARE done awake. General anesthesia has more risks than just anesthetic locally and an anxiolytic to relax the patient.  It often requires airway protection (e.g. MAC or intubation) which also carries risks, and generally requires anesthesiology present in the room.   Sometimes if there is concern that the patient cannot handle it and would move excessively due to anxiety or such, then they may do moderate/general anesthesia on a case by case basis.  This is not something I could specifically find, but I can theorize that if there were to be disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque resulting in stroke, rare but a potential risk of the procedure, then the physician could identify signs of stroke far better when the patient is awake then when asleep.  Interventions to treat stroke are time-sensitive (\"time is brain\" is the saying) so a delay could have serious results.  Source:    UpToDate Procedural sedation in adults outside the operating room UpToDate Anesthetic considerations for electrophysiology, interventional cardiology, and transesophageal echocardiography procedures ",
        "id": 1923,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Green Tea After Dinner",
        "body": "Green tea has thermogenic properties and promotes fat oxidation  beyond that explained by its caffeine content per se. If green tea extract are drunk during the meal there is a proved effect of it on fat oxidation.  Efficacy of a green tea extract",
        "id": 869,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are apricot seeds safe to consume as food?",
        "body": "It depends on the amount consumed. The main culprit is amygdalin, which is present in the seeds of many different fruits/vegetables, as shown on some of the charts in this comparison. Amygdalin breaks down to cyanide when the seed is chewed and digested. (The chewing and breaking of the outer shell is necessary to release the amygdalin).  However, one or two seeds is probably not going do too much, as the amount released is minute.   In the case that you cite, the person had been self medicating with apricot seed tablets in an attempt to cure cancer (promoted in the 1950's, since debunked), as well as grinding up the pits to consume as a tea.  However, as with many things, young/old/health compromised individuals may be more susceptible. As this brief medical review shows, over a 4 year period at a single university hospital, 13 children were admitted with cyanide poisoning from eating apricot seeds.",
        "id": 2251,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a breeze cause irritated nose and throat?",
        "body": "It does so by drying out your mucous membranes. Air moving over your face as you sleep is going to have more of a drying effect on your nose, sinuses, and throat than still air. This is especially true when the air is dry, such as in winter or when the air is from an air conditioning unit.  The reason the membranes inside your upper respiratory tract are called mucous membranes is because they secrete mucous, which serves a protective role against pathogens and airborne particles. In your mouth and throat you also have saliva, which serves a similar role. Inhaled bacteria, viruses, fungi and dust are trapped by the mucous and saliva, which is then either expelled or swallowed and digested. This is a very important part of your immune system, so if excessive drying leads to those membranes being directly exposed to air, pathogens will have an easier time invading and you will be more likely to become ill.",
        "id": 367,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can we digest protein, fats and carbs at the same time?",
        "body": "Acidic environment in the stomach (ph ~2) is necessary for the activity of the enzyme pepsin, which partly digests proteins to peptides (NCBI).  \"Alkaline environment,\" which is not really alkaline but rather less acidic or nearly neutral with pH 6-7.4, (PubMed) is in the small intestine, where carbohydrates, fats and peptides are digested.",
        "id": 2261,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there evidence that women feel cold faster than men?",
        "body": "Feeling cold can vary on our perception, age, race and hormonal concentrations.  This has been shown in Gend Med study from 2007:     More women than men had sensitivity to cold. Whereas the percentage of men who had sensitivity to cold significantly increased with aging (P &lt; 0.05), the percentage of women who had sensitivity to cold was already high (23.7%) at 50 to 60 years of age and did not change with aging.   Therefore based on the numbers we can say that sensitivity increases with aging and it is different in men and women. And this was not not associated with circulating hormonal concentrations.  These studies were tested only on Japanese men and postmenopausal women aged >=50 years, so if it's the evidence based on the numbers, it's up to you.",
        "id": 31,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is a drug holiday off bisphosphonate therapy a valid strategy in the management of osteoporosis?",
        "body": "Read UpToDate on the topic to find answer. It depens on Z score and other bone markers. You manage drug therapy based on individual patient context",
        "id": 2198,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why isn't clorhexidine gluconate used among humans?",
        "body": "It is used among humans it's called:     Hibiclens, Dyna-Hex, Ezy-tm, and Exidine   As also stated by the user JohnP in a comment.   And it works for:   Cleaning the hands Before surgery or injections To cleanse skin or wounds And as a oral rinse   So there is no exception it is used for humans.    But you are right it is also used for animals. ",
        "id": 887,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can caffeinated shampoo have a noticeable effect?",
        "body": "There is a study described at nih.gov about the rate of absorption of caffeine through the skin and how hair follicles contribute to it (\"significantly\", is apparently the answer to that).  Another study compared how three different substances, including caffeine traveled through different thicknesses of skin in humans and animals   The first-referenced article above has this summary about what was known at the beginning of the study:     Recently, it has been shown that the hair follicles are responsible   for a fast delivery of topically applied substances. After topical   application, caffeine was already detected in the blood of the   volunteers after 5 min, whereas, when the hair follicles were   selectively blocked utilizing the newly developed Follicular Closing   Technique (FCT), caffeine was detectable only after 20 min   Faith Williams, a researcher who studies skin's permeability to chemicals, had this to say about caffeinated soap in a 2003 article for the Guardian:     Caffeine does go through the skin if you apply it to the surface in   solution But I would have   thought that not much would go through [from soap] because I don't   think it would stay in contact for very long.   Given that statement, you might experiment on yourself (after getting all the requisite sign-offs that you're complying with human subject research ethics of course) by leaving the shampoo on your scalp for a longer time before rinsing.",
        "id": 78,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to get a cut from being elbowed in the head?",
        "body": "There are a few different types of injury to the skin. You can have a contusion (Bruise), abrasion (scrape), puncture, laceration or incision. The injury that you suffered is a laceration, as opposed to an incision. The main difference between the two is the cleanliness of the edges, lacerations are more jagged, incisions are clean slices.  There's a few different reasons that this could occur, but basically it's because the skin was suddenly stretched or compressed beyond it's ability to hold shape, and a tear results. You can see a few different laceration causes at this page. This can be fairly common in the head, as the skin is very close to the bone in most areas of the face and head.  Depending on the depth, location and severity, it can be taken care of from anything starting with a bandaid, up to wound glue or sutures. ",
        "id": 757,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possible mucus come out of eye when blow nose?",
        "body": "There are 4 sinuses : frontalis, ethmoid, maxillary, and sphenoid sinus. Frontal sinus, it excrete mucus into the  meatus medius via a small opening called hiatus semilunaris anterior . Anterior and middle sinus of ethmoid also excrete mucus to meatus medius. The sphenoid sinus drainage to sphenoid recess. The two sinus drainage to meatus medius, but below the meatus medius there is another meatus called meatus inferior, it receive a drainage from ductus nasolacrimal ( it connect nasal cavity with eye) so if you cry the tears will be excreted to the nose. In your case i think the problem has nothing to do with the sinus, because there is no sinus drainage to inferior meatus. You may have a condition called nasolacrimal reflux, where the content in nose go up to the eyes (yes it is possible that you blow your nose too hard and causing the mucus exit via your eyes) . The content of the nose is not only mucus, it may mixed up with normal flora such as bacteria staphilococcus and or streptococcus. These bacteria may infect your eyes causing conjunctivitis. For you further reading http://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(05)03383-X/abstract",
        "id": 1673,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What guarantees the benevolence of a doctor?",
        "body": "   What guarantees that the doctor is willing to help, especially if they are hired in a public system?   Nothing  In the end, the doctor with the perfect resume could end up killing you because for whatever reason.  However, you have this issue with any group of humans. How do you know your fellow teammate in sports will not choke you? How do you know your fellow soldier will not shoot you?  There are systems that prevent doctors from abusing their options:   Law Obviously, killing someone will lead to persecution and possible conviction with different penalties depending on the legislation Employment. If a doctor messes up and it's solely their fault, chances are they are going to get fired and have a hard time (as in impossible in Germany, for example) to get employed again and will usually have their certificate revoked in the meantime. Reputation. Doctor have to make money. They have either themselves or a family to feed. If they do you harm, they are going to lose reputation and make less money Helper Syndrome. Those who care not that much about money usually become doctors because of the helper syndrome. They want to help other people. (That's why I'm answering your question here, as an example). They would not do you any harm because it goes against their ideals, and against the reason for why they became doctors in the first place.   What you can do  Doctors are humans (apart from the people who work 80 hour weeks and 3 24-hour shifts in a week, which I suppose are  either vampires or zombies).  You can rely on common sense which will usually tell you whether you should trust that person. If you don't trust your doctor, change them. Trust is very important in a doctor-patient relationship.  If you feel bad or have fears, either confront the doctor directly, talk to someone else or make an appointment with a psychologist.  In the end  Doctors might be more scary because they know more about you and your body/health, but in the end the taxi driver around the corner could also kill you.   It's just a matter of reasonability. The health system has options implemented to make abuse more difficult, but it's possible.   Trust in your ability to judge other people and use it.",
        "id": 1894,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the effects of swallowing own blood from nosebleeds?",
        "body": "Blood irritates the stomach and in sufficient quantity will cause nausea and vomiting, so that would make it harmful.   https://www.emedicinehealth.com/stopping_a_nosebleed-health/article_em.htm     Do not tilt your head back. This may cause blood to run down the back   of your throat, and you may swallow it. Swallowed blood can irritate   your stomach and cause vomiting. And vomiting may make the bleeding   worse or cause it to start again. Spit out any blood that gathers in   your mouth and throat rather than swallowing it.   The story behind the photo you posted may or may not be accurate, but clearly the patient in question was not well. Blood running down the trachea of a healthy, alert person would trigger an immediate cough reflex.",
        "id": 1963,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What stretches are worth doing for a healthy 30-year-old male to prevent tendon injuries?",
        "body": "If the purpose is to prevent tendon injuries, then stretching is not really an effective solution.  This article took a look at nearly 2000 articles in Embase and PubMed, and distilled down to 10 representative studies, none of which found that stretching was an effective method for preventing injuries. (On a side note, I have done previous searches on trying to find proof that stretching prevents muscle injury as well, and come up dry).  They did note a couple of items that did show improvement, namely shoe insoles and hormone therapy related to better outcomes for Achilles susceptibility, and they also noted that prophylactic stretching and training could actually increase the risk.  So if you are looking to prevent tendon injuries in an asymptomatic person, stretching is probably not the path you want to pursue.",
        "id": 947,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the symptoms of salt poisoning?",
        "body": "Too much salt in the body is known as hypernatremia, and the symptoms are fairly straightfoward. You get very thirsty.     The major symptom of hypernatremia is thirst. The absence of thirst in   conscious patients with hypernatremia suggests an impaired thirst   mechanism. Patients with difficulty communicating or ambulating may be   unable to express thirst or obtain access to water. Sometimes patients   with difficulty communicating express thirst by becoming agitated.   Treatment is to drink a lot of water (and quit eating so much salt). Your kidneys will do the rest to restore your normal sodium levels.   Frankly, hypernatremia isn't particularly dangerous. What is dangerous is the opposite, hyponatremia.",
        "id": 1312,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does brace to correct posture work?",
        "body": "Here's an paper that might help you: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3554027/  The short conclusion is      \"Application of the scapular brace improved shoulder posture and   scapular muscle activity, but EMG changes were highly variable. Use of   a scapular brace might improve shoulder posture and muscle activity in   overhead athletes with poor posture.\"   Have you found any other sources? Have you tried it yourself?",
        "id": 953,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mechanical cardio resuscitation for asystole",
        "body": "\"Giving\" electrical current to the heart does not necessarily translate to mechanical contractions. The excitation-contraction coupling (as the sequence of electrical activation an muscle contraction is officially called), is not always a guarantee.  A cardiac arrest in many cases mirrors severe malfunction on the level of the micro-structures of the heart and a biochemical disarray in general. If you don't restore the pumping of the heart in seconds to minutes (even if this is crude and primitive-looking), the patient may not only die, but even worse they may \"live\" with severely depressed or completely absent brain function.  The only way, a \"modern\" way  would help a \"stopped\" heart is if some futuristic nano-device could be employed rapidly to either correct micro anatomy and microphysiology in minutes, or replace and collaborate with the patient's native structures.  However, primitive it may seem to you, external manual compressions, if properly performed can make the difference (at a great percentage) between life and death.  The \"electrical current- modern\" approach works for patients with severe arrhythmias or conduction problems. In these cases the \"mechanical part\" of the heart is intact and you only replace the electrical function of a problematic conduction system or problematic natural pacemakers.  Even in this case, a properly performed placement of a temporary pacemaker is an awkward process that can take several minutes until successful (transcutaneous or transvenous) placement is established. If the patient is asystolic or almost asystolic (no-pulse), \"primitive\" compressions should be done until the pacemaker safely paces.  Unless a super enhanced swarm of nano-machines, that can navigate safely through the human body and correct problems rapidly and at will, emerges, no \"sophisticated machines\" will replace manual compressions. In fact, during resuscitation they have been proven much more valuable than artificial breathing, which is reflected in the change in the guidelines during the past 15 years.    Algorithms for Advanced Cardiac Life Support 2015  Acute treatment of sustained ventricular arrhythmias",
        "id": 975,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does cooking food prevent the body from efficiently absorbing minerals?",
        "body": "Cell membranes are made out of phospholipids and a lot of proteins, not of hydrogen ions. A membrane of hydrogen ions doesn't make any sense chemically in any way.  Cooking doesn't change the overall charge of molecules in food, you can't create or destroy charges out of thin air. To change the charges, essentially the pH of your solution, you need to either add acid or base. Of course you do that quite often in cooking, but the cooking process itself can't change any charges by itself. And even if it did, stomach acid has a very low pH and will change the charges of food anyway.   The Kirlian photography is pretty, but that's it. The strength of the effect is sensitive to moisture for example, there are all kinds of reasons why cooked and raw food could look differently in these images. ",
        "id": 100,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long should you wait after lunch if you want to take a bath, and why?",
        "body": "      Is it true that one shouldn't take a bath after lunch?       No. That's a long hold myth, nothing more.  Although it might have all the pedagogical value of scare stories in general:     So telling kids they might drown because they\u2019ve just eaten is one way of getting them to listen to you. But from the evidence, it doesn\u2019t appear to be backed up by science.   Bathing is less demanding than swimming? Most of these beliefs centre around swimming which might be a cause of discomfort, even minor cramps:     Eating-Exercise Connection:   Even though this particular example is a myth, the relationship between eating and exercise is important. Knowing when and what to eat can make a difference in how many calories you burn and how effective your workout is.   If you take to mean lunch in the South of Europe, where drinking alcohol with meals is customary, than the picture might change a little bit:     But meals that include a drink or two are another story. In 1989, for example, a study in the journal Pediatrics looked at almost 100 adolescents who drowned in Washington and found that 25 percent had been intoxicated. One year later, a study of hundreds of drowning deaths among adults in California found that 41 percent were alcohol related.      The Bottom Line  Swimming after a meal will not increase the risk of drowning, unless alcohol is involved   But it seems to persist since even health organisations like the Red Cross once did give out advice along those lines. Not any longer:     False: Wait a half hour after eating before you can safely go swimming   This one seemed almost universally accepted when I was a child and is still believed today. The myth involves the possibility of suffering severe muscle cramping and drowning from swimming on a full stomach. While it's true that the digestive process does divert the circulation of the blood toward the gut and to a certain extent, away from the muscles, the fact is that an episode of drowning caused by swimming on a full stomach has never been documented. Neither the American Academy of Pediatrics nor the American Red Cross makes any specific recommendations about waiting any amount of time after eating before taking a swim. There's a theoretical possibility that one could develop a cramp while swimming with a full stomach, but a person swimming in a pool or controlled swimming area could easily exit the water if this happens. As with any exercise after eating, swimming right after a big meal might be uncomfortable, but it won't cause you to drown.   For possible origins of this myth:     No one is quite sure when or why parents began telling their children to wait an hour after eating before setting so much as a little toe in the pool or lake. Two popular theories abound, one biological and the other social.   And scientists have objected these theories for quite a while now:     In 1961 exercise physiologist Arthur Steinhaus took a position against this belief in the Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. He labeled the very idea of stomach cramps \u201cquestionable.\u201d ",
        "id": 593,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "MR scanner versus MRI scanner",
        "body": "There is no consistency within the industry on the terminology. For example, GE calls them MR systems, Philips calls them both MR system and MRI system, Toshiba calls them both MRI system and MR system, and Siemens calls them MRI scanners.",
        "id": 946,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can one's body temperature affect the quality of his/her sleep?",
        "body": "Yes. Body temperature drops at night almost 2 degrees fahrenheit.   Cranial cooling has been showing to lead to deeper sleep and help insomniacs.  Higher body temperatures during sleep are associated with depression.  As a physician, I have a seen previous studies suggesting that taking a lukewarm shower before sleeping has been shown to help people get to sleep faster [reference needed].   Anecdotally, I have patients who report that walking around without socks on the floor until their feet feel cold also report falling asleep faster.  ",
        "id": 548,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Normal for menstruation blood to be brown/black at the start?",
        "body": "Menstrual blood is composed of a mixture of blood (blood cells), vaginal secretions, endometrial cells and inflammatory cells.  I have found no study investigating the change in colour of mentruation blood .  However, the presence of endometrial cells (mucosa lining of the uterus) and necrotic cells (from the endometrium) is supposed to be highest during the first days of menstruation where the stratum functionalis gets cleaved from the stratum basalis in the endometrium.  During the end of menstruation most of these cells have been expulsed and the new lining of the endometrial wall has developed, slowly \"covering\" previous bleeding vessels from the underlying mucosa.  This could possibly explain the change in colour you are mentionning.   Some weeks ago, I have answered a question on the menstrual cycle including some points regarding the uterine wall and its changes during the cycle: How does my body know how long a month is?  Of course, these explanations apply to a \"physiological\" condition, and not to a pathological condition where things can be different.  Sources: Yang H, Zhou B, Prinz M, Siegel D. Proteomic Analysis of Menstrual Blood. Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics\u202f: MCP. 2012;11(10):1024-1035. doi:10.1074/mcp.M112.018390.",
        "id": 1212,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "is there evidence that determines the appropriate amount of standing time in a day?",
        "body": "Aren't you in luck, I asked a very similar question over in physical fitness SE:  https://fitness.stackexchange.com/questions/31109/how-effective-are-standing-desks  Here is the top answer:     A recent meta-analysis of 23 published studies is MacEwen, MacDonald,   and Burr, \"A systematic review of standing and treadmill desks in the   workplace,\" Preventative Medicine 70(January 2015):50-58.      The article is here:   http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.11.011      Quoting from the paper's summary:           Treadmill desks led to the greatest improvement in physiological outcomes including postprandial glucose, HDL cholesterol, and     anthropometrics, while standing desk use was associated with few     physiological changes. Standing and treadmill desks both showed mixed     results for improving psychological well-being with little impact on     work performance.    ",
        "id": 1143,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there medications that relieve and stop migraines quickly?",
        "body": "As you alluded to in the question, medications used for migraine headaches generally fall into two categories, prophylactic (meds taken daily to prevent migraines) and abortive (meds taken when a migraine starts in order to stop it). Your question is about the second group.  \u201cInstantly\u201d (as noted in the comments) is a little absurd; there is obviously some delay between the time of ingestion of the medication and its effect at receptors that provides relief of pain. However, you\u2019re right to note that the time-to-onset of anti-migraine effect is relevant, and this is a case where the available medications do vary in this respect in a way that tempers their usefulness.   Relevant pharmacology: routes of administration    Medications taken orally (by mouth) are generally the slowest to onset of action. Intravenous medications, introduced directly into the bloodstream, are generally the fastest. Perhaps less well-known are other methods that are nearly as fast as IV: sublingual, intranasal, and inhaled. In each of these cases, the medication is placed in apposition to blood vessels that are able to absorb it directly. This only works for certain types of medications (mostly lipophilic ones that can cross into blood vessels), but it\u2019s fast and avoids some of the difficulties of oral administration.*  Subcutaneous, transdermal or intramuscular administration is generally also somewhat quicker to reach the bloodstream than oral medications.  Migraines: oral may not be best    For reasons that are not fully understood, abortive medications are more effective when used early in the attack, so the quicker routes of administration are also expected to provide relatively more benefit. In addition, migraine headaches are often associated with severe nausea and vomiting which may limit the utility of oral medications. Even when vomiting is not present, migraines are associated with gastric stasis, meaning that the stomach is slow to empty into the duodenum, the part of the gut where medications are generally absorbed.  Abortive medications for migraines:     Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs): particularly for mild attacks, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDs are all effective. The only NSAID available for non-oral use (at least in the US) is ketorolac, which is effective with IV or IM administration (ASA and ketorolac references given below; others available upon request.) Triptans: This class of drugs is the mainstay of abortive treatment for moderate to severe migraines. Triptans are available for a variety of routes of administration. Sumatriptan can be given as a subcutaneous injection (usually via auto-injector in the thigh), as a nasal spray, or orally; a transdermal preparation is planned to be marketed in 2015. Zolmitriptan is available for both nasal and oral use. Non-oral routes of administration tend to be fastest. This pharmacokinetic paper demonstrates that nicely:      Image from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4232272/ \u201cPowder\u201d here refers to an intranasal powder preparation.      Ergots: These vasoconstricting medications have a similar receptor activity as Triptans but carry relatively more risk for those with hypertension and cardiovascular disease so are used less frequently. Dihydroergotamine has somewhat fewer side effects than ergotamine itself and is available for intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and intranasal use.       Notes and references       *For practical purposes, all three of these routes tend to be not quite as quick as would be expected theoretically because a portion of the drug ends up swallowed and subject to all of the usual constraint of oral administration.       Kirthi V, Derry S, Moore RA Aspirin with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;4:CD008041.      Lipton RB, Stewart WF, Stone AM, L\u00e1inez MJ, Sawyer JP. *Stratified care vs step care strategies for migraine: the Disability in Strategies of Care (DISC) Study: A randomized trial. JAMA. 2000;284(20):2599.      Taggart E, Doran S, Kokotillo A, Campbell S, Villa-Roel C, Rowe BH. Ketorolac in the treatment of acute migraine: a systematic review. Headache. 2013 Feb;53(2):277-87.    Tfelt-Hansen P, Saxena PR, Dahl\u00f6f C, Pascual J, L\u00e1inez M, Henry P, Diener H, Schoenen J, Ferrari MD, Goadsby PJ. Ergotamine in the acute treatment of migraine: a review and European consensus. Brain. 2000;123 ( Pt 1):9.      Tfelt-Hansen P Efficacy and adverse events of subcutaneous, oral, and intranasal sumatriptan used for migraine treatment: a systematic review based on number needed to treat. Cephalalgia. 1998;18(8):532.   ",
        "id": 238,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Continuing effectiveness of anti-viral drugs after shingles outbreak",
        "body": "In, shingles, pain commonly persists after rash disappearance and usually disappears on its own. If the pain lasts for more than 30-90 days after rash disappearance, it is called postherpetic neuralgia (PHP).  Antivirals, such as acyclovir, famciclovir and valcyclovir, do not help in postherpetic neuralgia.  Postherpetic neuralgia, NEJM:     Antiviral drugs are not effective in relieving postherpetic neuralgia.   Acyclovir for treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: efficacy and pharmacokinetics. (PubMed):     We concluded that 56 days of intravenous and oral acyclovir   therapy were well tolerated but had little or no effect on the   clinical course of postherpetic neuralgia.   Other drugs, such as anticonvulsants (gabapentin, pregabalin), opioids, tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline), capsaicin cream, topical anesthetics (lidocaine) or steroid injections (in chronic cases), may reduce pain. (UpToDate) These drugs are usually only mildly to moderately effective.",
        "id": 2248,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is cheap produce from small Chinese mom & pop grocery stores more dangerous than produce from Western supermarkets?",
        "body": "I have been introduced to Asian shopping after marrying an asian 5 years ago so my response is based on that experience.  First - choosing an asian grocer - If they are busy, ie many customers that's probably the best sign. Many customers usually means good quality at good price, and second, turn over is going to be high so more fresh. Ask asian's, especially those with accents where they shop and go and check them out.  Where are things they sell grown - For shops that sell fresh meat, fruit and vegitables, they are mostly grown locally especially those that have high turnover. That can only happen if they are selling cheaper as freight from overseas, especially refrigerated freight would make it far more expensive. It's quite rare to be importing them. As to the other products, like in your western supermarket they will be from all over the world.   Is it safe. I've purchased products from western supermarket that was bad a few times. I've never had bad product from the asian grocers we use. Remember the first rule above :)    Make friends with some asians and tell them your keen to go check out the asian grocer with them. You will be suprised how many will go out of their way to do that.  One negative to watch for - Some within each race of people will try and rip off others. Just be mindfull of this as I've had them try it on me before at the meat counter - sell something to me for $4/lb and sell to an asian for $3/lb. Just be a little alert. Most by far are honest.",
        "id": 392,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a person's healthy hemoglobin level vary from country to country?",
        "body": "To be precise, one needs to know what \"normal\" means.  Normal is actually a function of two measurements (for example, hemoglobin level and number of people sampled with said hemoglobin level). This generates a bell-shaped curve.   The graph of the normal distribution gives us both the mean and standard deviations from the mean. If the standard deviation is large, the curve is shorter and wider. If the standard deviation is small, the curve is taller and narrower.   For example, if one measured 500 American males at 30 years of age who were 5'10 inches tall, your curve would look something like this:    where zero (the mean) might be 177 pounds. Including one standard deviation above and below the mean would represent ~68% of the population. Some will be thin, some will be heavy; they will fall outside this 68%.  If the same measurements were taken in Africa, for instance, where there is a difference in diet and body habitus, then the mean might be 134 pounds.   So, yes, it is possible to have different \"normals\" for different countries. However, that does not mean the same thing as \"healthy\" or \"optimum\".  By and large, human beings are human beings, and what is regarded as healthy for an average person in Europe should be the same for an average person in India.   There are exceptions, for example, sherpas in Nepal have a lower number of red blood cells compared to lowlanders who must accommodate themselves to lower oxygen in the highlands by making more red blood cells. This is a result of selection for a gene that regulates red blood cell production in the low oxygen of the highlands, with other compensatory mechanisms.",
        "id": 147,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens to flatulence gasses when you resist?",
        "body": "They are mainly certain sulfur compounds that cause smelly gas (Gut, BMJ Journals):     ...organic sulphides of bacterial origin, primarily methanethiol,   dimethyl disulphide, and dimethyl trisulphide, were the primary   malodorous compounds elaborated by faeces.   The cells of the large intestinal lining can break down hydrogen disulfide into dimethyl disulphide (PubMed), \"which...probably plays little part in flatus malodour\" (Gut, BMJ Journals). This means that holding gas would give hydrogen dioxide more time to break down and thus reduce its smell.  Avoiding foods high in sulfur (meat, fish, almonds, dates, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, cabbage) can decrease the smell of the gas  (Gicare).  Ammonia can also give odor to the gas (PubMed). Apparently, a large percent of ammonia can be absorbed in the colon. (Camridge.org, 1984)  So, theoretically, holding back gas could reduce the smell of the flatulence.",
        "id": 2535,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "patient in traumatic cardiac arrest - trauma centre diversion",
        "body": "The reasons can be found in the training of Hong Kong paramedics. Their training is roughly comparable to the EMT-Intermediate level in the US. According to the Hong Kong Fire Service, which provides emergency medical services (EMS) in the city, their capabilities are as follows:  https://www.hkfsd.gov.hk/eng/source/safety/paramedic_amb.html        Defibrillator    To salvage patients in non-traumatic cardiac arrest.   Nitroglycerin (NTG)    To reduce angina pain.    Ventolin &amp; Atrovent To ease shortness of breath in patients having asthma / emphysema / chronic bronchitis.    Intravenous infusion of Dextrose 10% in Water (D10W)    To correct the decreased level of consciousness in patients suffering   from hypoglycemia.    Glucagon    To correct the decreased level of consciousness in patients suffering from hypoglycemia.    Intravenous infusion of Normal Saline    To replenish body fluid in patients suffering from severe blood loss in accidents or other medical emergencies.    Entonox    To reduce pain through patient-controlled inhalation.    Naloxone    To revive patients suffering from narcotic overdose.          In addition, some ambulances are equipped with more   sophisticated drugs and equipment:         Adrenaline    To treat anaphylaxis through correcting shock and breathing difficulty.    Valium To treat convulsion in epileptic children.   Laryngeal-Mask Airway and Combitube To provide better airway management and artificial ventilation for patients in cardiac arrest.      You'll notice that what's missing from the list are intubation and cricothyroidotomy, so they're not well prepared to handle a trauma arrest. The logic behind diverting to the nearest hospital is that without definitive airway control the patient is unlikely to survive a trip any longer than absolutely necessary.   There is an interesting review of traumatic arrest literature that draws this conclusion:     Should you transport the patient in cardiac arrest if the nearest   trauma center is 5 minutes away? Yes. Transport in this case may   provide benefit to the patient as they may be a candidate for   thoracotomy or other advanced surgical procedures.      What about 20 minutes away? Likely no. The patient is unlikely to be a   candidate for thoractomy and aggressive resuscitation should be done   on scene with transport only with ROSC due to the risk to providers   and predicted worse outcome.   It's worth noting that even though American paramedics are trained to perform endotracheal intubation and cricothyroidotomy, trauma arrests are often not transported at all. Where I live, an adult arrest due to blunt or penetrating injury will generally receive three rounds of ACLS on scene. If no pulse is restored, they are not transported.",
        "id": 2478,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bifascicular Block In Young Male Asymptomatic Patient",
        "body": "If the person is well, and investigations show no structural defects, then:     Early-onset cardiac conduction defects in the absence of structural heart disease should prompt consideration of CCD genetic testing, especially if a positive family history of conduction abnormalities and pacemaker implants is identified.   HRS/EHRA Expert Consensus Statement on the State of Genetic Testing for the Channelopathies and Cardiomyopathies   Some other causes not age specific some of which are listed here include ischemic heart disease, cardiomyopathies, hypertension, aortic stenosis, Lev\u2019s disease, hyperkalemia, congenital heart disease, sarcoid cardiomyopathy, Chagas disease, and scleroderma. ",
        "id": 888,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are auditory hallucinations a side effect of Oxycodone? How long does Oxycodone stay in the body?",
        "body": "There are some rare anecdotal reports of auditory hallucinations related to oxycodone. For example:  Example 1  Example 2  But the half-life of oxycodone is a mere 3-4 hours, so after two days there should have been virtually no oxycodone present.  However, according to the same link above, oxycodone and its metabolites are excreted primarily via the kidneys, so if the patient in question had impaired kidney function, it's possible that oxycodone remained present that long. And that brings into focus why questions about particular patients are a poor fit for this site. There are just too many variables to answer individual experiences.",
        "id": 2489,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is eye patching effective for older children with amblyopia?",
        "body": "Some studies have shown that eye patching has been effective in adults. One study1 tested teenagers ages 13-17 and found that, combined with glasses and near vision activity, patching was effective in treating lazy eye. In fact there have been studies on treatment of amblyopia in older children/adults as early as 19572, but this study was only performed on seven cases of amblyopia, so while it did show that patching combined with vision therapy did help treat amblyopia. Luckily, scientists have developed other ways to treat it, such as playing Tetris.3    [1]  Successful Improvement of Eyesight with Therapy for Patients with Lazy Eye Proven Possible at Later Ages by Many New Scientific Studies  [2]  Treatment of amblyopia exanopsia in adults; a preliminary report of seven cases  [3]  New hope for adults with amblyopia (lazy eye)",
        "id": 25,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In what order should ointment and lotion be applied?",
        "body": "Medical science would say we have to know what the ointment and lotion are to be sure, but it's fairly safe to say ointment first for the simple reason that the lotion may act as a barrier to the ointment, and the latter is almost certainly more important.   If the ointment is water-based and the lotion is oil-based (or vice versa), this will definitely be the case. If they're both oil- or water-based, then they will mingle, possibly changing the effectiveness of the ointment.  I think the best course would be to wait a while between applying them. For example, ointment in the morning and lotion at night.",
        "id": 378,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Disinfectant spray in first aid kit for cycling and hiking?",
        "body": "In Germany, first-aiders may not apply medication:     Medication in general mustn't be applied by first-aiders. This also encompasses cases in which a customer in a pharmacy suffers from an asthma attack. One may only hand the patient their asthma spray, but they need to apply it themselves.      Medikamente verabreichen d\u00fcrfen Ersthelfer prinzipiell nicht. Das gilt auch f\u00fcr F\u00e4lle, in denen etwa ein Kunde in der Apotheke einen Asthma- oder Angina-pecoris-Anfall erleidet. Dem Betroffenen darf lediglich sein Asthma- beziehungsweise Nitro-Spray gereicht werden, anwenden muss es der Patient selbst.       Source: Pharmazeutische Zeitung   I think this is why the DRK page explicitly states that it is forbidden to (a) touch, (b) clean, (c) apply powder, creams, sprays, disinfectants and (d) remove foreign matter.  In my first aid training (which isn't as fresh as it should be), it was pointed out that giving patients one's own medication is an even bigger no-go, and disinfectants were explicitly included in that ruling. The workaround solution is to forget the octenisept\u00ae next to them and let them have it this way.   Even in the DRK Sanit\u00e4tsdienst (basically volunteers with a broader first-aid training that will help the emergency services in large festivals), a protocol needs to be filled out when disinfecting wounds (formally, not many do).  The above is all about giving medicine to strangers, no one can prevent you from doing all that to yourself. The DRK page is a guide for first-aiders, hence it \"forbids\" applying medication to others...    For wounds, applying water might not be the best idea. Usually the wound cleans itself through bleeding if dirt gets deep into the wound (and if it's only on top, it doesn't matter), but the water will delay the clotting process. For cleaning a rash, get a sterile compression, apply disinfectant and put it on top of the rash, while applying a little pressure. This way, the dirt will stick in the compression and the wound cleaned.",
        "id": 2390,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What shots are not okay for someone with egg allergies?",
        "body": "I am not sure where you \"heard\", but currently people with egg allergy are merely asked to stay for observation 30 mins after a flu shot, but a reaction is not expected due to the very small volume.  The only one I know that is a total no is yellow fever.  Here is additional info on egg allergy &amp; vaccinations. http://www.chop.edu/centers-programs/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-ingredients/egg-products",
        "id": 1870,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Heat loss from extremities",
        "body": "The arteries and veins act as a counter current heat exchange system so the veins extract heat from the arteries as blood flow returns to the heart. The further the distance from the heart the blood has to travel the more the heat is lost to the venous system running parallel to the arteries. This is why the feet are colder than the hands.  http://www.biology-pages.info/H/HeatTransport.html",
        "id": 2135,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can diabetics consume honey?",
        "body": "Honey is rich in glucose (31%) and contains other insulin-triggering sugars such as sucrose and maltose. One study found that it has a glycaemic index of 87, much higher than that of table sugar (59), but note that GI is rather fickle to measure and you can probably find differing numbers for both. I've seen sources (not peer reviewed) which claim that honey's GI is somewhat lower than that of sugar.   A diabetic can consume honey just like any other carbohydrate. He will have to adjust the amount of honey and other carbohydrates in the same meal such that his blood sugar does not overshoot the target amount. If he is insulin-dependent, he will have received guidelines how to adjust insulin injections depending on the amount of carbohydrates eaten, and will have to include the amount of honey he consumed in his calculation.   If the diabetic is on a low-GI diet, honey may not be allowed by the diet-specific rules. This will be explained by the specialist who prescribed the diet. ",
        "id": 223,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is it possible for someone to suffer repeated bouts of flu?",
        "body": "There are a couple things going on here.  First off, there are many, many strands of the flu. According to the CDC:     Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on   the surface of the virus: the hemagglutinin (H) and the neuraminidase   (N). There are 18 different hemagglutinin subtypes and 11 different   neuraminidase subtypes. (H1 through H18 and N1 through N11   respectively.)      Influenza A viruses can be further broken down into different strains.   Current subtypes of influenza A viruses found in people are influenza   A (H1N1) and influenza A (H3N2) viruses. In the spring of 2009, a new   influenza A (H1N1) virus (CDC 2009 H1N1 Flu website) emerged to cause   illness in people. This virus was very different from the human   influenza A (H1N1) viruses circulating at that time. The new virus   caused the first influenza pandemic in more than 40 years. That virus   (often called \u201c2009 H1N1\u201d) has now replaced the H1N1 virus that was   previously circulating in humans.      Influenza B viruses are not divided into subtypes, but can be further   broken down into lineages and strains. Currently circulating influenza   B viruses belong to one of two lineages: B/Yamagata and B/Victoria.   So while there are only a few strains of Type A flu, there are many strains of Type B.  More importantly, the flu is very different from a cold. Typically it takes at least a week to recover from the flu, with symptoms including fever, muscle aches, and URI symptoms. It's pretty unusual for someone to recover from the flu in just 2 days-- if you got better that quickly, you probably just had a cold.",
        "id": 2107,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does lightning damage the body?",
        "body": "H = IxIxR  Where H is the amount of heat produced when a current of I is flown through a conductor of resistance R.   The resistance of human body may be as high as 100,000 ohms. An average bolt produces current of 30kA. If a typical lightning were to pass completely through a human body (even though this is not the case), the heat energy liberated will be 9X10^14 J which is HUGE. The human body is mostly made of protein, with water, fats, and nucleic acids for the most part. Protein coagulates and water evaporates as the temperature rises, and if it is too high the whole thing oxidises, and what will be left will unoxidisable ash and unburnt carbon.  In short, yes it is the heat injury in lightning. But in electrocution, there can be other causes such as cardiac arrhythmia, because the amount of voltage need not necessarily be high enough to oxidise everything up. ",
        "id": 282,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can virus and bacteria survive in soda water? (carbonated water)",
        "body": "Jaundice isn't caused directly by viruses.  It's caused by a buildup of bilirubin in the blood.  Clasped in the hemoglobin molecules in your blood cells is a pigment called porphyrin, which is not water soluble and can be toxic.  The liver assists in breaking down those pigments into dozens of more water soluble parts that make up bilirubin so they can be flushed out in the urine.  These parts are yellowish, which is why people with jaundice look yellow, and why pee is yellow, etc.  Jaundice happens when the liver isn't keeping up, which can be a result of hepatitis.  Viruses in general are very fragile and cannot survive long in the presence of oxygen or acidic things like soda, or even in direct sunlight due to ultraviolet radiation.  Even most airborne viruses require aerosol droplets like in a sneeze to live long outside of a body.  Viruses generally cant survive high levels of oxidative stress themselves, (even though once they have infected a cell, many viruses reproduce better when the cell itself is under oxidative stress.)  Bacteria could possibly live in these conditions though.  There are bacteria that can survive really harsh conditions.  Some heartburn is said to be caused by bacteria called H. Pylori that can live in the crazy acidic conditions of the stomach.  Some rod shape bacterial are hard to kill because they have tough little clones of themselves in their bodies called endospores that have been known to survive boiling water for long periods of time.  So the short version, viruses have almost zero chance of surviving in soda, but it might possible for bacteria to do it if it got really contaminated somehow. Also, if a well gets really contaminated with feces, there is a possibility of getting Hepatitis A.",
        "id": 1582,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "First aid for a rabies dog bite",
        "body": " Wound cleansing is especially important when bitten, as it has been shown to remarlably reduce the risk of infections from animal bites in general, and in some animal studies, the likelihood of rabies infection.  This treatment should be immediate: irrigate with water or diluted water povidone-iodine solution.  You should consult a doctor as soon as possible. Animal bites are, by themselves, potentially very serious puncture wounds, and have the potential for a number of other infections beyond simply rabies. Post-exposure vaccination - For people who have never been vaccinated against rabies previously, post-exposure anti-rabies vaccination should always include administration of both passive antibody and vaccine.  In the United States, post-exposure prophylaxis consists of a regimen of one dose of immune globulin and four doses of rabies vaccine over a 14-day period. Rabies immune globulin and the first dose of rabies vaccine should be given by your health care provider as soon as possible after exposure. Additional doses or rabies vaccine should be given on days 3, 7, and 14 after the first vaccination.      Sources:   CDC - Rabies: Medical Care  CDC - Rabies: When should I seek medical attention",
        "id": 150,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Relation between Cold & Mood",
        "body": "Reflexively I want to say it's due to the medicine -- commonly \"Sudafed\" which contains \"Pseudoephedrine\" or \"Phenylephrine\".   The former can be used to manufacture  methamphetamines (also known as meth).    Oddly enough I've experienced the same thing, a good mood and very noticeable feeling of relaxation. I can't help but think there is something more going on here (from a physiological standpoint, as I don't always take \"Sudafed\" when I have a cold).  I'd be very interested hear what other knowledgeable members have to say regarding this.  +1 - Fantastic question by the way..",
        "id": 1904,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wrist Blood Pressure Monitor Accuracy?",
        "body": "Take both to your doctor's office the next time and compare them to the manual cuff. There are many models that can be calibrated that way.   Not all models are as accurate as others. This article from the American Heart Association recommends arm monitors over wrist ones.     Wrist and finger monitors are not recommended because they yield less   reliable readings.   I've anecdotally heard of more inaccuracies in wrist than upper arm monitors. Mayo Clinic recommends the same.",
        "id": 1725,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calcium supplements versus \"fortified with calcium\"",
        "body": "Calcium carbonate is largely insoluble in aqueous solutions; you need stomach acid to change it into calcium BIcarbonate, which is much more soluble.  Calcium-fortified foods are generally fortified with other calcium salts which are more soluble, such as calcium acetate, calcium lactate, or calcium gluconate, unless the food is high in acid.",
        "id": 1,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cold sores: why do we get them on the lips?",
        "body": "Fever blisters, or cold sores, are an infection with the type 1 or Type 2 herpes simplex virus (HSV-1, HSV-2). The herpes simplex virus usually enters the body through a break in the skin around or inside the mouth and travels into the nerve for the lip. It's been estimated that 65% of the US population has this infection (I do not have worldwide data).  This version of the virus is relatively benign, but it never leaves the body. It takes up residence in the roots of nerves; in the case of cold sores, it is a nerve near the cheekbone. In times of stress, fever, illness or even over exposure to sunlight, it can activate and travel down the the nerve and erupt as lesions in and around the lips.  All information contained here can be referenced through this government posting, however there is a huge reference pool available. Currently there is no cure or vaccine for HSV-1 or 2 (The HSV-2 is genital herpes, however HSV-1 as has been pointed out, may be introduced through oral contact with genitalia).",
        "id": 108,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can white grease help your teeth?",
        "body": "Oil-Pulling     Oil pulling is an ancient Ayurvedic practice that essentially involves   swishing around oil in the mouth. Similar to a mouthwash, the oil   \u201cpulls\u201d bacteria and toxins out of the mouth and, over time, can leave   your teeth whiter and your gums healthier. And while oil pulling may   seem a little \u201cwoo woo\u201d at first, many studies have proven that the   practice can be extremely beneficial to oral health and hygiene.]1   I wouldn't use \"never\" as it's an absolute that usually doesn't work, yet there are some indications that oils may have certain oral health benefits such as alleviating halitosis (bad breath), and reducing gingivitis (inflammation of the gums).  White Grease White grease is basically inedible pig fat used as lubricant in mechanics. The studies mentioned test traditional Indian folk remedies that rely on sesame or sunflower oil, but there doesn't seem to be much indication if any about white grease.  Decreasing the amount of bacteria in the mouth could contribute to less cavities, though there's no certainty of either effect in white grease.  According to this safety data sheet on White Lithium Grease,      \"INGESTION: Ingestion may cause slight stomach irritation and   discomfort.\"   If you're willing to bear the risks of accidental ingestion (which shouldn't happen anyways if you're using it like mouthwash), then maybe you could find out for yourself.  Sources:  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21911944  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19336860  http://www.panef.com/pdf/MSDS%20WGA-6.pdf",
        "id": 217,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What to do if someone on video chat needs medical help",
        "body": "Answer for the US and Canada:  Call 911 and explain the situation. They will be able to either forward your call or give you a number to call faster than you can find it on your own. Dispatch centers contact each other all the time so they know in advance how to do so.  If that doesn't work for some reason, grab google and type in \"[Somewhere] Idaho Police Department\" and call them directly. Next attempt: Idaho State Police.  Rest of the world:  Call the local emergency number and do the same. For example, in most of Europe that would be 112.  Source: Me, 15 years of experience in EMS. Can't find a good source to reference.",
        "id": 806,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Were earwigs historically used as a medication?",
        "body": "The term \"earwig\" comes from people thinking that the animal crawled (and wiggled) into people's ears. It doesn't. So this has nothing to do with using it as medication against ear infections etc.    (In German, by the way, it's called Ohrenkneifer (ear pincher)) ",
        "id": 666,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a person survive alcohol poisoning without medical treatment?",
        "body": "Sorry, not even close to the first to be that intoxicated and survive with no medical attention. Probably about 100 million people before him over the last 10,000 years got even drunker and survived just fine without medical attention.  If by \"a bottle\" you mean a 750 ml bottle and he drank half, or 375 ml of it, then he drank about 8.5 \"shots\" (a standard US shot is 44 ml).  I believe this calculator to be as accurate as any calculator can be without a breath or blood sample. Given that he drank 90-proof liquor rather than standard 80-proof whiskey, I told the calculator that he drank 10 shots rather than eight. So when I entered his male gender, 180 pounds, and 10 shots of whiskey in less than half an hour, the calculator says his blood alcohol content would have been approximately .25.  The table here will give you an idea how drunk .25 is. In short, it's falling down, stupid, puking, blacking out drunk for a novice like your friend. His death would most likely come from falling down a flight of stairs or passing out and choking on his own vomit rather than the alcohol toxicity itself. (With a chronic alcoholic it might not even be obvious they've been drinking.)  Many people reach levels much higher than .25 on a daily basis, receive absolutely no medical treatment, and survive just fine. The long-term prognosis for them isn't so rosy if they keep it up, but a single \"big drunk\" has been survived by millions of people over thousands of years.",
        "id": 994,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If a human is irradiated, how contagious are they?",
        "body": "This is an excellent question.    Let us give an example of a procedure that some humans really need to be exposed to - and that is  Radiation Therapy.    Radiation therapy is usually given to cancer patients to destroy a tumor. Technically, there are two methods of giving radiation to a patient for therapeutic purposes - External and Internal radiation therapy.   When we talk about External Radiation therapy, we are talking about radiation administered through a beam to a specific region of the body. Basically, it is non-invasive because it uses only a machine with a beam that directs radiation to the specific body part containing the tumor.        Since the radiation is given in relatively   small doses, patients who receive external radiation therapy are not   considered radioactive and do not need to take any special precautions   during the time they are being treated. It is safe for friends,   family, and children to be around them - OncoLink.     On the other hand, patients undergoing internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy) get radioactive implants to destroy the tumor. This procedure is considered invasive because doctors need to put the radioactive implants inside the body where the tumor is located. Commonly used radioactive substance in implants are cesium, gold, iodine, iridium, and palladium.     Different radioactive materials have different half-lives. This   information helps the radiation therapy team to choose the type of   material to use and plan the treatment regimen. It also determines how   long radiation safety precautions must be taken following treatment -  Canadian Cancer Society.       Furthermore, if high dosage is being used in the therapy, expect that a small amount of radiation will be left in the patient's body after the implants removal. As the American Cancer Society states that,      With internal radiation therapy, your body may give off a small amount   of radiation for a short time.      If the radiation is contained in a temporary implant, you will be   asked to stay in the hospital and may have to limit visitors during   treatment. You also may be asked to stay a certain distance away from   them. Pregnant women and children may not be allowed to visit you.   Your body fluids are not radioactive. Once the implant is removed,   your body will no longer give off radiation.      Permanent implants give off small doses of radiation over a few weeks   to months as they slowly stop giving off radiation. The radiation   usually doesn\u2019t travel much farther than the area being treated, so   the chances that others could be exposed to radiation is very small.   Still, your health care team may ask you to take certain precautions   such as staying away from small children and pregnant women,   especially right after you get the implants. Again, body fluids and   the things you use will not be radioactive. ",
        "id": 322,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to reduce the side effects of wearing contact lens?",
        "body": "Questions 1-2  Unfortunately, the answer to these depend on the exact brand and line of contacts used. For example, here is a long list of silicon hydrogel lenses, and how long they last. Here is another list of materials used to make contact lenses (including many of the silicon hydrogel type). Some of those are dailies, but some can be worn day and night , such as the extended wear contacts listed here. You can usually look up your particular contact lenses online and find the maximum recommended time.  However, I'd recommend (as would most eye doctors) that you generally wear them less than the maximum, just to be safe. For example, I use Biofinity lenses, which are approved to be worn for up to 7 days, but I usually wear them for no more than 2-3 days at a time.   The concerns here are how much oxygen gets to the eye, and how much material builds up on the contact lens. Some brands of contacts have much higher oxygen permeability, so you can wear them longer without damaging your eye.   Protein buildup is one factor in how uncomfortable contacts get, and it also depends on the material of the contact lens.   Similarly bacteria (and other microorganisms) buildup on your eye and contact lens depends on the material - and that will affect how long the contacts last and how long each day (or week) you can wear them.  Question 3  No idea about the tears, but you shouldn't allow water to touch contacts. (Thanks Narusan for the comment).  Question 4  Not aside from the same side effects that would be present for someone without contact lenses looking at a computer. Wearing contact lenses to fix vision is much closer to the natural optical system than glasses - so from and optical perspective, wearing contact lenses is almost exactly the same as having eyes that don't need correction at all. This is not true of glasses, which cause your muscles to move and your eyes to focus in different ways than they would if you didn't need glasses.",
        "id": 2338,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why fish is said to pose no risk despite the mercury on it?",
        "body": "Mercury is stacking up. But the amount of mercury in fish differs not only by fish type, but also by fishing region. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_in_fish#Levels_of_contamination)   In most regions and with 'typical' amount of fish eaten, people do not eat enough fish to get dangerous mercury levels. -> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_in_fish#Disparate_impacts",
        "id": 363,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true that our earlobes and noses elongate because of gravity -- not necessareily cartilage growth?",
        "body": "According to a common misconception, your ears keep growing because of the cartilage, which supposedly keeps growing your entire life.   In reality cartilage doesn\u2019t keep growing in size your entire life, the real reason why our ears \u2013 and also our noses! \u2013 keep growing is the result of gravity, and a special kind of cartilage in your ears. In our body there are three different forms of cartilage; Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage. The difference between the three types lies in the kind of protein fiber, their amount and the way it\u2019s constructed.   Elastic cartilage and gravity are the reason why it seems our ears keep growing   The type of cartilage that can be found in our ear is the elastic variety. And as the name elastic cartilage already implies, its main component is elastic fibers \u2013 which give your ear more flexibility. As with all collagen and elastin fibers in our body, they begin to break down when we age. This is causing them to stretch and sag, making them appear longer.  As mentioned before, the actual cause of our seemingly-swelling snout is gravity. When we age, the collagen and elastin fibers that make up cartilage begin to break down. This causes them to stretch and sag, making them appear longer. Our skin giving structural support to cartilage also contains collagen and elastin fibers that droop over time. This compounds the lengthening problem.  http://themedicinejournal.com/articles/do-your-ears-and-nose-continue-to-grow-as-you-age/  http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/02/ears-nose-continue-grow-age/",
        "id": 1380,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's this about Chemical-Warfare?! Nerve agents?! What's the difference between VX and Sarin?",
        "body": "Both are organo-phosphorous/phosphate compounds, and both act by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, leading to sustained muscle contraction and usually death by asphyxiation.   Sarin however is much less stable due to the phosphorus-fluorine bond being easily broken by water or basic/nucleophilic materials.  The products of this hydrolysis are relatively non-toxic phosphonic acids.  Not all of the VX hydrolysis products appear to be fully non-toxic, which likely adds to it's designation as \"deadliest\".  Additionally, there's the measured LD50 of the two, with Sarin being 172 \u03bcg/kg (rat, intravenous) and VX being only 7 \u00b5g/kg.  I don't know the exact chemical reasons for this, but one could assume the differences in structure lead to different and possibly more efficient binding affinity for VX or some other \"advantageous\" feature that makes it so deadly.  And finally, the two agents have different levels of volatility.  Sarin is much more volatile, and so can be \"cleared\" much more easily.  VX is likely to stick around in contaminated materials since it doesn't evaporate out of them as easily, and this could arguably make it more \"deadly\" over time.  Useful and in depth reference here",
        "id": 1569,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the point in checking non-fasting glycemia?",
        "body": "These are called random glucose tests, and they, too, can be used to check for diabetes and pre-diabetes. Because the meal before the test is not standardized the range is quite large, but that doesn't mean they don't have any diagnostic value.   An abnormal result will probably mean a fasting glucose test is then ordered. So why not do that in the first place? Without knowing the story of the pictured result, probably because diabetes diagnosis wasn't the point of the blood tests, and the glucose test was just one of several tests. In that case, doctors might decide it's  unnecessary to tell the patient not to eat just because of that one test. Especially if the blood drawing doesn't take place in the morning. ",
        "id": 521,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Link between shaving body hair and weaker scalp hair",
        "body": "The hair structure of an adult is divided into three parts: shaft\\fiber, root and bulb. Hair root is located inside hair follicles in epidermis, which itselff is growing a shaft. The shaft (what we usually call hair) consists basically of solid keratin and absent of DNA so it cannot be called \"alive\" in a rigorous sense (details).  Hair lifecycle consists of three stages:    Anagen (1000 days), growth Catagen (10 days),  transition Telogen (100 days), new hair start to grow from the same folicule; old one goes out    So in fact ~90% of hair is growing at at any given time and it does not depends on hair length until follicule is damaged (details).   However hair grows affected by external factors like nutrition and ambient temperature, lower temperature more intensively hair grow. So the imaginary situation can happen when a extremely hairy person shaves her/his body hair, the thermoisolation worsens, then he\\she experience intensified hair growth.   In other words all above explanations and examples are of speculations as human body is an extremely complex system and effects of second and third order and their interactions may influence, feedback and amplify each other. In the end to regourosly answer your question there should be controlled experemint to be carried out on twins to exclude genetetic variations. I did not find such or similar experiment in literature.",
        "id": 2394,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What Is the full list of hormonal changes pre period?",
        "body": "After a \u201cLH-Surge\u201d (LH - Lutheinizing Hormone) (which occurs around day 12 of cycle due to inverting the effect of estradiol on the secretion of LH from the adenohypohysis) the ovulation occurs and the second phase of menstrual cycle, the luteal phase, begins. The remaining parts of the dominant follicle are transformed into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and oestrogen (these are probably what you\u2019re looking for). Because progesterone sends negative feedback to hypothalamus, levels of FSH (Follicle-stimulating Hormone; important in the first phase of the cycle) and LH fall. As a result, corpus luteum atrophies and menstruation begins. In case of fertilisation of the egg however, hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is produced (by blastocyst, later syncytiotrophoblast) which preserves corpus luteum and therefore maintains levels of progesterone and oestrogen.  P.S. If you take a look at the follicular phase, you'll also find a couple of additional regulatory hormones, such as inhibins, activins or local secretion of prostaglangines etc.  Sources: Rassow, J. (2016). Biochemie. Stuttgart : Thieme. Pape, H.-C.; Kurtz, A.; Silbernagl, S. (2018). Physiologie. Stuttgart; New York : Georg Thieme Verlag. (both books in German and below is a brief Wikipedia article) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstrual_cycle",
        "id": 2572,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How soon will a person die if they are hung upside down?",
        "body": "This is an interesting research question from both pathophysiological and historical perspectives:     \"Upside-down death - the pathophysiology of inversion.\" Kirsty Andrews. Pathology. 2014.      Historically, deaths occurring in a head-down position were generally associated with inverted suspension inflicted upon the victim as a form of torture. In the current day, deaths occurring due to an inverted body position are rare and are usually the result of freak accidents which often attract media attention due to the unusual nature of the death. Occasionally an element of inverted suspension is present in deaths occurring in motor vehicle incidents when the vehicle rolls, coming to rest on its roof with the unconscious victim left suspended upside-down by the seat belt.     Early research indicated that inversion-related death would take \"some hours\" in healthy individuals.     \"Death in a head-down position.\" Burkhard Madea. Forensic Science International. 1993.      Dying    in    a  head-down    position    is    rare    and    autopsy    may    reveal    no    morphological    findings    which    explain    the    cause    of    death    sufficiently.    Functional    changes,    mainly    postural    changes    of    circulation    must    be    considered    to    explain    the    cause    of    death.       Case    histories    on    deaths    in    a    head-down    position    are    rare,    but    the    problem    may    be    of    increasing    interest    again    in    connection    with    torture    and    the    forensic    pathologist    may    be    asked    how    long    will    it    take    to    die    in    this    position.    From    the    limited    experience    of    some    recent    case    histories    and    the    experimental    investigations    of    Wilkins    et    al.,    it  can    only    be    said    that    in    healthy    persons    it    may    take    some    hours.      In unhealthy individuals (even adolescents), inversion-related death can be hastened by obesity and cardiovascular or pulmonary disease:     \"Positional asphyxia in rollover vehicular incidents.\" Angela Martin et al. Injury Extra. 2010.      A 16-year-old driver with a body mass index (BMI) of 60.8 died   after a motor vehicle collision when the vehicle went off the road and flipped over... prior to extrication   by emergency medicine personnel he became less and less   conscious and eventually became unresponsive. He was suspended   in an inverted position for approximately 15 min total. He was   pronounced dead at the scene.      Examination of the body at autopsy showed that the   approximately 400 pound adolescent had rare petechiae of the   conjunctivae bilaterally. The ears, nose, and lips were congested   with florid facial petechiae. Internally, the lungs were markedly   congested and air-filled... The cause of death was deemed to be positional asphyxia due to   the prolonged suspension of the decedent in an inverted position,   with a contributing factor of morbid obesity. The manner of death   was accident.     Finally, an entire chapter of Forensic Pathology Reviews Volume 3 is devoted to this topic (emphasis mine):     \"Death in a Head-Down Position.\" Achim Th. Sch\u00e4fer. Forensic Pathology Reviews. 2005.      Based on these cases, it is observed that elderly people, and in particular elderly with preexisting cardiovascular diseases, seem to be more prone to death in a head-down position than others. This suggests that final heart failure is the cause of death rather than cerebral or pulmonary dysfunction. Results from human and animal experiments and observations under true and simulated microgravitational conditions confirm this assumption, suggesting that a prolonged, markedly elevated burden of work for the heart because of increased volume load in an inverted body position eventually leads to death by heart failure. Other mechanisms, such as suffocation (\u201cpositional asphyxia\u201d), reduced blood reflux to the heart attributable to vanishing of blood in the venous system, decreased oxygen supply to the brain after reduced arteriovenous pressure difference, and carotid sinus or baroreceptor reflexes, as well as other factors, seem to play only a minor role, if any, in deaths in head-down position. ",
        "id": 2456,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why people wash their hands before dinner even if they eat with utensils and not hands?",
        "body": "Because its a good habit as your hands might end up touching your mouth or food when you are eating food using spoon or something. Plus eating with dirty hands no matter whether they will touch food or not doesn't just feels right. That's one of the most important reason that people usually wants to feel comfortable while eating and they want their hands to be clean even if they will use a spoon or chopstick. Its also a good idea to just be safe than sorry.",
        "id": 2428,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where can I find a (reasonably) reliable guide on supplements?",
        "body": "I consider a guide about dietary supplements reasonably reliable if it is based on recent systematic reviews of studies that agree with each other and does not push supplements to healthy people.  The following sources can be beneficial for you if you know what do you want to know: Do potassium supplements lower blood pressure, do calcium supplements cause kidney stones...?  If you only have vague questions, like, do I need any supplements or which brands are the best, this will not likely help you.  Quick info:   Colorado State University: Vitamins Drugs.com: Supplements: generic/brand names; OTC/prescribed; pregnancy safety; consumer reviews   Evidence-based, easy-to-read:   MedlinePlus: Herbs and Supplements Mayo Clinic: Drugs and Supplements  Office of Dietary Supplements by NIH.gov: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheets National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health: Herbs at a Glance   Safety:    European Food Safety Authority (EFSA): Supplements   Vegetarian:   Vegan Health - Evidence-Based Nutrient Recommendations, including great details about vitamin B12 and iron   Reviews of studies:   Linus Pauling Institute: Micronutrient Information Center Cochrane Nutrition (or type any nutrient in a search engine and add \"Cochrane\") Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements (2006): comprehensive, educational guide for all nutrients, here presented in even more detial (a great source for research health writers) This search: site:gov \"a nutrient\" \"xyz\" \"systematic review\" will give you PubMed and other .gov website reviews (example)   Databases:   Institute of Medicine: Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamins, minerals, carbs, fiber, proteins, fat and water US Department of Agriculture (USDA.gov) enables searching 1) by foods - to show their detailed nutrient composition, 2) by nutrients - to show which foods have most of a certain nutrient. ",
        "id": 2557,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Blue cheese antibiotics",
        "body": "Well, yes, but don't worry.     New antibiotics that are active against resistant bacteria are required. Bacteria have lived on the Earth for several billion years. During this time, they encountered in nature a wide range of naturally occurring antibiotics. To survive, bacteria developed antibiotic resistance mechanisms. Therefore, it is not surprising that they have become resistant to most of the natural antimicrobial agents that have been developed over the past 50 years. This resistance increasingly limits the effectiveness of current antimicrobial drugs. The problem is not just antibiotic resistance but also multidrug resistance. [From: Microbial drug discovery: 80 years of progress]   That means the Penicillium roqueforti is in a constant fight with bacteria since 'forever' using its antibiotics to gain the upper hand when used in cheese. Those bacteria responsible for any infection coming into contact with those antibiotics and surviving the encounter will be somehow more resistant to those chemicals than before the encounter. They may have very well been resistant to those before.      These survivors may be naturally resistant to the antibiotic ingested, or they may have acquired resistance during therapy. Sometimes the patient was already colonized with resistant organisms before treatment had even begun.    And this is of a very small concern because blue cheese mould are not producing antibiotics or other chemicals of use as a medical agent for pathogenic human infections with bacteria. Those chemicals are either very weak or in very low concentrations.  Penicillium is a very large group of species and not every member of this family produces useful drugs. Resistance to antibiotics is an evolutionary process and evolution favours minimalism in regard to developing new features. Eating these cheeses, if properly prepared and stored, should not increase resistance against prescription drugs we use currently under the term antibiotics.   So, after detailing some very nit-picky technicalities let me clarify my opening statement to: No.  These cheeses will not cause problems with resistance to prescription drugs.",
        "id": 2017,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the best time in a whole day for doing daily exercise like stretching, jogging, walking, cycling or swimming?",
        "body": "As suggested by the answers in this question on fitness.se, the best time of the day is whatever works best for you.  There is no magical time that will boost your metabolism more than other times, or anything like that. What most people are thinking of when they think of metabolism boosting is EPOC, or excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. This is commonly called the \"afterburn\" effect, which is where the body consumes more calories for an extended period after exercise sessions. The more intense the session, the higher the effect.  However, even with that, the amount of calories is low, in the 10-100 calories range over an extended period, as shown by the studies and math cited in this article.  The best thing to do (as suggested by the AHA) is to find a time that is most convenient and enjoyable for you, as you are far more likely to engage in the activity on a consistent basis, and being consistent is one of the best things you can do as far as exercise is concerned.",
        "id": 424,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does chlorhexidine cause discolouration in teeth?",
        "body": "There are several possible mechanisms, probably all acting together. The brownish deposits on teeth and tongue are mostly caused by the fact that bacterial proteins are denatured when the bacterial cell membranes are destroyed by high concentrations of chlorhexidine and disulphide functions are reduced to thiol functions, which form dark-coloured complexes with the iron(III) ions of saliva. Other discolourations could occur because monosaccharides dissolved in saliva, such as glucose and fructose, react with the amine functions of bacterial proteins, the so called Maillard reaction.     There is great individual variation in the degree of staining from person to person, this makes explanation more difficult as it may be caused by intrinsic factors, differences in extrinsic factors or both. No longer accepted theories of stain formation with chlorhexidine include breakdown of chlorhexidine in the oral cavity to form parachloraniline and also that chlorhexidine may reduce bacterial activity such that partly metabolised sugars were broken down and then degraded over time to produce brown-coloured compounds. Most recent debate has centred around three possible mechanisms.           Non-enzymatic browning reactions: Berk suggested that the protein and carbohydrate in the acquired pellicle could undergo a series of condensation and polymerisation reactions leading to discolouration of the acquired pellicle. Chlorhexidine may accelerate formation of the acquired pellicle and also catalyze steps in the Maillard reaction. Observation of furfurals, intermediate products in Maillard reactions, in brown-discoloured pellicle has leant support to the theory, but the evidence is inconclusive. Moreover, these authors did not consider at all the same staining phenomenon observed with the numerous other antiseptics.             The formation of the pigmented sulphides of iron and tin: this theory suggests that chlorhexidine denatures the acquired pellicle to expose sulphur radicals. The exposed radicals would then be able to react with the metal ions to form the metal sulphide. Warner and coworkers have shown increased levels of iron in chlorhexidine treated individuals compared with water controls, no evidence was shown for tin. They then went on to conclude that the chromophore was not a sulphide, but a sulphur containing organic compound and metal ion complex and that chlorhexidine promoted the deposition of sulphate proteins. However, somewhat anomalously although the amount of stain and iron levels were increased, the levels of sulphide were reduced. Studies in vitro have contradicted aspects of the metal sulphide/denaturation theory. For instance, dietary staining of chlorhexidine treated tooth substance and acrylic occurred in the absence of salivary pellicle. More importantly pellicle coated surfaces exposed to protein denaturants or chlorhexidine did not stain when subsequently exposed to salts of iron and tin. Staining of saliva-coated tooth and acrylic occurred only when the chlorhexidine treatment was followed by a dietary chromogen such as tea. This has to some extent been replicated in vivo, where reciprocal rinsing with chlorhexidine and iron sulphate produced no staining in volunteers who abstained from food and beverages. However, chlorhexidine or iron sulphate followed by tea rinse produced immediately the characteristic brown and black discolouration of the teeth and tongue reported for chlorhexidine and iron respectively.                 Precipitation of dietary chromogens by chlorhexidine: Plaque inhibition is dependent upon adsorption of chlorhexidine onto the tooth surface. Davies et al. suggested that locally adsorped chlorhexidine complexed with ions from the oral environment and showed this in vitro with the colour produced between chlorhexidine and food dyes. Following this observation, in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that chlorhexidine and other antiseptics known to cause staining in vivo could bind dietary chromogens to surfaces to produce staining.       One objection to the dietary chromogen theory was that there is no known correlation between chromogenic staining and dietary consumption of beverages. However, tea and coffee and red wine are not the only drinks to contain chromogenic polyphenols capable of interacting with chlorhexidine or polyvalent metal ions. Thus, the fact that staining can be produced in rabbits and dogs, which do not usually imbibe human beverages, can be explained by the presence of other polyphenols within the diet which are able to interact with chlorhexidine. Nevertheless, it was of interest to note that Leonard et al. demonstrated that staining was exaggerated in beagle dogs when tea and coffee was provided in conjunction with chlorhexidine rinses.           Most evidence indicates that the likely cause of staining is the precipitation of anionic dietary chromogens onto adsorped cations. Thus, polyphenols found in dietary substances, being anionic, are able to react with cations adsorped to surfaces such as the cationic antiseptics or polyvalent metal ions to produce staining. The difference in the potential of various cationic antiseptics to produce staining in vivo can be explained by their differing substantivity, which is consistent with the dietary aetiology. The apparent individual variation in staining noted in particular with chlorhexidine is of interest. It is worthy of note that from the diet controlled studies this variation can not be explained solely as a difference in the quantities of chromogenic agents in any one individual's diet even though abstinence from tea, coffee or red wine virtually eliminates staining from everyone. Clearly differences do exist in the propensity of individuals to produce stain and it is worthy of further investigation as it would be relevant to the need to use cosmetic tooth whitening products. There is no evidence to show that chlorhexidine is any less effective in people with a low susceptibility to staining.            A Watts &amp; M Addy: \"Tooth discolouration and staining: a review of the literature\", British Dental Journal volume 190, pages 309\u2013316 (24 March 2001); PDF, DOI   L. G. Hjeljord, G. R\u00f8lla, P. Bonesvoll: Chlorhexidine-protein interactions. In: J Periodont Res. 8 (Suppl 12), 1973, S. 11\u201316. PMID 4269593  H. F. Gilbert: Molecular and Cellular Aspects of Thiol-Disulfide Exchange. In: Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology. 63, 1990, S. 69\u2013172. doi:10.1002/9780470123096.ch2  S. K. Grandhee, V. M. Monnier: Mechanism of formation of the Maillard protein cross-link pentosidine. In: J Biol Chem. 266(18), 1991, S. 11649\u201311653. PMID 4269593.  These unwelcome effects might be reduced a bit:  Bernardi F, Pincelli MR, Carloni S, Gatto MR, Montebugnoli L (August 2004). \"Chlorhexidine with an Anti Discoloration System. A comparative study\". Int J Dent Hyg. 2 (3): 122\u201326. doi:10.1111/j.1601-5037.2004.00083.x. PMID 16451475.",
        "id": 2352,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can typhoid occur multiple times?",
        "body": "Reinfection with typhoid fever is certainly possible.  An older human challenge study found that individuals with an induced infection were less likely to develop an infection if they had been previously infected, but 23% of them still developed a clinical fever. Another somewhat old study suggests that unless immunologically boosted, immunity to typhoid fever cannot last for more than ~ 1 year.  Even immunity that arises from vaccination wanes and needs a booster after a few years.  Reinfection, regardless of the success of your treatment or diet, is very possible.",
        "id": 96,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When trapped in an air pocket does breathing slowly prolong the amount of time you have?",
        "body": "Not sure what you mean by changing your breathing pattern. Your breathing is a reflection of how much oxygen your body needs and how much CO2 it needs to expel. So, changing your breathing pattern does not affect the amount of oxygen in the air pocket you are using. If you could lower your metabolic needs, it would allow you to use less oxygen and get more time out of the oxygen you have in the pocket. For example, not moving any muscles would reduce the amount of oxygen you need. I hope that helps...",
        "id": 2386,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does isotretinoin increase your chance of colds and flus?",
        "body": " Yes, URTI includes common colds and flu but is not limited to them. It includes rhinitis (nose inflammation due to bacterial or viral infections), sinusitis (infection/inflammation of nasal sinuses), pharyngitis (sore throat) or laryngitis (mainly manifested as hoarse voice). Colds and flu may be presented as any of the upper manifestations.  According to Drugs.com, which is a reliable source, nasopharyngitis is a common (1% to 10%) side effect of Isotretinoin.  ",
        "id": 2656,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to deal with conflicting health advice?",
        "body": "The best method to verify the autenticity of a scientific news, is to search authorized papers about the subject.  You can find all the published papers on this website: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/  Here, and especially on \"PubMed\" and \"PubMed Central (PMC)\" (both within ncbi.gov) you can search for a topic and a lot of papers will be shown. Then look for the most recent one, since sometimes newer reviews discover something important.   In your case, this can be a good starting point.",
        "id": 2418,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any significant differences between Triceba and Toujeo?",
        "body": "Triceba is actually Tresiba. It is a very long-acting basal insulin, that you take once a day. It is probably the best basal insulin today for people who do not have fast-changing basal needs like athletes: very insensitive to when you are taking it.   Toujeo is a 3x concentrated version of insulin glargine -- i.e. 3x Lantus. It acts roughly like Lantus, but its increased concentration gives it slightly different properties in terms of timing. The most interesting aspect of Toujeo is that it does not appear to wane \"too early\" as Lantus often does with many users (Lantus can wane sometimes in as little as 18 or 20 hours for some individuals). This research paper shows more sustaining power for Toujeo vs Lantus.  Both Tresiba and Toujeo are modern insulins that are superior in some ways to the old ones. One can be better than the other depending upon your need:   if you need A LOT of insulin, then Toujeo is superior to Tresiba, because of its concentration.  if you have a significant waning problem with basal insulins, Toujeo would probably be better than any except Tresiba. Tresiba is the ultimate duration-optimized insulin.   If you have a waning problem with Toujeo (rare but not impossible), approach your doctor and ask him for a letter of medical necessity, to explain to your insurance that the only insulin you can use really is Tresiba. But there is a good chance that Toujeo may actually work well for you, and even be the superior insulin if you are somewhat insulin-resistant. Good luck!",
        "id": 1723,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "High dose radiation contamination \u2014 why is quarantine necessary?",
        "body": "You have three kinds of immediate radiation, alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Their penetrating power differs as well.   Most of the radioactive particles from that disaster are sufficiently well handled with barriers, protective clothes, respirators. Most important here thar humans do not ingest them via air, food or fluids.   But once they are inside the body, these elements continue to decay, sending out all three kinds of radiation. In effect the body is then the source of increased radiation. On a much smaller scale, those elements could also be excreted or shedded.  As was noticed after Fukushima as well:     By March 16, media reports of contaminated airline passengers from Japan arriving in China prompted international concerns about harmful levels of radioactive materials being carried by travelers leaving the country.      After the Chernobyl disaster, a 1986 British study of 45 air passengers from Eastern Europe used whole-body assessments and measurement of thyroid radioiodine and detected radiological contamination at 56 times the background level. Some American travelers returning from the Chernobyl site found their clothes and luggage were also contaminated.      The 2006 poisoning of a Russian ex-KGB officer in London led to detectable levels of radioactive polonium-210 in several locations visited by the victim and the suspected perpetrator. The British Health Protection Agency (HPA) notified US public health officials of 200 US residents who were at risk of contamination with polonium. State health departments contacted these travelers and advised them to contact a physician (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] internal e-mail communication, 2011). In addition, British Airways (BA) identified and published a list of 221 flights involving potentially polonium-contaminated aircraft. BA advised nearly 33 000 travelers to contact HPA.      Todd Wilson et al.: \"US Screening of International Travelers for Radioactive Contamination After the Japanese Nuclear Plant Disaster in March 2011\", Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness,  Volume 6, Issue 3 October 2012 , pp. 291-296. DOI ",
        "id": 2713,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can doctors remove a stye without damaging the eyeball?",
        "body": "What is a stye?  A stye is an infection of the sebaceous glands at the base of the eyelashes or the apocrine sweat glands on the margin of the eyelid.  Styes are caused by the gland becoming blocked by cell debris or sebum, a natural oil produced by the body.  The stye generally appears on the interior or margin of the eyelid as a small whitish colored protrusion, similar to a whitehead.  They can be quite painful and irritating, but they usually don't cause significant problems, and it is easy to get rid of them.    How are styes treated?  There are several ways to remove styes, the most common being the repeated application of a topical antibiotic ointment several times a day for a period of two weeks.    However, they can also be treated surgically by lancing, which is the treatment you seem to have received.   This is a very minor procedure, and is performed as follows:   The doctor will probably apply a small amount of antiseptic to the affected area;  if the stye is located on the inner eyelid, the eyelid will be pulled back to expose the stye. Using a sharp needle, the doctor will pierce the stye, a procedure known as \"lancing\".   The doctor may apply pressure to encourage the stye to drain;  the liquid that is released is a mixture of pus and previously blocked sebum.   The doctor may choose to apply an antibiotic ointment to the area.   How can doctors do this without damaging the eye?  Doctors are professionals, and any ophthalmologist is likely to have performed the procedure countless times before.  The stye isn't actually on the eyeball itself, but on the eyelid.  While you or I would have trouble performing a lancing, doctors know what they are doing, and it is easy for them to avoid causing any damage.                         ",
        "id": 373,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Magnesium in Cow's Milk",
        "body": "The label is incomplete in a way. It's a rule by the FDA. NIH:     the FDA does not require food labels to list magnesium content unless   a food has been fortified with this nutrient.   So unless it's fortified you probs won't see it as the labels are filled with other things like Vitamin D, Calcium. And milk labels are quite small.   Milk is a good source of magnesium ",
        "id": 1009,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often do ICD codes reflect the actual diagnosis in EHR?",
        "body": "In many cases they do reflect the actual diagnosis.  It depends on the disease in question.   eMerge network work on validation is for example here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3715338. In that study, they used ICD-based definitions but also other available data. Similar work in diabetes mellitus diagnosis is also published (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4416392/) Validation research tries to arrive at positive predictive value. E.g., https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30480162 In Japan, the PPV for AMI was 82.5%. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30477501) ",
        "id": 2035,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Used the Differin XP/Adapalene Topical Gel on Acne on cheeks, but now I have a red dry, burning rash down my neck and on eyelids!",
        "body": "You were quite right to suspect Adapalene/Differin Topical Gel as the culprit.   I looked into common-side effects and this is what it says:      During your first 4 weeks of using adapalene topical, your skin may be   dry, red, or scaly. You may also feel some burning or stinging. Call   your doctor if these side effects are severe.      Less serious side effects are more likely to occur, such as mild   burning, warmth, stinging, tingling, itching, redness, or irritation.      This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Tell   your doctor about any unusual or bothersome side effect. You may   report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088   http://www.rxlist.com/differin-gel-1-side-effects-drug-center.htm  The account doesn't say if the symptoms would manifest in other portions of the body where the gel wasn't applied so I'm unsure about the vaguness of that... Also, I'm not sure how long you have been using this cream, but it doesn't seem that your reaction is \"mild,\" and I would suggest you consult your Dermatologist/Doctor right away!   Because the information by the official websites seemed so vague, I came across an online forum where many individuals reported a rash very similar to yours and indicated that their usage of the Differin: http://www.acne.org/messageboard/topic/218656-differin-skin-rash/     You may very well be having an allergic reaction to it. Either way, please go see a dermatologist/doctor. ",
        "id": 1340,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "To what extent does filling more prescriptions increase the number of medication errors?",
        "body": "There are thousands of papers that study medication errors.  They fall into various groups.  There is the provider side, the pharmacist side, the technician side, the nursing side, and the system side (just for a start).  Papers tend to look at one area, say pharmacy, and not the provider.  Or they look at nursing, but not pharmacy or provider.  Some papers try and take a systems approach, but it is challenging.    The best paper to get started in this area is \"To Err is Human\"  http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/1999/To-Err-is-Human/To%20Err%20is%20Human%201999%20%20report%20brief.pdf.    It came out in 1999, made recommendations, and we still aren't there.  You can then follow the trail of research and issues from there.  As for Lamictal, there is a huge blackbox warning about Stevens-Johnson (SJS)  https://online.epocrates.com/drugs/84910/Lamictal/Monograph.    The dosage can vary from 100mg to 400mg a day (or even lower for renal dosing).  The article says there is a claim in the lawsuit that the dosage was incorrect, but we don't know if it was or not.  Since SJS is a risk with many medications, we all take that risk when we take medications.  This isn't a great example of a medication error, since we don't have all the information, and SJS can occur when the provider, pharmacist, tech, nurse, and the whole team did everything right.  If you are interested in this, I'd recommend you visit the IHI   http://www.ihi.org/Topics/PatientSafety/Pages/default.aspx.    They are the biggest and most reputable source for patient safety data.",
        "id": 1726,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this study linking RFR and Cancer valid?",
        "body": "As stated there,      Most animal and laboratory studies have found no evidence of an increased risk of cancer with exposure to RF radiation. A few studies have reported evidence of biological effects that could be linked to cancer.   But     Studies of people who may have been exposed to RF radiation at their jobs (such as people who work around or with radar equipment, those who service communication antennae, and radio operators) have found no clear increase in cancer risk.   It also says it's not been possible yet to estabilish whether a link between cell phones and cancer exists at all.  The worst effect it sure has is tissue heating due to the sub-ionizing frequencies' water-heating property.  It also stated there, at page 1567, that     There is no evidence for such a link (RF exposure and increased cancer incidency)   Furthermore, here is an article which will clarify most of your doubts, it says:     Although there have been some concerns that radiofrequency energy from cell phones held closely to the head may affect the brain and other tissues, to date there is no evidence from studies of cells, animals, or humans that radiofrequency energy can cause cancer.   My personal conclusion are that it's mostly harmless to be around EMFs in the RF spectrum, though you should not abuse them, nor expose to any dangerous (ionizing) EMF without proper protection.  Remember Paracelsus,      Sola dosis facit venenum   or     The dose makes the poison   Live long and prosper. Have a nice day  EDIT: I had the time to check the study quoted, it says they found a link between RFR and Oxidative pathways' triggering, it only deduced it could cause     Both cancer and non-cancer pathologies   I think there is not a relation, at least in complex organisms, because we're talking about specialized tissues which can help shielding the inner organs (e.g. the skin protects us from most radiations, both high and low intensity ones)  As before, Have a nice day",
        "id": 347,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any intelligence in heart?",
        "body": "The heart is not a center of intellect, it's a multi-chambered pump made primarily out of muscle.   There are however \"heart signals\", at least in a sense. The Sinoatrial Node is a specialized group of cells in the heart that produces regular action potentials across the cell membranes in the heart (causing the contractions that pump the blood) but this isn't an intellect or anything like that, just a regular cycle that provides the heart's sinus rhythm (essentially the \"default\" heart rate), the bodies autonomic nervous system (via the release of different chemicals) can influence the rate of these action potentials to raise or lower heart rate.",
        "id": 2581,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "adequate exposure of the surgical field",
        "body": "It simply means visually exposing the tissues the surgeon needs to operate on. For example, if the surgeon needs to cut or suture inside one of the chambers and it's full of blood, they would be unable to see the tissue they're working on; therefore, they expose the surgical field by aspirating (suctioning out) the blood blocking their view.  https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/surgical+field",
        "id": 2218,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it recommended to not expose plastic water bottles to sunlight?",
        "body": "If talking about the container itself and the chemicals it might leave on the product being consumed then these fears are mostly related to the fact that BPA  (bisphenol A) is present in poly-carbonate bottles and on the adverse effects this has on the brains and development on reproductive organs of mice.  However, when compared and related to humans, the effects don't seem to be that devastating to human health, see: http://www.bisphenol-a.org/whatsNew/20080205.html",
        "id": 88,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "High pitch voices(female screams) hurt testicles",
        "body": "Interesting question.  It sounds like testicular pain like that could be due to contraction of the cremaster muscle, which essentially controls testicle height. Its main role is to help regulate temperature in the scrotum by controlling how close the testicles are to the body. This is important because a very precise temperature is needed to make sperm (just a little colder than core body temperature).  I couldn't find anything to suggest that high-pitched sounds cause the cremaster to contract. However, there is some evidence to suggest that activation of the sympathetic nervous system (the \"fight or flight\" response) can cause the cremaster to contract.  In this study the authors state that there is a     reduction of myogenic responsiveness secondary to the elimination of   sympathetic activity.   In other words once the \"fight or flight\" response was disabled in these rats, the cremaster had less of a response. This indicates that the cremaster responds at least in part to the sympathetic nervous system.  My suspicion is that testicular pain in a situation like you described is due to contraction of the cremaster muscle. This was most likely caused by a sympathetic \"fight or flight\" response caused by the screaming/ confrontation. I don't know of any mechanism directly linking high-pitched sounds to the testicles.",
        "id": 2160,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Astigmatism eyeglass lenses -- how much distortion is normal?",
        "body": "According to my eye doctor, this much distortion is not normal.  He checked the strength of my glasses and they were not made according to the prescription: the OS astigmatism correction was -0.50 rather than the written -0.25. Getting the glasses remade now.",
        "id": 456,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"standardized to x%\" mean in resveratrol supplements?",
        "body": "It means that whatever the amount of Polygonum cuspidatum Root Extract they used, it contains 50% trans-resveratrol.  But that doesn't help you much since they haven't told you how much Polygonum cuspidatum Root Extract is in the blend.  Compare that to     which says the first capsule it is 99% pure, and the total amount of trans-resveratol is 248 mg.  https://megaresveratrol.net/resveratrol-health-benefits/",
        "id": 2228,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Low dose and high dose dexamethason supression test",
        "body": "In a dexamethasone supression test, it is measured whether given the patient dexamethasone leads to lowered cortisol levels. Lowered cortisol levels are the normal response to dexamethasone; if the level doesn't go down as much as it should, that can point to one of several conditions that cause Cushing's syndrome (see below).  There are standard and overnight dexamethason tests, and high dose and low dose tests. In the standard test, measurements are done over three days - in the low dose test, 0.5 mg of dexamethasone are given every six hours from day 2 onward; in the high dose test, it's 2mg. In the overnight test, in the low dose variety, the patient is given 1mg of dexamethason, and in a high dose dexamethason test, the patient is given 8mg.   Both tests can determine whether the patient's cortisol release is abnormal. This is usually due to one of three conditions:    Cushing's Disease (a pituitary tumor) an adrenal tumor or a tumor somewhere else in the body that produces a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone.   With the high dose test, it is possible to identify whether the problem is Cushing's disease, while the low dose test can't make that distinction.  Sources:  US National Library of Medicine - Dexamethasone suppression test  UCLA Endocrine Surgery Patient Education",
        "id": 640,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any scientific evidence of \"Breastfeeding Elimination Diet \"?",
        "body": "Because food antigens both cross the placenta and are excreted in breast milk, there was biological plausibility to the hypothesis that maternal avoidance of certain foods during both pregnancy and breastfeeding could impact the development of allergies in their children.  Initially the hypothesis was that avoidance would help prevent the development of allergies. The data do not support that hypothesis.  There is a good Cochrane review of the data, which concludes that there is no benefit, though they do note one trial with a non-significant trend toward decreased severity of eczema symptoms.  They reviewed trials of avoidance both during pregnancy and during lactation. Their conclusions:     Prescription of an antigen avoidance diet to a high\u2010risk woman during pregnancy is unlikely to reduce substantially her child's risk of atopic diseases, and such a diet may adversely affect maternal or fetal nutrition, or both. Prescription of an antigen avoidance diet to a high\u2010risk woman during lactation may reduce her child's risk of developing atopic eczema, but better trials are needed.   I seem to recall an argument for the opposite intervention, but I can't seem to find the reference. As I recall, it was not very convincing either. Though initial exposure and sensitization are required for the development of allergic disease, the placenta and the breast are very particular immunologic environments. Personally, I would expect exposure at these sites would be more likely to induce tolerance than sensitization, but I don't believe the data support that either. ",
        "id": 2626,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Heart Attack Risk Score calculation",
        "body": "I think you are looking for the the risk score assessment tool based on the Framingham Heart Study.  It predicts a person\u2019s risk of having a heart attack in the next 10 years.  It takes into account your age, gender, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, systolic blood pressure and smoking status. So you will need information concerning your lipid profile.  You can find the score calculator tool on this link:  http://cvdrisk.nhlbi.nih.gov/  This is the most commonly used. Depending on your gender or ethnicity, there might be other scores. Some suggest the Reynolds score if you are a woman (http://www.reynoldsriskscore.org/). If you are in Europe, some prefer using the SCORE Risk chart (http://www.escardio.org/Guidelines-&amp;-Education/Practice-tools/CVD-prevention-toolbox/SCORE-Risk-Charts). In the UK, the QRISK2 score is also frequently used (https://www.qrisk.org/).",
        "id": 1128,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the absorption rate of resveratrol supplements?",
        "body": "Following oral administration in humans, 75% of resveratrol from suppliments is absorbed, possibly by transepithelial diffusion. However, oral bioavailability is low (&lt;1%) due to rapid and extensive metabolism in the intestine and liver (Almeida, et al., 2009; Cottart et al., 2010)  As for the absorption rate when drinking red wine,     A total number of 25 subjects have been involved in the experiments and it was clearly demonstrated that resveratrol absorption after wine consumption is highly variable. The compound was found in the serum of roughly half of the subjects participating to the experiments, in free or in glucuronidated form and in very different concentrations. A further evidence emerging from the data is that the bioavailability of trans-resveratrol absorption associated to wine consumption is generally influenced neither by the meal nor by the kind and/or the quantity of lipids contained in the meal consumed. (Vitaglione, et al. 2005)   References  Almeida, L., Vaz-da-Silva, M., Falc\u00e3o, A., Soares, E., Costa, R., Loureiro, A. I., Fernandes-Lopes, C., Rocha, J.-F., Nunes, T., Wright, L. and Soares-da-Silva, P. (2009) Pharmacokinetic and safety profile of trans-resveratrol in a rising multiple-dose study in healthy volunteers. Molecular Nutrition &amp; Food Research, 53(1), S7\u2014S15.DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200800177 PMID: 19194969  Cottart, C.-H., Nivet-Antoine, V., Laguillier-Morizot, C. and Beaudeux, J.-L. (2010). Resveratrol bioavailability and toxicity in humans. Molecular Nutrition &amp; Food Research, 54(1), 7\u201416.DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200900437 PMID: 20013887  Vitaglione, P., Sforza, S., Galaverna, G., Ghidini, C., Caporaso, N., Vescovi, P. P., Fogliano, V. and Marchelli, R. (2005), Bioavailability of trans-resveratrol from red wine in humans. Molecular Nutrition &amp; Food Research, 49(1) 495\u2014504.DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200500002 PMID: 15830336",
        "id": 2189,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could being rear-ended result in numbness and tingling in my leg nearly two years later?",
        "body": "I will not get into the possible association between your symptoms and treadmill or any possible etiologies regarding your symptoms. However, I am fairly certain that your numbness has nothing to do with your accident.  When we are considering symptoms in limb and possible spinal injury the pathophysiology would be some kind of nerve or medullar compression in back causing symptoms in extremity. First of all, numbness you are feeling is not following any anatomical boundaries, ie. dermatomes (eMedicine).  You don\u00b4t specify exactly how you hurt yourself during the accident. For example, was there any forceful forward flexion in your lower back. Anyway, if you had injured your lower back in the accident, the most dreadful injury would have been a vertebral fracture. That would have been symptomatic instantly. We can rule that out.  Another likely outcome from the accident would have been some kind of injury or trauma to any of intervertebral discs in your lumbar region. Repetitive strain or forceful movement can cause deterioration of annulus fibrosus in those discs (Wikipedia). Weaking of annulus fibrosus would result to disc herniation some time after the accident if another forceful movement is targeted to lower back (MayoClinic). It is however very unlikely that the time interval would be one and half years. A week or two would be very likely.  There are some other more uncommon reasons for radiculopathy in younger persons, but none of them are not a result from injury (Wikipedia).   As so, I am fairly certain that your numbness is not due to the accident. Any form of neural damage or compression in peripheral nervous system is possible in your case but as far as the accident and possible injury to your lower back is considered, I will stick to the aforementioned.",
        "id": 114,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do boys aged 4 to 8 use more nutritional supplements than girls in this Canada fact sheet?",
        "body": "In age groups 4-8 and 9-13, supplements use is almost the same in boys and girls. At these ages, there are much fewer health conditions or concerns that would be related to a person's sex, than at older ages.  Menstruating, lactating and pregnant women use more iron supplements than men of same age (ods.od.nih.gov):     Approximately 14% to 18% of Americans use a supplement containing   iron. Rates of use of supplements containing iron vary by age and   gender, ranging from 6% of children aged 12 to 19 years to 60% of   women who are lactating and 72% of pregnant women.   Many pregnant women also use \"prenatal vitamins\" (PubMed, 2014):     56% of black and 86% of white women reported pre- and/or   post-conceptional PNV use.   Postmenopausal women use more calcium supplements to prevent or treat osteoporosis, which is much more common in women than in men (ods.od.nih.gov).  A 2014 survey in the US also showed that more women use nutritional supplements than men. ",
        "id": 2698,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can all medicines be stopped after treatment by angioplasty?",
        "body": "This is per my expert knowledge as a licensed MD.  You can easily find the sources for recommendations/guidelines on chronic coronary artery disease (CAD), acute coronary syndrome (ACS), and prevention on the ACC/AHA website.  You seem focused on angioplasty with the indication of angina (assuming refractory angina and a blockage in the heart arteries that would be causing it).  After angioplasty is done, if a stent is used, you will have to be on a blood thinner for some mandatory time (up to a year...).  This is to ensure that the stent does not immediately clot off causing a VERY BAD HEART ATTACK.  You have to understand that there is a big difference between a heart attack blockage and a blockage that causes a stable angina.  Stable angina is what a person has due to blockages that are chronic/slowly changing.  ACS (acute coronary syndrome, practically a layman \"heart attack\") is when a fatty blockage suddenly is opened to the inside of a blood vessel, and an acute (fast, recent) clot develops, causing sudden worsening of angina or new angina.  This is a \"heart attack\".  What is important to understand is that the small/unseen fatty blockages that will break open and cause a heart attack are just as likely (if not more likely) than those big chronic blockages to cause a heart attack.    Simply ballooning open a fatty heart disease blockage in a vessel does NOT cure your \"coronary artery disease.\"  If you have a large blockage causing chronic angina, you are surely to have many many many more blockages, from medium to small which can all cause a heart attack.  So the answer to you question depends on whether the drugs are used to treat your angina or your heart disease itself.  If you have a large blockage, then you CERTAINLY have a strong indication to continue medications that are targeted to prevent heart attacks and worsening blockages.  Considering that, statins, aspirin, beta blockers (latter may also be for angina itself) and such drugs that target heart disease will almost always be continued.  This includes drugs that treat underlying causes of heart disease/blockages which include high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, etc.  For the drugs you may be on for the anginal pain itself (sometimes beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, nitrates, etc)--- these medications may no longer be necessary if your pain subsides after the angioplasty.",
        "id": 532,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why aren't children affected by pins and needles as much as adults?",
        "body": "Pins and needles (paraesthesia in the medical jargon) is caused by compression of nerves and is nothing to do with blood flow or circulation (other than the very small blood vessels supplying the nerves themselves).  Children\u2019s tissues are more flexible and supple, and this means that the nerves are less likely to be impinged due to positioning. As we get older we get more solid and also more stiff and less flexible, meaning that relatively sensitive nerves are more easily annoyed.  There is some useful information here.",
        "id": 2409,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Causes of hand lesions",
        "body": "Is wart (you need to see doctor). This can be most urgent.  The treatment is burned with nitrogen.  http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/cryotherapy-for-warts     Remove warts: If you don\u2019t want to go to the doctor to treat your   wart, try lemon juice as a do-it-yourself option. Dabbing lemon juice   on the wart will break it down and it should disappear in two weeks.   Source : http://uk.businessinsider.com/things-you-can-do-with-lemon-peels-juice-2015-4?r=US&amp;IR=T  Be careful :  You can pass on the infection to you friend/familly. Please, treat it quickly.",
        "id": 589,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can basil affected by Fusarium wilt be eaten safely?",
        "body": "What you have on your basil is a strain of Fusarium oxysporum, obviously a strain pathogenic to plants.   Apparently, other strains of F. oxysporum can cause onychomycosis (nail infections) and  keratomycosis (corneal infections). And if you have a very low neutrophils count, it can cause aggressive  infections throughout the entire body and bloodstream.   Because these are different strains, you should be fine eating the basil, I've done it and suffered no ill effects, although it can alter the flavor. The plant strain of the species would have to mutate in order to affect humans, because the food source is drastically different, and a fungus that is adapted to one source will die if introduced to the other as a food source. The metabolization process is very different.  In other words, be aware that there are some human pathogens in the species, but what you have isn't going to hurt you, unless you have an allergic reaction to the fungus (unlikely but possible), which I suppose you could test (by consuming a small quantity first) if you have known allergies to other fungi (such as penicillin, button mushrooms, etc).  Here is a good paper on Fusarium Pathogenomics.",
        "id": 452,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term vaccine studies of subjective characteristics",
        "body": "The main problem you are going to run into, if you are limiting yourself to that particular multivalent vaccine formulation, is that it hasn't been on the market long enough (2013) for something specific to that 6-in-1 formulation.  However, note that in the US at least, all vaccine preparations are continually monitored for safety (I believe in the EU as well, I just didn't find a direct source on that).  However, there have been substantial studies on the effects of the of the individual components, and when they have been given at the same time, just not out of the same syringe.  This is a very common questions pediatricians face, and should be quite able to walk you through your concerns.  I highly recommend going over the CDC's \"Multiple Vaccines and the Immune System\" which is written for the public.  Subjective attributes are monitored from parent feedback, and large meta-studies, specifically retrospective cohort studies are common.  A good study on the subject looks at DTP or DT vaccination and the following behavioral issues:      general developmental disorders, language or speech delay, tics,   attention-deficit disorder, autism, unspecified developmental delays,   behavior problems, encopresis, and enuresis   Only found that may have been a weak correlation with tics, and that observation was likely an artifact of how the group was made.    The biggest concern you should have coming into vaccinating your children is if the child is immunocompromised (HIV infection, genetic disorder, etc) or if the biological parents have relevant allergies, particularly to previous vaccines or heavy metals (normally you don't make it to adulthood in the West without finding out).",
        "id": 817,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why would someone have an anaphylactic reaction to intravenous saline?",
        "body": "Abstracts should rarely be trusted in isolation.  Please see the full article:     Anaphylaxis is a severe multisystemic hypersensitivity reaction. It may include hypotension or airway compromise. Anaphylaxis is a   potentially life-threatening cascade caused by the release of   mediators. Hypersensitivity describes an inappropriate immune response   to generally harmless antigens, whereas anaphylaxis represents the   most dramatic and severe form of immediate hypersensitivity [1].      A 37-year-old woman, who was a nurse but not doing her job during that   time, was admitted to emergency service with abdominal pain at night.   She was experiencing pain for the last 5 hours. She revealed that she   had been followed up for a left ovarian cyst 4 cm in diameter, and at   the day of admission, she was controlled again by her gynecologist,   and the size of the cyst increased to approximately 6.3 cm in   diameter. Before the onset of abdominal pain, she felt nausea   accompanied by vomiting. Pain was all over the abdomen. She did not   complain about diarrhea, constipation, dysuria, and urgency. Her last   menstrual period was started 7 days ago. She was in medication of an   oral contraceptive for only 3 days when she was admitted for pain.      In her medical history, 2 ovarian cyst operations and a laparoscopic   cholecystectomy were noted. She had an atopic background, and she had   experienced allergic reactions after administration of atropine,   radiocontrast drugs, and pheniramine. She had undergone in vitro   fertilization 3 years ago. While she was being treated with hormonal   preparations, she was also given corticosteroids because of atopy   history.      She was orientated and cooperated during physical examination. The   Glasgow Coma Score was 15. Her vital signs were as follows: blood   pressure, 140/80 mm Hg; pulse rate, 100 beats per minute (regular);   respirations, 16/min; and body temperature, 36.7\u00b0C. In physical   examination, no pathologic finding was noted except diffuse tenderness   in abdominal palpation all over the abdomen that was more prominent at   the right lower quadrant. She had taken no painkiller at home.      During withdrawal of blood samples, an intravenous catheter was   placed, and isotonic fluid containing metoclopramide was started.   After a few minutes, she complained of vertigo and palpitations. Her   fluid was stopped because pulse rate was 140/min and blood pressure   dropped to 100/60 mm Hg. Auscultation revealed diffuse rhonchi. It was   thought to originate from metoclopramide. To rule out ovarian cyst   rupture, she was examined by the attendant gynecologist who did not   think about an acute gynecologic problem. She underwent radiologic   examinations including abdominal ultrasound and computerized   tomography without radiocontrast to rule out acute appendicitis, and   results were within normal limits.      After she returned to the emergency service, she was started on normal   saline without any medication in it. Some minutes later, she   complained again of palpitations and vertigo with chest distress. She   felt like fainting. Her pulse rate increased to 150/min. She had   erythema over the neck and thorax and rhonchi in the lungs. At that   time, it was thought that these complaints were due to normal saline.   As normal saline infusion was stopped, her complaints improved   immediately. To confirm the diagnosis of normal saline allergy, fluid   was started again. After some minutes, she had same complaints and   findings. With 5% dextrose solution, she had no complaints. After the   pain decreased, she was sent home with recommendations.      Two months after discharge, she brought her child to the emergency   service because of trauma, and she informed that she was operated for   her ovarian cyst in another hospital. Her physicians underrated her   warnings about saline allergy and administered normal saline again,   and she experienced a similar clinical picture. Anaphylaxis is a   severe immediate-type generalized hypersensitivity reaction affecting   multiple organ systems and characterized, at its most severe, by   bronchospasm, upper airway angioedema, and/or hypotension [2]. It has   also been defined simply as \u201ca serious allergic reaction that is rapid   in onset and may cause death\u201d [3]. Allergic reactions to medications   represent a specific class of drug hypersensitivity reactions mediated   by immunoglobulin E [4].      In the literature, we found some case reports about allergic reactions   to intravenous fluids containing maltose and corn-derived dextrose   [5], [6], [7]. However, only one case report was found\u2014anaphylactic   shock against isotonic sodium chloride [8].      In conclusion, every substance or medication, even normal saline, can   cause allergic reactions. So we have to be alert while giving   everything to our patients. Physicians should not neglect and   underrate any adverse reactions that can be attributed to any drug,   and they should be alert and observe their patients for a probable   drug allergy especially during parenteral treatments.   As you can see, although the author clearly infers that the patient's allergy was to normal saline as did she, I can think of TONS of confounders in this one case.  Site preparation for vascular access being the number one suspect.  It is also possible that she possesses a very rare allergy to one of the plastics in any of the materials used.  Also despite manufacturer statements, I've long suspected that there are preservatives and other elements within medications that are not reported as evidenced by patients having allergic reactions to the generic or Brand name versions of the same medication.",
        "id": 2651,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do hearing-impaired individuals need more sleep?",
        "body": "A hot topic in hearing research right now is listening effort. The basic idea is that is that individuals with hearing loss need to use additional cognitive resources to process sounds. There is also evidence that mental fatigue impairs physical performance. While I think this evidence provides the basis for arguing that hard of hearing individuals might need more sleep, I am not aware of any direct evidence. ",
        "id": 1499,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Need some clarification on benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH)",
        "body": "It is very important that you and your dad see his doctor for an explanation of these results ASAP.  Reading CT results out of clinical context can lead to misunderstandings.  The doctor can analyze the CT results in the setting of your dad's clinical picture. Only he/she can explain the significance of the results, and what that means for your dad.  I assume you are asking this because you read that and were worried, so you tried to google it but found the results confusing. I can help clarify the individual words in your question and help guide your understanding, so that you are prepared for your conversation with his doctor.    This is NOT an explanation of the CT results. Only the doctor can do that for you.  Note that there are limitations to what a CT scan can tell you for certain.  A CT is not a perfect photograph, nor a tissue sample that you can say for certain is X Y or Z.  A radiologist analyzes the characteristics of abnormalities that he/she sees and makes recommendations of what it is - sometimes it is straightforward like a clear fracture in a bone, other times less clear like a shadow on a bone.  Again, you need the doctor to combine the CT results with everything else known about your father in order to say what he thinks is going on.  Definitions:   Pedicle means stalk and can be used for several different things.     Usually in human anatomy, pedicle will indicate the portion of the vertebrae (of the spinal column) that form the sides of the hole through which the spinal cord passes (see below in pink)  In surgical anatomy, there seems to be a neurovascular bundle referred to as the \"prostatic pedicle.\"     \"D9\" and \"T9\" are both ways to designate the 9th Thoracic vertebra of the spinal column.  It is in the mid-back region. A metastasis is the spread of a cancer from the original site to another place in the body.  I have rarely heard metastasis used for anything other than cancer or similar processes.   The radiologist may be suggesting that it appears to be a metastasis on the spine.  But a CT scan can only suggest that something is a metastasis, it can't diagnose it for certain - that is why you need to see his doctor, who can interpret it along with your dad's clinical picture and tell you what it means.",
        "id": 1694,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Thrombotic events and antiphospholipid syndrome",
        "body": "Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by the occurrence of venous or arterial thrombosis and/or an adverse pregnancy outcome due to the presence  of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) 1. There are to types of APS: either primary or secondary in the presence of an underlying disease, usually systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).  Thrombocytopenia (low platelets) is frequently observed in APS patients, with an incidence ranging from 22 to 42 percent 2. The frequency of thrombocytopenia is higher in SLE-associated APS than in primary APS. According to uptodate 3:      the degree of thrombocytopenia is usually moderate, with a platelet   count usually in the range of 100,000 to 140,000/microL, and is rarely   associated with hemorrhagic events. Thrombocytopenia does not preclude   the occurrence of thrombotic complications of APS.   Now to your question, here are the recommendations in uptodate (which is a common source of reference for clinicians, as it provides, uptodate information of guidelines and recommendations):     For patients with thrombocytopenia who develop a thromboembolic event   an antithrombotic therapy with low molecular weight heparin and   vitamin K antagonists (goal INR 2.0 to 3.0) should be initiated as in   other patients with APS. ",
        "id": 1144,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Meta analyses on vegetarian diet",
        "body": "Links:  2016 study  2014 study  They are both meta analysis. Long term effects though.",
        "id": 1697,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the beginning of a cavity be halted in its tracks",
        "body": "You can read about how to do this by going to NIH website and looking for an a page called ToothDecayProcess.  You can also visit Dr. Mercola's website and look at an article called coconut oil combats tooth decay.   If you want scientific proof, you can read this article Thaweboon, Sroisiri, Jurai Nakaparksin, and Boonyanit Thaweboon. \"Effect of oil-pulling on oral microorganisms in biofilm models.\" Asia J Public Health 2, no. 2 (2011): 62-66. It's available for free at this website:--http://asiaph.org/admin/img_topic/6096Sroisiri.pdf. I hope this helps.  Yvosa Services",
        "id": 407,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are cremated ashes medically harmful to the living?",
        "body": "   Ash weight and composition      Cremated remains are mostly dry calcium phosphates with some minor minerals, such as salts of sodium and potassium. Sulfur and most carbon are driven off as oxidized gases during the process, although a relatively small amount of carbon may remain as carbonate.   And all metals implants, fillings etc are removed before the ashes are presented to the relatives.  Joint prosthetics are sold for scrap metal.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremation  So, there's nothing there harmful to the living.",
        "id": 1606,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the scrotal sac contract when preparing to defecate?",
        "body": "After viewing several answers from www.yahoo.com, I compiled it all to present my answer below. I know the source isn't actually legitimate but that's all I could find.   The muscles in your bowels are active all the time in order to hold in your bowels while still allowing material to move along. When you really have to go, they have to be contracting pretty steadily to prevent you from shitting yourself. Although you can consciously tense some of those muscles to hold it in, it's the non-voluntary muscle contraction that pulls your balls up. Those muscles aren't really under conscious control, as I'm sure you've noticed, whenever your body decides it's cold",
        "id": 1390,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are long term sedatives used to treat suicidality?",
        "body": "Effective treatment of suicidality involves treatment of any underlying disorder and multi-modal treatment to address the suicidality directly. For pharmacotherapy, there are few drugs that show clear reduction in suicides. An old population based retrospective study from Sweden suggests achieving an appropriate dose of SSRI may be effective, but it is, perhaps surprisingly, lithium that has the best data on reducing suicides. As far as anxiolytics are concerned, they aren't generally prescribed to reduce the risk of suicide.",
        "id": 2628,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Minimum Salt Intake",
        "body": "Recommended Dietary Allowances: 10th Edition     A minimum average requirement for adults can be estimated under   conditions of maximal adaptation and without active sweating...to 115   mg of sodium or approximately 300 mg of sodium chloride per day. In   consideration of the wide variation of patterns of physical activity   and climatic exposure, a safe minimum intake [of sodium chloride]   might be set at 500 mg/day [~200 mg sodium/day]   So, for adults (young or old), the minimum requirement is about 200 mg (0.2 g) of sodium per day or even just about 100 mg (0.1 g) without active sweating.",
        "id": 1215,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do nuts fit into the ketogenic diet?",
        "body": "It depends on the nut. Almonds and macadamia nuts tend to be staples in the keto diet due to low carbs and high fat, especially the macadamia nuts. The easiest way to find out is to simply google the nut you are interested in, calculate the net carbs by subtracting the dietary fiber from the total carbs.",
        "id": 1130,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any scientific evidence supporting positive effects from listening to binaural beats?",
        "body": "   Is there any peer-reviewed scientific evidence supporting positive effects from listening to binaural beats?   Yes, several. Here are two RSS feeds, which will continuously update, with research articles on binaural beats:  PubMed RSS feed - PubMed (US National Library of Medicine) where \"binaural beats\" appears in the title or abstract of an article. (\"binaural beats\"[Title/Abstract])   Cochrane RSS feed - standard search for 'binaural beats'.  This is the only review article I could find:  Chaieb, L., Wilpert, E. C., Reber, T. P., &amp; Fell, J. (2015). Auditory beat stimulation and its effects on cognition and mood states. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00070  I did not find any articles with a meta-analysis of the extant research.  Several very recent articles add to accumulating evidence for positive effects, under specific conditions, e.g., listening to 15 Hz binaural beats but not 5 Hz binaural beats, and with specific individuals, i.e., not every adult will respond in the same manner depending on several variables, many of which have not yet been delineated.    Anxiety Reduction  Isik, B. K., Esen, A., B\u00fcy\u00fckerkmen, B., Kilin\u00e7, A., &amp; Menziletoglu, D. (2017). Effectiveness of binaural beats in reducing preoperative dental anxiety. British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 55(6), 571\u2013574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2017.02.014  Heart-Rate Variability (Relaxation)  McConnell, P. A., Froeliger, B., Garland, E. L., Ives, J. C., &amp; Sforzo, G. A. (2014). Auditory driving of the autonomic nervous system: Listening to theta-frequency binaural beats post-exercise increases parasympathetic activation and sympathetic withdrawal. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01248  Creativity  Reedijk, S. A., Bolders, A., &amp; Hommel, B. (2013). The impact of binaural beats on creativity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00786  Visuospatial Working Memory  Beauchene, C., Abaid, N., Moran, R., Diana, R. A., &amp; Leonessa, A. (2016). The effect of binaural beats on visuospatial working memory and cortical connectivity. PLOS ONE, 11(11), e0166630. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166630  Verbal Working Memory  Beauchene, C., Abaid, N., Moran, R., Diana, R. A., &amp; Leonessa, A. (2017). The effect of binaural beats on verbal working memory and cortical connectivity. Journal of Neural Engineering, 14(2), 026014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-2552/aa5d67  Cognitive Flexibility  Hommel, B., Sellaro, R., Fischer, R., Borg, S., &amp; Colzato, L. S. (2016). High-frequency binaural beats increase cognitive flexibility: evidence from dual-task crosstalk. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01287  Individual Differences  Reedijk, S. A., Bolders, A., Colzato, L. S., &amp; Hommel, B. (2015). Eliminating the attentional blink through binaural beats: a case for tailored cognitive enhancement. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, 82. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00082 (\"This suggests that the way in which cognitive-enhancement techniques, such as binaural beats, affect cognitive performance depends on inter-individual differences.\")     If so, what types of binaural beats, and what were the positive effects?   Please see the articles listed in both RSS feeds. Answering your question with specificity would constitute a review article in itself. ;-)     Have any negative effects been documented?   Not in recent studies where the technique has become more refined based on previous findings. However, I would caution anyone from running out and buying an binaural beats app or the like, unless you know a lot about the topic; you trust the manufacturer; you do not have any potentially contraindicating audiological, psychiatric, neurological, or cognitive impairments or disorders; and you run it by your physician first. ",
        "id": 901,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the symptoms of rabies?",
        "body": "As with many viral diseases, the symptoms begin very similar to those for influenza, including weakness and discomfort, general malaise, fever and headache.  The acute period for rabies generally lasts from 2 to 10 days, and may involve itching or prickling at the site of the bite (notwithstanding the symptoms of having been bitten) and then progress to a number of serious neurological symptoms, including anxiety, confusion, agitation, delirium, hallucinations and insomnia.  It should be noted that once these clinical signs appear, the survival rate for the disease approaches 0.",
        "id": 151,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many mL of blood is typically drawn for a HIV blood test?",
        "body": "HIV blood tests (for antigens and antibodies) are, at least where I practice, 4mL. However, if your doctor wants other blood tests she might add 1-2 vials of the same size. Depends on the organisation of the clinical lab and the tests draw.  I'm not fully familiar with how rapid HIV testing is done though. That might be slightly different.",
        "id": 1514,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the benefits of peanut butter, boiled peanut and toasted peanut?",
        "body": "Plant foods, including peanuts and peanut butter, do not contain any cholesterol or very little of it (PubMed Central).  In this small study, diets high in peanuts or peanut butter decreased total cholesterol, LDL (\"bad\") cholesterol and triglycerides by 10-14%, presumably because of high content of mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). The results were comparable with diets high in olive oil and were better than after \"American Heart Association/National Cholesterol Education Program Step II diet.\"  According to this review (PubMed Central,2009), frequent nut and peanut butter consumption was inversely associated with total cardiovascular risk in women with diabetes 2.",
        "id": 2289,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how to clean ex smokers lungs",
        "body": "The cited article offers no mechanisms of action, no data to corroborate the claims, and no research (not even observational). It merely makes unsubstantiated claims and offers them as fact. As I pointed out in my comment, I can think of no mechanism by which any of the cited regimens could produce the desired effect.That said, the only thing I know of that can cleanse the lungs is time.",
        "id": 2028,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In drinking hot, warm, room temperature, or cold water - is water temperature proven to be connected with any health benefit?",
        "body": "Asking about \"any health benefit\" is perhaps too broad to receive a complete answer.   However, several articles address the issue of water temperature and rehydration. Two studies have shown that when you are in a state of dehydration (in these studies, after physical activity), the optimal drinking-water temperature in terms of good hydration and lower sweating (which causes water loss as a cooling mechanism) was found to be 16\u00b0C.  To quote the conclusions of both studies:  \"When dehydrated subjects drink water with different temperatures, there are different sweating responses together with different voluntary intakes. According to our results, consuming 16\u00b0C water, cool tap water, could be suggested in dehydration.\"  \"For athletes dehydrated in hot environments, maximum voluntary drinking and best hydration state occurs with 16\u00b0C water.Provision of fluid needs and thermal needs could be balanced using 16\u00b0C water.Drinking 16\u00b0C water (nearly the temperature of cool tap water) could be recommended for exercise in the heat.\"  References:  The effect of water temperature and voluntary drinking on the post rehydration sweating  Water temperature, voluntary drinking and fluid balance in dehydrated taekwondo athletes",
        "id": 1367,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "is RADIO-SIGNAL Jammer safe for health?",
        "body": "Assuming you're in the U.S. and the jammer is mounted atop your building, you need to do an environmental assessment if your transmit power is over 1000 watts. However, as Carey Gregory mentioned, if you're jamming signals in the U.S., you have other legal problems (and you will be jamming signals at 1000 watts). If you're planning on mounting the jammer in the building itself, I don't think you can use the rooftop limits--you would likely need to use the other equations in the document I linked.  I'm only addressing RF-burn risk here. Whether RF radiation has any effect on cancer incidence is an ongoing much-disputed research topic.",
        "id": 1412,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are color-blind and blind individuals able to dream in color?",
        "body": "Humans (and many mammals, for that matter) are not born knowing how to use our eyes. During the first month we can only discern vague shapes and shadows beyond much more than a foot or so, though some color development takes place during that time. (References here and  here.)I won't go into anymore detail; the point being that the brain of a person who is born blind would never learn how to process images. And without having that experience, they would not have context in which to place those images into a dream. I think it would be reasonable to conclude that a person blind since birth could only dream in the context of their own experiences (i.e. a non-sighted world).Similarly, a color blind (or more accurately color deficient) person could not dream in any colors they have no experience with. For example, if someone couldn't see green, then they could not see that or yellow (yellow being a combination of red and green). Since they have no experience with those colors (i.e. they have no idea what they look like), they could not have dreams with those colors in them.",
        "id": 1490,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long can an allergic reaction last after exposure to an allergen?",
        "body": "If you want to adjust diet to identify an allergen, there are two approaches.   Remove the thing you suspect (in this case, fish) and wait a certain amount of time. (Wikipedia says two weeks to two months.) If the reaction clears up and doesn't come back, the thing you removed was the allergen. If it does not clear up, or clears up but then recurs, something else the person is still eating is the allergen. Choose a different thing to eliminate and start the process again. (Some people now restore the first food since it's been cleared of suspicion, others don't in case multiple allergies are in effect.) Remove everything that might be suspect (Say, everything the person ate that day, or in extreme cases, everything except one or two foods eg rice and lamb.) Wait until symptoms subside, then add foods back one at a time. If a reaction occurs with something, never eat it again.   The first strategy can take a very long time if you don't know what the allergen is. It also has the issue of not being sure whether the reaction has just not died down yet, or is still happening because an allergen is still being eaten. The second is dangerous because the diet may be missing things you can't go without for even a few days, never mind for the weeks some reactions take to die down. You need the support of a doctor or nutritionist to consider it.  There are quite a lot of studies in the reference section of that Wikipedia article that you may find useful.",
        "id": 1911,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to check pregnancy at home?",
        "body": "Without access to a doctor, a home pregnancy test is the most accurate way. It measures the amount of a hormone (hCG) in your urine (see for example WebMD's site on pregnancy tests for more information on how it works) .  The other two reliable methods are a blood test for the same hormone and an ultrasound (usually conclusive starting from week 3 after conception), but these are not something that can be done at home. While you will find other methods on the internet, most of them are unproven and all of them will be less reliable than a home pregnancy test or a blood test.   A study found that while urine tests are less accurate than blood tests, the difference in reliability is not that big:     Overall, the whole blood pregnancy test was 95.8% sensitive (negative predictive value 97.9%), whereas the urine test was\u00a095.3% sensitive (negative predictive value 97.6%); the\u00a0specificity and positive predictive value of both tests was 100%.   (from \" Substituting Whole Blood for Urine in a Bedside Pregnancy Test\" ) That means that urine tests have more false negative (not picking up pregnancy) , but there were no false positives in the study.   From a Google search it looks like what you are referencing in your question is a standard home pregnancy test and thus your best available method. ",
        "id": 513,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any health hazards related to raw veganism?",
        "body": "I think the main hazards associated with raw veganism would be more around food hygiene. Without a kill-step (i.e. cooking to over 75 degrees Celsius) and hygienic food preparation practices there is the potential to be exposed to harmful bacteria, in particular salmonella is associated with bean sprouts and melons. Wash your veggies, and if you're concerned about nutrition, it's best to talk to your local GP or a nutritionist/dietician.   http://foodsafety.asn.au/fruit-and-vegetables/ ",
        "id": 634,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Itchy miscolored inflammed bump on elbow",
        "body": "A proper diagnosis would require more questions for your particular situation.  For example:  - Do you have, or have you had, a fever since you noticed this bump?   - Do you any other skin reactions anywhere else on your body?   - Did you have any scratches or broken surface of the skin in the area of the bump before you noticed it and the swelling started?   - Do you know of insects, ticks, or spiders that may be common in your area? If so, do you feel you may have been exposed to these?  It appears one possibility is a localized reaction resulting from an insect bite. The symptoms you are noticing are common after an arthropod bite, such as local discomfort or pain; pruritis (itchiness); and erythema (redness). Because there is blanching in the center with a ring of erythema around this, it may suggest a bite.  Another less likely possibility is cellulitis. Cellulitis is an infection of the skin and subcutaneous layer of tissue just below the skin. This can result from trauma to the skin such as a cut or a bite, when bacteria are able to enter through the disturbed skin surface. However, accompanying symptoms also include tenderness/pain at the site; chills; fever; and swollen lymph nodes near the site.  Ibuprofen (e.g. Motrin) taken orally should help decrease inflammation around the site of the swelling, thereby alleviating some of the itching and discomfort. The topical corticosteroids available over the counter may not be in the strength you need to counter an inflammatory or allergic reaction.  Due to this, it would be prudent to consult your health care provider if this does not start to resolve within the next 24 hours as it sometimes may two to three days for the initial symptoms to subside if this resulted from a bite. Also, if you develop other symptoms such as fever, nausea, decreased appetite, fatigue, or hives you should see your provider right away.  http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/insectbitesandstings.html http://www.uptodate.com/contents/skin-and-soft-tissue-infection-cellulitis-beyond-the-basics?view=print",
        "id": 220,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What might happen if we don't chew food properly?",
        "body": "I suppose since whatever you ingest spends a certain amount of time travelling through your system it should make a difference depending on how quickly the certain food is broken down. If not chewed well enough the food will have a smaller surface area while spending time in the stomach. So thorough chewing should allow not only faster food absorption but also extracting more nutrients out of the food. This is just an educated guess though :)  EDIT: Adding sources for information in this comment and the one below.  Why eating slowly helps you feel full faster (Harvard) http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/why-eating-slowly-may-help-you-feel-full-faster-20101019605  Study finds additional chewing reduces food intake in young adults - http://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2012/apr/chewing  Also this article encompasses all of this nicely http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2013/07/31/chewing-foods.aspx (Scroll down to the bottom for the list of sources and references)",
        "id": 856,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any side effects of general anesthesia over local anesthesia?",
        "body": "Your anxiety is natural, especially if this is your first surgery.   However, statistics are clear: Anaesthesia is safe.  In fact, it is safer than driving a car.   You should discuss your nervousness with your family physician or an anaesthetist who can reassure you and clear all your doubts. Health StackExchange is not a bad replacement too, so let me give you one or two pointers on what will happen and why you shouldn't worry (these do not replace adequately a talk you can have in person with a physician)    Please do not listen to anecdotes or read stories on Facebook, they will only cause more anxiety.  Before the Surgery, the Anaesthesist is going to go through your medical record carefully and have a talk with you (Pre-Anaesthesia workout). Based on your health condition and the surgery, the Anaesthesist will work out a meticulous plan which will include details of what anaesthetic agent(s) to use, how to introduce those agents and who to wean you off them at the end of the surgery, so that you can nicely recover consciousness. He/She will also have a backup plan, lest something should go wrong. During the Surgery, the Anaesthesist is going to very carefully calibrate a mixture of gases that will sedate you into unconsciousness as per plan, and continue to monitor on a minute to minute basis, various parameters of your body to judge its optimal functioning. Your Heart Rate, Pulse, Rate of Breathing, How much your blood is oxygenated, etc will be part of the monitoring. As per the Monitoring, the Anaesthesist will increase or reduce the amount of anaesthetic agent. Also, the Anaesthesist will withdraw the anaesthetic agents gradually and carefully, allowing you to 'wake up'.    You are worried if they will leave the 'mask on' for longer than needed, but this will never happen. There will be a checklist of things to do and the whole team goes through these checklists to ensure that nobody 'forgets' to do something.   If you are still not convinced or worried, you can and should talk to a caregiver, nursing staff, patient advisor or at least a community worker.  Hope you have a great surgery and early recovery. ",
        "id": 1786,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can pheromones or sun trigger/cause allergy?",
        "body": "People can get allergy to sunlight. It is called photosensitivity or sun allergy. The most common form of this is known as polymorphic light eruption (PMLE), also known as sun poisoning[1,2]. This is characterized by redness of the skin found on the arms, wrists, neck, and other areas. Here is a picture of this:    (From here)  Based on your description, this is what is going on. Your friend has mild PMLE. Pheromones have nothing to do with this problem at all.  How does this happen? Scientists aren't fully sure. However, what we do know based on our knowledge of allergies is that the sun-exposed skin. The sun must be altering the skin in some way[2].   How does this have to do with eosinophilia? Well, eosinophilia means there is more eosinophils and eosinophils are responsible for allergies, so there will be more allergic reactions to more things. However, eosinophilia and photo-sensitivity both are symptoms of drug allergy[3]. Perhaps your friend is allergic to some drug. For example, I found that eosinophilia and photosensitivity could be an allergy to Lisinopril[4]. I am not sure about the drug history of your friend so I cannot say anything more but she should go to the doctor for sure.  References   Mayo Clinic - http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sun-allergy/basics/symptoms/con-20035077 Drugs.com - http://www.drugs.com/health-guide/sun-allergy-photosensitivity.html Patient.info - http://patient.info/health/drug-allergy-leaflet MHRA UK Public Assesment Report (UKPAR) for Lisinopril - http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/groups/par/documents/websiteresources/con054513.pdf ",
        "id": 711,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Check Lithium Related Side Effects Without Blood Test",
        "body": "Blood tests to determine lithium levels are the gold standard for assessing the efficacy of lithium therapy. That said, a patient on a stable dose with no major adverse reactions is presumably within their body's therapeutic range. If there is preexisting renal dysfunction, that brings in a whole new can of worms. The signs and symptoms of lithium overdose are well documented and easily researched. I see many similar scenarios with metformin. Renal function should always to tested periodically throughout treatment but is rarely performed. I say that to say this, if the patient is tolerating the medication, isn't showing signs of renal dysfunction, and has no major reactions, I think it should be OK to prescribe/dispense the medication while diligently monitoring the patient for and changes.",
        "id": 1531,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What will happen if Uric Acid level increases",
        "body": "What is uric acid? Uric acid is the final breakdown product of purine (essential components of DNA and RNA) degradation in humans. In plasma extracellular fluid and synovial fluid, uric acid is found in its ionised form called urate. When plasma is saturated with urate, urate crystal can precipitate. Similarly in urine, depending on the pH (acid vs basic), urate can precipitate and form renal stones.  According to the Harrison\u2019s Principles of Internal Medicine,     Mean serum urate values of adult men and premenopausal women are 415   and 360 \u03bcmol/L (6.8 and 6 mg/dL), respectively. After menopause,   values for women increase to approximate those of men. In adulthood,   concentrations rise steadily over time and vary with height, body   weight, blood pressure, renal function, and alcohol intake.   Increased production or decreased excretion of uric acid lead to hyperuricemia.     Hyperuricemia is defined as a plasma (or serum) urate concentration > 405 \u03bcmol/L (6.8 mg/dL).   A detailed list of causes of hyperuricemia can be found in the table below    The most common complications of hyperuricemia are:   gouty arthritis (the risk of developing gouty arthritis increases with high serum irate levels)  nephrolithiasis (= renal stones) urate nephropathy (= monosodium urate crystal deposition in the renal interstitium) uric acid nephropathy (= uric acid crystals deposition in renal collecting ducts, pelvis and ureters)   Detection of hyperuricemia relies on the patient's symptoms. Hyperuricemia can be asymptomatic and not necesseraly be associated to any disease. As such, evaluation of hyperuricemia will be guided by the clinical presentation and by the clinician's suspicion. Typically uric acid can be measured in the blood. Also, in some cases, quantification of uric acid excretion can help to investigate whether hyperuricemia is due to increased production or reduced excretion.  Finally, while in some cases, antihyperuricemia therapy is indicated, routine treatment of hyperuricemia is not recommended. A systematic review (when authours review all the current scientific literature regarding a specific topic/question) conducted in 2014 regarding risk factors for gouty arthritis found following risk factors:     Alcohol consumption increased the risk of incident gout, especially   beer and hard liquor. Several dietary factors increased the risk of   incident gout, including meat intake, seafood intake, sugar sweetened   soft drinks, and consumption of foods high in fructose. Diary intake,   folate intake and coffee consumption were each associated with a lower   risk of incident gout and in some cases a lower rate of gout flares.   Thiazide and loop diuretics were associated with higher risk of   incident gout and higher rate of gout flares. Hypertension, renal   insufficiency, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia,   hyperuricemia, diabetes, obesity and early menopause were each   associated with a higher risk of incident gout and/or gout flares.   So working on these risk factors should reduce the risk of developing hyperuricemia.  Sources:   Singh JA, Reddy SG, Kundukulam J. Risk Factors for Gout and Prevention: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Current opinion in rheumatology. 2011;23(2):192-202. doi:10.1097/BOR.0b013e3283438e13. Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson J, Loscalzo J. eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012. p 3181-3185 ",
        "id": 1053,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is this clinical difference between central and peripheral hemoglobincyanosis?",
        "body": "Cyanosis occurs when the concentration of deoxyhaemoglobin is high (greater than 5g/dL), because deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs differing wavelengths of light than oxyhaemoglobin and looks bluer.  Central cyanosis occurs when there is high deoxyhaemoglobin levels in the arterial blood, caused by:   Shunt of deoxygenated blood into the systemic arteries Impaired oxygen uptake through the alveolar membrane High levels of overall haemoglobin overwhelming oxygen diffusing capacity (eg polycythaemia rubra vera) Low delivery of blood to the alveolar capillaries   This is because these central areas have high capillary blood flow which reduces the effect of tissue oxygen extraction.  Peripheral cyanosis occurs when there is high tissue oxygen extraction, caused by:   Localised low blood supply (eg peripheral vasoconstriction) High tissue metabolic demand   So you'd always see peripheral cyanosis if there is central cyanosis, but not necessarily central cyanosis when there is peripheral cyanosis.",
        "id": 1438,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Uremic encephalopathy, diabetes, and halucinations",
        "body": "The treatment for uremic encephalopathy is dialysis of some sort - peritoneal, etc. - or a kidney transplant, of course. But the latter is not the immediate treatment of choice.  Looking for why delirium suddenly occurred is important; not all delirium in dialysis patients is due to uremic encephalopathy (e.g. rule out rule out cerebrovascular accident, intracranial mass, hyper/hyponatremia, hyperglycemia, and hyperosmolar syndromes as the cause of encephalopathy, etc.)  If the cause is uremic encephaopathy, maybe one can mitigate the symptoms by correction of any existing anemia or calcium and phosphate abnormalities, but the fact remains: assessing the adequacy of dialysis and restarting adequate dialysis is the treatment.  Uremic Encephalopathy",
        "id": 903,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Nociceptor sensitization and ACh release",
        "body": "Short answer Excessive Acetylcholine (Ach) release seems to be related Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) inducing Ach leakage. CGRP is part of a general inflammatory response, in turn part of the pain response associated with trigger points.     Background Physiologically spoken, acetylcholine (Ach) is released in the neuromuscular junction by the motorneuron to activate muscle fibers to contract through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the postsynaptic membrane.   Jafri (2010) outlines a hypothesis why Ach responses are increased, leading to the development of trigger points*, based on the work of Simons (2004):  A hypothetical basis for trigger points, according to Jafri is as follows:    Abnormal Ach release that triggers Increased muscle fiber tension (trigger point) that constricts blood flow causing Local hypoxia, which disrupts mitochondrial function and low ATP, causing Tissue stress and  Release of sensitizing substances that cause pain by activation of nociceptors and autonomic modulation that potentiates step 1 causing more Ach release.   The ischemia/hypoxia leads to acidification and muscle injury, in turn releasing of potassium, bradykinins, cytokines, ATP, and substance P which might stimulate nociceptors in the muscle, in turn leading to the tenderness and pain observed with trigger points. Pain is mediated by depolarization of nociceptive neurons that in turn also release of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). CGRP inhibits acetylcholine esterase and upregulates the amount of acetylcholine receptors and release of acetylcholine, known as acetylcholine leakage. The result is increased acetylcholine in the nerve terminal, synaptic cleft, and increased motor endplate potentials resulting in more contraction (Jafri, 2010).   Why is CGRP released? From what I know, the function of CGRP is largely unknown (Russell et al., 2014). Its role in migraine has attracted attention, but in trigger point therapy world, it's not really elucidated as far as I can see. Moreover, Trigger Points are an established phenomenon in treatment world (physiotherapy, massage, etc), but scientifically their pathophysiology is based on speculations and hypotheses (educated guesses). However, tapping into CGRPs expected role in pain responses in general, I think it's safe to say that CGRP is a part of a common inflammatory response and neuroprotective agent, and quoting Russel et al (2014):      The regulation of CGRP synthesis is still poorly understood. CGRP synthesis is known to be upregulated in models of nerve damage, such as peripheral axotomy, and it is thought that synthesis of the peptide is enhanced in tissues that are undergoing an inflammatory response []. This may be linked to local release of nerve growth factor (NGF) from cells such as macrophages and keratinocytes. NGF is vitally important for the growth of sensory nerves and for the maintenance of function of mature nerves    As we all know, inflammatory responses are necessary to fight back pathogens, but inflammatory responses are at the same time painful, and even outright damaging to the body   References - Jafri, Int Sch Res Notices (2014); 523924 - Russell et al., Physiol Rev (2014); 94(4): 1099\u2013142 - Simons, J Electromyogr Kinesiol (2004); 14(1): 95-107   ",
        "id": 1486,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Parts of the Brain",
        "body": "The most rudimentary way to know which areas of the human brain are involved with which functions are through animal experiments (what happens if a certain part of the brain is destroyed or, more mercifully, stimulated?) and through observation of stroke or brain cancer patients (patients who lose function in part of their brain due to lack of blood/destruction of part of their brain.) It's easy to tell with a CT scan or an MRI where a brain lesion occurs. Over many, many decades of study (more than a century if you include autopsy results before CT scans were available) the loss of a particular function had been associated with a particular region of the brain. Probably the most famous of the early studies was Paul Broca's discovery in 1861 of where in the brain one aspect of speech/language exists.  With advances in brain surgery (particularly awake craniotomies), it's possible to \"fine tune\" such study. Add PET and fMRI studies, and you have your answer. Note, though, that not every person's brain is exactly the same.  Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography in emergency assessment of patients with suspected acute stroke: a prospective comparison Teen Sings During Brain Surgery to Save Her Musical Abilities",
        "id": 2566,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "General Population Low Vitamin D Levels",
        "body": "There are a few mechanisms at work that influence the vitamin D status for Europeans. Vitamin D is either eaten in the food, created with the help of sunlight or supplemented. Many appear to net have enough it:     Humans get vitamin D from exposure to sunlight, from their diet, and from dietary supplements. A diet high in oily fish prevents vitamin D deficiency. Solar ultraviolet B radiation (wavelength, 290 to 315 nm) penetrates the skin and converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3, which is rapidly converted to vitamin D3. Because any excess previtamin D3 or vitamin D3 is destroyed by sunlight, excessive exposure to sunlight does not cause vitamin D3 intoxication.   Few foods naturally contain or are fortified with vitamin D. The \u201cD\u201d represents D2 or D3. Vitamin D2 is manufactured through the ultraviolet irradiation of ergosterol from yeast, and vitamin D3 through the ultraviolet irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol from lanolin. Both are used in over-the-counter vitamin D supplements, but the form available by prescription in the United States is vitamin D2.   Vitamin D deficiency, MF Holick - New England Journal of Medicine, 2007 - Mass Medical Soc   Since you are primarily interested in D-sunlight:   Pigmentation of the skin: the amount of \"black\" people now living in Europe is rising. While that number is not significant for most cases often discussed, all of them (the more melanin the worse) have difficulty getting enough vitamin D from sunlight alone north of the 37th parallel.        From Harvard Women's Health Watch: Time for more vitamin D, 2008   Why the 35th, 37th or 40th parallel? Because the angle of the sun enables the atmosphere to filter out much of the UV rays needed to synthesise vitamin D. That angle is also varying during the day!  The reference Cancer Research UK. (2010). Vitamin D expert review already states clearly:     The amount of UVB in sunlight changes substantially with season, latitude and time of day. These factors greatly affect vitamin D production, which is greatest around two hours either side of solar noon, and during summer months.    Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun? Many Europeans are around noon: in school, at work, in nursing homes -> indoors. Some cannot get out, others are not allowed to for different reasons.  Those that do get out at the right time, in summer, around noon, are now scared into wearing hats and sunscreens for \"reasons\" (skin cancer, photoaging etc). The sun's rays have to reach the skin and penetrate it. For the right amount of time and with the right amount of intensity. The equation UVB equals bad leads to inadequate sun exposure and that to inadequate vitamin D synthesis. We have to choose our poison here and are currently opting for weaker bones (excuse the exaggeration).  Some individuals in lower latitudes get enough sun for sure, and yet their vitamin D status is low:     \"Low Vitamin D Status despite Abundant Sun Exposure\" N. Binkley et al., The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism, Volume 92, Issue 6, 1 June 2007, Pages 2130\u20132135, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-2250   A probable explanation for the \u201clow\u201d 25(OH)D status of some individuals is found in their failure to obtain high circulating D3 concentrations. Possible explanations for this include inadequate cutaneous production of D3, enhanced cutaneous destruction of previtamin D3 or vitamin D3, down-regulation of cutaneous synthesis by sun-induced melanin production, or abnormalities of transport from the skin to the circulation.      From Wolfgang Herrmann and Rima Obeid (Eds): \"Vitamins in the prevention of human diseases\", 2011, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York:   Cutaneously synthesized or orally ingested vitamin D is transported in the circulation bound to vitamin D binding protein (DBP). In the blood, only a small fraction is present as free, unbound vitamin D metabolites. The 25-hydroxylation of both vitamin D2 or vitamin D3, is the initial step in vitamin D activation. This takes place primarily in the liver. [\u2026] Nevertheless, extra-hepatic sources of 25-hydroxylation have been described in humans as well. They include macrophages, fibroblasts, keratinocytes and arterial endothelial cells (Gascon-Barre, 2005). (p. 365)   And there comes another factor into play: a trend to low animal derived nutrition or even veganism. You may eat a lot of liver and obtain all the vitamin D you need, and more, from that. Eating offal is on the decline and plant based nutrition is usually very low in vitamin D.   And low in cholesterol as well!     There are no reports of vitamin D intoxication in healthy adults after intensive sunlight exposure. Vitamin D in the skin reaches a plateau after only 15\u201330 min of UVB exposure. Then, vitamin D-inactive substances such as lumisterol and tachysterol are produced, which do not reach the systemic circulation. (p. 367)   That means that only a small amount is available:      Its precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol in the plasma membranes of both epidermal basal and suprabasal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts is converted to previtamin D3. Cutaneously synthesized vitamin D3 is released from the plasma membrane and enters the systemic circulation bound to vitamin D-binding protein (DBP) [\u2026] Factors influencing vitamin D levels Nutrient deficiencies are usually the result of dietary inadequacy, impaired absorption and use, increased requirement, or increased excretion. Vitamin D deficiency can occur when usual intake is lower than recommended levels over time, exposure to sunlight is limited, the kidneys cannot convert 25(OH)D to its active form, or absorption of vitamin D from the digestive tract is inadequate. Vitamin D-deficient diets are associated with milk allergy, lactose intolerance, ovo-vegetarianism, and veganism. Regarding the amount of vitamin D production in human skin, it depends on several variables including environmental factors such as geographic latitude, season, time of day, weather conditions (cloudiness), amount of air pollution and surface reflection which can all interfere with the amount of UVB radiation reaching the skin [\u2026] The skin is unique in being not only the source of vitamin D for the body but also in being capable of responding to the active metabolite of vitamin D, 1,25(OH)2D. Both 1,25(OH)2D and its receptor (VDR) play essential roles in the skin.   From: Vitamin D and the skin: Focus on a complex relationship: A review 2015.    While cholesterol is easily synthesised by humans, its presence in the blood is equally equated with bad! Low cholesterol and low synthesis of vitamin D are plain to see and taking drugs interfering with cholesterol metabolism \u2013 or eating cholesterol lowering food (more fibre  please!) \u2013 might influence vitamin D synthesis. These relations are currently contested in heated debates with differing views.  If a citizen is obese, and those are said to increase in number and weight:     Andjela T. Drincic: \"Volumetric Dilution, Rather Than Sequestration Best Explains the Low Vitamin D Status of Obesity\" 2012 https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.404    As one review summarised it:     Results   The definition of vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency, as well as assay methodology for 25-hydroxyvitamin D or 25(OH)D, vary between studies. However, serum 25(OH)D levels below 75 nmol/L are prevalent in every region studied whilst levels below 25 nmol/L are most common in regions such as South Asia and the Middle East. Older age, female sex, higher latitude, winter season, darker skin pigmentation, less sunlight exposure, dietary habits, and absence of vitamin D fortification are the main factors that are significantly associated with lower 25(OH)D levels.   A. Mithal et al.: \"Global vitamin D status and determinants of hypovitaminosis D\", Osteoporosis International, November 2009, Volume 20, Issue 11, pp 1807\u20131820.    Conclusion  Closer to the poles people need to have relatively: paler skin, more D in their food, adequate cholesterol levels, and more time in the sun at the right time with enough skin area exposed to meet the estimated demands for vitamin D. During winter it is almost impossible to meet the demand with UVB rays alone.",
        "id": 2337,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hepatitis B transmission",
        "body": "The hepatitis B virus has been found in semen, salivia, and vaginal secretions (as well as in blood, of course). The risk of transmission is lower for oral sex than it is for vaginal or anal sex, but it is not zero.   For oral sex with an infected man on the receiving end, a condom is recommended. As for giving oral sex, a dental dam can be used. To reduce the risk even more, a vaccine for hepatitis B is available.   Sources  Hepatitis and sex  Sexually acquired hepatitis  Minnesota Department of Health recommendations",
        "id": 584,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can blood pressure be high but my pulse low?",
        "body": "If that is the accurate pressure, you really need to go to the emergency room! 188 is high but not immediately dangerous, but 134 for a diastolic is outrageous.  At very least go to an urgent care or a pharmacy and have it double checked.  To answer the original question, blood pressure and pulse are not directly related.  The body regulates both separately to respond to environmental and internal conditions, but there is no direct 1:1 correlation. Pulse is how often the heart squeezes; pressure is how hard it squeezes, though technically that's the systolic pressure; and, in the case of diastolic (the lower number) pressure, it's how well or poorly the heart relaxes after squeezing).   A pressure of 188/134 would be severely hypertensive with likely diastolic heart failure;   A number like that, though, to me, screams poor equipment or poor technique, which is most likely the case if you are not being professionally tested and especially if you are improperly using a home testing system.",
        "id": 1484,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "rheumatoid arthritis and air conditioned environment",
        "body": "Yes, Air conditioner is one of the reason in increasing arthritis joint pain. Due to the direct blowing of unnatural cold air from AC adversely affect in joints and causes swelling. AC's cool air circulation in the room increases stiffness in the joints.",
        "id": 1708,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health risks of drinking Diet Coke while chewing Mentos?",
        "body": "There is a myth that drinking Diet Coke while chewing Mentos causes your stomach to explode, though this has been disproved by MythBusters and Snopes. Both sources say that the reason for the explosion between Diet Coke and Mentos is because of the outside of the Mentos reacting with the Diet Coke. If the Mentos are still in your mouth, the Diet Coke will most likely explode, but if they are in your stomach, they won't cause an explosion, but they still may cause a lot of burping. Still, none of those sources are very reliable, so I'm going to have to prove how it works chemically.  This study testing the reaction states that     \"It is clear...that the roughness   of the sample is a major contributor to the explosiveness of   the reaction.\"   This Steve Spangler Science experiment page also agrees that the surface of the candy is an incredibly important factor in the Diet Coke/Mentos reaction.     When you drop the Mentos into the soda, the gelatin and gum arabic from the dissolving candy break the surface tension.   It is clear that is indeed the surface of the Mentos that causes such a reaction. So, it can be seen that if you eat the Mentos and they are in your stomach, the surface of the Mentos begins to break down, so it makes sense why there would be just burping, rather than an explosion (like in the YouTube video above). If the Mentos are still in your mouth, the surface has probably been already slightly broken down, but there would still be an explosion, just to a slightly smaller extent.",
        "id": 811,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health risk of lead crystal?",
        "body": "I did some additional research on this question and what I found out is that the health risk is only significant to workers making the glass. Drinking vessels made from lead glass are not dangerous as long as they are soaked before use. Lead can leach out, but only from the surface, so if the vessel is soaked in an acid after it is made, all the exposed lead oxide will be removed and the glass will be perfectly safe.",
        "id": 2364,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are \"residual\" diseases?",
        "body": "In statistics, the \"residual\" is what is left over after accounting for the other predictors. I'd suggest that residual is being used here in a similar way. When you classify causes of death, some are easy to put into groups which can also be then sub-categorized (e.g., accidents / transport). In a large population, there will be many deaths that can't be classified in such as easy way and/or a set of causes of death that are relatively rare. In the latter case, if the CDC were to list all of those rare causes of death, then the overall list would be really really long. So I think they are lumping together all the cases of death that are either of unknown cause (think of older people who die of \"natural causes\" who do not receive autopsies) or of known but very rare cause.",
        "id": 1116,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Recurrent head aches, posible cause some poisoning, any recommendation?",
        "body": "This could be many, many different things, common causes include neck problems, migraines can be brought on by stress and/or trigger foods,  dehydration and skipped meals, anxiety about receiving food brought by others could also be a big trigger. High blood pressure can also cause regular headaches, and it can be a side-effect of medications and caused bby alcohol or drugs. Too many painkillers can also cause rebound headaches.   Worries that others are trying to poison you can be caused by some mental health conditions, examples of paranoia include fear of food/drink being poisioned, paranoia can occur on its own, or in schizophrenia spectrum disorders,  borderline personality disorder, even depression and anxiety can include some paranoia. That doesn't mean that the headaches are not there - it just means that other people are not deliberately causing them.   Some medications can have paranoia as a side effect. It could be that the headaches have a different cause than poisioning, and that nobody is trying to harm you.  Things can you try to help work out what is happening:   get a basic health checkup - this is the most important thing you can do and probably won't involve expensive things like blood tests but will quickly check the most common causes of headaches record your recent medication history, including whether any have changes since symptoms began - do not stop drugs, just keep the record update if anything changes, some medication can make you very ill if you suddenly stop it avoid alcohol, smoking and drugs that aren't prescribed by a doctor (like cocaine, cannabis, diet pills)  check the 'patient information' for your medications, and how common each side effect is, psych med details can be found here - written by the people taking the meds - nobody gets every symptom get your blood pressure and eyesight checked, quick and cheap - a basic health check will do this see if you have pain or stickness around your neck which might be causing it or contributing to it, see a physiotherapist or try yoga etc add monitoring your stress levels to your food/drink diary check your food/drink diary against common trigger foods for headaches, including snacks like chocolate and drinks like coffee ask if anyone else in your house gets regular headaches, or if any blood relatives do, and if they know the reason talk to your relatives about your worries that the food or drink is triggering your headaches, and how to fix it   I really, really think you should get a basic medical health check as soon as you can. Things like blood pressure only take 5 minutes to check and many people with headaches, and many people with mental health problems in the past don't get regular health checks. ",
        "id": 393,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the effectiveness of the precordial thump?",
        "body": "Well I have successfully used a precordial thump to cardiorevert someone but that was long before we had things such as guidelines. And a crash cart was close by.  It is thought that it should only be used when witnessing the onset of ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia but it also has the unfortunate possibility of converting that rhythm to a more lethal rhythm such as asystole. But one study showed it worked the best in asystole. Presumably because it can't get worse.  The energy delivered by a thump in the correct location is about 5 Joules compared with e.g. 300 Joules from a defibrillator.   The number needed to treat is 13-50, but the numbers needed to make the rhythm worse is 2-10. So the patient will be better off statistically if you don't employ this technique.  https://canadiem.org/the-precordial-thump-good-bad-or-ugly/",
        "id": 2175,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the best exercise to lose weight fast",
        "body": "The exercises you will actually do.   Crunches may require a lot of energy but how long can you actually keep them up? I doubt that many people could/would do crunches for more than 20-30 minutes at a time, at most. Meanwhile, most fit cyclists can ride a bike at a quick pace for 4-5 hours or more. I guarantee that a bike ride that long burns more calories than your crunches no matter how long you keep doing them. Ditto with running, swimming, and playing active sports like basketball, tennis, etc.  In theory, calories are calories and it shouldn't matter how you burn them or reduce them in your diet. But I don't think it's that simple. In my experience, exercise in and of itself is not a highly effective way of losing weight (fat, not water). For example, in the warm months I usually ride my bike over 100 miles/160 km per week at fairly vigorous speeds. According to all the estimates I can find, I should be burning somewhere in the neighborhood of 3500 kcalories per week doing this. So I should be losing about a pound of fat per week if I keep my food intake the same, right? Unfortunately, I've found this is not the case for me or anyone else I know. In fact, not even close. Only when I combine exercise with a reduction of food intake do I see the weight loss I expect.   So my admittedly unscientific answer to your question is that any exercise that makes you break a sweat and which you will do regularly will help the most, but it will only help if you combine it with a reasonable reduction in calorie intake.",
        "id": 256,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the long-term side effects of glucosamine taken as a nutritional supplement?",
        "body": "This long-term study states:  Reginster, J. Y., Deroisy, R., Rovati, L. C., Lee, R. L., &amp; al, e. (2001). Long-term effects of glucosamine sulphate on osteoarthritis progression: A randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. The Lancet, 357(9252), 251-6. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.tcu.edu/docview/199008719?accountid=7090      There were no differences in safety or reasons for early withdrawal between the treatment and placebo groups.    And used a secondary outcome (the primary was on the progression of osteoarthritis) was:     Secondary outcome measures were use of rescue medications as recorded in a daily diary; withdrawal rates; occurrence of adverse events; and routine safety laboratory tests, including testing for glucose homoeostasis assessed by fasting glucose concentrations at yearly intervals in all patients still receiving the study treatment.    Side Effects Reported:     Most patients reported at least one adverse event: 93% with placebo and 94% with glucosamine sulphate. There were no substantial differences between groups in frequency or pattern of events.       In about half the cases, these events were referred to the gastrointestinal system (mainly including abdominal pain and disturbed defecaton) and may be also referred to the rescue medication, without differences between groups.       Routine laboratory tests did not show any great abnormalities in system organs or metabolic functions in the two groups during the study. There was no change in glycaemic homoeostasis, with fasting plasma glucose concentrations decreasing slightly in the glucosamine sulphate group (data not shown).    I did not find any more studies of the ocular hypertensive effects of therapeutic glucosamine, but there are a few studies on effects of Glucosamine in laboratory animals that may indicate possible side-effects.  Amer NA, Al- Shawi Nada Naji. POSSIBLE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF ONCE-DAILY ORAL THERAPEUTIC DOSE OF EITHER GLUCOSAMINE SULFATE OR GLUCOSAMINE/CHONDROITIN SULFATE ON BLOOD CELLS COUNT IN RATS. International Research Journal of Pharmacy. 2013;4:24-29.  http://www.irjponline.com/admin/php/uploads/2024_pdf.pdf  Studied the effect of Glucosamine (GS) and Glucosamine (GS)/Chondroitin (CS) on various blood cell counts. They did find a      significant decrease in neutrophil percentage in both drug treatment   groups   and a      statistically significant elevation in platelet count   However, this study only used 43 rats over 30 days and there were much more effects when comparing control to GS to GS/CS.  At beyond-therapeutic doses, there may be more nuanced and serious effects:  Mathieu Lafontaine-Lacasse, Genevi\u00e8ve Dor\u00e9 and Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Picard. Hexosamines stimulate apoptosis by altering SIRT1 action and levels in rodent pancreatic \u03b2-cells. J Endocrinol January 1, 2011 208 41-49     both NIT-1 and min6 \u03b2-cells, genetic knockdown of Sirt1 expression resulted in higher susceptibility to HBP-stimulated apoptosis, whereas overexpression of Sirt1 had the opposite impact.   Many of the studies continue like this; there are few studies linking Glucosamine to any overt and wide-ranging side-effects, but many initmating that there are pathways that could lead to morbidity, especially in beyond therapeutic doses.",
        "id": 1066,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to tell if the common cold has turned to an infection",
        "body": "As has been pointed out in the comments, a common cold is already a (viral) infection. By far the largest part of upper airway infections are viral and the body is very capable of clearing them up.  It is a common misconception that that the colour of the mucus gives information about whether it is viral or bacterial. This study shows that the sensitivity of yellowish or greenish sputum used as a test for a bacterial infection was 0.79 (95% CI 0.63\u20130.94); the specificity was 0.46  (95% CI 0.038\u20130.53), which is very low.  A visit to your doctor for a cold is almost never necessary. Even in the case that there is a bacterial infection, your body can almost always get rid of it itself. This Cochrane review concludes that in acute, uncomplicated rhinosinusitis (which is, essentially, what we call \"a cold\") there is no place for antibiotics. It may cause the cold to be over faster than it would be without antibiotics, but without the antibiotics there is a very very low rate of complications. Antibiotics cause adverse events and resistance of bacteria, so they should not be used without reason.  As there is no reason for antibiotics, a visit to your doctor will also not be useful.  A subsequent upper airway infection with coughing is often caused by something called post-nasal drip (essentially mucus from the nose dripping into the throat), which sucks but doesn't warrent a visit to the doctor. Signs of a possible pneumonia are: fever for >3 days or recurrent fever after a few fever-free days, dyspnea or wheezing (this is based on the Dutch guidelines so I don't have an English source for this). In this case, I would definitely recommend going to your doctor. There is still a realistic chance that you're not going to need antibiotics, but that is a decision the doctor needs to make based on the specific circumstances and this cannot be assessed over the internet.",
        "id": 300,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is the Rotavirus vaccine can be given only until the age of 8 months and 0 days?",
        "body": "World Health Organization: Age restrictions for rotavirus vaccination: evidence-based analysis of rotavirus mortality reduction versus risk of fatal intussusception by mortality stratum,2012, page 5     WHO currently recommends that rotavirus vaccines should not be   initiated for infants aged 15 weeks or older, with all doses being   completed by 32 weeks.  These age restrictions are driven by   concerns about intussusception risk. Natural intussusception rarely   occurs before 3 months of age and the incidence increases 10-fold   between 3 and 6 months of age.   *Intussusception is a type of bowel blockage.",
        "id": 2196,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the process called, when a doctor tries to figure out what is wrong with you?",
        "body": "Anamnesis = patient's medical history = a summary of all symptoms and all other relevant data (family history, circumstances in which the problems started, etc.) that a patient reveals. So, all examples mentioned in your question fall under anamnesis.  The subject that describes how to perform an anamnesis and physical examination is called clinical propedeutics. Various books for doctors and nurses are available, but this may be way beyond what someone needs to know from a patient's perspective.  There are numerous layman \"family health\" books available...  Online sources:   Symptoms and Signs A-Z List (MedicineNet) A medical history questionnaire (Mont Sinai Medical Center) ",
        "id": 2093,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is vitamin B12 in supplements protected from stomach acid?",
        "body": "I haven't found any source that would claim that a normal level of haptocorrin in saliva is a limiting factor for the absorption of vitamin B12 from supplements.  On the other hand, haptocorrin deficiency can limit the absorption of vitamin B12 even from food thus leading to vitamin B12 deficiency (Clinical Chemistry, 2003).  It is the intrinsic factor that is a bottleneck for the absorption of large oral doses of vitamin B12 (Office of Dietary Supplements):     Approximately 56% of a 1 mcg oral dose of vitamin B12 is absorbed.      Existing evidence does not suggest any differences among forms with   respect to absorption or bioavailability. However the body\u2019s ability   to absorb vitamin B12 from dietary supplements is largely limited by   the capacity of intrinsic factor. For example, only about 10 mcg of   a 500 mcg oral supplement is actually absorbed in healthy people. ",
        "id": 2663,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does hair gel damage your hair?",
        "body": "There are two main things to consider here:   What kind of hairloss is there? What is in the product that is applied to the hair?   concerning 1:  All humans loose their hair, constantly. That is part of the life cycle of hair und usually goes quite unnoticed when the hair is short and is progressively more obvious when the hair was allowed to grow longer.       The average adult head has about 100,000 to 150,000 hairs and loses up to 100 of them a day; finding a few stray hairs on your hairbrush is not necessarily cause for alarm.  At any one time, about 90% of the hair on a person's scalp is growing. Each follicle has its own life cycle that can be influenced by age, disease, and a wide variety of other factors. This life cycle is divided into three phases: 1. Anagen -- active hair growth that lasts between two to six years 2. Catagen -- transitional hair growth that lasts two to three weeks   3. Telogen -- resting phase that lasts about two to three months; at the end of the resting phase the hair is shed and a new hair replaces it and the growing cycle starts again.   Especially in males going bald with age is very common.   If it is this kind of genetic fate or because of underlying medical conditions (toxins, too much supplements\u2026) asking questions on the web is no the best course of action. For that a medical examination is needed and prescriptions for finasterid or hair transplants are equally unsuitable for 'the cloud'. Since hairloss might be just a cosmetic issue of aesthetics or an indication for serious issues a visit to a medical practitioner is strongly advised.  concerning 2.:  Checking for the ingredients of a specially preferred product mentioned in the qustion reveals that among other substances it contains some that are found to be of varying concern:    PEG-40, PEG-70: tensides, weakens the barrier function of skin  Triethanolamine: immune system disruptor, potential allergen, irritant, nitrosamine producer Acrylates / Steareth-20 Methacrylate Copolymer: weakens barrier function of skin Disodium Edta:  weakens cell membranes Polyester-5: the glue in the gel Phenoxyethanol: preservative, negative influence on immune system and nervous system, potential allergen Propylene Glycol: negative influence on immune system, potential allergen, suspected of being toxic or harmful to health  Citral: potent allergen   That means it is not an unrealistic assumption that indeed the product just causes trouble. It is a conglomerate of questionable ingredients. But that is far from certain! All of these substances are allowed in cosmetics after all. None of them is listed as directly causes premature hair loss.   One explanation to consider is the perceptual issue of an aging man in panic finding these hairs: As stated earlier, hairs are constantly falling out. If some of them were glued together with gel before falling out that might just mean they did not increase in number; but that they only became much more noticeable that way.  Using anything on hair is typically not necessary. If something is supicious: stop using it and watch if conditions improve.",
        "id": 2041,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Strengthening / recovering lungs? What is the science behind this?",
        "body": "   One of the largest differences between an exerciser and a nonexerciser concerns the heart's ability to pump blood and consequently deliver oxygen to working muscles. Cardiac output is a major limiting factor for prolonged exercise. In addition, an exerciser typically has a larger blood volume, is better able to extract oxygen from the air in the lungs and is better able to extract oxygen from the blood at the working muscles than a sedentary individual is. Gas exchange involves not only oxygen delivery but also the removal of carbon dioxide, which is a byproduct of energy metabolism, and this process is also more efficient in an exerciser.   http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/if-a-persons-lung-size-ca/  So there doesn't appear to be any alteration of lung volumes as a result of exercise, and the improvement is to heart and muscle efficiency. And of course there are muscles associated with breathing such as intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.  There is rodent evidence of a beneficial effect of a high fiber diet on lung function, and this uncontrolled human study showed benefit in long term asthma with a plant based diet. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4019393",
        "id": 876,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is 2nd hand smoking worse than 1st hand smoking",
        "body": "TL;DR  Yes, if one was to inhale the same amount of smoke passively as smokers inhale actively, it would be more dangerous. This is hardly the case though, as smokers also inhale parts of second hand smoke, and because as always, dosis facit venenum.    Risk of Second Hand Smoke  Risk of developing cancer     Exposure to secondhand smoke raises the risk -- by as much as 30 percent [1.3 times] -- that others will get lung cancer and many other types of cancer, it can lead to emphysema, and it is bad for your heart.       Source: WebMD, Emphasis Mine, Annotation Mine   The lower risk of developing cancer is because passive smokers don't inhale the same amount of smoke - you usually walk past a smoker and not stand right next to them until they have finished their cigarette.  Inhalation of toxic fumes     There are 2 types of tobacco smoke:         Mainstream smoke, which is directly inhaled through the mouth end of the cigarette    Sidestream smoke, which comes from the burning tip of the cigarette          Second-hand smoke is made up of sidestream smoke and   exhaled mainstream smoke, mixed with the surrounding air.      Sidestream smoke is about 4 times more toxic than mainstream smoke,   although people inhale it in a more diluted form. This is because   sidestream smoke contains much higher levels of many of the poisons   and cancer-causing chemicals in cigarettes, including:         At least 3 times as much carbon monoxide   10-30 times more nitrosamines   Between 15\u2013300 times more ammonia          Source: cancerresearchuk.org   However, the total amount of toxic fumes passive smokers inhale is less than what smokers inhale, because the former are not exposed to smoke as often as the latter.  Risk of Developing Heart Diseases or Strokes     Breathing secondhand smoke can cause coronary heart disease, including   heart attack and stroke. Know the facts:         Secondhand smoke causes nearly 34,000 early deaths from coronary    heart disease each year in the United States among    nonsmokers.   Nonsmokers who breathe secondhand smoke at home or at work increase   their risk of developing heart disease by 25\u201330%.   Breathing secondhand smoke interferes with the normal functioning of    the heart, blood, and vascular systems in ways that increase   your    risk of having a heart attack.   Even briefly breathing secondhand smoke can damage the lining of    blood vessels and cause your blood to become stickier. These changes   can cause a deadly heart attack.         Source: cdc.gov   Again, the risk is lower than the risk of smokers because it is only an exposure during work or at home and are not expected to inhale the same amount of smoke as bystanders as smokers do.  Risks of First Hand Smoke  Risk of developing cancer     People who smoke cigarettes are 15 to 30 times more likely to get lung cancer or die from lung cancer than people who do not smoke. Even smoking a few cigarettes a day or smoking occasionally increases the risk of lung cancer. The more years a person smokes and the more cigarettes smoked each day, the more risk goes up.      Source: cdc.gov, Emphasis Mine   Toxic fumes     Cigarette smoke is a mixture of over 4000 chemicals, many of which are   harmful to the human body. All currently available tobacco products   that are smoked deliver substantial amounts of toxic chemicals to   their users and those who breathe their smoke.      Of the more than 4000 chemicals present in cigarette smoke, more than   60 have been identified as cancer causing chemicals, 11 of which are   known to cause cancer in humans and 8 that probably cause cancer in   humans.      With approximately one non-smoker dying due to secondhand smoke   exposure for every eight smokers dying of smoking-related disease it   is no surprise that secondhand smoke has been designated a known human   carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). Further, about half of regular   smokers will die of a smoking-related disease and have a reduced life   expectancy of about 13 to 16 years as compared with non- smokers.      Source: Australian Department for Health, Emphasis Mine   Risk of Heart Diseases and Strokes     If you smoke, your chance of dying from a heart attack is 2 to 3 times   greater than that of a person who does not smoke. About 1 out of 4   heart attacks is believed to be directly related to smoking. Smoking   is a much more important risk factor for a heart attack than high   cholesterol, obesity, high blood pressure, or stress.   A person who smokes is twice as likely to die from a stroke as a person who does not smoke.       Source: WebMD, Emphasis Mine     If you have children  Second hand smoking is especially damaging to children:     Every day millions of children in the UK are exposed to secondhand   smoke, which puts them at increased risk of lung disease, meningitis   and cot death. Treatment, hospital and GP visits for secondhand smoke   related illnesses cost the NHS more than \u00a323.6 million each year.      Source: gov.uk, Emphasis Mine   Early exposure to chemicals is a lot more damaging than during adulthood.     Passive smoking causes lasting damage to children's arteries,   prematurely ageing their blood vessels by more than three years, say   researchers.      Source: BBC.com   This can lead to early heard attacks and other coronary diseases.     Exposure of unborn children to tobacco smoke may also increase the   risk of miscarriage, low birth weight and sudden infant death syndrome   (SIDS), or \u2018cot death\u2019. There is strong evidence that the babies of   mothers who smoke after birth have more lung diseases in their first   year of life and have double the normal risk of serious airway   infections.      Source: Gov.au   If you have kids, you definitely should follow the advice below.  What you can do     You can protect yourself and your family from secondhand smoke by:         Quitting smoking if you are not already a nonsmoker   Not allowing anyone to smoke anywhere in or near your home   Not allowing anyone to smoke in your car, even with the windows down   Making sure your children\u2019s day care center and schools are tobacco-free   Seeking out restaurants and other places that do not allow smoking (if your state still allows smoking in public areas)   Teaching your children to stay away from secondhand smoke.             Being a good role model by not smoking or using any other type of  tobacco.         Source: cdc.gov ",
        "id": 1868,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can too much potassium from sports drinks be dangerous/lethal?",
        "body": "Sports drinks contain trivial amounts of potassium. For example, one US gallon of Gatorade contains 480 mg of potassium, which is roughly comparable to a single banana and much less than a sweet potato. The US RDA for potassium is 4700 mg per day, so you could safely drink 10 gallons per day if you consumed nothing else.   The dangers of potassium are vastly overstated, even by most medical professionals. If you have normal kidney function and you're not taking a small number of medications that cause potassium retention, it's actually extremely difficult to make yourself hyperkalemic by oral consumption. ",
        "id": 1960,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health benefits of Yoga?",
        "body": "Evidence for the benefits of yoga is vast and easily accessible online. It is great to see question like this which focus on the comparison of yoga to other exercises.   There is quite limited amount of studies which investigate the benefits of yoga over another type of exercise.   When kids were examined yoga did not show benefits over traditional exercises (1). In my opinion this is due to the fact that children aged between 8 and 13 years are not sensible to the great effects of yoga. Hardly any kids that age experience stress or mental problems which could be relieved by mental exercises.  In another study slightly older participants were examined (2). When compared to stretching the patients having participated to a yoga intervention showed greater effects in executive functions and also in flexibility.  In another study setting women with breast cancer were investigated (3). Again compared to stretching, yoga was superior with regard to quality of life and fitness.  As so, I think there is good evidence favouring yoga at least over stretching. Unfortunately there is scarcely studies investigating the benefits of yoga over, say jogging or gym exercises.",
        "id": 265,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Time intervals between blood donations",
        "body": "The only known significant long-term risk of blood donation is iron deficiency. Immunity (which you asked about) is primarily mediated by white blood cells, which can be easily deployed from the lymphatic system and bone marrow to replace those lost in donation. Red blood cells, on other hand, are not stored as mature cells in large numbers outside of the bloodstream. They also contain hemoglobin, which requires iron for its production. The body has a limited supply of iron, and when red blood cells are removed via blood donation, this can be depleted. Approximately 200 - 230 mg of iron is lost during a standard blood donation (~450 mL whole blood). It has been shown that short-term iron supplementation is effective in replacing iron loss.1  The American Red Cross recommends donors wait 8 weeks between transfusions. The NHS guideline is more conservative, recommending 12 weeks for men and 16 weeks for women. The difference between the sexes in that recommendation is because women lose blood regularly through menstruation and thus tend to have lower stores of iron and can easily become anemic. The threshold hemoglobin level required for donation is also different between the US and Europe: 12.5 g/dL for both sexes in the US; 12.5 g/dL for women but 13.5 g/dL for men in the Europe.*   The optimal interval for blood donation remains a bit of an open question. (Note that for women, the NHS recommendation is twice as long as the Red Cross\u2019s recommendation!) To investigate that, there was recently a large trial conducted within NHS centers that randomized men to 12-week, 10-week, or 8-week intervals between donation while women were randomized to 16-week versus 14-week versus 12-week intervals.2 They will report hemoglobin levels in donors, including the number of donations that have to be deferred due to hemoglobin levels below the recommended levels (NHS guidelines above). The full methodology is available online, but to my knowledge the results have not yet been published.        References      1. Radtke H, Mayer B, R\u00f6cker L, Salama A, Kiesewetter H. Iron supplementation and 2-unit red blood cell apheresis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Transfusion. 2004 Oct;44(10):1463-7.      2. Moore C, Sambrook J, Walker M, Tolkien Z, Kaptoge S, Allen D, Mehenny S, Mant J, Di Angelantonio E, Thompson SG, Ouwehand W, Roberts DJ, Danesh J. The INTERVAL trial to determine whether intervals between blood donations can be safely and acceptably decreased to optimise blood supply: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2014 Sep 17;15:363. doi: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-363.         *Note: The European guideline appears to be a practical concession to the fact that many menstruating woman have hemoglobin &lt;13.5 g/dL. However, to my knowledge there is no physiologic reason to believe that women should tolerate an absolute hemoglobin level lower than men. Thus, the logic of it is somewhat lost on me. ",
        "id": 74,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I evaluate health benefits and health advertisements of products?",
        "body": "Educate yourself! That means reading up. From reliable sources.  Most of the information on the internet is mere statements on sites that present health relevant info as easy and simple. But in reality most often answers to your question are not so easy and not so simple.   While certain companies and sometimes even mother nature might not subscribe to the following principle, at least you should treat yourself like a good doctor promised to do: first, do no harm! That means when looking for information you should always keep a very keen eye on on the cost/benefit relation that the information you find will hopefully enable you to estimate. Look for the possible side effects.  Using information about the product in general   PubMed is a free archive of medical articles regarding almost anything. Enter the product name (or the active agent) and see what comes up.    If you have questions regarding a specific article, feel free to ask here. If  you are looking for the whole article source, and not just the abstract, copy the article name and paste it into a Google search field, using parenthesis (\"Abstract Title Goes Here\"). This way, Google will only show you search results for exactly this combination of words. Check through a few links at the top to see whether one of the archives has the full text without a text wall. If you still do not find the full text, consult your university library (if any) or talk to your librarian in your public library. Otherwise, ask on our main chatroom, The Waiting Room, and someone might be able to help you out.  Visit the website of the FDA and search for the name of your product.   If negative or positive health effects are listed and you do not understand why the product in question does have this effect, feel free to ask here.   Visit MayoClinic and see if anything pops up.    If you have questions regarding the Mayo Clinic Article, feel free to ask here. Do go to the bottom of the article and have a read through the sources MayoClinic provides.   Try googling the product name directly (using parenthesis).    If you are uncertain, whether such the search results come from reliable resources, ask on our main chatroom, The Waiting Room. If you do not understand why the product has the effect you were able to find, feel free to ask here.  For cosmetics and their ingredients you might consult databases like CodeCheck or SkinDeep.   Using information about the ingredients   Research all molecules and ingredients of the product at PubChem.    If you do not understand what a chemical compound is, or how it interacts with other chemicals, feel free to visit Chemistry.SE and ask there. If you have a question about the interaction of said chemical with your body, visit the sections \"Drug and Medication Information\", \"Pharmacology and Biochemistry\" and \"Biomolecular Interactions and Pathways\". If you do not understand information there, decide whether you should ask at Chemistry.SE or here  ",
        "id": 1931,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I have natural immunity to Hepatitis B. Do I pose risk to others?",
        "body": "The Hepatitis B core antibody test is positive for IgG but negative for IgM indicating that you had the hepatitis B infection a while ago. The negative hepatitis B surface antigen test means that they are not detecting the hepatitis B in your blood when testing for the virus surface antigen.  This means you've successfully cleared the infection to a very low level.  You don't mention the hepatitis B surface antibody levels which are usually used to determine if you're now immune eg. after a series of hepatitis B vaccinations.  This doesn't mean you don't have the virus in your system.  Immunosuppressants such as methotrexate and TNF inhibitors could still potentially reactivate the hepatitis B infection.  So, you'd want to measure the HBV DNA viral load and then track that serially to see if such treatment causes a reactivation.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24805974 ",
        "id": 2009,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Depo-Provera shot directly start working?",
        "body": "If the shot was given within a week of the period starting, it's instantly effective.  If not, its considered effective after 7 days.  It needs to be injected every 12-13 weeks.  Anything in that 7 day range is considered the \"right\" time.   https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/birth-control/birth-control-shot",
        "id": 1778,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are cotton ear cleaners safe to clean the ear wax?",
        "body": "No, they just make earwax problems worse by compacting the wax and pushing it further into the ear canal.   You can buy ear drops containing carbamide peroxide that will dissolve excess wax safely. No prescription is required in the US.  Why you shouldn't use cotton swabs to clean your ears (CNN 2017)",
        "id": 1696,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Myocarditis infectious?",
        "body": "Myocarditis itself is not a virus nor is it contagious - the term refers an inflammation of the myocardium (a.k.a. the heart muscle). A viral infection is probably the most common cause of myocarditis but there's many different viruses that can have it as a complication including:   Adenovirus (the common cold) Hepatitis B/C Parvovirus HIV Rubella   the list goes on. It can also result from a bacterial infection (staph, strep, diptheria etc) parasites, fungal infections, or as a reaction to an environmental factors such as a drugs, medication, carbon monoxide, radiation.  So Myocarditis itself isn't transmissible but the some of the conditions that cause it might be - so any precautions required to prevent catching the contagion that caused the myocarditis apply. That said it's quite a rare complication and not always serious - and there's no saying that because one person developed it as a result of a given disease that anyone they infect will get it as well.",
        "id": 2662,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to treat a pregnant woman with a very low platelet count in her 9th month of pregnancy?",
        "body": "Please note that you have not gived a definition for your numbers. 15,000 platelets per \u00b5L? mL? L? It matters. 50,000/L is much different than 50,000/\u00b5L.  Thrombocytopenia is not uncommon during pregnancy, and, as in non-pregnancy related cases, results from diverse causes. Without awareness of the cause(s) (i.e. knowing which tests she has undergone and the results), no one here can recommend the proper management of your sister's case.   Some causes of thrombocytopenia are unique to pregnancy and may not be familiar to hematologists.      Incidental thrombocytopenia of pregnancy, usually referred to as gestational thrombocytopenia, accounts for 70%-80% of cases. It occurs in the mid-second to third trimester, and its pathogenesis is unclear. It has been speculated that it may result from various mechanisms, including hemodilution and accelerated clearance. No confirmatory laboratory tests are available, and the diagnosis is one of exclusion. ...[However] we consider a diagnosis of gestational thrombocytopenia unlikely if the platelet count is &lt; 50 \u00d7 109/L, with very few cases having been described with counts 40-50 \u00d7 109/L.    Also,     ITP is not an indication for cesarean delivery. Mode of delivery in a pregnant patient with ITP is based on obstetric indications, with avoidance of procedures associated with increased hemorrhagic risk to the fetus (eg, forceps, vacuum extraction, and fetal scalp electrode/samples).   Of interest:     As a rule of thumb, developing a platelet count &lt; 100 \u00d7 109/L early in pregnancy, with declining platelet counts as gestation progresses, is most consistent with ITP. ...Nevertheless, knowing the exact diagnosis at that stage of pregnancy changes the management very little, as will be discussed in the indications for treatment.   And     A rare inherited cause of thrombocytopenia is type IIB von Willebrand disease (VWD). Women with this condition may develop thrombocytopenia, for the first time, in pregnancy and be misdiagnosed with ITP. Platelet counts may occasionally fall to levels as low as 10-20 \u00d7 109/L at term, typically with nadir value 1-3 days before delivery, but they rapidly improve after delivery.   Below are three links to the American Society of Hematology journal, blood. There are linked references within the articles that can assist you in addressing your concerns with her doctors.  Also, your hospital should have a medical library, where you might be able to access medical information with permission.  How I treat thrombocytopenia in pregnancy The American Society of Hematology 2011 evidence-based practice guideline for immune thrombocytopenia - note: this is for immune thrombocytopenia Standardization of terminology, definitions and outcome criteria in immune thrombocytopenic purpura of adults and children: report from an international working group - note: this is for immune thrombocytopenia A rational approach to the diagnosis and management of thrombocytopenia in the hospitalized patient. Assessment of thrombocytopenia",
        "id": 538,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I meet nutritional recommendations (for e.g., RDAs) daily?",
        "body": "In short: For most nutrients, you do not need to meet the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) each day. You could get, for example, 7 RDAs amounts of certain nutrients randomly distributed through 7 days without having any deficiency symptoms.  Office of Dietary Supplements, NIH.gov:     Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): average daily level of intake   sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%-98%)   healthy people.     1) Compensatory mechanisms that can provide the sufficient amount of nutrients on the days you don't get them by food:   The release of nutrients from your body stores (glucose from glycogen in the liver, fat from body fat, proteins from liver and blood proteins, vitamins from the liver, calcium and phosphorus from bone, etc.)    The conversion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into each other in your body Retaining minerals, such as potassium, by the kidneys   2) For how long can you skip the intake of a certain nutrient without having any deficiency symptoms?   Carbohydrate stores (in the form of glycogen) last for 1-2 days after you stop consuming them. After that, carbohydrates can be produced in your body from fats and proteins. Theoretically, you do not need to get any carbohydrates from food for any period of time because they can be all produced in your body. Proteins in the liver and blood represent an amino acid pool, which can be used to create new proteins, as needed, for at least few days after stopping consuming proteins.  For how long you can go without fats, mainly depends on your body fat stores as mentioned in this 382 days fasting study. The stores of water-soluble vitamins (B complex, C) should be enough for 1-2 months, in most cases, but vitamin B1 stores could last for only 2-3 weeks. The stores of vitamins A, B12 and E could be enough for 2 years or more. You could probably go without most minerals for at least 1 month according to the abovementioned fasting study. ",
        "id": 2353,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can GERD be caused by too little stomach acid?",
        "body": "Increased levels of stomach acid aren't actually listed as causes for GERD anywhere I could find. It is listed as a cause for ulcers, but not GERD:     Increased levels of gastrin can cause increased release of acid and may lead to ulcers (Zollinger-Ellison syndrome)   [Stomach acid test - What Abnormal Results Mean]   Gastroesophageal reflux disease occurs when stomach acid enters the esophagus. Normally, the lower esophageal sphincter closes off the stomach. If it doesn't close completely, stomach acid moves upwards and hurts the esophagus that doesn't have the same lining as the stomach to protect it from the acid.      GERD is caused by frequent acid reflux \u2014 the backup of stomach acid or bile into the esophagus.      When you swallow, the lower esophageal sphincter \u2014 a circular band of muscle around the bottom part of your esophagus \u2014 relaxes to allow food and liquid to flow down into your stomach. Then it closes again.      However, if this valve relaxes abnormally or weakens, stomach acid can flow back up into your esophagus, causing frequent heartburn.   [Mayo Clinic - GERD]      GER and GERD happen when your lower esophageal sphincter becomes weak or relaxes when it shouldn\u2019t, causing stomach contents to rise up into the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter becomes weak or relaxes     [The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases]   A good overview of this with citations was also just added as an answer to another question here: What is the mechanism of heartburn  The possible causes of the esophageal sphincter becoming weak are listed as    pressure on the abdomen  certain medications  smoking  a condition called a hiatal hernia   A hiatal hernia is an anatomical cause.      A hiatal hernia occurs when part of your stomach pushes upward through your diaphragm   [Mayo Clinic - Hiatal Hernia]   The exact causes of hiatal hernias is unknown, one suspected cause is pressure put on the stomach. In some people, it just seems to appear when they get older.   If GERD isn't caused by too much stomach acid, then why are acid reducing drugs prescribed as treatment? Because the less acid there is - and therefore the less acidic the stomach contents are - the less damage it can do to the esophagus. Proton pump inhibitors even allow the damage to the esophagus to heal. Other options for treating GERD are medication and surgery to strengthen the esophageal sphincter.   In light of the evidence for weak esophageal sphincters being the cause for GERD, I'd consider low stomach acid being a cause an unlikely hypothesis.   +++  In regards to your edit, here is my main disagreement / concern      This reasoning behind this is that undigested food is putrefying and rotting, expelling gas within the stomach, then increasing pressure on the LES.    Food doesn't rot in the stomach. Food stays in the stomach for less than six hours, which we know because we can track it. It spends most of its time in the colon. Food doesn't begin rotting within six hours, especially not while in the stomach, where, even in people with low stomach acidity, the acid kills most bacteria that could make the food rot.   What really makes me doubt this, though, is that there are people who don't produce, or produce very low levels of stomach acid. That condition is called achlorhydria and is defined as      an intragastric pH greater than 5.09 in men and greater than 6.81 in women.   Normal values are between 1 and 3. Since pH is a logarithmic scale, this is a big difference.   The symptoms seen even in these patients do not generally include chronic acid reflux.   It is very hard to even try to refute those sources, as they regularly state such things as      It is estimated that 80% of people with food allergies suffer from some degree of low acid production in the stomach   without any citation. Or that rheumatoid arthritis is caused by poor digestion. Or that food used to include \"digestive enzymes\", but doesn't anymore. These are signs of pseudoscience and does not make me confident that anything else on that site is scientifically sound.      Then, the rotting food causes inflammation in the stomach which results in the stomach producing less acid,   First of all, that source is about gastritis, not acid reflux. It says nothing about rotting food. It's about the complete opposite - how gastritis (and ulcers) needs to be treated by lowering the stomach pH so the stomach lining can heal. After that, proton pump inhibitors are discontinued and the stomach acid returns to normal levels. The inflammation of the stomach in gastritis (usually caused by taking NSAIDs) does not somehow cause a lower stomach acidity, which seems to be what you are implying.   There is a longer refutation of some claims here: Is GERD caused by H. pylori &amp; Low Stomach Acid?. That article includes several links to studies that show patients with GERD not having significantly lower stomach acidity than patients without GERD and that artifically lowering stomach acidity triggered more severe GERD symptoms. I am not sure how unbiased it is, but I highly recommend looking at it and its sources.   Another interesting paper is Altered bowel function and duodenal bacterial overgrowth in patients treated with omeprazole, which concluded that in  people treated with PPIs (and thus lowered stomach acidity), food stays in the digestive tract for a shorter, not longer, duration.   A final recommendation: If you, yourself, are concerned about this, get your stomach pH tested. That's something that can be done.      In my opinion, we could have millions of sufferers in our country, and for that reason I want to find out the truth.   Well, evaluating new hypotheses is outside the scope of this site. I have given you the state of research as I understand it and have tried looking at the references you presented, but found them severely lacking. But of course, I don't know what \"the truth\" is. ",
        "id": 597,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Was \"patient zero\" a concept used in epidemiology before 1980s HIV investigation?",
        "body": "You are indeed correct! The origins and first usage of the word \"patient-zero\" was actually a total misinterpretation that was caught on quickly by the media, and has since been perpetuated henceforth. The phrase was coined in the early 1980's in reference to Ga\u00ebtan Dugas, who was erroneously identified as the cause of the AIDS outbreak. Your sources are correct in that new scientific evidence has since demonstrated that he didn't spread HIV, but the damage has been done, and his reputation has been tarnished.  The \"Patient Zero\" reference has since been used in reference to Ebola, Avian Flu, Swine Flu, and Typhoid (this one retroactively). The more medically correct term is index-case.  Here are excerpts from a CNN article indicating the etymology of the \"Patient Zero\" and the usage of index cases: http://www.cnn.com/2016/11/08/health/patient-zero-history-super-spreaders/index.html     When a researcher's scrawling of the letter O was misinterpreted as   a zero in reference to a HIV patient in the early 1980s, the   provocative term \"patient zero\" was born.      \"Patient zero\" is still frequently used to describe index cases -- the   first documented cases of a disease observed or reported to health   officials.   Here is another CNN article explaining the misinterpretation of the \"patient O\" and the clearance of Ga\u00ebtan Dugas as the cause for the AIDS outbreak:  http://www.cnn.com/2016/10/27/health/hiv-gaetan-dugas-patient-zero/index.html     Dugas was placed near the center of this cluster, and the researchers   identified him as patient O, an abbreviation to indicate that he   resided outside California. However, the letter O was misinterpreted   as a zero in the scientific literature. Once the media and the public   noticed the name, the damage was done.   Here is a list of other alleged \"patient-zeros\" or \"index cases\": http://www.cnn.com/2016/11/08/health/gallery/patient-zero-cases-history/index.html ",
        "id": 1362,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to not have BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes?",
        "body": "BRCA1 and BRCA2 are the names of genes that every human has1, located on chromosome 17. These genes code for proteins that suppress tumors.   However, in some humans these genes carry mutations that mean that the tumor suppressing function doesn't work as well or at all. That's what people usually mean when they say that they \"have\" BRCA1/2, even though it's not the clearest way to phrase it.   Because in those cases suppression of tumor development is not as good as in people with the wild type (not mutated) version, these people are more at risk for certain cancers, specifically breast and ovarian cancer. In total, the mutations are probably responsible for about 10 percent of all breast cancers and 15 percent of all ovarian cancers.   For more information, the National Cancer Institute's fact sheet is a good resource.   1) it is possible that there are people who actually don't have the gene - I couldn't find any reports on that, but that doesn't mean it hasn't happened. However, that in itself is a mutation (a gene deletion). In a whole genome analysis, I can only hope that a missing gene would be listed as a result.",
        "id": 723,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does drinking water mitigate the health risks from daily alcohol consumption?",
        "body": "The most severe health risk from frequent alcohol consumption are liver damage and malnutrition. There are others, see my list of sources, but I'll focus on those two in my reply.   The malnutrition is mostly vitamin deficiencies: folate, vitamin B6, thiamine, and vitamin A. I think it's rather obvious that obvious that consuming more water will not help with those.   As for liver damage, that's caused by several things, among them:   Breakdown of alcohol into acetaldehyde, which damages the liver Free radicals produced during alcohol metabolism leading to inflammation  Production of cytokines from this inflammation  Increase of the passage of toxins produced by bacteria into the liver    These will not be significantly prevented by drinking more water.   Water is good for preventing the short term effects of dehydration that often comes with alcohol intake. It is not enough to prevent the serious effects alcohol can have in the long term.   Sources  Alcohol and the liver  Cirrhosis  Mechanisms of vitamin deficiencies in alcoholism  Risks of alcohol misuse  Health Risks of Alcohol",
        "id": 691,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What nutrients are worth taking for a tendinosis?",
        "body": "There's a paucity of experimental human data on this topic. Rodent studies such as this one http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21117902 show that glucosamine might improve healing and strength of surgically divided tendons. That might be completely irrelevant to humans.",
        "id": 889,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the reason behind doctors giving some medicines after/before the meal?",
        "body": "Simple answer: Because that is just the medication guidelines. Some medications, because of onset of actions, effect of stomach acid, upsetting stomach and other factors need to be taken on or off a full stomach. The doctors know this, because there is evidence based practice proving what works the best. To make sure the meds work best for you it is best to consult your prescriber on how best to take a pill, there are many routes.   NHS.UK showed some common reasons:  To take meds with food:   NSAIDS and Corticosteroids can cause stomach irritation Some HIV medicines (ritonavir, saquinavir and nelfinavir)  Oral diabetic meds are usually taken with foods to lower blood sugar afterwards.   Meds taken after meals:   Nystatin when used orally can be washed away with food. Antiacids can be taken immediately after or before a meal for heartburn.   Meds taken before meals:   Vitamin C absorbs better in a acidic environment so before meals is better.    Graph that shows med times",
        "id": 902,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does one effectively/safely clean-out or wash their belly button to prevent omphalolith-umbolith (navel stones)?",
        "body": "I had never heard of these things and never had them.  I had to find out what they are and came across an article in Volume 21 - Issue 7 - July 2013 edition of The Dermatologist.  The article says that     An omphalolith \u2013 also referred to as an omphalith, omphalokeratolith or umbolith \u2013 is a keratin and sebum containing stone-like mass found in the umbilicus.   Sebum is a light yellow, oily substance secreted by the sebaceous glands that keep the skin and hair moisturised, and as indicated in the Dermatologist article, these solid masses are a result of poor hygiene.  The hair shown in some pictures is hair from the umbilicus.  It is not something the omphalith is growing.  If you shower or have a bath regularly and ensure the umbilicus is clean whilst washing, you should have no problem.",
        "id": 1540,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why HCL does not damage the walls of our stomach?",
        "body": "The stomach is protected by two enzymes, COX 1 and COX 2 (Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2). These are prostaglandin enzymes. From this article on NIH:      ...both COX-1 and COX-2 either alone or in concert contribute to gastric mucosal defence   This is why long term use of COX non-specific NSAIDs can cause severe stomach problems, since they inhibit the production or function of these enzymes. There may be other processes that further protect the stomach from the effects of hydrochloric acid, but I believe these enzymes play the most important roles, especially when one considers the effect caused by inhibiting their function.",
        "id": 2262,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of ARBs on potassium levels",
        "body": "Drug levels rise to reach a steady state in about 4-5 doses. Moreover, occurrence of increased potassium (hyperkalemia) also depends on other factors, especially kidney function. Hyperkalemia is much commoner if kidney function is impaired. Also, if person is on other drugs that cause rise in potassium, hyperkalemia is more likely. These drugs include ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors and spironolactone. These 2 are mentioned here since they are also used for conditions where ARBs may be used, namely heart failure and high blood pressure.   Quoting from 'DRUG INTERACTIONS' part of http://www.drugs.com/pro/losartan.html     As with other drugs that block angiotensin II or its effects,   concomitant use of potassium-sparing diuretics (e.g., spironolactone,   triamterene, amiloride), potassium supplements, or salt substitutes   containing potassium may lead to increases in serum potassium.   The effect on potassium is through blocking effect of aldosterone axis so it is an immediate effect. ",
        "id": 514,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens when a person gets the wind knocked out of them?",
        "body": "Winded (Solar Plexus Syndrome)   Blow to abdomen region Compresses solar plexus or nerves behind stomach Diaphragm contracts and spasms. Which also may explain the rushing out of air.    Yes.It is how you described, but above shows some deeper pathophysiology of the situation.   Based on this link, because you are having a spasm and can't breathe properly for a bit taking a good breath before can help breathlessnessin theory. As for other prevention, I couldn't find anything, but since nerves are involved taking breaths shouldn't have that much affect preventing the situation.",
        "id": 923,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do a follow-up colonoscopy?",
        "body": "If you are not pleased with what the doctor said or you do not trust him, obtain your medical documentation about your case and ask for the second opinion.   Another doctor, in order to be able to give you a proper advice, will need to know the exact type and size of the polyp, was it the only polyp, the first polyp, etc.  Here is an example of guidelines for the screening after a polyp removal:   Colorectal Cancer Screening and Surveillance (American Family Physician, 2015)     Patients with one or two tubular adenomas that are smaller than 10 mm   should have a repeat colonoscopy in five to 10 years. Repeat   colonoscopy at five years is recommended for patients with   nondysplastic serrated polyps that are smaller than 10 mm. Patients   with three to 10 adenomas found during a single colonoscopy, an   adenoma or serrated polyp that is 10 mm or larger, an adenoma with   villous features or high-grade dysplasia, a sessile serrated polyp   with cytologic dysplasia, or a traditional serrated adenoma are at   increased risk of developing advanced neoplasia during surveillance   and should have a repeat colonoscopy in three years.   I don't want to give any suggestion or hint other than: you may want to ask for a second opinion.  EDIT:  When a doctor removes a small polyp from the colon, it is usually adenoma - this is a benign, noncancerous tumor that does not cause any harm. But if you leave such adenoma in the colon intact, it can often develop into a cancer.  Also, once one adenoma is found in your colon, you are at increased risk that another adenoma will appear later and if you give it enough time, it can develop into cancer. I don't know the exact statistics right now.  Stool tests for colorectal cancer are briefly explained on CDC.gov:  \"FIT\" test is basically just more specific test than it is the more known guiac fecal occult blood test (gFOBT).  The \"FIT-DNA\" test (also referred to as the stool DNA test) combines the FIT with a test that detects altered DNA in the stool.",
        "id": 1498,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any downside in consuming mint leaves frequently?",
        "body": "Before the answer I owe you an apology - the Mint family is large, and aside from a large number of species, each has a number of varieties. Different varieties of the same species might have similar chemical composition and pharmacological effects, but look a bit different. The fact is, that I'm not 100% sure from your photo that it is Mentha x piperita that we are talking about (most of my sources state that it has pink flowers; leaves are a shaped a bit differently but this might be because the plant is young); still, it might be. Determining the species is tricky even for professionals in such plant families (I was hoping that you got the name of the plant when you purchased it/got it from someone to plant in your garden).  Nonetheless, I'll try to answer the best I can:    The only contraindications for using Mentha x piperita (Peppermint) leaves or Mentha arvensis pipericans (Japanese Mint) are gallstones, gallbladder obstruction or inflammation - because most members of Mint family have a cholagogic effect (stimulate bile production and excretion) so the patient might experience colic if they use mint leaves, and medical supervision of such use is advisable.  For Peppermint the average daily dosage is 3-6 g/day (PDR) or 4.5 - 9g of the herbal substance, for preparation of herbal tea, divided in three doses (HMPC, EMeA).  Another contraindication listed for Peppermint in monograph at EMeA is heartburn (gastro-oesophageal reflux) because the condition might worsen with the use of peppermint.  Other from these, there are no known health risks associated with the use of these species, in recommended daily doses.  For: Mentha longifolia (English horsemint), Mentha spicata (Spearmint), Mentha aquatica (Wild mint), PDR states:     No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction   with the proper administration of designated therapeutic   dosages.   However, dosages are listed only for M. aquatica as one wineglass per day of infusion prepared from 30g of leaves and 500 ml of water.  Mentha pulegium (Pennyroyal) is associated with hepatotoxicity (prolonged use can damage the liver). However, the plant in your photo doesn't look like M. pulegium to me.     I' recommend taking a sample of your herb to a local botanical garden if possible and asking for help with species determination there, just to be on the safe side. A somewhat less reliable option would be to post the photo of the plant on biology SE and see what they think of it (but determining the species of the plant from a photo is less reliable than with an actual sample).  As for the quantity - I wasn't able to find a reliable source for the number of leaves used, so the safest method might be to measure the quantity you use and see if it fits the recommended doses (or to measure the maximal daily dose and try not to exceed it).    References:   PDR for Herbal Medicines European Medicines Agency Evaluation of Medicines for Human Use - COMMITTEE ON HERBAL MEDICINAL PRODUCTS (HMPC): COMMUNITY HERBAL MONOGRAPH ON MENTHA X PIPERITA L., FOLIUM WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants Volume 2: Folium Menthae Piperitae   ",
        "id": 443,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to make myself sleep on my side?",
        "body": "Just like @Aganju said, you can sew things into your pyjamas so you get uncomfortable when sleeping on your side.   There are belt products like SLUMBERBUMP that prevent you from rolling onto your back.  Another remedy that I've tried was to roll myself into a blanket with a lot of pillows on my back. This prevented my from rolling over at night",
        "id": 1594,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does blood donation reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?",
        "body": "In premenopausal women, the risk of developing atherosclerosis is half that of men.  In 1991, Sullivan proposed the iron hypothesis which attributed this decreased risk to  premenopausal women's lower blood iron levels, and suggested that blood donation may reduce the risk of developing atherosclerosis.  The validity of the hypothesis is still an open question and presenting an analysis of current evidence would be long and inappropriate.    However honing in on the question of randomized clinical trials on the effects of blood donation, a first randomized clinical trial (FeAST) was conducted by Dr. Zacharski et al. in 2007, examining the effects of phlebotomy on the risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with peripheral arterial disease (PAD).  The study found that a reduction in body iron stores did not significantly decrease all-cause mortality or death plus nonfatal myocardial infarction and stroke.  This FeAST trial has several limitations one primarily being that the trial focused on secondary prevention in patients who had existing PAD, rather than focusing on primary prevention as postulated by the iron hypothesis.    Therefore further research is still required before a conclusion can be reached on the validity of the iron hypothesis.",
        "id": 76,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do surgeons wear blue aprons during surgeries?",
        "body": "Initially surgeons did wear white in the operating theater, but there were two large problems with this. Firstly, under the bright lights, the white reflects too much light making an inordinate amount of glare making it difficult to see. Secondly, the white cloth highlighted the red blood which many people found objectionable. As a result, most operating theaters have switched to either a blue or green colored cloth. This reduces the glare and when the red blood gets on it, the cloth appears black.  Some hospitals do identify specialties/departments by different colored scrubs, but this is outside of the operating theater. Inside the theater, most specialties/departments within the same hospital wear the same color. ",
        "id": 2284,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Markings on a 3ml syringe",
        "body": "Minim (unit): Part of the Apothecary system. It is rarely used anymore(some countries and areas still use the apothecary system) and is a alternative to the drop(which was formerly the smallest unit of the apothecary system).     The minim (abbreviated min, \u264f or Mx, a symbol for minim in the   apothecaries' system.svg) is a unit of volume in both the imperial and   US customary systems of measurement. Specifically it is 1\u204460 of a   fluidram1 or 1\u2044480 of a fluid ounce.   40 minim are equal to 2.48 ml. Varying slightly on what kind of calculator you use.   Henke's Med-Math: Dosage Calculation, Preparation and Administration  Since its a Injection you would round the number to the nearest 10th, so 2.46 or 2.48 would become 2.5ml's.   Minim: medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com  There appear to be a few types of the minim. For this, I only chose the calculation for the mimim that plainly said Minim, there appear to be a imperial and US or UK version of the Minim.   Picture courtesy of cwladis.com  ",
        "id": 857,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does sensitivity on teeth heal?",
        "body": "What Causes Sensitive Teeth? - WebmD  Things that cause this usually break down your teeth so that other things reach your pulp or tooth root which cause pain when touched.    Dental cleaning Tooth Grinding  Tooth Decay  Age  Tooth whitening products, etc   So it is wear, as explained here:     You get it when your gums pull back and expose the surface beneath,   called the dentin. This soft layer has thousands of tiny tubes that   lead to the tooth's nerve center (the pulp). They allow the hot, cold,   or sweet food to reach the nerve in your tooth, which kicks off your   pain.   While the above is just one scenario of how it can happen, the way your nerve reacts is not specific to that. Tooth sensitivity can be stopped by several methods depending on circumstance. Flouride can be used to help build the enamel of the tooth back, root canals can be used to eliminate problems in your root canal and are one of the most successful treatments for this. Also, there are grafts which cover the exposed root canal desensitizing root canal by applying resins. Using desensitizing toothpastes also help and preventing further wear of enamel is always on the treatment plan. The reason why sensitive teeth can get better is because the root canal is exposed and recovering enamel or desensitizing the nerve fixes the problem or makes it less sensitive to pain. While in this answer I may have used different terminology the word pulp, root canal and root are referring to the nerve in your teeth.",
        "id": 1103,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tooth decay treatments",
        "body": "Treat the acid reflux if you can.  A Heidelberg test can distinguish between hypochlorhydria (or even achlorhydria) and hyperchlorhydria, both of which cause the symptoms of acid reflux.  If you have been taking acid-reducing medication with only partial symptomatic relief, it may actually be the case that you're producing too little hydrochloric acid rather than too much.  Get fitted for an occlusal guard and wear it while you sleep.  This will protect against the damage caused by tooth grinding.  Obviously, the first and most essential step is to stop the cause of damage, but there are also several proposed methods for accelerating tooth regeneration.  There is some evidence, contrary to traditional belief, the the body can repair its own tooth decay to a certain limited extent, but using something like a calcium chloride mouthwash may be of help with the repair process.",
        "id": 995,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bad Breath Problem",
        "body": "The first question I would ask in response to your question on gum disease is \"Have you spoken with your dentist about the health of your gums?\"  Looking at the NHS webpage on Halitosis, it sounds that most of the possibilities have been ruled out, but not oral hygiene completely.     The most common cause of bad breath is poor oral hygiene. Bacteria that build up on your teeth \u2013 particularly between them \u2013 as well as your tongue and gums, can produce unpleasant-smelling gases. These bacteria are also responsible for gum disease and tooth decay.      If you don't floss and brush your teeth regularly, any food trapped between your teeth will be broken down by the bacteria and may be responsible for bad breath.      Bacteria can also live on the rough surface of your tongue. As well as brushing your teeth, cleaning your tongue can also help control bad breath.   Although you eat healthily, food and drink could still have a role in the problem     Eating strongly flavoured foods, such as garlic, onions and spices, is likely to make your breath smell. Strong-smelling drinks, such as coffee and alcohol, can also cause bad breath.      Bad breath caused by food and drink is usually temporary. It can be avoided by not eating or drinking these types of food and drink too often.   There are other possibilities which you can find out by going to the webpage and going through them.",
        "id": 1669,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In what ways do studies indicate that smoking marijuana is detrimental to long-term health, if any?",
        "body": "This seems like a difficult question as there continues to be a large amount of conflicting reports about the extent of biological    consequences regarding cannabis usage.  However,   There is general consensus that smoking cannabis causes irreversible cognitive impairment in    children and pre-pubescent adolescents. {6} Marijuana smoke has been listed on the California Proposition 65 warning list as a carcinogen since 2009. {7} One should note this is the smoke, not the plant. Cannabis consumption in pregnancy is associated with restrictions in growth of the fetus, miscarriage, and cognitive deficits in offspring. {8} Contrary to common belief, marijuana can be addictive. Research suggests that about 1 in 11 users becomes addicted to marijuana (Anthony, 1994; Lopez-Quintero 2011).This number increases among those who start as teens (to about 17 percent, or 1 in 6) and among people who use marijuana daily (to 25-50 percent) (Hall, 2009a; Hall, 2009b).{9}   Given the above references, there are some points that should be emphasized.   Marijuana use is not associated with elevated cancer risk as shown in preclinical studies.{10} (Separate link to news article here.) [Marijuana does not cause long-term cognitive impairment in users who start after 21 years old.{12} Compared to other substances, marijuana is not very addicting. It is estimated that 32% of tobacco users will become addicted, 23% of heroin users, 17% of cocaine users, and 15% of alcohol users. Cocaine and heroin are more physically harmful and nicotine is much more addictive. It is much harder to quit smoking cigarettes than it is to quit smoking pot.   There are some studies that indicate \"marijuana may increase cravings for other drugs\" and that \"THC exposure increases tobacco\u2019s addictive effects\", which is what leads to the Gateway Drug Theory. This is the theory that marijuana causes an individual to become addicted to other drugs more easily. Although not fully proven, these sources indicate some correlations when tested on mice, meaning people who use marijuana may be more likely to get addicted to cocaine, heroin, and other similar heavily addicting drugs. This sounds frightening except that the majority of people don't try those more dangerous drugs.  Boiling it all down, these sources seem to suggest that marijuana is NOT a carcinogen if you don't smoke it, but does cause mental and physical detriments to anyone still growing. There's a small chance you could get addicted if you use it as a coping mechanism, but statistically speaking, there's a less than 10% chance of getting addicted. Additionally, if you decide to use marijuana, don't try other drugs that could be addictive.",
        "id": 86,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Relationship between biological half-life and duration of action of a drug",
        "body": "The concentration of drugs declines based on a property of the specific drug called pharmacokinetics. Here's a broad-brush strokes overview (more info here):  A drug with zero order kinetics declines linearly. This is often the case if a drug is metabolized by an organ such as the liver. Alcohol has 0-order kinetics. If your blood alcohol level is 0.8 at midnight, it might be 0.6 at 1AM, 0.4 at 2AM, 0.2 at 3AM, and 0.0 at 4AM.  A drug with first order kinetics declines exponentially. This is common in drugs that are excreted from the kidney. Say you have a drug level of 0.8 at midnight. At 1AM it might be 0.4, then 0.2 at 2AM, then 0.1 at 3AM, then 0.05 at 4AM. It will continue to decline exponentially until there is an undetectable amount of drug in the body.  As to your second point (more info here):  Most drugs work based on plasma concentration. Take an antibiotic: if the plasma concentration is too low, it isn't able to have an effect (killing bacteria), simple as that.  Some drugs, however, cause longer-term changes in the body. This is especially common with psychoactive drugs such as SSRIs. The effect of these drugs is to cause the body to produce more receptors to the neurotransmitter serotonin. This takes several weeks to occur, and also takes several weeks (or months) to reverse. In this way, the effect of the drug can be seen long after the drug is stopped.",
        "id": 2109,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it recommended to record the highest peak flow result and not an arithmetic mean average?",
        "body": "Well, PEF (peak expiratory flow) varies thorough the day and it's at its lowest in the morning (which is when patients are usually instructed to take it x3, before their meds), so taking the highest value balances that out a little.   Also, we are measuring PEF i.e. maximum speed of expiration, not average speed of expiration ;) And a patient's personal best (the highest PEF reading they've recorded for a span of 2-3 weeks) is useful for determining asthma zones (green for when a patient's PEF measures 80%-100% of their best value, yellow for 50%-80% &amp; red for &lt;50%), which in turn are needed to make an asthma action plan so that the patient knows when they can treat their symptoms without going to the hospital and when they should. Using the highest reading also gives a little leeway in such cases as \u226480% PEF is not as bad as it could be!  Personal best PEF is also used to determine if a patient's meds need to be changed or the dose increased/reduced, etc.  References:   Reddel HK, Marks GB, Jenkins CR. When can personal best peak flow be determined for asthma action plans? Thorax 2004; 59: 922-4. Asthma action plan. American Lung Association. Bailey W, Gerald L. Peak expiratory flow rate monitoring in asthma. ",
        "id": 2555,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I save road accident victims with my bare hands?",
        "body": "In short, the answer (regarding diseases) is yes.   Anytime you deal with blood or other bodily fluid, you risk catching a variety of diseases. The risk is compounded if you are not wearing proper protective equipment, washing your hands after handling them and covering breaks in skin before handling. Here is a list of the diseases you could end up with as well as a list of other fluids and how exposures can occur.   If you would like to learn more and be able to better assist your patients, you should take first aid classes. Also, if you think that you have a high likelihood of coming in contact with blood or other fluids, you should consider carrying a pair of disposable medical gloves and safety glasses in your vehicle (or backpack... Something that is often with you).  If you live in an area that has fairly prompt ambulance response, you are much better off not trying to take the patients to the hospital. Instead, if it is safe to do so, try to redirect traffic around the patient so that they don't get hit again and try to keep bystanders a few feet back from the incident so that they do not get hit as well. Try to avoid completely stopping traffic as this can effect the emergency vehicle's ability to get to the scene.   Your safety on scene is your priority, if you have the equipment, training to do so and ability to not get hit in the process, you should attempt to provide care to the patients. If any of those factors is not possible, you are much better off trying to keep the patient calm, keep bystanders at a distance - if possible - and try to keep the patient(s) from getting hit again.   I hope this is helpful to you. Please feel free to ask questions if you need clarification. ",
        "id": 1530,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take for a body to get rid of blood clots and bubbles inside a cannula?",
        "body": "First, notice that bubbles are stopped by the drip chamber on the IV, or if there's an infusion pump instead of a drip chamber, the pump itself will detect it and stop the flow.  If there is a small bubble or two in the line after the drip chamber or pump, notice that it doesn't go anywhere. It just sits there and doesn't move with the fluid so it never enters your vein.  If the person administering the IV made the serious mistake of not allowing fluid to fill the entire line before attaching it to you, it would still require a very large volume of air to do you any harm, on the order of 100 ml (an entire syringe full of air). This is because bubbles can't travel from the venous circulation to the arterial circulation where they would be dangerous. They will be trapped by the lungs and then slowly reabsorbed. A huge volume of air could cause a \"vapor lock\" in the right ventricle, which would be dangerous, but small bubbles in an IV are nowhere near enough to do that.  The exception to the above would be in people who have a patent foramen ovale (an opening between the right and left sides of the heart), which could allow air bubbles to pass from right to left. However, a patent foramen ovale is normally covered by a flap of tissue except when you bear down hard. So if you're just laying there in a bed, there is virtually no risk presented to you by air bubbles.  Having a small bubble or two in your venous circulation doesn't make your blood unhealthy or \"bad.\" They're harmless and will be absorbed and disappear within hours.  [Citations to be added]",
        "id": 1431,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Antihypertensive as a treatment for Tourette's. (And Antihypotensive to make blood pressure normal?)",
        "body": "Following paper Tourette\u2019s Disorder. Lyon, G.J., Shprecher, D., Coffey, B. et al. Curr Treat Options Neurol (2010) 12: 274. doi:10.1007/s11940-010-0073-x provides a good (somehow recent) review on Tourette's disorder and its therapeutic management.  Indeed, antihypertensive therapies are considered as potential therapeutic management in TD.     One recent open-label, prospective 8-week study of guanfacine (at an   average dose of 2.0\u2009\u00b1\u20090.6 mg/d) enrolling 25 medication-free   participants (23 males and two females), ages 7\u201316 years, showed a   mean improvement of 27% on the Hyperactivity Index, 32% on the total   score of the teacher-rated ADHD Scale, and 39% on the total tic   severity scale.   As I don't know whether this review in open access or not, here some extracts which may bring some clarifications:     Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists      Drugs in this class have demonstrated efficacy for both tics and ADHD   in randomized clinical trials, so this class is a good first-line   choice for patients with both conditions.      There is class I evidence for efficacy of oral clonidine [3, Class I]. Guanfacine is used in clinical practice with similar efficacy, a   more favorable side effect profile, and more convenient (daily or   twice-daily) dosing.      One class I study has now demonstrated the efficacy of the clonidine   transdermal system (patch) for tic disorders.      Standard dosage      Guanfacine (1 mg tablets) can be started at one half tablet at bedtime   and increased by half a tablet every 3\u20137 days until the maximum dose   of 4 mg per day is reached. Extended-release guanfacine is now   available in nongeneric formulation. For those who fail to tolerate   guanfacine, treatment with clonidine in adults can begin with one half   of a 0.1-mg tablet at bedtime, increasing the dose by half a tablet   every 3\u20137 days until the target dose of one half to one tablet two to   three times a day is reached. The maximum dose is typically 0.4 mg   daily in divided doses. Starting doses for clonidine and guanfacine in   children can be half of adult doses.      Contraindications    Known hypersensitivity to the product.   Following extract adresses your concern about low blood pressure     Main side effects  Both clonidine and guanfacine are associated with sedation, fatigue, and somnolence. Reductions in heart rate and   blood pressure are modest and rarely lead to discontinuation of   treatment.   Obviously according to several studies, the clonidine/guanfacine doses used in TD are not associated with a significant drop in BP. Initiation of the therapy should be undertaken by your treating doctor who will undertake some follow-ups to ensure that you are not suffering from any side-effects. ",
        "id": 1154,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Outcomes after uterine rupture",
        "body": "   What are the outcomes of uterine rupture?   Treatment of uterine rupture is surgical. Goals are stopping the hemorrhage, delivering the baby, and repairing the uterus if possible.   The range of risks is similar to the range of risks of a cesarean delivery (infection, blood loss, thromboembolism, hysterectomy, organ injury, adhesions, extended hospital stay, extended recovery time, risks associated with anesthesia, maternal mortality, fetal injury, fetal respiratory problems, fetal neurological problems, and perinatal death, see Williams Obstetrics). Single center reports vary, due in part to the characteristics of their patient population, so it is difficult to pin down a useful rate for comparison, but generally the risks would seem to be higher. A population level study  in Canada looking at all maternal morbidity from 1991 - 2001, reported 4 total cases of maternal death after uterine rupture in those 10 years, from which we can calculate a risk of 2 per 1,000 uterine ruptures. This is much higher than with cesarean (varies, but, Williams puts it at 2.2 per 100,000, and with a comparable population the risk of maternal mortality after vaginal delivery is 0.2 per 100,000), but the 2010 NIH consensus statement on VBAC states there have been no reported maternal deaths due to uterine rupture, presumably using US data alone.  Other than maternal mortality, the primary risks of uterine rupture are hysterectomy (14-33 percent) and perinatal death (6 percent) (see the NIH consensus statement).  I would note, also, the risk of uterine rupture is reported and probably presented when discussing VBAC, as less than 1%, but the specific risk is highly dependent on specific maternal and uterine characteristics. A classic (vertical) cesarean incision (which is generally not done anymore), for example, carries a higher risk than a low transverse incision, and a poor closure (single-layer) also carries a higher risk. Much of what drives the reported risk of uterine rupture during TOLAC is based on surgical techniques from many decades ago. You can read more about this in the NIH consensus statement I linked to above.",
        "id": 2522,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can ulcer pain be distinguished from gallstone pain?",
        "body": "Even a gastroenterologist may not be able to reliable differentiate between the stomach ulcer and gallstone pain just from history/physical examination.  This is typical (but not obligatory):  Gallstone pain:   Sudden onset of pain in the upper part of the right abdominal quadrant, just below the lowest rib and about 4 inches from the sternal line (or more broadly in the upper right quadrant or in the upper middle abdomen) The pain builds up to a steady level and remains constant and lasts from several minutes to few hours. The pain is typically associated with nausea (or vomiting): when the pain subsides, nausea also subsides. The pain can (not necessary) radiate around the trunk to the lower right back and into the tip of the right shoulder blade. The pain is not relieved by antacids or having a bowel movement. Source: Gallbladder pain (eHealthStar.com)   Stomach ulcer pain: (the ulcer can be in the stomach or duodenum)   Burning, gnawing pain in the upper middle abdomen - below the bottom of the sternum or slightly to the left or right Pain is relieved by antacids (long-term, H2 blockers or PP inhibitors would help). Black stools (from a bleeding ulcer) Nausea or vomiting can be present or not - more likely when the cause is an infection by H. pylori. The stomach area may or may not be tender to touch. Source: Stomach (gastric) ulcer (Patient.info)   NOT typical:   Burping, bloating, gas, constipation and loose stools can be present but are not typical for gallstones or stomach ulcer as such. A large fatty meal can trigger gallstone pain, but the pain can be totally non-related to meals, for example, it can occur at night. The gallbladder area may or may not be tender to touch. In case of acute gallbladder inflammation, a patient could feel pain during an inspiration  when a doctor presses to the gallbladder area (Murphy's sign - short video). Food can either ease or aggravate ulcer pain. Risk factors have some statistical value, but young, slim women and those on a low-fat--or any--diet can get gallstones. Also, non-smokers, non-drinkers and non-NSAIDs users can get an ulcer.     Strong indicators for an ulcer: black stools, pain relieved by antacids, positive H. pylori test  Strong indicators for gallstones: pain in the upper right abdominal quadrant + lower right back + right shoulder blade",
        "id": 511,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can sperm fertilize an egg before reaching full maturity?",
        "body": "Immature sperm are not motile, and thus cannot travel up the Fallopian tubes to cause fertilization. However, all of your sperm are not simultaneously on a 42 day cycle. You have millions of sperm, each at a different stage in the cycle. It is the ones that are fully mature and ready to go that you need to worry about. No substitute for using a condom if you aren't ready to have kids.",
        "id": 1448,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Demodex control with antibiotics: why and how?",
        "body": "The Demodex mite is part of normal skin flora but is often implicated in conditions like rosacea, folliculitis and blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelids).  Erythromycin is an effective treatment. Its mechanism of action is to bind to the 50s subunit of the ribosome (involved in manufacturing proteins in cells) and so inhibits the synthesis of proteins. While humans do not have this 50s ribosomal subunit, other species do, including many bacteria and parasites, so erythromycin can be effective.  This goes for other antibiotics too. For example, metronidazole is used to treat the parasitic bowel infestation giardiasis.    Interestingly, macrolide antibiotics (of which erythromycin is one example), have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and also have a pro-kinetic effect on the stomach; increasing its contractions and speed of emptying. It is sometimes used for this effect alone in conditions like gastric stasis and diabetic gastroparesis, where the stomach is slow to empty. This paper has some more information.    Antibiotics are drugs, and like many drugs can have multiple effects beside their most common use of combating bacterial infections.  However, they still don\u2019t work on viruses like cold and flu! :)    Other sources   British National Formulary - Erythromycin Review of Optometry - Demodex Microbiology Nuts and Bolts - Mighty Mini Mites Wikipedia - Erythromycin ",
        "id": 2440,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is adrenaline a coctail of hormones, rather than one hormone?",
        "body": "Adrenaline = epinephrine.  Different name, same chemical.   \"Adrenergic receptors\" is perhaps where things get more confusing.  That is a family of hormone receptors (\u03b11 \u03b12 \u03b21 \u03b22...) that respond to endogenous hormones including epinephrine and norepinephrine, and medications that are adrenergic agonists.  Colloquially, people might say \"adrenaline\" to encompass all stress hormones, which is suggested by the phrase \"Do it NOW!!! hormones.\"  Stress hormones are not limited to adrenaline (epinephrine) but include multiple families of hormones that are released in response to stress.  I like the way this is phrased in a journal of endocrinology:      In response to stress, the level of various hormones changes.   Reactions to stress are associated with enhanced secretion of a number   of hormones including glucocorticoids, catecholamines, growth hormone   and prolactin, the effect of which is to increase mobilization of   energy sources and adapt the individual to its new circumstance.   Here's a simplified diagram of adrenergic receptors and activity.  I say simplified because there are multiple other steps involved, and it includes many different actions of the chemicals.    E= epinephrine, NE= norepinephrine, DA = dopamine, etc  ",
        "id": 2513,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do exercises for lower back pain concentrate on the abdominal musciles?",
        "body": "Your inner core is where majority of the Chronic LBP research supports working.  Inner Core   Transverse Abdominis  Multifidus  Diaphragm Pelvic Floor       Transverse Abdominis Dysfunction   Numerous studies demonstrated timing and thickness change deficits in subjects with LBP and athletes with groin pain When respiration is challenged, TrA is the first muscle recruited to assist with expiration Activation of TrA is preparatory, normally occurs before activation of primary mover and is not direction dependant.     There's no reason you can't work your glutes - research support this as well:     EMG results demonstrated that subjects with chronic lower back pain had significantly   higher levels of recruitment for the lower and upper gluteus maximus,   hamstrings, and erector spinae muscles during rotation when compared   to the control subjects     Supporting Research:   http://journals.lww.com/spinejournal/Abstract/2006/12150/Low_Back_Pain_Patients_Demonstrate_Increased_Hip.18.aspx https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3806175/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2899579/    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805012/    http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141777 ",
        "id": 1912,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Potato and rice diet to prevent allergic reactions to calm down atopic eczema",
        "body": "I've seen diets like that (often with lamb included) not to prevent allergies but to prevent eating something you are allergic to. The idea is that the person is allergic to a large number of diverse things and is eating something allergenic every day. By wildly restricting the diet, two things will happen.   First, the rash or other symptoms will calm down and heal, the patient's discomfort will be lessened dramatically, and the patient will probably sleep better and become \"healthier\" with the pressure of the symptoms off.  Second, a baseline will be established to which other foods can be added. The patient can add their most important food first (eg everything I make has onions, let's find out if onions make me break out in a rash) or foods they believe are safe based on past experience.   You should never consider doing this without a doctor's support and advice. Over the matter of a week or two, I wouldn't worry about vitamin deficiencies, but discuss with your doctor whether supplements are a good idea. Protein is a bigger thing, so talk to your doctor about why there is no meat in the plan. You will get a little from the rice, but probably not enough. Eggs and dairy are things many people are allergic to, so I can see excluding those, but as I've mentioned the people I know who were put on this diet were typically told to eat lamb as part of it.  It is definitely a short term thing that you can retreat to when you are seemingly reacting to everything and your health feels out of control. Don't assume that anyone who suggests it is a quack. But don't assume that it's a safe way to live your life or that you should keep eating that way once your symptoms have subsided.  Page 25 of this PDF of a talk on elimination diets lists a number of studies on elimination diets in general. It is focused on eliminating things, and doesn't bring the patient down to just two foods, though. ",
        "id": 1226,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any research on brain's processes involved in evil actions?",
        "body": "When you put it that way...      \"...a cerebral circuit of evil...\"   ...no, that is absolutely ridiculous (no offense).   In the human body (and generally in nature) there are only physical and biochemical mechanisms.  All behaviours that are described by the behavioural sciences (e.g. psychology) can be interpreted by biochemical mechanisms. For example, if you suddenly feel threatened then your heart rate will increase and you will feel the urge to either run away or get very aggressive and stay put. That's because a chemical reaction in your brain triggered the fight-or-flight response and cortisol is having a party with adrenaline and all your internal organs are invited.    You won't be a coward if you run away and not evil if you decide to fight... it doesn't matter how you were raised or what you believe in because even if you are a pacifist, you will try to protect yourself if you have to and chemistry is on your side. The same principle applies to everything else, including  aggression which can be influenced by numerous hormones that themselves are influenced by numerous situations and of course genetics.    Biochemical mechanisms and pathways are very complex and they even overlap and interact with each other.  Here's a map of all the metabolic pathways to get an idea.  Now, when it comes to the complex human behaviour, you can imagine how difficult it is to put the pieces together.     Thought is not arbitrary or philosophical, it is pure chemistry! It's   just... not easy to understand, measure, describe, experiment with...   What Are Thoughts Made Of?  So in order to scientifically explain \"evil\" one has to take all knowledge we have on biochemistry and genetics and apply it to human behaviour. That's a very daunting task and concept to grasp, which if you want to do then you should walk in the path of neuropsychology and organic psychiatry while taking up physiology, biochemistry and genetics.  Finally, other keywords you're looking for are obedience and compliance.  The problem with those terms though is that they're a bit abstract when it comes to science. We haven't established any satisfying connection between them and the human brain. ",
        "id": 1789,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does one have to use warm water with water flossers (e.g., Waterpik)?",
        "body": "Comfort factor only.     Chat session started at 9:16:01      Thank you for contacting Waterpik. One of our customer service representatives will be with you in just a moment.      You are now chatting with Aleecia      Aleecia :Thank you for contacting Water Pik, my name is Aleecia. How can I help you today?      Ted:Why is it recommended to use warm water in the flosser?      Ted:\"all you need in your Water Flosser for clinically proven effectiveness is warm water\"      Ted:Where is the study proving the clinical effectiveness?      Aleecia :I would be glad to help answer. We recommend warm water as to not cause unnecessary irritation.      Ted:How is warm water more clinically effective than other temperatures?      Ted:Or is the clinical effectiveness independent of the temperature, and warm water is only recommended for the comfort factor?      Aleecia :The only reason why we recommend using warm water is because it may cause less irritation. Purely a comfort factor. ",
        "id": 2519,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does it mean for a medication to be \"hard for the liver\" or \"hard on the kidneys\"?",
        "body": "\"Hard on the liver or kidneys\" means that the medication is making this organ work harder, damaging it or so potent that the medication is harder to rid from the body.     Thinking about the liver:     It helps clean your blood by getting rid of harmful chemicals that   your body makes   Liver Injury Caused by Drugs     The pathophysiology of DILI varies depending on the drug (or other   hepatotoxin) and, in many cases, is not entirely understood.   Drug-induced injury mechanisms include covalent binding of the drug to   cellular proteins resulting in immune injury, inhibition of cell   metabolic pathways, blockage of cellular transport pumps, induction of   apoptosis, and interference with mitochondrial function.      In general, the following are thought to increase risk of DILI:      Age \u2265 18 yr      Obesity      Pregnancy      Concomitant alcohol consumption      Genetic polymorphisms (increasingly recognized)      Patterns of liver injury DILI can be predictable (when injury usually   occurs shortly after exposure and is dose-related) or unpredictable   (when injury develops after a period of latency and has no relation to   dose). Predictable DILI (commonly, acetaminophen-induced) is a common   cause of acute jaundice and acute liver failure in the US.   Unpredictable DILI is a rare cause of severe liver disease.   Subclinical DILI may be underreported.   DILI stand a for drug induced liver injury. And like the phrase \"Hard on the liver\" the drug doesn't have to lead to immediate damage, but damage over time like from alcohol. There are tests for this to.   Thinking about the kidneys:  Pain meds reduce blood flow to kidneys.   Some meds are harder to excrete so lower doses or no doses are neccesary. This is another meaning of \"Hard on the kidneys\".  Contrast dye      the use of a contrast dye is necessary to enhance these tests, but   sometimes these dyes can either lead to kidney problems, or cause   problems in patients with kidney disease.   Just some background on how meds can be \"hard\" on the body. The term hard is suppose to indicate how it negatively affects the body.   Vitamins:  Taking vitamins doesn't have to be hard on the body.      Taking a vitamin or supplement as directed on the package label is   considered to be safe, but not following directions can lead to   problems.   Vitamins are a needed medicine in everybody. Taking more than is needed is unhealthy and can damage you. However, the recomended amount is healthy for you. Other medicines are harsh chemicals meant to fight powerful disorders so there are side effect. B complex vitamins are usually ok in proper doses, yellow urine is a side effect seen in some peopke. The harm it may do does  not outweigh the good.      Riboflavin is required for the proper development and function of the   skin, lining of the digestive tract, blood cells, and many other parts   of the body.   RDA:     The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily dietary   intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of   nearly all (97 to 98 percent) healthy individuals in a particular   gender and life stage group (life stage considers age and, when   applicable, pregnancy or lactation).   RDA is created so that we know what is best to take for our bodieses not the best solution is to ask the doctor the reasoning behind this and if i without damaging them or causing them deficiency. Sometimes the amount recommended by a company or doctor may not match the RDA, if it is done by the company consulting your doctor on whether the amount is safe. This is because sometimes a doctor may prescribe a higher amount if you are having a deficiency or on a medicine that lowers this level or etc. Taking the amount can hurt you by toxicity, overtime or deficiency so it is best to be safe. You should make sure when measuring amounts you know what is best for you a good rule of thumb is to stay between recommended minimums and maximums, also consulting the doctor or a pharmacist helps to find the amount for you. As the doctor can run test to see your levels in the blood and see what to take for different age, gender or weight groups. This may seem like a wasted visit, but nutrition is important and it can harm you if done wrong. ",
        "id": 999,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why would the following nutritional scenario lead to hunger etc?",
        "body": "10 grams protein is way too little. You need about 46-56g of protein per day to feel full.   From Harvard.edu:  ...\"protein helps you stay full for longer\"... http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/extra-protein-is-a-decent-dietary-choice-but-dont-overdo-it-201305016145  From WebMD: \"Adults in the U.S. are encouraged to get 10% to 35% of their day's calories from protein foods. That's about 46 grams of protein for women, and 56 grams of protein for men.\" http://www.m.webmd.com/diet/features/how-much-protein",
        "id": 1193,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Heartbeat pulse strength vs Alcohol",
        "body": "1) Alcohol dilates the arteries in the skin, which results in lower peripheral resistance (the resistance of the arteries to blood flow). In order to maintain normal blood pressure, the heart needs to beat faster and push out larger amount of blood per beat. This makes you aware of your heart beats more.  Additional explanation:  Relations between alcohol consumption, heart rate, and heart rate variability in men (PubMed Central)     The reason for a positive association between alcohol intake and heart   rate is unclear but possibilities include an increase in sympathetic   activity secondary to vasodilation or increased calcium entering into   cardiac myocytes.   2) Dehydration, which causes a drop of blood volume also results in the increased heart rate. Alcohol is a weak diuretic (it slightly stimulates urine excretion), but dehydration after drinking strong alcoholic beverages is more likely caused by insufficient water drinking during alcohol drinking rather than by alcohol itself. Beer (4 vol%), which contains a lot of water actually hydrates you.  Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (NAP.edu)     ...it appears that the effect of ethanol ingestion on increasing   excretion of water appears to be transient and would not result in   appreciable fluid losses over a 24-hour period. ",
        "id": 1504,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to determine at what percentage an organ is functioning vs. what is expected?",
        "body": "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=errjs0bN0_U  This is the answer to this question. I felt it necessary after so long to post something that explained this for everyone. Please watch, this video is great for med students and is more informative than any text anyone on here can provide.",
        "id": 2015,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you get infections by washing your body with someone else's water?",
        "body": "There are a number of diseases that can be transmitted through saliva. These include:        Rhinovirus (colds)   Flu virus   Epstein-Barr virus (mononucelosis, or mono)   Type 1 herpes (cold sores)   Strep bacteria   Hepatitis B and hepatitis C   Cytomegalovirus (a risk for babies in the womb)      https://health.clevelandclinic.org/2016/06/does-saliva-have-health-risks-3-ways-germs-can-spread/  Note that Ebola may also be in that list.   However, from what you describe I'd say the chances of an infection occurring are low since the saliva will be highly diluted and the person is bathing in it rather than drinking it. But the possibility still exists because water could be splashed in the eyes, nose or mouth, or they could have open sores. Given the severity of some of those diseases, I wouldn't advise the practice.",
        "id": 2078,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Maintain lactase while dairy free",
        "body": "First, let me highly commend your wife.  The WHO recommendation for breastfeeding up to 2yr is not for show.  It really can help prevent a whole slew of problems.  Unfortunately, no there are no ways to maintain lactase production in a prolonged lactose free diet.  She may get extremely luckily and maintain the bacteria that are needed on her own, but she should not attempt to reintroduce dairy into her diet without the go-ahead from your pediatrician (assuming she's still breastfeeding).  In regards to the second question, can lactase production be regained, my answer is not yet but soon.  The textbook and US-FDA approved methods for dealing with lactose intolerance are mostly to avoid dairy and take lactase supplements or tilactase (which will not increase lactase production on their own).  There is, however, a drug currently being studied called RP-G28 (I'm sure they will come up with a nice trade name if it makes it to market).  The results were promising.  Further, there have also been some promising studies with probiotics, in particular Lactobacillus reuteri, as a possible solution.  It has proven difficult to \"re-seed\" the gut with good probiotics that are swallowed, but the solution may lie with going the other direction.    As a small warning, you have to be very careful when you are shopping for probiotics.  It is unfortanitely not well regulated, and the way in which the bacteria are packaged can greatly effect if they are useful or not.  For the most part you are going to want live cultures, and if they are reduced to a pill form, you want them lyophilized not heat treated or dehydrated.  Many times it can be difficult to get this information from the manufacturer, so please be very careful when shopping.  It may be best to ask a medical professional what is available in your markets (including online markets if you have access).",
        "id": 461,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are platelet donations more needed then whole blood?",
        "body": "I don't know if anyone can give a definite answer as to why these folks so badly wanted you to donate platelets over whole blood, but there are many possible reasons.   Platelets give you more bang for your buck. According to the American Red Cross, one session of platelet apheresis can collect enough platelets for one or two transfusions. On the other hand, it can take anywhere from four to six donations of whole blood to get the same amount of platelets. Platelets are always needed, at high rates. The first point is important, because those who use platelets often use them in bulk (some organ transplant patients need up to 30 units worth1 - see a page from University Health System). Platelets have a short shelf life. Blood Centers of America states that even with some processing, platelets need to be transfused within about five days after the donation, meaning that waiting can cause the loss of an entire donation. There is a constant need for refills (for lack of a better word). Even this narrow window has been modified in the past, shrinking or growing (see Sireis et al. (2011)). Platelets are used for cancer patients. The Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center says that patients who are suffering from leukemia or have just had a bone marrow transplant may have low platelet levels. The transfusions can be essential - life-saving. People might not like donation platelets.[Citation needed!] This one is a complete guess on my part, but platelet donation can take a long time, as you said. People are averse to donating blood for many reasons; as you stated, the long donation session for platelets only makes this worse. You've shown that you were willing in the past to go through with this, so the blood donation center probably thinks that you're more likely to do it again.     1 One donation can give about 6-8 -\"units\". See the Johns Hopkins Pathology page on platelets for more information.",
        "id": 258,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to store medicine/supplements in containers",
        "body": "If they're stored in blister packs it may be that this is to control the humidity for the tablets which may be particularly hydroscopic.     PRODUCT INTEGRITY      This same protection improves product integrity and extends its shelf life. Consider that most consumers store their drugs in bathrooms where temperatures and humidity can be harmful to unprotected drugs. Unlike with the use of bottles, which are opened and closed by consumers multiple times, exposure to compromising elements occurs in blisters only when the protective barrier is broken and a single tablet or capsule is dispensed and administered.    You can of course cut the strips into tablet sized and store them in the bottle still blister wrapped.  https://www.ropack.com/2012/05/28/the-four-reasons-for-the-rise-in-blister-packaging/",
        "id": 2446,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is sunlight a Lupus trigger for some? What exactly about the sun often causes Lupus flare-ups?",
        "body": "Very interesting question. Thank you.  The pathophysiology of photosensibility in lupus patients is related to the effect of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) on cells of the immune system. UVR stimulates lymphocytes recruitment and antibody-mediated cytotoxicity, which are involved in the pathogenesis of lupus.  The mechanisms by which ultraviolet-A (UVA) (320\u2013400 nm) and ultraviolet-B (UVB) (290\u2013320 nm) induces photosensibility are however different. Following picture provides a good overview of our current understanding:    Recently, a review written by Kim et al (from which the above figure was taken), addressed the issue of photosensibility in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus. The paper is open-access if you wish to have further information (in particular on the possible treatments):  Kim A, Chong BF. Photosensitivity in Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus. Photodermatology, photoimmunology &amp; photomedicine. 2013;29(1):4-11. doi:10.1111/phpp.12018. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3539182/",
        "id": 1239,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you measure the amount of calories with unlabeled foods?",
        "body": "If you can weigh each part of the meal, then you can look up the calories.  There are many apps for this.  If you can't weigh it, then a guess can still be made on the approximate portion size.  If you're diabetic and need to calculate the carbohydrate load prior to injecting insulin, then you can try asking the chef who should have the nutritional information available.",
        "id": 1999,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can zinc (over)supplementation cause hypocalcemia?",
        "body": "There seems to be no evidence that zinc supplements would cause hypocalcemia in humans.  According to the study Effect of zinc supplements on the intestinal absorption of calcium (PubMed, 1987), calcium and zinc may inhibit each other's absorption:     the high zinc intake decreased the intestinal absorption of calcium   during a low calcium intake but not during a normal calcium intake   But:  Office of Dietary Supplements by NIH.gov does not mention hypocalcemia as a possible side effect of zinc supplements.  Drugs.com does not mention any interaction between zinc and calcium supplements.  Also, the mentioned claim from Wikipedia article lacks any reference.  In rats, zinc supplements can cause acute hypocalcemia (PubMed, 1981), but I'm not aware of any association of this study with humans.",
        "id": 2539,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does cinnamon accelerate metabolism?",
        "body": "Despite being a long known spice and its known role in traditional medicine the modern evidence for health related benefits and detriments of cinnamon are sparse.The NCCIH sums it up with NCCIH Publication No.463: Cinnamon:      Studies done in people don\u2019t support using cinnamon for any health   condition.   Cinnamon is indeed used in the way the OP phrased it, but whether it is really effective remains currently dubious.  Results in Favour of Cinnamon  There are some scientific studies showing very interesting and promising results like:  Improved Insulin Resistance and Lipid Metabolism by Cinnamon Extract through  Activation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors     Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are   transcriptional factors involved in the regulation of insulin   resistance and adipogenesis. Cinnamon, a widely used spice in food   preparation and traditional antidiabetic remedy, is found to activate   PPAR and , resulting in improved insulin resistance, reduced fasted   glucose, FFA, LDL-c, and AST levels in high-caloric diet-induced   obesity (DIO) and  mice in its water extract form. In vitro studies   demonstrate that cinnamon increases the expression of peroxisome   proliferator-activated receptors  and  (PPAR/) and their target genes   such as LPL, CD36, GLUT4, and ACO in 3T3-L1 adipocyte. The   transactivities of both full length and ligand-binding domain (LBD) of   PPAR and PPAR are activated by cinnamon as evidenced by reporter gene   assays. These data suggest that cinnamon in its water extract form can   act as a dual activator of PPAR and , and may be an alternative to   PPAR activator in managing obesity-related diabetes and   hyperlipidemia.   Cinnamon polyphenols regulate multiple metabolic pathways involved in insulin signaling and intestinal lipoprotein metabolism of small intestinal enterocytes     Results    Ex vivo, the cinnamon extract significantly decreased the amount of   apolipoprotein-B48 secretion into the media, inhibited the mRNA   expression of genes of the inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1\u03b2,   interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1, and induced the expression   of the anti-inflammatory gene, Zfp36. CE also increased the mRNA   expression of genes leading to increased insulin sensitivity,   including Ir, Irs1, Irs2, Pi3k, and Akt1, and decreased Pten   expression. CE also inhibited genes associated with increased   cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and apolipoprotein-B48 levels,   including Abcg5, Npc1l1, Cd36, Mttp, and Srebp1c, and facilitated   Abca1 expression. CE also stimulated the phospho-p38 mitogen-activated   protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and   extracellular-signal-regulated kinase expressions determined by flow   cytometry, with no changes in protein levels.       Conclusions   These results demonstrate that the CE regulates genes associated with   insulin sensitivity, inflammation, and cholesterol/lipogenesis   metabolism and the activity of the mitogen-activated protein kinase   signal pathway in intestinal lipoprotein metabolism.   Cinnamon: Potential Role in the Prevention of Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes     Metabolic syndrome is associated with insulin resistance, elevated   glucose and lipids, inflammation, decreased antioxidant activity,   increased weight gain, and increased glycation of proteins. Cinnamon   has been shown to improve all of these variables in in vitro, animal,   and/or human studies. In addition, cinnamon has been shown to   alleviate factors associated with Alzheimer's disease by blocking and   reversing tau formation in vitro and in ischemic stroke by blocking   cell swelling. In vitro studies also show that components of cinnamon   control angiogenesis associated with the proliferation of cancer   cells. Human studies involving control subjects and subjects with   metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and polycystic ovary   syndrome all show beneficial effects of whole cinnamon and/or aqueous   extracts of cinnamon on glucose, insulin, insulin sensitivity, lipids,   antioxidant status, blood pressure, lean body mass, and gastric   emptying. However, not all studies have shown positive effects of   cinnamon, and type and amount of cinnamon, as well as the type of   subjects and drugs subjects are taking, are likely to affect the   response to cinnamon. In summary, components of cinnamon may be   important in the alleviation and prevention of the signs and symptoms   of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular and related   diseases.   Metabolism Accelerator?  The most promising indicators going into the direction of the question's \"metabolism acceleration\" might be found in studies like these:  Cinnamaldehyde induces fat cell-autonomous thermogenesis and metabolic reprogramming:     CA activates thermogenic and metabolic responses in mouse and human primary subcutaneous adipocytes in a cell-autonomous manner, giving a mechanistic explanation for the anti-obesity effects of CA observed previously and further supporting its potential metabolic benefits on humans. Given the wide usage of cinnamon in the food industry, the notion that this popular food additive, instead of a drug, may activate thermogenesis, could ultimately lead to therapeutic strategies against obesity that are much better adhered to by participants.   Inconclusive Results  But trying to gain a systematic view on such a complex substance is quite a challenge. The Cochrane Library  concludes in Cinnamon for diabetes mellitus:     There is insufficient evidence to support the use of cinnamon for type   1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Further trials, which address the   issues of allocation concealment and blinding, are now required. The   inclusion of other important endpoints, such as health-related quality   of life, diabetes complications and costs, is also needed.   Another 2011 Research Summary:     One fairly well-studied supplement used to help hyperglycemia in diabetics is cassia cinnamon. Animal and laboratory studies have indicated that cinnamon may mimic the effects of insulin and make cells more sensitive to insulin (Anderson et al., 2004).   In diabetic patients, some studies have shown a favorable response; some no effect. The most comprehensive review of cinnamon use in diabetics, published in 2008 by the journal Diabetes Care (Baker et al., 2008), found no metabolic benefits to the use of cinnamon by type I or type II diabetics. Specifically, no benefits to fasting blood glucose, lipids, or cholesterol were observed in a meta-analysis of five small clinical trials. [Ronald Ross Watson and Victor R. Preedy: \"Bioactive Food As Dietary Interventions For Diabetes\", Academic Press: San Diego, London, 2013,  p377.]   Whereas an article in Annals of Family Medicine sees it in more positive light:  Cinnamon use in type 2 diabetes: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.     The consumption of cinnamon is associated with a statistically   significant decrease in levels of fasting plasma glucose, total   cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglyceride levels, and an increase in HDL-C   levels; however, no significant effect on hemoglobin A1c was found.   The high degree of heterogeneity may limit the ability to apply these   results to patient care, because the preferred dose and duration of   therapy are unclear.   Summary  Please note that most of the positive results where obtained in beakers and rats, while studies of its effect in humans are mostly either negative, not replicated or inconclusive. Citing a single study that is not a fundamental and large breakthrough is usually a good indication that the newspapers have filled their bogus pipeline.  The effect on metabolic rate seems to be out of focus for the interest in cinnamon and its most promising fields of application as a medicine are directed to diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Whether those sources cited by the OP have any background in valid and reliable scientific evidence seems unlikely. More likely is that they are all examples of 'journalism' (this is meant as an insult) and bad science communication: Taking preliminary findings and blowing them out of proportion, misrepresenting the facts given to them.  Cinnamon in moderation as a spice is nice. If used as an agreeable herb that makes fibrous ingredients more attractive without adding much calories it is superb. If taken as a medicine or supplement it can be quite ineffective and at the same time dangerous. This is especially true if one does not differentiate between cinnamon and cassia. If using large amounts of cinnamon might still be a goal then there are some more things to consider:  How much cinnamon is too much?",
        "id": 1910,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are chlorhexidine mouthwashes safe?",
        "body": "Like almost all products, there are some side effects that come with using chlorhexidine gluconate mouthwash (CGM). Luckily, they are usually very minor and the ones that are more serious are extremely rare. WebMD1 lists some of the common side effects of using CGM, such as teeth and mouth discoloration, taste problems, and an increase of tartar formation in the teeth. There are also more serious side effects that can come from using CGM, but these are mostly allergic reactions to its ingredients and are very rare. The FDA2 has also said that serious allergic allergic reactions can occur from using products with chlorhexidine gluconate.     Anaphylaxis, as well as serious allergic reactions, have been reported during postmarketing use with dental products containing chlorhexidine.   There are studies that agree with the information that WebMD has said. Many of them are older, but the results of them are still reliable. A 1988 study3 testing out the difference between 0.1% and 0.2% CGM. It found that with both there were possible minor side effects like discoloration and loss of taste. The only noticeable difference between the two is that the test subjects preferred the taste of the 0.1% CGM.  There are also two studies from the 1980's4, 5 that suggest that CGM can also cause gingival bleeding. The studies did notice a slight increase in the frequency of gingival bleeding when using CGM as opposed to mechanical oral care.  Though there are side effects that can occur from using CGM, they are most likely not going to be very severe. Also, it is most likely that the benefits of using CGM will outweigh the risks. A 2006 study on both topical chlorhexidine gluconate and CGM6 found that the topical and mouthrinse both helped treat plaque and prevent gingivitis when used properly.  Odds are, your dentist told you to use CGM because of the swelling of your gums, a sign of gingivitis. It is more than likely that the benefits of you using CGM will outweigh the risks. If you really are worried about getting bad side effects from CGM, ask your doctor and try to find out if you are allergic to any of the ingredients.    1: WebMD - Chlorhexidine Gluconate Mouthwash Side Effects  2: PerioChip (chlorhexidine gluconate)  3: Side-effects and patient acceptance of 0.2% versus 0.1% chlorhexidine used as post-operative prophylactic mouthwash  4: Gingival bleeding after chlorhexidine mouthrinses  5: Gingival bleeding after chlorhexidine rinses with or without mechanical oral hygiene  6: The effect of mouthrinses and topical application of chlorhexidine on the development of dental plaque and gingivitis in man  chlorhexidine gluconate  chlorhexidine gluconate oral rinse (Peridex, Periogard, Periochip)",
        "id": 233,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chronic hiccups",
        "body": "To get a proper diagnosis and see if you really suffer from chronic hiccups, you have to see a doctor.  Chronic hiccups can be a symptom of another disorder, so sometimes treatment is based on treating the underlying condition. There are also medicines that can ease very severe cases of chronic hiccups, but they are not the sort of medication you should be taking on your own. If you need medicines, adequate therapy can be prescribed by your physician - which is another good reason for a visit to the doctor's office.  References: Hiccups, Chronic - National Organization for Rare Disorders ",
        "id": 1399,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much brushing time is needed to get a toddler's teeth clean?",
        "body": "WebMD recommends brushing children's teeth for 2 minutes (with different amounts of toothpaste for different age groups).  Dental Health Foundation of Ireland doesn't give recommendations on the length of brushing for children 0-2 years of age, and recommends brushing without toothpaste at that age. For children 2-7 years of age they recommend brushing with toothpaste, for 2-3 minutes. They also say that this is a length of a song, so they basically recommend a distraction technique you are already using. (There is a lack of consensus on-line what is the exact age limit for a child to be considered a toddler).   An aside (more fit for parenting SE): I've browsed through You Tube for teeth-brushing songs and I found many, but honestly none of those would have motivated me to endure teeth brushing. So, perhaps another type of song and different song every night? Maybe one for every day of the week - Monday song (Twinkle twinkle?), Tuesday song... Or telling a story while brushing, such as this one - if you find it age-appropriate. ",
        "id": 429,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would it be better to have fruits on an empty stomach rather after a full meal?",
        "body": "This rumor is common enough that there is even a Snopes article about it.  In essence no, this doesn't help, and is in fact closer to the opposite of the truth.  When eating a meal many more digestive enzymes and processes are started up then when only eating a small amount or say a pill.  This is one of the reason you should always take your multivitamin with or immediately after a meal.  The key factor here is known as gastric emptying, or how quickly the food is going through you.  When it happens quickly, only the nutrients that are easy to absorb (like fats) are obtained.  Eating more food at once (to a point) slows gastric emptying allowing for more complete digestion.  There are two key aspects when looking at the digestion of fruit.  The first, and perhaps obvious, benefit is the absorption of nutrients.  All of the calories, vitamins, etc that one can get out of fruit falls into this category.  The second benefit is that of fiber which can help clear the gut of waste, bowel motility, maintenance of gut flora, and other uses that call for both soluble and non-soluble fibers which fruits are rich in.  A very good review on their benefit can be found here.  But what about when they are mixed together with other things?  When compared to milk and oatmeal, blue berries were found to have a synergistic effect with oatmeal, but milk was found to be inhibitory to both.  If you are willing to take an example with pigs, fruits and vegetables protected against some of the more harmful effects of a high fat and protein diet when eaten at the same time (though this could be because of simple decreases in the fat intake).",
        "id": 205,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I continue fasting if I have diarrhea?",
        "body": "Fasting, at least in Islam, means no water intake during the fast.  The Islamic purpose of not allowing even water is to remind one that one should not take for granted the gifts of life. So, the purpose of the injunction is to remind you, and not to imperil your health.  In the same way that the pillars of Islam have modifiers ( like not going to Mecca if your health is not strong enough ), then it seems clear that one should not fast when one is ill.  And in the specific case of diarrhoea, then fluid loss can lead to hypovolaemia and renal failure.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2380138",
        "id": 1762,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Soda / Pop alternatives to appease desire for super sugary drinks",
        "body": "You have a job that requires concentration. The caffeine and sugar in the soda provide quick concentrated \"brain food\". I am not passing judgement on sugar and caffeine. I eat both of these things myself, but in moderation. So you are asking for alternatives.   Why don't you schedule an appointment with your doctor?  Discuss your situation and family history with your doctor. Also ask the doctor about some longer lasting food/beverage alternatives. The doctor may refer you to a registered dietician for a consultation.   You may have to move away from \"tasty\", because I doubt you are really seeking good taste (super-concentrated taste) in the beverage; what you are probably really seeking is the quick concentration and energy that sugar-caffeine provide.  I have mentioned green tea sweetened with stevia.   You might also discuss with the doctor the bottled water \"Gerolsteiner\". Yes, a form of bottled water!  Remember water?  No, it will not taste as good as soda. :)  I don't know if what I have said constitutes medical advice or not according to the rules of this site.  I am sure the mods will alert or remove if my answer crosses the line. I want to follow the rules here, so if the mods feel that this answer should be removed, then they should feel free to remove it. What you are ideally seeking is hydration and slower burning, but substantial,  foods overall.   P.S. Regarding other preventive measures, see:  \"Our recent human studies indicate that consuming roughly one half of a teaspoon of cinnamon per day or less leads to dramatic improvements in blood sugar, cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides.\"  https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/docs/cinnamon-health-benefits/research/  \"However, not all studies have shown positive effects of cinnamon, and type and amount of cinnamon, as well as the type of subjects and drugs subjects are taking, are likely to affect the response to cinnamon. In summary, components of cinnamon may be important in the alleviation and prevention of the signs and symptoms of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular and related diseases.\"  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901047/  Note:  cinnamon, not cinnamon-sugar!  Type of cinnamon: https://www.google.com/amp/s/amp.peoplespharmacy.com/posts/which-cinnamon-is-better-for-blood-sugar  So getting some cinnamon in the diet could also be something to discuss with your doctor. ",
        "id": 2304,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Homeopathic remedy for low testosterone?",
        "body": "I really recommend you go to a medical doctor for these issues.  I am all about evidence-based alternative medicine, but in general, Homeopathy has very poor evidence for being able to treat most things.  Another Meta-analysis this year of homeopathy have turned up empty on a lot of things.    From Wikipedia referencing this article:     A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the most   reliable evidence did not support the effectiveness of   non-individualized homeopathy. The authors noted that \"the quality of   the body of evidence is low.\"   Its best efficacy is generally due to placebo effect, which may be responsible for its efficacy in ED, as many cases of ED have at least partial psychological etiology. Testosterone is part of your endocrine system, not as likely to respond to homeopathy.  Note that erectile dysfunction in a young man can be herald of early cardiovascular disease.  More reason to get a doctor to see you.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5366148/",
        "id": 1875,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "laser hair reomval and varicose veins",
        "body": "A professional hair removal laser machine doesn't purposely heat up the skin, most machines for hair removal are using a wavelength with a short burst cycle that will heat up the melanin in the hair and use the hair shaft to transfer the heat to damage the hair bulb.  A professional hair removal machine with correct settings shouldn't have any effect on varicose veins. The laser use for varicose veins treatment is more focus and powerful.  The side effect of laser removal:   Dry skin Pigment changes Increase hair grow   http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/laser-hair-removal/basics/risks/prc-20019438",
        "id": 1635,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is PCOS officially diagnosed?",
        "body": "PCOS (polycystic ovary syndrome) is compound entity. It means that if you want to diagnose PCOS, the complaints (less frequent cycles, acne etc.) are not sufficient - you have to prove both the anatomical component (usually with ultrasound to describe the cysts) and the functional component (less frequent menstrual periods, androgen excess as measured by testosterone or similar hormones in the blood) of the disease. In addition to this, the physician can order other tests to exclude other pathologies with similar presentation.  About your case, probably the physician that diagnosed PCOS was convinced by the ultrasound exam (he/she saw the cysts) and by your complaints. Maybe you do not remember, but often physicians in these situations order lab tests for hormones (FSH, LH, testosterone, insulin, blood sugar etc.), so check around for any laboratory findings in your medical documentation. ",
        "id": 1557,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Ibuprofen Safe To Use As A Catch-All First Aid Solution",
        "body": "For every individual situation, one must weigh the risks vs. the benefits. If the potential or actual benefits outweigh the potential or actual risks, and the situation calls for ibuprophen, you take the medication.  If the potential benefits don't outweigh the potential risks, you don't take the medication.  The risks vary from individual to individual and from situation to situation.  There is no blanket answer to your question.  A Review of Quantitative Risk\u2013Benefit Methodologies for Assessing Drug Safety and Efficacy\u2014Report of the ISPOR Risk\u2013Benefit Management Working Group, J. Guo et al, Value in Health, Volume 13, Issue 5, APR 2010",
        "id": 730,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of commuting on health",
        "body": "When studied from a physiological point of view, commuting is generally divided into two categories: active and non-active. The former involves modes of transportation such as walking and bicycling, where the commuter is actively getting exercise. The latter involves modes of transportation such as cars, buses, and trains, where the commuter is getting virtually no exercise.  Many studies compare modes of transportation that fall into different categories; I chose to put them into one or the other based on which mode was focused on more. Other studies focused solely on one type of commuting. If you want to skip the specifics, you can go all the way to the bottom.  Studies on active commuting   Hammer &amp; Chida (2008): Commuting involving walking and bicycling corresponded to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular diseases by approximately 11%. The effect was, for unknown reasons, more pronounced among women than among men. Rojas-Rueda et al. (2011): Bicyclists using a bicycle-sharing program avoided ~12.28 deaths in Barcelona over the course of one year. Some of this came from a reduction in road accidents, while other parts of it came from a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, which reduces air quality in urban areas for commuters. Davison et al. (2008): Children who walk and bicycle to school have, on average, better health than children who take buses or cars to school. Active transport burned 33.2-44.2 kcal per day, assuming a mean travel time for these children at about twenty minutes. Boys were more strongly effected by girls (drastically, in some cases).  Links between different types of commuting and body mass index (BMI) were tenuous at best. However, cardiovascular health was clearly raised among active commuters. Oja et al. (1991): Individuals who walk and bicycle for commuting have better cardiorespiratory health. However, cyclists had better health than walkers. Pucher et al. (2010): Health effects of commuting were studied at the city, county and state levels. Active commuting lead to a greatly lowered risk of obesity and diabetes, while improving overall cardiovascular health. de Hartog et al. (2011): This study took into account the potential for traffic accidents when studying commuting cyclists. It was found that the health gains far outweighed the losses from air pollution and accidents.   Studies on non-active commuting   Nieuwenhuijsen et al. (2007): Particulate matter is abundant many metro systems (London's in particular was studied). While this may not pose a large health threat, it nonetheless may have ill effects. Zuurbier et al. (2010): Levels of exposure to air pollution varied with route, vehicle type, and fuel. Commuters on diesel buses were exposed to higher levels of particles than commuters on electric buses. This is in part because \"self-pollution\" from buses contributes a substantial fraction of all inhaled particles. However, cyclists, too, were exposed to high levels of air pollution. Chan et al. (2002): Transportation modes of subways, air-conditioned buses, non-air-condition buses, and taxis were studied. Commuters in non-air-conditioned buses were exposed to more particles, while commuters in subways were exposed to substantially fewer. Driving time did not seem to effect exposure.   Studies on general commuting   Hansson et al. (2011): The study cites previous studies that have shown commuting to raise stress levels under certain conditions (e.g. long travel times and crowded places). Examples are Evans &amp; Wener (2006) and Evans &amp; Wener (2007). Other, more complicated, effects have been observed, including loss of sleep and an increase in sick leave.  The study itself followed the population of the county of Scania, in southern Sweden. Commuters had been sent surveys that covered a variety of issues, including stress and mental health. Some correlations were found between demographics and modes of transport (which was to be expected), which most likely influenced the results. The authors found that, in general, commuters had worse sleep and lower energy. Mental health did not appear to be related.   However, given that the results were self-reported, only 56% of people responded to the survey, and there were patterns between various demographics and modes of transportation, the results are not conclusive, even given the vast number of individuals studied. Other effects may have had significant impacts. Roberts et al. (2011): Commuting can have negative psychological effects in women, while those same effects are not visible in men. Zuurbier et al. (2011): Commuters using active and passive transport may be exposed to higher levels of particulate matter from air pollution. This may cause low-level respiratory effects. Knibbs et al. (2011): Different modes of transportation for commuters lead to different levels of exposure to particles in the air. From least exposure to most exposure, the results were: bicycle, bus, automobile, rail, walking, and ferry. This shows a significantly higher exposure among walkers than among cyclists, meaning that active transport is not necessarily better than passive transport in this respect.     Summary  Cardiovascular health from exercise and exposure to air pollution are the two main effects of commuting, although commuting may have minor effects on stress and mental health. Cyclists and walkers had much better cardiovascular health than non-active commuters in cars, buses, trains, and subways. This may lead to lower risks of obesity and diabetes.  Exposure to air pollution varied. Commuters using the subways were exposed to different levels of different air particles than aboveground commuters. Commuters in some buses were exposed to high levels of air pollution; however, walkers and cyclists were exposed to high(er) levels in some cases. This exposure can lead to respiratory problems, although this has not yet been studied in great detail.",
        "id": 191,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can one meet 100% of recommended daily intake without consuming too many calories?",
        "body": "I think non-fat plain yogurt has 45% of the RDA for calcium, or you could get 100% from three glasses of milk. I have found magnesium to be a challenge so I supplement magnesium. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/  If you start the day with a fortified American breakfast cereal, you can pick up a lot of vitamins and some minerals in the morning depending on the brand, and the calcium in the milk;  though in my opinion some of the cereals are a little too rich in iron (100%), which depending on what else you eat that day that has iron one can end up with a potentially excessive iron load over time (for men and postmenopausal women). https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-Consumer/  Choline can be a bit of a challenge, three eggs will give you around 440mg (147 to 115 per egg). The adequate intake for men is 550mg in the U.S.  There is no RDA for choline yet, just a recommendation for an adequate intake.  I tend to forget about choline and I have to remind myself to think about it, but choline is one of those nutrients that I recommend people talk to their doctor before they take a supplement (see potential issue with TMAO). Cleveland Heart Lab. http://www.clevelandheartlab.com/blog-category/tmao/  I'm sure I don't get the required nutrients every single day, but at least I try to give it some serious attention, and then I don't worry about it excessively.   P.S. I think people can benefit from researching vitamin D and A on their own. Some people pick up Vitamin D well from the sun, and some don't. . I think there is a role for preformed \"real\" vitamin A in the diet (occasional calf liver, etc.). As far as preformed vitamin A supplements, it is wise to discuss it with a doctor before supplementing. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-Consumer/  Of potential interest to diabetics, \"pre-diabetics\" and their physicians. Vitamin A. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4623591/  This page here contains a lot of information in one place. https://ods.od.nih.gov/Health_Information/Dietary_Reference_Intakes.aspx",
        "id": 2398,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do surgical masks effectively protect me against passive smoking and off-gases from cars?",
        "body": "Keep in mind that surgical masks are designed primarily to protect the patient from the surgical staff, not the other way around. They prevent  aerosols exhaled by the surgeons and nurses from reaching the sterile surgical field, and do very little to filter the air the staff breathes. In order to do that, you need a tight seal on the face with no gaps, and obviously a paper mask can't do that. Much of the air you breath will come in through those gaps and not be filtered at all.  Although they would stop some of the largest suspended particles in air pollution from being inhaled, they would do nothing whatsoever to stop gases such as carbon monoxide, benzene, sulfur dioxide, etc. You would have to wear a self-contained breathing apparatus like scuba divers and firefighters wear to protect against those, which means you'd need to carry an air tank to go with it.  For citations I refer you to an almost identical question on the physics exchange:   https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/68502/can-facial-surgical-mask-effectively-filter-particles-of-smoke-pollution",
        "id": 1510,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How fast and effective does an epi-pen work against a peanut allergy reaction?",
        "body": "Mild case of artistic license.   The effects of epinephrine are rapid and can be dramatic, but they're not long-lasting. EpiPens are only intended as a delaying tactic to buy time for the patient to get to more definitive medical care.   But how much that matters depends on the severity of the reaction. If someone had a relatively mild reaction and used an EpiPen, could they continue to function and recover without medical care? Yes, absolutely, especially if their exposure was limited. EpiPens didn't always exist, after all, and anaphylaxis has never been 100% fatal.  But if the character was portrayed as having a severe, potentially lethal allergy to peanuts and was force-fed handfuls of them, I would expect her to spend days in the hospital, quite possibly in an ICU. She might manage to run or put up a fight for a while, but not for long.  Portraying epinephrine as a magic potion was definitely artistic license.",
        "id": 405,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What kind of doctor or physician do I need to consult for continuous coughing?",
        "body": "Dry cough is most often non-inflammatory. If you had a flu or influenza prior to the beginning of the symptoms, then you might suffer from something post-viral. It is usually self-limiting. (Wikipedia)  The fact that cold air provokes your symptoms might be indicative of asthma. As such, you may need to see a pulmonary specialist. Certainly he/she run some basic tests like a chest x-ray for a starter. Spirometry is also the routine test to be performed.",
        "id": 357,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Caffeine tolerance",
        "body": "The answer is 1-4 days for blood pressure tolerance, and 7-12 days for neurological tolerance (focus, energy) Scientific citations in the Duplicate question here",
        "id": 1797,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does lifting weights inhibit growth for teens and kids?",
        "body": "TL; DR: No, they won't impact growth if practiced within reason, and there is no damage to growth plates from injury.   The medical community and the public in general seems to regard strength training as a general voodoo practice that will \"hurt you\". Fortunately, this has been getting debunked soundly for over a decade now.     Despite earlier concerns regarding the safety and efficacy of youth   strength training, current public health objectives now aim to   increase the number of boys and girls age 6 and older who regularly   participate in physical activities that enhance and maintain muscular   fitness.   The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends strength training for children 8 and up.   Children will tend to play sports much earlier than they can strength train. Those sports and basic calisthenics teach motor control, discipline, and physical prowess. This will provide a great base if you move into supplemental strength training as they become older and can pay attention to training and form elements. In any case, as long as the exercise is age appropriate (Such as don't have your 10 year old squatting 250) and supervised, there shouldn't be an impact.  From there, you have kids who are:   Athletic. Used to spending focused time on physical training. Used to moving their bodies. Used to drills/skills: activities that are not sports themselves, but necessary for helping sports.   Also consider the following two study excerpts:     Experimental training protocols with weights and resistance machines and with supervision and low instructor/participant ratios are relatively safe and do not negatively impact growth and maturation of pre- and early pubertal youth.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/17119361     Numerous studies have demonstrated that with appropriate supervision and precautions, resistance training can be safe and effective for children and adolescents.    and      [Resistance training had] no detrimental effect on linear growth.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/16437017  With all of that, there is the possibility that pushing children in exercise programs without paying attention to rest and nutrition needs could possibly result in growth impairment due to overly high stress levels or malnutrition. However, the basic question of does lifting affect height, the answer is no and it is even recommended.  This was brought together from two excellent answers on the Fitness Stack Exchange site, with thanks to Daniel and to Eric Kaufman.",
        "id": 676,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does giving blood lower blood pressure?",
        "body": "Blood pressure is not significantly affected in the short term. The body has all sorts of homeostatic mechanisms to maintain blood pressure, such as increasing heart rate and constricting blood vessels. However, if these mechanisms are not functioning well (or if someone already has low blood pressure), then it might well reduce.  Interestingly, your haemoglobin (the red oxygen-carrying pigment) level does not reduce immediately, as it is a measure of the concentration. The body replaces the lost fluid more quickly than the haemoglobin, so the level does not reduce until the blood is diluted over the following days (a process called haemodilution). This can have an impact on aerobic exercise.  However, blood pressure is not significantly affected.  This study seems to suggest that repeated blood donation can lower blood pressure, but they conclude that it is just regression toward the mean rather than a real physiological effect:     CONCLUSION: Among individuals who are hypertensive at initial donation, reductions in blood pressure at subsequent donations appear to result from regression to the mean as opposed to a salutary physiologic process. ",
        "id": 2402,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Helicobacter pylori be transmitted through saliva?",
        "body": "The mode of transmission of helicobacter is unknown but studies show that people with helicobacter infections may have it also in their saliva. So, in this study, 75% had helicobacter identified by molecular Probes.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC502720/  This has lead to some people saying that transmission by saliva is common.  https://publichealth.arizona.edu/outreach/health-literacy-awareness/hpylori/transmission",
        "id": 904,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the medications you definitely need to tell your dentist about?",
        "body": "You should provide your dentist with a complete medical history and up to date list of all your medications. For example, endocarditis, inflammation of the lining of the heart, can be triggered by routine dental care. The ADA and AHA have guidelines when antibiotics should be taken prior to dental care. To give you an idea of the complexity, up until a few years ago it was recommended that patients with joint implants take antibiotics prior to dental care.  Drug interactions are another concern and in worse case scenarios you may not be conscious when medical decisions need to be made.",
        "id": 1602,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Foods that inhibit BACE1 protein",
        "body": "An extension trial A Study of Lanabecestat (LY3314814) in Early Alzheimer's Disease Dementia is currently in progress but is not expected to complete until 9/2020.  Other investigational drugs have ceased development. A paper here suggests chitosan polysaccharides have in vitro activity as inhibitors.",
        "id": 2176,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is salt bad for kidneys?",
        "body": "Having kidney stones alone entails a recommendation for low-sodium diet:     Reduce sodium: A high-sodium diet can trigger kidney stones because it increases the amount of calcium in your urine. So a low-sodium diet is recommended for the stone prone. Current guidelines suggest limiting total daily sodium intake to 2,300 mg. If sodium has contributed to kidney stones in the past, try to reduce your daily intake to 1,500 mg. This will also be good for your blood pressure and heart. ",
        "id": 2044,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Epidermolysis bullosa and getting nails done",
        "body": "My wife has RDEB and has occasionally had her nails done (french manicure) without problems.  However you do have to ask them to be a bit more slow and gentle than normal, otherwise it is painful and might cause a blister.  You might want to explain the condition to them so they are aware of why you are asking them to do is more carefully.  It would also depend on whether your hands tend to usually blister or not.  My wife's hands don't tend to blister (and is missing one nail), but if yours do blister it might be a bit more risky.",
        "id": 1595,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ultra Sound Gender Prediction Accuray",
        "body": "Fetal gender determination is suprisingly accurate, according to this study: Accuracy of sonographic fetal gender determination: predictions made by sonographers during routine obstetric ultrasound scans  The results state the following:     Results confirmed 100% accuracy in predictions made after 14 weeks   gestation. The overall success rate in the first trimester group   (11\u201314 weeks) was 75%. When excluding those scans where a prediction   could not be made, success rates increased to 91%.       Results were less accurate for fetuses younger than 12 weeks, with an overall success   rate of 54%. Male fetuses under 13 weeks were more likely to have   gender incorrectly or unable to be assigned. After 13 weeks, success   rates for correctly predicting males exceeded that of female fetuses.      Statistical differences were noted in the success rates of individual   sonographers.   Provided the scan is done after 14 weeks, accuracy is very good, but can vary between sonographers.   Currently in the UK antenatal care schedule, most women will have an initial scan at 8-14 weeks and then an anomaly scan at 18-20 weeks gestation.",
        "id": 1281,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"prognostic significance\" mean exactly?",
        "body": "Although it would be helpful if we knew what sort of pathology report this was, I surmise that it is likely describing analysis of a biopsy or surgically removed tissue specimen from a breast cancer.  In breast cancer, it has long been known that some but not all tumors express hormone receptors, particularly estrogen and progesterone. Although the mechanism is complicated, the basic idea is that estrogen can bind to the cells in the tumor and make it grow faster. For this reason, people with tumors expressing the estrogen receptor are often treated with hormonal therapy that blocks that hormonal stimulation. In pre-menopausal women, this is usually tamoxifen or a related drug, which blocks the receptors directly. In post-menopausal women, a class of drugs called aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole, letrozole, etc.) that block estrogen production are used. The important piece to note is that only tumors that express estrogen receptors respond to this type of hormonal treatment.  Partly because of the availability of these hormonal treatments, and perhaps partly due to the biology of the tumors themselves, breast cancer that expresses estrogen receptors tends to have a better prognosis than estrogen-receptor negative breast cancer. Prognosis can refer to a variety of outcomes; in cancer studies it\u2019s usually either survival or cancer-free survival. Patients with estrogen-receptor positive breast cancer tend to fare better than those with estrogen-receptor negative tumors. Another way of stating that is: the presence of the estrogen-receptor has a favorable prognostic significance.  The pathology report (if I\u2019ve got the context correct!) is saying that most (80%) of the cells in the specimen expressed the estrogen receptor. It then comments that this is known to be a favorable finding.",
        "id": 165,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it or isn't it smart for a healthy individual to perform auto-surgery in removing suspicious skin spots?",
        "body": "The Mayo Clinic published a slideshow aimed at helping people identify possible melanomas. Take a look at it. Do you think you'd be able to successfully differentiate between a melanoma and a benign \"suspicious skin spot\" every single time? Now consider that melanoma is just one of many different types of skin cancer, and that skin cancer is by far the most common type of cancer.1  One particular advantage we have in fighting this type of cancer is that it often comes with a warning sign, the \"suspicious skin spots\" you mention. And this is extraordinarily important in successfully fighting the disease. In 2014, 46% of skin cancer patients in England were diagnosed in stages III or IV, which often means death for the patients. One of the single most crucial factors in whether or not a cancer patient will outlive the cancer is early diagnosis.2  The suggestion of just removing suspicious skin spots as you notice them is thus enormously dangerous, because by the time you notice the spot, you could already have metastatic cancer. Indeed, 52% of non-Hispanic black patients and 26% of Hispanic patients receive an initial diagnosis of advanced stage melanoma, as do 16% of non-Hispanic white patients. Note that it is unclear from the source whether this statistic applies specifically within the general population of the US, the general population of the world, or what have you.3  In a type of cancers so common that an anticipated one in five US residents will get some form of skin cancer at some point in his or her life,4 wouldn't you agree that any step that can improve survival rate as drastically as having a doctor check your suspicious skin spot is most decidedly a step well worth taking?  Sources:   http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/sunanduvexposure/skin-cancer-facts https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/sep/22/cancer-late-diagnosis-half-patients http://www.skincancer.org/skin-cancer-information/skin-cancer-facts https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20231498 ",
        "id": 1489,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do the broken mercury thermometer causes any health problem or poisoning?",
        "body": "The mercury found in a thermometer is elemental mercury. It is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. However, the greatest problem with it is that, apart from ingestion, there can be another route of exposure without noticing. Elemental mercury easily evaporates on room temperature, and these vapours can be inhaled. In this form Hg is liposoluble and is readily absorbed and passes the blood-brain barrier easily. Since main toxic effects of any form of mercury are neuro-toxic ones, this is a major concern.   There is more information about toxicity of various forms of mercury in this Medscape article.  An EPA Toxicity and Exposure Assessment for Children's Health Report on elemental mercury states that:     Elevated levels of elemental mercury or mercury vapor in indoor air can occur as a result of accidental spills and can be lethal to children. Spills have occurred in home and school environments. Attempted clean-up using a vacuum cleaner disperses elemental mercury into the air, and is likely    to increase exposure.   So, yes: exposure to elemental mercury such as the one from a broken thermometer can cause poisoning. It can affect the nervous system, lungs, kidneys... \"Recovery is usually without sequela\" (without permanent consequences), but there have been cases with fatal outcomes. In pregnant women exposure has been associated with an increased rate of stillbirths. ",
        "id": 178,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Cheek bone grow bigger and wider in adulthood when you gain weight?",
        "body": "Excessive calorie intake results in an increase of the body fat tissue but not muscle or bone tissue. Obesity does not make your bones thicker or longer. I don't have any source to back up this, but fat accumulates in fat cells and there are no or very few fat cells in the bone walls.  In adults with acromegaly, which is a hormonal disorder caused by increased production of the growth hormone (usually by a pituitary tumor), cheek bones, some other facial bones and bones in the hands and feet become bigger. Here are some pictures.",
        "id": 2339,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Positive ANA test suggestive of Lupus/SLE, but is 1:160 still ambiguous?",
        "body": "Your doctor may use the term \"possible lupus\" if you meet part, but not all of the diagnostic criteria for lupus [1]. I'm assuming in the remainder of this post that you do not meet criteria for \"probable\" lupus (>= 4 criteria including 1 clinical and 1 immunologic criteria).  A positive ANA is considered 1 immunologic criteria for the diagnosis of lupus. The general expert consensus is that to be considered \"possible lupus,\" you need at least one criteria plus at least two other features that may be associated for, but are not specific for SLE [1]. These may include (along with some associated symptoms):   Optic neuritis (loss of vision, blurry vision, loss of color perception) Aseptic meningitis (stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, headache, abnormal lumbar puncture) Glomerular hematuria (blood and protein in urine seen under microscope) Pneumonitis, pulmonary hemorrhage, or pulmonary hypertension, interstitial lung disease (shortness of breath, coughing up blood, abnormal pulmonary function tests, abnormal chest CT scan, abnormal heart echo) Myocarditis (chest pain, shortness of breath, abnormal heart echo), verrucous endocarditis (complex manifestations, diagnosed on heart echo) Abdominal vasculitis (may manifest as severe acute attacks of abdominal pain) Raynaud phenomenon (fingers or toes becoming vividly white when exposed to cold)   Note that all of these symptoms are extremely non-specific and all have causes that are much more common than those listed above, e.g. the overwhelming majority of patients with headaches and abdominal pain and shortness of breath do not have lupus, since those are all symptoms commonly experienced by the general population.  To answer your questions: yes, \"borderline lupus\" (possible lupus) is a real thing. Further tests to rule out probable lupus would include a complete physical exam; complete blood count; urinalysis; anti-DNA, anti-Smith, and antiphospholipid antibodies; complement levels; and a direct Coombs test.   Patients with \"possible lupus\" may or may not progress to eventually have \"probable lupus.\" Your doctor may discuss potential treatment strategies to prevent progression depending on your symptoms and the rest of your evaluation.",
        "id": 1303,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can contagious disease transmitted via sharing things?",
        "body": "HIV will not transmit via sharing things. Except for occasions, such as sharing syringe needles, sharing unmaintained medical equipment.  HIV doesn't always survive in dry blood. (see this AIDS Map article)  Hepatitis does (See this also). So avoid any blood possible. Hepatitis can survive outside human body for up to 7 days. They are tough bugs. They transmit via blood and body fluids  Herpes does transmit via object, but it will not transmit if you touch it by hand. However they will transmit via mouth and genital parts.",
        "id": 1403,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the most effective thing that has worked for you in getting rid of acne (any kind)?",
        "body": "Natural pearl powder has done wonders for me. My skin has cleared up and gotten brighter. It can be taken topically or ingested. ",
        "id": 1576,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the meaning of doubling of bioavailability?",
        "body": "1. Measure blood concentration over time through IV administration  First you need to administer a drug in a manner that has 100% bioavailability, or completely enters the systemic circulation. This is achieved through intravenous (IV) administration of the drug. One then measures the plasma concentration of the drug over time to derive what's called Area Under the Curve (AUC).  2. Measure blood concentration over time through different route of administration  Next, you administer the drug, but through a different route of administration e.g. orally, sublingually, rectally, intramuscular... whatever. Like before, you measure the plasma concentration of the drug over time to derive another AUC. You then compare the AUC for this route of administration and the AUC for when it has 100% bioavailability. The ratio of the AUC relative to the AUC with 100% bioavailability will allow you to calculate the bioavailability of the route in question.      Although effective orally, methyltestosterone is more effective by these parenteral routes, which are said to approximately double its bioavailability.   These are the AUCs for 10 mg sublingual (Left) versus 25 mg oral (Right) methyltestosterone:    Essentially, it's stating that for the same dose, sublingual administration will result in roughly twice the AUC of oral administration.  From: Alkalay et al.(1973). Sublingual and Oral Administration of Methyltestosterone. A Comparison of Drug Bioavailability. Journal Of Clinical Pharmacology And New Drugs, 13, 142-151. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1552-4604.1973.tb00075.x ",
        "id": 2549,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"Primary Purpose: Treatment\" mean in a clinical study?",
        "body": "Your interpretation is basically correct.  The formal definition is:  https://prsinfo.clinicaltrials.gov/definitions.html#IntPurpose     Primary Purpose *\u00a7 Definition: The main objective of the   intervention(s) being evaluated by the clinical trial. Select one.         Treatment: One or more interventions are being evaluated for treating a disease, syndrome, or condition.      The other choices are:        Prevention: One or more interventions are being assessed for preventing the development of a specific disease or health condition.   Diagnostic: One or more interventions are being evaluated for identifying a disease or health condition.   Supportive Care: One or more interventions are evaluated for maximizing comfort, minimizing side effects, or mitigating against a   decline in the participant's health or function.   Screening: One or more interventions are assessed or examined for identifying a condition, or risk factors for a condition, in people   who are not yet known to have the condition or risk factor.   Health Services Research: One or more interventions for evaluating the delivery, processes, management, organization, or financing of   healthcare.   Basic Science: One or more interventions for examining the basic mechanism of action (for example, physiology or biomechanics of an   intervention).   Device Feasibility: An intervention of a device product is being evaluated in a small clinical trial (generally fewer than 10   participants) to determine the feasibility of the product; or a   clinical trial to test a prototype device for feasibility and not   health outcomes. Such studies are conducted to confirm the design and   operating specifications of a device before beginning a full clinical   trial.   Other: None of the other options applies.    ",
        "id": 1813,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Decisions about anticoagulation in atrial fibrillation: how to factor in thrombocytopenia?",
        "body": "There are a number of indices used to assess bleeding risk      Bleeding risk scores to quantify hemorrhage risk include HAS-BLED (Hypertension, Abnormal renal/liver function, Stroke, Bleeding history or predisposition, Labile INR, Elderly, Drugs/alcohol concomitantly), RIETE (Computerized Registry of Patients With Venous Thromboembolism), HEMORR2HAGES (Hepatic or Renal Disease, Ethanol Abuse, Malignancy, Older Age, Reduced Platelet Count or Function, Rebleeding, Hypertension, Anemia, Genetic Factors, Excessive Fall Risk and Stroke), and ATRIA (Anticoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation) (206-208).    but at present ( 2014 )      Although these scores may be helpful in defining patients at elevated bleeding risk, their clinical utility is insufficient for use as evidence for the recommendations in this guideline. [2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation]   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4676081/  However, there are some guidelines for oncology patients though they are old (2007)    American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline: recommendations for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer.  So, your only recourse is to seek local expert opinion in non-oncology patients.",
        "id": 824,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to test for anomalous color vision on common screens?",
        "body": "Yes, is is possible to test for it, but with some very severe limitations for most classical tests, like Ishihara plates.  If you go to the Wikipedia page for Ishihara test you may see a demonstration of effects that will or will not apply to your personal type of vision. This gets all the more striking if you show those pictures (preferably all the plates of this test) to a person with known one type of known Daltonism.  But this is exactly limited by what your initial thoughts indicate. Go for example to Color vision test, do the test with your standard screen, repeat the test with a known \"bad screen\". The test has a nice design but even people with some quite severe deficiencies can \"beat it\", all the more easier with bad screens, it they change the viewing angle (look from the side, tilt the screen).     The future of color vision testing   Today in our digital world one might think, why don\u2019t we have some simple computer based color blindness test. Unfortunately this is not as simple as it looks like. There are two main problems:         Computers displays just make use of three main colors red, green and blue (RGB). Every other color gets mixed from those three colors. The anomaloscope and lantern tests use different light sources which can\u2019t be simulated by a display.   Every computer display has a different color range it covers, little differences in light sources, different brightness and more. This causes different test results. Only calibrated computers can be used to perform such computer based tests.         The City University in London developed a computer based color vision test which is also based on the same principal as pseudoisochromatic plates and arrangement tests. The main difference is that the colors are constantly changing which gives some really good results. Just recently they used their test to check color vision in pilot candidates and it looks like as the Color Assessment &amp; Diagnosis Test (CAD Test) could become a standard screening instrument for color vision testing. At least for certain professions, where color vision is critical but people with a mild form of color vision still perform perfectly.            City University of London: A new web-based colour vision test      The web version of this test will run on a variety of monitors balanced for different phases of daylight. The movie was however prepared and will run best on a monitor balanced for ~9000K. This is usually the default factory setting for most colour monitors. The spectral characteristics of the pattern will be affected by ambient illumination and therefore this should be kept to a minimum (i.e., use the monitor in a dark room).     Note that even though the above test was developed specifically \"for the web\" only gives you a rough indication of \"problems\" with colour vision. Aside from the problems mentioned in the quotes above, accurate colour is something very hard to buy hardware for. If they are even capable of displaying more than a compartively small subset of the full spectrum, most modern screens are tuned for 'pop' and not realistic colour reproduction:     If you walk into a Walmart, Best Buy, or any major TV retailer, all of the TVs are showing identical videos, but their colors will be noticeably (to obnoxiously) different on every TV on the wall \u2013 even in Best Buy\u2019s high-end Magnolia showrooms. Why is that? One reason is that the TV picture controls have been played with \u2013 but this would still be true even with factory fresh TVs right out of the box. It\u2019s also true with Smartphones and Tablets that as a rule don\u2019t provide any color controls, which is probably better because visual tweaking generally makes matters worse. And that is exactly the root cause of the problem that originates right at the factory \u2013 the displays are not individually fully adjusted and calibrated with instruments, and instead depend on visually tweaking at some point during manufacturing. ",
        "id": 2574,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Skin receptors on finger tip",
        "body": "I'll assume you're only asking about mechanoreceptors, else it gets too murky.   Humans have four types of mechanoreceptors.    Meissner corpuscle, innervated by RA1 (rapidly adapting type 1) nerve fibers. There are 2 of the fibers per square millimeter in the monkey finger (my source does not list it for humans), with 10 to 20 Meissner corpuscles per axon, so 1000 to 2000 per square centimeter.  Merkel cell, at the end of SA1 (slowly adapting type 1) nerve fibres. I did not find a source for the adult human, but Kandell says that RA1 fibres are the \"most numerous\". So 2000 would be the upper limit for Merkel cells too. But here it gets complicated, because the actual mechanoreceptor is not a single Merkel cell, but a cluster of them.  and 4., Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings (corresponding to RA2 and SA2 fibres) are much rarer. The whole hand has 2400 Pacinian corpuscles in the young and 300 in the elderly. Both of them only have one receptor per nerve fibre.    Given this information, 2500 is certainly in the right ballpark. I would trust that number.   Note that this doesn't mean that you can sense 2500 separate locations of pressure in a square centimeter of fingertip. The different mechanoreceptors sense different types and frequency of pressure, and the sensory fields overlap even within a single type of receptor.      Kandel, Eric R., James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell, eds. Principles of neural science. Vol. 4. New York: McGraw-hill, 2000. ",
        "id": 815,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can ear cancer occur?",
        "body": "Yes, there is ear cancer, both middle / inner ear and outer ear. See Cancer of the ear.   Most of these are types of skin cancer.     The most common type of cancer of the ear is squamous cell carcinomas. Other types of cancer affecting the outer ear include:         basal cell cancer   melanoma      P.S. There are also heart cancers.",
        "id": 2089,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do shin injuries heal slower than similar injuries on other parts of the body?",
        "body": "It is commonly known by plastic surgeons etc that the close association of skin and bone in the shin area leads to poor healing.  Anatomical studies suggest that this is caused by the comparative lack of deep perforating vessels.  https://www.jprasurg.com/article/0007-1226(81)90061-8/pdf",
        "id": 2434,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Crohn's or Koch's disease",
        "body": "The doctor should be able to differentiate between these two diseases.  Crohn's:   GI inflammatory disease Diagnosed through blood tests and/or stool sample and/or GI procedures (colonoscopy, endoscopy..) Symptoms related to the GI tract - abdominal pain, diarrhea Treatment options include: anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics such as cipro   From WebMD: \"Antibiotics may be used in addition to other medications or when infection is a concern, such as with perianal Crohn's disease. However, there's no strong evidence that antibiotics are effective for Crohn's disease.\"  Koch's/tuberculosis:   Bacterial infection mainly in the lungs Diagnosed through TB skin test and/or chest x-ray Symptoms include chronic cough over 3+ weeks, fever, night sweats Treatment: common antibiotic medications include isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, pyrazinamide   Both diseases do include weight loss as a possible sign/symptom. But associated symptoms should help determine the diagnosis.  ON ANTIBIOTICS: Prescription of antibiotics depends on the type of bacteria of concern. Some antibiotics, such as those for tuberculosis, are specific for a type of bacteria. In theory, if you are taking two antibiotics that target different types of bacteria, then that should be okay, obviously if under medical advice. The main concern is that complications may arise: possibly more side effects, but in particular, inappropriate use of antibiotics may disrupt the balance of good bacteria in your intestines and may lead to emergence of pathogens. Consequently, your immune system is affected, because your intestines act as a barrier. ",
        "id": 1218,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it a good idea to replace Sodium Chloride (NaCl) with Potassium Chloride (KCl) for everyday consumption?",
        "body": "From the context of your question I would say no.  Increasing K+ intake is alright but completely eliminating Na+ from the diet would be a bad idea.  In terms of the cardiovascular diseases like high blood pressure associated with high NaCl intake,cutting down NaCl from the diet(that is making the food less saltier) or increasing the dietary intake of K+ through K+ rich fruits or vegetables could prove to be extremely useful but replacing NaCl with KCl without recommendation could cause side effects.  As we are aware that hypokalemia (low K+ in the blood)  increases the risk but hyperkalemia (high K+ in the blood) too can cause the same. Source  Why some salt substitutes are considered good  Salt substitutes having high quantities of K+ in the form of KCl and KI and little amount of Na+ are considered to be better than having only KCl as the main component.The former donot help to eliminate Na+ from the diet but helps to maintain a high proportion of K+ to a low proportion of Na+ also they are a source of iodine.  Source  Reasons why the dietary recommendation for K+ is higher than Na+  The kidneys are very sensitive to high K+ in the blood and ECF  thus efficiently excrete them.  Why not everybody should  have a salt substitute.  People with renal disorders, hyperglycemia, neural disorders should be on a diet strictly prescribed by their physicians. This is because renal disorders and hyperglycemia renders slight hyperkalimia. The nervous system relies totally on the balanced levels of K+ and Na+. Source     \"...People with kidney failure, heart failure, or diabetes should not use salt substitutes without medical advice. A manufacturer, LoSalt, has issued an advisory statement[6] that people taking the following prescription drugs should not use a salt substitute:amiloride, triamterene, Dytac, captopril&amp; other angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, spironolactone, andeplerenone...\"   Further reading  NCBI  Dietary sources should prove to be a more better approach to increase K+ intake in a non-prescribed otherwise healthy indivitual.They include:     \"... All meats (red meat and chicken) and fish such as salmon, cod, flounder, and sardines are good sources of potassium. Soy products and veggie burgers are also good sources of potassium.Vegetables including broccoli, peas, lima beans, tomatoes, potatoes (especially their skins), sweet potatoes, and winter squash are all good sources of potassium.Fruits that contain significant amounts of potassium include citrus fruits, cantaloupe, bananas, kiwi, prunes, and apricots. Dried apricots contain more potassium than fresh apricots.Milk, yogurt, and nuts are also excellent sources of potassium...\"   Source ",
        "id": 1819,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My allergy-caused stuffy nose goes away when I exercise. Why?",
        "body": "Apparently exercise causes your nasal membranes to constrict helping you breathe easier. After you exercise the effects wear off and the symptoms return.     Membranes in the nose have an abundant supply of arteries, veins, and   capillaries, which have the ability to expand and constrict. Normally   these blood vessels are in a half-constricted or half-open state. But   when a person exercises vigorously, hormone (adrenaline) levels   increase. Adrenaline causes constriction of the nasal membranes so   that the air passages open up and the person breathes freely.      The opposite takes place when an allergic attack or a cold develops.   During a cold, blood vessels expand, membranes become congested, and   the nose becomes stuffy, or blocked.      In addition to allergies and infections, certain circumstances can   cause nasal blood vessels to expand, leading to vasomotor rhinitis.   fitnessandwellnessnews.com, also make a valid argument. However, there's pertains less to the situation.     Exercise can temporarily relieve nasal congestion. The increase in   circulation clears sinus pressure and allows for easier breathing. An   aerobic workout is especially successful in clearing congestion with   its cardio focus. Although you may want to blend in with the bedding,   movement provides the best relief.  A stuffed nose is worse when lying   down. Sinuses don\u2019t have gravity working with them to drain cavities   blocked by mucus. Sinus congestion is also loosened by increased   temperature in the body\u2019s core. A runny nose may ensue, which,   although annoying, relieves sinus pressure and stuffiness. ",
        "id": 974,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this nutritional information wrong?",
        "body": "Yes, it is a typo. 100 g of this wrap has 161 Kcal:   Fat contributes 9 Kcal x 4.3 g = 39 Kcal Protein contributes 4 Kcal x 12.3 g = 49 Kcal Because there are 161 Kcal in total, the remaining 73 Kcal needs to come from 18.25 g of carbohydrate (4 Kcal/g).   (Fat = 9 Kcal/g, protein and carbohydrate = 4 Kcal/g)",
        "id": 2293,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Am I overweight? Bad self image...?",
        "body": "No, you are not overweight at all, and whoever told you it was a good idea to even consider a \"diet\" was very mistaken. Don't listen to them.  At 120 pounds and 5'5\", your Body Mass Index is 20.0, which is about the middle of the normal range -- an excellent place to be.     BMI Categories:      Underweight = &lt;18.5      Normal weight = 18.5\u201324.9      Overweight = 25\u201329.9      Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater   The fact that you're running 35 miles a week tells me you're in no danger of slipping into being overweight anytime soon. And of course you love carbs! Everyone loves carbs, but you can afford to enjoy them, so don't worry about it as long as you stay away from soft drinks and crap fast food.  In fact, as an athlete, you need carbs. Running 6 miles a day requires a significant amount of energy, and carbs are generally the best way of supplying that before and during your runs. Carbs before/during and protein after is usually the best approach. The carbs supply immediate energy for the run, and the protein after supplies the materials your body needs to build muscle.",
        "id": 1329,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is fecal occult blood test (EZ Detect) effective if urine is in the toilet bowl?",
        "body": "After doing some research on the issue, including contacting the company \"Biomerica\" and finding on the Internet the \"Physician's Instruction Pamphlet\" I did find that urine does affect such tests.  The mentioned pamphlet states: 1) Urinate first and then flush the toilet; 2) Have a bowel movement; 3) carefully drop a test tissue into the toilet bowl, etc.  Thus, Biomerica is adament that for the test to be reasonably accurate urine should be absent from the toilet bowl.  They also confirmed the same by email.    One should keep in mind that even if you take all those precautions you should understand that such tests are not \"accurate\" especially when they are positive.  This is due to such tests having a rather low sensitivity (true positive rate) combined with a disease that has a fairly low prevalence rate.  Quoting Wikipedia on fecal occult blood test with a positive result: \"about 2-10% have cancer, while 20%-30% have adenomas.\"  Depending on one's circumstances those statistics can vary (age, sex) and increase a bit.  But, still a positive test result still leaves one much more likely to be free of colon cancer.  It is just an information piece that may suggest further test investigation may be warranted (colonoscopy, etc.).    In view of the above, following Biomerica's instructions I would not consider a positive test result with urine in the bowl as counting as a true positive test.  Instead, I would continue testing with the remaining test tissues and make sure I follow the appropriate protocol as indicated above.  If one would feel they did not have enough remaining test tissues, I would just get another set and re-test again.  If the individual does test negative three times in a row that should give her much comfort.  The test is far more accurate on \"negatives\" vs. \"positives\" because the test's specificity (true negative rate) is much above its sensitivity (true positive rate).     ",
        "id": 741,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is injected into the IV to wake a patient up from general anesthesia?",
        "body": "   I do know that something can be injected into a patient's IV to wake them up immediately from general anaesthesia.   That's not how it works.   Many anaesthetics only work for minutes at best. A normal dosage of propofol would have to be renewed every 5-10 minutes. To \"wake\" you from general anaesthesia, they just stop administering anaesthetic agents.     The duration of action of intravenous induction agents is generally 5 to 10 minutes, after which spontaneous recovery of consciousness will occur. In order to prolong unconsciousness for the required duration (usually the duration of surgery), anaesthesia must be maintained. This is achieved by allowing the patient to breathe a carefully controlled mixture of oxygen, sometimes nitrous oxide, and a volatile anaesthetic agent, or by administering medication (usually propofol) through an intravenous catheter. Inhaled agents are frequently supplemented by intravenous anaesthetics, such as opioids (usually fentanyl or a fentanyl derivative) and sedatives (usually propofol or midazolam). With propofol-based anaesthetics, however, supplementation by inhalation agents is not required.      At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (usually within 1 to 30 minutes, depending on the duration of surgery).      Source: Wikipedia.org   It mostly depends on the skill of your anaesthetist how deep the general anaesthesia was, and when they stopped administering anaesthetics. This is mostly a timing issue, and has little to nothing to do with different nations. Regarding the \"they were expecting me to wake up\", there are certain hints: Patients start to move more, the gagging reflex kicks in, heart rate slowly rises, they react to pain and so on. With a bit of experience, the nurses can tell when you're about to wake up.   As to my knowledge, there is no medication that can reverse general anaesthesia, but they experiment with Ritalin in rats.    Regarding the duration of action for anaesthetics: For barbiturates (midazolam, lorazepam, diazepam) it is 5-10 minutes:     the short-acting agents have a rapid distribution, and thus a short duration of action of 5\u201310 minutes following a single bolus dose. If a more prolonged sedative effect is needed, a continuous infusion of these agents is required to maintain plasma concentrations      Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3227310/   For N2O. the duration of action is likewise low:     N2O has a rapid onset of action, is relatively easy to use and is inexpensive. It provides amnesia, sedation and analgesia. Its effects dissipate rapidly when administration is discontinued.      Source: ibid   Propofol has a half life of 1-3 minutes:     As with other rapidly acting intravenous anesthetic agents, the half-time of the blood-brain equilibration is approximately 1 minute to 3 minutes, accounting for the rate of induction of anesthesia      Source: FDA   Fentanyl and remifentanil also have a half life of around 9 minutes:     Remifentanil is an ultra-short-acting opioid that is rapidly metabolized in the plasma and tissue by nonspecific esterases to an inactive metabolite. It has a very brief elimination half-life with a context-sensitive half-life of only 9 minutes, independent of the duration of infusion.      Source: McEwan, Angus: A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children (Fourth Edition). CHAPTER 15 - Anesthesia for Children Undergoing Heart Surgery. 2009 ",
        "id": 2469,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What causes the cornea to change shape in astigmatism?",
        "body": "   The specific cause of astigmatism is unknown. It can be hereditary and is usually present from birth. It can decrease or increase over time. - American Optometric Association   You might've had it since birth but without noticeable defect and has progressed rapidly enough to produce a defect in your vision during your early 20's.  Other factors that would affect the development and progression of astigmatism would be ethnicity, the presence of myopia, axis, and subtype of astigmatism.  - Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science Journals",
        "id": 613,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is treating hepatic vein injuries so difficult?",
        "body": "The part of the question about passive euthanasia is an ethical question, which in my opinion does not fit for Health.SE.     From INJURY SEVERITY SCORING:       a Hepatic avulsion, which is given with vein has ruptured from vena cava, has an ABBREVIATED INJURY SCALE of 6 which would count as unsurvivable.   Problems with the surgical treatment are in addition to the high blood loss:          Venous walls are very delicate, so that a sewing, especially at irregular torn ends, is difficult.    Ingress of air into open veins may result in pulmonary embolism.    Disrupted blood flow can lead to the formation of thrombi which can also end in a pulmonary embolism or can lead to congestion of the arterial inflow in the liver and thus to liver failure or further bleeding.     ",
        "id": 2040,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the earliest symptoms that can tell you it's HPS (Hantavirus Pulmonary Disease) or Flu?",
        "body": "In short: You cannot reliably differentiate between Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and flu from symptoms alone.  Facts About Hantaviruses (CDC.gov):     Usually, people do not have a runny nose, sore throat, or a rash.   Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome in Pregnancy (Clinical Infectious Diseases), case review:     She also noted watery eyes, a runny nose, and a sore throat.   Initial flu symptoms usually have a sudden onset and include high fever and headache (but: fever can be not so high and headache can be mild). Other or later symptoms include muscle pain, dry cough, severe fatigue or nausea.  Some considerations: You get flu from another person, not from rats; incubation period (time from exposure to infection) is few days; in Northern hemisphere, the season is roughly October to March. Source: Difference between cold and flu (Ehealthstar.com)  Initial symptoms of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome are fatigue, fever and muscle aches. Other early symptoms can include headache, nausea, diarrhea and abdominal pain. Late symptoms can include cough and shortness of breath. Source: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (CDC.gov)  Consideration: Hantavirus spreads year round but mainly in spring and summer, by inhaling aerosols from rat droppings in farms; incubation period is considered to be 1-5 weeks... Source: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome --- United States: Updated Recommendations for Risk Reduction (CDC.gov)  So, symptoms are almost the same. Influenza without complications does not affect lungs to such extent that would cause shortness of breath. In individuals with weak immunity, influenza can turn into viral pneumonia, which can cause shortness of breath, though. On the other hand, shortness of breath is one of the late symptoms of Hantavirus infection.",
        "id": 797,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Treatment for mild Tourette syndrome",
        "body": "Current treatments for Tourette syndrome (drugs like dopamine receptor antagonists, which are the reference treatment, excepted) include:   Psychotherapy/behaviour therapy/habit training Deep brain stimulation (for severe cases, so not really applicable here) Transcranial magnetic stimulation Biofeedback   Review of the research progresses in Tourette syndrome (2014)",
        "id": 394,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What resources are available to identify oral medication?",
        "body": "There are several \"pill identifiers\" available online:   RxList WebMD Drugs.com (international database from 185 countries)   You enter the shape and color of a pill and any imprints and you get the pictures with drug names.  There are apps for mobile phones:   ID My Pill  You take a photo of a pill and you get the info.   Or you go to a search engine and type \"recognize my pill\" in or so.   ResourcePharm.com has a page: \"Identify Foreign Medicines\" with links to lists of drugs in various countries. ",
        "id": 2227,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When is a stomach \"empty\" for the purpose of taking medication?",
        "body": "In my experience most anesthesiologists use 5 hours as the minimum time necessary for the stomach to be sufficiently empty to make it safe to administer anesthesia. However, their criteria is quite stringent because the consequences of the stomach not actually being empty can be severe (aspiration of vomit).   The National Health Service (UK) offers this guideline:     As a general rule, medicines that are supposed to be taken on an empty   stomach should be taken about an hour before a meal, or two hours   after a meal.   I've seen that guideline used in medication instructions so I believe it is widely accepted.",
        "id": 714,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long-term effects of lens removal as the vitreous ages?",
        "body": "   ...it seems possible that with aging, as the vitreous becomes less distinct from the aqueous, some of the vitreous might end up draining through the same duct that the aqueous drains through, in an eye with no lens to serve as a barrier. Is that the case?   In a normal (i.e. lens intact) eye, that would, I think, be a problem.  The aqueous humor is a self-replenishing system, whereas the vitreous humor is made and completed before birth. There is no replenishment of it, although, because it is near a capillaries bed, there is diffusion of small molecules like glucose back and forth that takes place between the blood and the vitreous humor.  You're correct that the vitreous humor (initially a very well organized gel-like substance) liquifies as aging occurs, but the predominant effect of this is floaters (vitreous detachments*), retinal pulls, tears, hemorrhages and detachments.    Fluid (aqueous humor) is produced by cells in the ciliary body (which is part of the ciliary muscle, with ligamentous connections to the edge of the lens) behind the iris. This fluid-filled space is called the posterior chamber. The fluid then passes from behind the iris into the anterior chamber, between the iris and the cornea, and finally drains through a permeable network (the trabecular meshwork) near the base of your the anterior part of the iris. So, there is constant production and drainage of aqueous humor, keeping the fluid level balanced.  When too much fluid is made, or not reabsorbed, the anterior chamber bulges, deforming the shape of the vitreous humor and placing pressure on the optic nerve. There is no fluid exchange between the two unless there is disease of the posterior chamber.  When the vitreous humor liquifies, the volume stays the same. If it could drain out of the trabecular meshwork, I would imagine there would be a much greater risk of more serious vitreous detachments and subsequent  retinal detachments.  In the case of a lens removed in childhood, the vitreous humor, being a highly organized gel, is probably little affected by lens removal. With age, because liquifaction happens from the middle of the vitreous; the effect of loss of the lens is still probably small, but I imagine - I'm not an opthalmologist - it might be different for someone who has had a lifetime to accommodate.   (I might have to read and edit this answer again.)  *Not the sole cause of floaters cross-section image from Patient.co.uk: Acute Angle-closure Glaucoma https://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/part_8/chapter_46.html J Clin Pathol. 2003 Sep; 56(9): 720: Concurrent vitreous disease may produce abnormal vitreous humour biochemistry and toxicology",
        "id": 109,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are Useful Resources and Practices that Help Managing Type-1 Diabetes?",
        "body": "To get a better control of diabetes, the best option is to use an Insulin Pump with a Continuos Glucose Monitor. (CGM)  The Insulin Pump allows you to absume Insulin without using needles, having a fully customizable Basal Profile and many other functionalities.   The CGM keeps your Blood Sugar under control in a continuos way, knowing the trend of it instead of just the current value. Some Insulin Pumps (Medtronic) can integrate the functionality of the CGM, having everything in one device.   Regarding the Insulin, there are various types and brands. The best option is to talk a Diabetologist and cautiously find the one that map your BG response. On average, a person with type 1 diabetes needs from 0.5-1 U of insulin for each kg of weight.  Having a healty lifestile and a correct nutrition is a fundamental to manage diabetes.  To keep track of the food and the macros there are a lot of Apps that allows you to have a nutritional overview. (for example MyFitnessPal)  Personally, I would suggest to start from here.  Insulin types: http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/guide/diabetes-types-insulin#1  Insulin intake: http://www.aafp.org/afp/1999/1115/p2343.html",
        "id": 1223,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can longterm anxiety (fear of disease-nosemaphobia) cause chronic gastritis",
        "body": "This answer may be hard to swallow, but the knowledge has helped others, including my wife. You can be sensitive to gluten and still test negative for celiac disease.  There is a wealth of knowledge here to start your search.  http://www.beyondceliac.org/celiac-disease/non-celiac-gluten-sensitivity/  Be prepared to eliminate foods (even ones marked as \"gluten free\" in many cases).     The good news, if you are sensitive to glutens, you can still over come the symptoms but it will take a change in diet.",
        "id": 940,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the meaning of \"trial treatment\"?",
        "body": "Even from the context, a definite answer cannot be given. However, I'll do my best to shed some light on relevant terminology.   The sentences:     \"this is a 90% trial treatment of hairfall.\"      this is a 99 trial treatment of mail pattern baldnes   really don't mean anything on their own. Since the article mentions clinical trials, and the numbers 90, 95 and 99 are characteristic, my best guess would be that this refers to the confidence level, a statistical term which (long story short) describes the probability that the conclusion from your study that the tested medicine is better than the other is correct.  So, why not just say it like that? (We'll get back to that.)  There is another part of this article:     Double-blind studies determine [xyz] to be the best hair-restoration product on the market.   This sentence is rather imprecise, and therefore sounds a bit boastful.  When the study is double-blind it means that neither the patient nor the researcher knows which patient is receiving the tested substance, and which something else, until the end of the trial. So one group of patients receives the substance being tested (test group) and the other either an alternative substance used for the same condition (control group) or an inert substance, i.e. placebo (placebo group).  The first sort of trials (where you compare a new substance to an old one) are called controlled, double-blind trials. Here you can test whether your new substance is better that the old one (superiority trial), that the new substance isn't worse than the old one (non-inferiority trial) and that they are equivalent (equivalence trials). You can do something similar by comparing your substance with placebo in a placebo controlled, double-blind study, but here you would want your substance definitely to be better than placebo.  The statement that something is \"the best in the market\" implies that the substance/preparation is tested against (all) others on the market, but it doesn't specifically say so, does it? What's more, which other products has it been compared to, exactly? If they are not allowed to name competitor's brands, surely they could give the chemical names of other substances used as controls, or at least say how many other products have they compared theirs to. (Note that usually one comparison is one separate clinical study. More studies -> more expenses for the company).  Why haven't they addressed these issues? We can't know. Can it be that the explanation is tailored for everyone to understand? Or that some things one wouldn't boast about were just omitted?   I can only suggest that you ask a health care professional from the field, whether they have some experience with the product. If it were registered as a medicine, it would be possible to find the information on clinical trials in the Summary of Product Characteristics (usually available on the website of the medicines regulatory agency of the country where the medicine is registered). On the link that you provided (after a few clicks) it says that this is a supplement. They don't have to comply with the same regulatory requirements (don't have to submit all the data that medicines do), so I can't say where you can find the missing information.     Ref: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/about-studies/glossary  http://www.rds-sc.nihr.ac.uk/planning-a-study/study-design/quantitative-studies/clinical-trials/non-inferiority-trials/",
        "id": 323,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can weak people use their feet when doing CPR?",
        "body": "Mechanically, if you have good enough foot control to be able to meet compressions guidelines, then a compression is a compression.  But there are a few things to consider. Most importantly, what a good compression is and how to achieve it, and whether you can achieve it with your foot.  To begin, CPR guidelines are updated regularly based upon research into effectiveness and outcomes.  Rate and depth are the 2 primary factors in maximizing circulation while allowing the heart enough filling time. (page 39)    Placement is also important for minimizing trauma to the ribcage (i.e. dislocating and breaking ribs, which can puncture lungs etc)  Guidelines FOR ADULTS only:   Rate:  100-120 compressions per minute.     If you have good control, fairly straightforward.  Depth: 2 - 2.4 inches (5 to 6 cm).     This is the application of the RIGHT FORCE for THE RIGHT compression depth. Compressions deeper than that have a higher rate of complications. THIS may be more difficult, as a leg weighs more than an arm, and likely less easy to control force.  Placement: middle of sternum, interlocking fingers, and pulling fingers back so the heel of the palm is what presses on the sternum.   THIS is probably where using a foot would be most difficult.  Too wide and you extend beyond the width of the sternum, increasing risk of rib fracture and dislocation - and pneumothorax etc.    BUT going back to the reason why we do compressions, if someone drops without a pulse and is in need of CPR, they would likely die without it.    So if you were to do CPR with the narrowest part of your foot, focusing on controlling depth and rate, would the risks of fracture from too wide of a pressure base be better than NO COMPRESSIONS at all (or too weak ones) because your arms fatigue out?    I speculate that most people would prefer to have foot CPR and risk fractures/pneumothorax in order to not (almost certainly) die. However this part of the discussion would perhaps belong better in philosophy.se; I would be very interested to see a if there is a good argument for not doing it, or a discussion of litigation vs Good Samaritan laws.  But the point of this response was a discussion of the biomechanics of CPR for a foot.",
        "id": 1276,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the evidence for virgin conception?",
        "body": "At least one study reported that a number of women self reported outer-course resulting in conception from a survey of 7870 respondents:     Results 45 women (0.5%) reported at least one virgin pregnancy unrelated to the use of assisted reproductive technology. Although it was rare for dates of sexual initiation and pregnancy consistent with virgin pregnancy to be reported, it was more common among women who signed chastity pledges or whose parents indicated lower levels of communication with their children about sex and birth control.   The study attempted to make it clear as to what the differences between outer-course and inter-course were but it's possible a number of the respondents still answered incorrectly.  So we still have to accept that these are unconfirmed reports.  At present there is no controlled experimental evidence to confirm that this can happen, and biologically, it seems highly implausible that this actually does happen.  Male fertility is reduced when sperm counts drop below 20 million sperm per ml, and this is when the sperm is introduced into the vagina.  A normal ejaculate contains 200 million to a billion sperm.  From these only a few reach the egg and then more then one is required to breach the corona radiata to allow a single sperm to fertilise the egg.  However, pregnancy can occur even when coitus interruptus is practiced since the pre-ejaculate may contain sperm.  So, this suggests that much lower numbers of sperm in the vagina then normally considered necessary can still result in pregnancy.  At present there is no experimental data on the passage of sperm through clothing though one would assume it's possible.  So, in summary, the evidence has not independently verified that outer-course can result in pregnancy, and is an area that requires further investigation.",
        "id": 910,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can caffeine induce sleepiness instead of wakefulness?",
        "body": "This is a documented phenomenon. Some people experience paradoxical reactions to caffeine, and other stimulants such as dextroamphetamine (1).   A theory posited by this non-medical source (which does not cite sources), suggests that the blocking of adenosine receptors by caffeine causes the body to compensate by producing more adenosine, or increasing the number of adenosine receptors. Either way, the net effect is increased adenosine neurotransmission, and consequently, sedation.   References   Paradoxical effects of caffeine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1118251 Health: Does Coffee Make You Sleepy? https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/how-does-caffeine-affect-nervous-system-health-research/Content?oid=875717 ",
        "id": 433,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Reversing Alzheimer's disease through Withania somnifera",
        "body": "You should read the article carefully. In the Introduction section they give some insight for their study:      The majority of AD cases are sporadic in nature. The small fraction of familial cases are caused primarily by mutations in three genes: amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin1 (PS1), and presenilin 2 (PS2).   They clearly specify what they are investigating:     Here we demonstrate that a WS extract reverses behavioral deficits and plaque pathology and reduces the A\u03b2 burden in middle-aged and old APP/PS1 mice through up-regulation of liver LRP, leading to increased clearance of A\u03b2.    So they are investigating the effects of this herb in mice which are \"diagnosed\" with familial Alzheimers disease (AD).  Less than 0.1% of all cases of AD are familial (Lancet).  The sad thing is that we have no possibility whatsoever to tell whether a patient have the familial type AD. Let\u00b4s make a wild assumption that this herb would actually reverse AD in 1% of patients with familial AD (This 1% we would be remarkable in this context). We need to treat 100,000 patients with AD to reverse it in one patient. That kind of \"treatment\" would not be feasible at all.  Moreover, there are probably hundreds or thousands herbs and drugs which have shown promising results in animals. Unfortunately, >99% of these molecules and  potential drugs fail to work in humans. This is due to facts that our fundamental understanding in disease processes are poor and the complexity of the diseases are so overwhelming that the proposed mechanism of recovery observed in the animal subjects with \"artificial\" diseases just don\u00b4t work similarly in human subjects.",
        "id": 375,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why could standard demineralized water be harmful?",
        "body": "The problem is the obvious electrolyte loss , especially if you mean distilled water.It may not be a problem with a diet containing enough electrolytes. ",
        "id": 2415,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Gluten in beer or not?",
        "body": "Barley, the most common cereal used in beer, contains gluten. However, it is possible that the fermentation process digests this gluten, at least partially.  If you want to be on the safe side, you can try beer made out of rice or corn, as these are completely gluten free.",
        "id": 1417,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What to do about a dental infection?",
        "body": "Good afternoon,  I'll methodically address each part of your question. The important elements are in bold   The abscesses in your mouth won't heal on their own, if the underlying  cause is not removed. It will most likely reappear after you stop taking the antibiotics, which should not be used in a long term fashion.   If these are dental abscesses, There are generally two possible causes:  Peri-apical Abscesses: The pulp (nerf) inside the tooth has died (necrotic) and the bacteria have reached the apex (bottom of the tooth).  Generally a root canal is sufficient to prevent entry of further bacteria and enable the body to repair the bone and allow the abscess to heal. Another possibility is to extract the tooth, if it is not possible to perform a root canal or to restore it afterward (with a crown for example).  Periodontal Abscesses: The gums around the tooth have detached from the roots, allowing bacteria to thrive in so-called periodontal pockets between supporting tissues and the rooth of the tooth. Depending on the state of the tooth, if it is salvageable, it will require scaling and root planing to clean the area of bacterial debris and to allow the gums to reattach to the root. Using saltwater can help control the bacteria, but will not get ride of the pockets which let bacteria accumulate in the first place.  Another possibility is again to extract the tooth, if there is not sufficient bone and gums to support the tooth  As always, only an exam by a dental professional will allow you to find and treat the cause of your abscess(es).  Sources:   My professional background previous question on Health.Stackexchange https://www.coeurdaleneiddentist.com/what-is-the-difference-between-a-periapical-and-periodontal-abscess/ ",
        "id": 1146,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the *frequency* of loud sounds one is exposed to affect Tinnitus risk?",
        "body": "Different hairs cells in inner ear (cochlea) vibrate in various ways in respond to different sound frequencies.    Small temporary changes or damages in the outer hair cells of the cochlea can trigger the emergence of tinnitus by increasing the gain of the central auditory system2004.  Most patients (both tinnitus and hearing loss) reports that the frequency of the tinnitus correlates with the severity and frequency characteristics of their hearing loss and that intensity of the tinnitus is usually less than 10dB above the patient's hearing threshold at that frequency2004  However the risk of hearing loss is not related to specific sound frequency, but rather to sound pressure (loudness) as it's stated in the article which you linked:     Exposure to loud noise. Loud noises, such as those from heavy equipment, chain saws and firearms, are common sources of noise-related hearing loss. Portable music devices, such as MP3 players or iPods, also can cause noise-related hearing loss if played loudly for long periods. Tinnitus caused by short-term exposure, such as attending a loud concert, usually goes away; long-term exposure to loud sound can cause permanent damage.   Tinnitus is one of the most important symptoms that can signal the onset of acoustic trauma.  Those exposed to over 85 decibels of sound continually are at a higher risk for acoustic trauma. In other words, the ear can be exposed to short periods in excess of 120dB without permanent harm (having discomfort and possibly pain), however long term exposure to sound levels over 80dB can cause permanent hearing lossOSHA.  According to Occupational Safety &amp; Health Administration: Regulations (Standards - 29 CFR), these noise levels are permissible noise exposures:  ______________________________________________________________                             |   Duration per day, hours   | Sound level dBA slow response ____________________________|_________________________________                             | 8...........................|                    90 6...........................|                    92 4...........................|                    95 3...........................|                    97 2...........................|                   100 1 1/2 ......................|                   102 1...........................|                   105 1/2 ........................|                   110 1/4  or less................|                   115 ____________________________|________________________________      When the daily noise exposure is composed of two or more periods of noise exposure of different levels, their combined effect should be considered, rather than the individual effect of   each.      Exposure to impulsive or impact noise should not exceed 140 dB peak sound pressure level.   Read more:   Tinnitus and NIHL at Wikipedia   See also: When does the use of headphones become harmful?",
        "id": 71,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Abbreviations URTI and GE in a doctor's diagnosis",
        "body": "URTI is a common abbreviation for upper respiratoty tract infection and GE for gastroenteritis, which refers to infection of the stomach and intestine, which is usually associated with diarrhea.  An example of the usage of URTI and GE in a PubMed article. This source should not be used to make any conclusions about the cause.",
        "id": 2521,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can I do to minimize the chance of tooth pain?",
        "body": "To minimize the chance of tooth pain, assuming that your tooth has a cavity, i.e. dental caries, you must:    avoid sugar: sugar is metabolized by oral bacteria generating acids, hence pain avoid acidic beverages and foods, like lemons  avoid food or drinks too warm or cold avoid to put anything in the tooth, as aspirin or anything else   Brush twice a day with a soft toothbrush and using fluoridated toothpaste (>1.000 ppm of fluoride)  Now, if the pain is transitory, i.e, you drink something cold and you feel the tooth, but as soon as you stop to drink the feel stops, in such case you will be fine.   If, otherwise, the pain prolongs even if you retire the stimulus, or start to hurt during the night, then you must go ASAP to a dentist. ",
        "id": 1479,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When leaded gasoline was prevalent why did more people not show acute lead poisoning?",
        "body": "Lead paint was banned because it leads directly to lead poisoning by contact rather than inhalation, which can arguably be considered slower and 'less' of a risk.1  Children often place toys in their mouths, which, especially if the toy is painted with lead paint, is obvious harmful. Wikipedia says the paint also flakes and forms dust which is then inhaled.2  Also, although a bit of a sorry excuse, lead poisoning from gasoline wasn't considered particularly any more lethal than straight-up carbon monoxide poisoning!  For reference, the blue line is also known as the lead line, and also as Burton's line, which from these references, is mainly caused by Pica, or added lead in opiates:     Burton\u2019s line is a sign of chronic lead intoxication that develops when lead reacts with oral bacteria metabolites.  ",
        "id": 2683,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does my nads tickle when going over bumps?",
        "body": "I always wondered this myself and now my seven year old always ask this when in the back of the car. I came across this:     Normally, all the parts of your body are pushing on each other because of the constant force of gravity. But in the \"free-fall\" state of plummeting down a hill, there is hardly any net force acting on you. In this case, the various pieces of your body are not pushing on each other as much. They are all, essentially, weightless, each falling individually inside your body. This is what gives you that unique sinking feeling in your stomach -- your stomach is suddenly very light because there is less force pushing on it. The same thing happens when you drive down a dip in the road in your car or descend in an elevator moving at high speed.   So in effect your \"nads\" are weightless and I guess that's why you get the sensation.",
        "id": 1456,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do combined oral contraceptives cause weight gain?",
        "body": "The answer at the moment seems to be a clear \"maybe\".   There is a Cochrane review of this very topic. Combination contraceptives: effects on weight.   A Cochrane review is a study where people collect a lot of other studies on the subject, determine whether the studies were well-designed, and, if they were, review those studies and draw a conclusion from that. These reviews get updated as new data becomes available. They are generally considered to be of high quality.   The Cochrane review includes a section titled \"Plain language summary\", which is very helpful for those not familiar with scientific studies - also the review is quite long, so it's good to have a summary of the important points. I'll include a summary here nonetheless.   In the Cochrane, the author looked at studies of women taking combination contraceptives for more than three months that included data on weight gain. The current conclusion of the review (last updated January 2014) is      Available evidence was insufficient to determine the effect of combination contraceptives on weight, but no large effect was evident. Trials to evaluate the link between combination contraceptives and weight change require a placebo or non-hormonal group to control for other factors, including changes in weight over time   This means that they found few studies that compared women taking combination contraceptives to women taking a placebo or nothing. This makes sense because contraception is usually taken for, well, contraception, and giving women a placebo instead is often unethical. Those four trials did not find a relationship between contraception use and weight gain. However, the four trials also only included five oral contraceptives and the skin patch, not a very wide variety of contraception.  Most other studies compared oral combination contraceptives with other oral combination contraceptives or other methods of birth control (like the vaginal ring).      Of the 79 weight change comparisons evaluating two combination contraceptives, seven showed a difference in the mean weight change or the proportion of women gaining or losing more than a set amount of weight. Even if no association existed between combination contraceptives and weight, one would expect several significant results (Type I errors) since numerous comparisons were made. Regardless of statistical significance, the clinical significance seems negligible.\u00a0   Basically, this means that the weight gains in these studies were so low that if a causation existed between taking contraceptives and gaining weight, the studies should have shown a more severe effect than they did. And even if no association existed, they would have expected more false positives than what was found.   Unfortunately, ultimatively the quality of the available studies is just too low to give a definitive answer at the moment:     More than 25% of the trials had high risk of bias due to lack of blinding or incomplete outcome data (Figure\u00a01). The majority of studies had unclear risk of bias due to missing information on randomization sequence generation or allocation concealment.    An interesting side note is that most studies only consider weight gain as anything over 2 kilograms or five pounds, which is a bit more than the weight gain described in the question. ",
        "id": 557,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medicines in the fridge",
        "body": "Chemical reactions are slowed down at lower temperatures; refrigeration can increase the shelf-life of medicines that would not last long enough at room temperature.  Refrigeration could be important for the active ingredient or for the formulation as a whole.  Note that refrigeration can also be a problem for some formulations, so it's important to follow storage instructions.  The effects of short-term failure to refrigerate drugs that are supposed to be refrigerated varies, see Cohen et al. 2007 for a compilation of manufacturer instructions for a variety of drugs.  References    Cohen, V., Jellinek, S. P., Teperikidis, L., Berkovits, E., &amp; Goldman, W. M. (2007). Room-temperature storage of medications labeled for refrigeration. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 64(16), 1711-1715.",
        "id": 2294,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why don't some people get bruises?",
        "body": "The fact that you, or other people you know, do not bruise easily is related to a variety of factors, such as the following. We have fibrous matrices that support our blood vessels, and prevent them from breaking or bursting when they are damaged. Some people, usually females, have thinner fibrous layers that make their vessels more prone to damage. It might be that your fibrous and supportive matrix is thicker or less likely to shear.   Damage to the matrix can also be caused by factors such as prolonged sun exposure reducing the firmness of your lower skin layers, or even antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs that have the same effect. ",
        "id": 2253,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the factors that make veins easy for a blood test one day, and difficult the next?",
        "body": " A vein that has undergone venipuncture woud be more dificult to extract blood because it is already traumatized/injured. Some veins would be thicker when healed and some would be friable. That's why they alternate arms for phlebotomy to allow your veins to heal. Experience wise, there's nothing much we can do about it. But i find it easier to extract blood from arms that has less fat in it. There are lots of people like that, but experienced phlebotomists seem to not mind at all. ",
        "id": 2467,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "restoring a live tooth",
        "body": "No, there is no evidence in reputable sources that any diet can restore a partially removed tooth to a full tooth again.  Any source you do encounter which proposes such a possibility is highly likely to benefit from such a claim (i.e. there exists a conflict of interest between the claim and the truth.)  There is, however, a large body of sound research on the repair of carious teeth via fillings, root canals, etc.  Outcome of direct restorations placed within the general dental services in England and Wales (Part 1): Variation by type of restoration and re-intervention Tooth survival following non-surgical root canal treatment: a systematic review of the literature MANUAL FOR THE ATRAUMATIC RESTAURATIVE TREATMENT APPROACH TO CONTROL DENTAL CARIES ",
        "id": 479,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Forgetting certain spellings a sign of Alzheimer's",
        "body": "There are four cognitive symptom categories for Alzheimer's disease: aphasia, amnesia, apraxia, agnosia. These are broad categories that our brains handle somewhat separately. People frequently do sustain a brain injury to the left side of the head that damages his or her ability to process language and speech without affecting any other cognitive abilities. Our ability to utilize language is somewhat separate in the brain from areas responsible for the ability to reason, remember or use muscles.   So transient forgetting of spellings of common words would be processed in the language areas of the brain, and deficits of that ability are called Aphasia.   Forgetting daily chores falls into the category of Amnesia and is handled by a different area of the brain.  But your examples are about as non serious as they can get. Everyone has minor lapses in cognitive ability. So I'm hesitant to suggest seeing a doctor as I don't want to be blamed for a bunch of people getting laughed at when they go see their doctor for symptoms that lack of sleep may cause. Pose some more serious examples or extensive repeated lapses of forgetfulness or difficulty with words, or motor control, and I would have no problem suggesting you speak with a doctor.   Yes, Alzheimer's disease can happen to people in their late teens. But it is very rare. Most commonly onset of this condition is 40 or above.  https://www.gstatic.com/healthricherkp/pdf/alzheimer_s_disease.pdf  And I simply don't know enough about aphasia research to answer your third question. I suspect the answer may be out of scope for this forum, but I don't know. Perhaps someone else will. However I must also caution you that dementia is one of the most serious, but isn't the only cause of cognitive lapses.    http://www.alzfdn.org/AboutAlzheimers/symptoms.html  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia      ",
        "id": 1579,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is leg length associated with respiratory function?",
        "body": "Your link doesn't say that. They say that they found no relationship between asthma and final height in the study population.  But height is used to produce predicted lung volumes, and the explanation is as follows:     In normal humans, lung size is a function of height, sex, race and age.2-4 Each lung fills a pyramidal box with a height and radius. Height is the distance from base (diaphragm) to apex of the box. Because of racial differences in limb:trunk length ratios, there is a racial correction for height. A 6-foot tall Caucasian has shorter legs (and therefore a longer trunk) than a 6-foot tall African American. A 6-foot tall North American Indian or Hispanic has even shorter legs (and therefore a longer trunk), than a Caucasian. So for the same height, different races have different lung volumes (lung sizes). African Americans have 10% less TLC than Caucasians for the same height, and Hispanics about 10% more.   http://www.ishlt.org/ContentDocuments/2012JulLinks_Spotlight.html",
        "id": 929,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What factors influence the memorization in a young adult?",
        "body": "Memory is a complex cognitive function which relies on several neuronal pathways. Without wanting to go into too much details, the process of memorization is dependent on three different steps: encoding, storage and retrieval.  Different brain regions are involved in the process of memorisation: hippocampus and mamillary bodies are the main brain regions (which get also affected in Alzheimer's Disease or Korsakof Disease) but other regions have been reported to be involved in the process such as the striatum or the amygdala.  As complex as it is, the different steps of memorization can be influenced by diseases but also by different other \"factors\" such as (non exhaustive list):   Emotions/Motivation/Mood: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16371950, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2656292/ Sleep (eg sleep deprivation): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23589831 Attention: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9460740 Drugs (eg cannabis): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19630708 Caffeine consumption: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3222359 Diet: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2805706/   So to summarise: difficulty in memorization can be multifactorial. You might wish considering one of those above mentionned factors and try to work on them.  P.S: you tagged your question with \"dementia\". I have already answered a similar question for someone aged 30-40, you might have a look here: Dementia in late 30s, early 40s? Tests?",
        "id": 1194,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where is the WHO definition of (very) low birth weight?",
        "body": "   A low birth weight baby is one that weighs less than 2500 g at birth. As growth is a progressive process, a baby may weigh less than 2500 g at birth because it is born too soon, or because it is small for its gestational age.   From here: http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/fetomaternal/9241594004/en/     LBW infants are classified as very low birth weight (VLBW) if their birth weight is less than 1.5 kg, and as extremely low birth weight (ELBW) if their birth weight is less than 1 kg.   From here: http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/9789241548366.pdf  These are not necessarily the original sources of those classifications - neither one is cited, so it's not even necessarily possible to follow that definition backwards along a citation path, but those are both official WHO documents.",
        "id": 129,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dengue fever carrier",
        "body": "The virus transmits not person-to-person, but person-to-mosquito-to-person. The carriers may be bitten by mosquitos who up until that point weren't infecting people, and afterwards can.   The World Heath Organization says:     Once infected, humans become the main carriers and multipliers of the virus, serving as a source of the virus for uninfected mosquitoes. The virus circulates in the blood of an infected person for 2-7 days, at approximately the same time that the person develops a fever. Patients who are already infected with the dengue virus can transmit the infection via Aedes mosquitoes after the first symptoms appear (during 4-5 days; maximum 12).      In humans recovery from infection by one dengue virus provides lifelong immunity against that particular virus serotype. However, this immunity confers only partial and transient protection against subsequent infection by the other three serotypes of the virus. Evidence points to the fact that sequential infection increases the risk of developing severe dengue. The time interval between infections and the particular viral sequence of infections may also be of importance.   Your information that 80% of those infected are just carriers for a few weeks means that even if you are bitten by a mosquito carrying the disease, you may not end up feeling ill. If doesn't give you any information about your chances of being bitten by a mosquito carrying the disease, and your best efforts to prevent being bitten by mosquitos are still the only way to prevent getting the disease if you travel somewhere it is circulating. ",
        "id": 2460,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dangers of having MRI, CT-scan, & X-ray within a seven day period?",
        "body": "The amounts of radiation in today's machines is low enough that there is no negative impact to be expected.  For comparison:  X-Rays: A chest X-ray gives you about 10 mrem  MRIs measure the reaction time of molecules (in the body) to changes of outside magnetic fields. No radiation or radioactivity is involved at all.   CT-Scans: A chest CT scan clocks in at about 200mrem.  Natural background radiation is around 300 mrem.  Smoking five cigarettes a day means you inhale about 1300 mrem a year.  See this list for many more examples:http://www.iem-inc.com/information/tools/common-radiation-exposures",
        "id": 1593,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are you at risk of Hep C because you were born between 1945 1965?",
        "body": "The site you found that on is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It's generally considered an authoritative source. The site states the following:     There are high rates of Hepatitis C in people born during 1945-1965.    People born during 1945 through 1965 are 5 times more likely than   other adults to be infected. In fact, 75% of adults with Hepatitis C   were born in these years. The reasons why baby boomers have the   highest rates of Hepatitis C are not completely understood.   In support of that statement, they include a link to further information (PDF). Note that in this document they mention possible reasons for the Baby Boomers to have such a high prevalence:     Hepatitis C is primarily spread through contact with  blood from an   infected person. Many baby boomers  could have gotten infected from   contaminated blood  and blood products before widespread screening of    the blood supply in 1992 and universal precautions  were adopted.   Others may have become infected  from injecting drugs, even if only   once in the past.  Still, many baby boomers do not know how or when    they were infected. ",
        "id": 724,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many valves per distance are common in veins?",
        "body": "The distribution of valves in the veins can vary greatly.  FOREARM VEINS  Relationship of Common Vascular Anatomy to Cannulated Catheters (Hindawi, 2017):     Veins of the antecubital fossa [anterior side of the elbow] were much less   likely to have valves, whereas veins of the hand and forearm were   nearly equal in the frequency of valves identified. In those vein   segments of the hand with valves, there were often multiple valves   identified within the 10\u2009cm segment studied.   The Table 2 says that in adults the average distance between the vein valves in the hand is 6 cm, in the forearm 7 cm and at the front of the elbow 17 cm.   LEG VEINS  The great saphenous vein in the inner thigh is commonly used as a graft to replace atherosclerotic coronary arteries.  The Relative Position of Paired Valves at Venous Junctions Suggests Their Role in Modulating Three-dimensional Flow Pattern in Veins (European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, 2012)     All studied valves were located between 3 and 5 cm apart. The mean   distance between the two valves in the GSV [great saphenous vein] was   3.8 \u00b1 0.4 cm...   Lower Extremity Venous Anatomy (Seminars in Interventional Radiology, 2005):     The number of deep venous valves increases from cranial to caudal.   Unlike the infrainguinal veins, the iliac veins rarely contain valves.   Detailed anatomic dissections have shown valves to be present in only   1.2% of common iliac veins, 27% of external iliac veins (39.6% on the right versus 14.6% on the left), and 10.1% of internal iliac veins.   There are on average five deep venous valves between the inguinal   ligament and popliteal fossa, although the number varies from two to   nine. Their arrangement is variable, but the external iliac and common   femoral vein above the saphenofemoral junction usually have one valve   at most; the femoral vein above the adductor canal has three or more   valves; the distal superficial femoral and popliteal veins have one or   two valves; and the tibial/peroneal veins have numerous valves   spaced at \u223c2-cm intervals.   The small saphenous vein at the back of the lower leg:  The anatomy of the small saphenous vein: Fascial and neural relations, saphenofemoral junction, and valves (Journal of Vascular Surgery, 2010)     A most proximal valve was present in only 94% at a mean distance of   1.2 cm to the small saphenous vein orifice [popliteal vein behind the knee]. A consecutive distal valve was only present in 65% with a   mean distance of 5.1 cm. ",
        "id": 2716,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often is it safe to get general anaesthetic?",
        "body": "I did some article browsing and here's what I found:   Almost all of the articles I came across discussed the affect of general anesthesia on certain nerve tissues, ion channels, and receptors. I could not find a good overview or any peer reviewed articles covering the long-term clinical effects (what impact it actually has on the patient) of general anesthesia. Many of the studies are either in animals, in children, or in the elderly; not general population or a wide patient base. A general consensus seemed to be that the possible short term effects from anesthesia (malignant hyperthermia, hypotension, slowed respiratory rate) and the surgery itself lead to many more complications than any long term effects from general anesthesia.   I did stumble across one fairly broad article which discussed cognitive decline in the elderly after uncomplicated general anesthesia. The syndrome is called Post-operative Cognitive Dysfunction (POCD). The article didn't seem to consider how many times patients had undergone anesthesia in their lives, but focused more on receiving anesthesia at an old age (85 or older).     Lewis, M. C., and I. Nevo. \"Uncomplicated General Anesthesia in the Elderly Results in Cognitive Decline: Does Cognitive Decline Predict Morbidity and Mortality?\" Medical Hypothesis 68.3 (2007): 484-92. Science Direct. Web. 19 Aug. 2016.    Here's another article that doesn't really answer your original question, but might be helpful nonetheless: General discussion TIME article  So I couldn't find any articles addressing your specific situation, but hopefully some of this info can help you draw your own conclusions, and maybe someone else will have better luck article searching than I did.",
        "id": 595,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the blood accumulated after stroke be cured?",
        "body": "First of all, I am going to stay quite \u201cgeneral\u201d as I understand you are not from the field. The aim of my post is really to provide some clarifications to your question.  There are two types of strokes: ischemic (approx. 85%) and hemorrhagic (approx 15%). As you are speaking of \u201cblood accumulated in the brain\u201d I understand that you mean hemorrhagic stroke (also know as intracerebral hemorrage).  There are different causes for ICH (see table below for an exhaustive list), among which ruptured aneurysm (=balloon-like bulge in the wall of a blood vessel), arterial hypertension (which leads to chronic modification of the structure blood vessels, which becomes weaken) and cerebral amyloid antipathy (= deposition of amyloid which renders the vessel weak and increases its risk of rupture. This occurs often in the elderly)    Depending on the location of the ruptured vessel, the brain region and hence the associated clinical symptoms vary.  What happens to the accumulated blood in the brain parenchyma?  It doesn\u2019t stay for ever in the brain. Like in any other regions of the body, the hematoma becomes necrotic over time (=blood cells die). The presence of these cells in the parenchyma leads to an inflammation (+ presence of oedema). In particular, specialised cells (called macrophages) arrive into the zone and start \u201ceating\u201d the dead blood and dead neuronal cells. Below is a table which summarises the change occurring after an ICH:    Finally regarding your question on the outcome. Well, this depends on several factors. ICH generally show poorer outcomes than ischemic stroke but as I don\u2019t know your uncle\u2019s case it is not possible to give you a prognosis (and probably nobody can, as it depends on so many variables).   However, what has been proven in the literature, is that recovery after a stroke is dependent on the capacity of the brain to \u201creorganise\u201d and to \u201cadapt\u201d to the neuronal loss. I don\u2019t know in which country you are, but in general, patients with ICH are generally quickly hospitalised in a so called \"stroke unit \u201c (if no neurosurgical intervention is needed) where intensive physiotherapy is done in order to quickly \u201ctrain\u201d the brain to develop new neuronal pathways.  Drugs have no impact on accumulated blood. Their main aim is to try to reduce \"further damages\", for example by reducing the hypertension.  EDIT (after complement of information from the OP)  So according to the report attached, your uncle suffers from an ischemic stroke (\"subacute infarction in the middle left cerebral artery\"). This shifts the diagnosis from an hemorrhagic stroke (as you suggested with your description of \"blood accumulated in the brain\") to an ischemic stroke. Ischemic stroke is caused by a \"clot\" which occludes the vessel.  The middle cerebral artery is a common source of ischemic stroke. The most frequent cause is atrial fibrillation (=abnormal rythm of the heart, which makes the heart pump \"inefficiently\" leading to accumulated blood clots to be ejected to the brain).  As from the report, it looks like your uncle had a subacute stroke (= some hours ago), probably your uncle was outside the so called \"lysis\" time, which is the time were lysis (= destruction of the clot which occludes the vessel) can be undertaken.  The therapy is similar to what I have described regarding ICH (particularly regarding physiotherapy). Though, one major difference is that probably a cause for the ischemic stroke will be investigated. Probably he will have a heart rythm investigation and a carotid doppler (= look at the carotid in the neck to see whether there are some stenosis (narrowing of vessel) or plaques). They might also start some drugs which depend on your uncle's situation (anticoagulation, statins,etc...)  Hope this brought some clarification!  Sources: - http://www.acnr.co.uk/mar_apr_2008/ACNRMA08_pathology.pdf (for the figures)",
        "id": 1158,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Third-degree burn - Home treatment",
        "body": "The skin has several tasks. Among these are:   defense against outside threats like infection keeping the body temperature as constant as possible keeping the moisture inside   With large second/third degree burn wounds. Some or all of these functions are hampered. So we need to take care of these until the skin is cured.  The most important is of course to stop the damaging effect of the heat by cooling. Keep cooling until the pain is gone (but be careful not to use a coolant that is too cool.  You can counter infections by covering the wound with (preferably) sterile bandages. And you should renew these regulary. Try to keep the wound moist if possible.  Be aware that large burn wounds (around 10%) can lead to shock because of dehydration. So watch your fluid (and salt) intake.   If there is no medical help available, you should be prepared for a long recovery time.  For a bit more information",
        "id": 594,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How serious is the antibiotic resistance problem?",
        "body": "Pneumococcal pneumonia was the most prevalent form of bacterial pneumonia in the community at over 70% of cases but that number has drastically fallen presumably due to the use of pneumococcal vaccines.     Antibiotics are the mainstay of treatment in S pneumoniae infections. Until the 1970s, essentially all pneumococcal isolates were sensitive to easily achievable levels of most commonly used antibiotics, including penicillins, macrolides, clindamycin, cephalosporins, rifampin, vancomycin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Beginning in the 1990s, many pneumococcal isolates in the United States showed decreased susceptibility to penicillin and other commonly used antibiotics. Continued increases in these isolates have led to the need for re-establishment of susceptibility standards.      As of 2007, isolates of drug-resistant S pneumoniae have become increasingly common worldwide. The CDC, as well as many state health departments, maintain a population-based surveillance system (the ABC system) that investigates the epidemiology and susceptibility patterns of invasive pneumococcal infections in the United States. In 2010, only 10.6% of all isolates obtained showed intermediate or resistant susceptibility patterns to penicillin (down from 24.8% in 2008; 25.6% in 2007). [6] The prevalence of resistance varies greatly among countries, states, counties, and within populations in particular cities and may be as high as 30%-40% in some locations. [85, 86] Resistance rates are generally higher in most European countries, as well as in Hong Kong and Thailand. [87, 88]   With such high resistance rates, Penicillin is not recommended as drug of first choice to treat pneumonia.  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225811-medication  https://www.cdc.gov/pneumococcal/about/diagnosis-treatment.html",
        "id": 1495,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does eating a sugary multivitamin bring you into the fed state for intermittent fasting?",
        "body": "It is generally considered that less than 50kcal is acceptable during periods of fasting. This obviously doesn't mean 10 50kcal in quick succession is acceptable (that is considered a 500kcal meal). I personally would not be held-up on the fact.  In terms of calcium and vitamin supplementation it is generally advised that they are consumed with a meal. In particular calcium carbonate should be consumed with a meal. The first meal of the day after you break the fast, is indeed by definition 'breakfast'.  So either take your supplements but very little else until you break the fast, or take them with your first meal.  In response to the comment on ketosis; that is something very different again. While in a fasted state it is unlikely you are also in a ketogenic state. Ketogenic diets are high protein, higher-fat diets with little carbohydrate \u2014 unless you ate very little carbohydrate during feeding you would not be in a state of ketosis.  In conclusion:   Take calcium with a meal Very small amounts of food/supplementation (less than 50kcal) during a fast is unlikely to bring you into a 'fed state' IF is not a Ketogenic diet   From (albeit anecdotal) personal experience focus on consistency and building healthy habits rather than getting hung-up on the details.",
        "id": 748,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is vitamin deficiency associated with hair loss?",
        "body": "I point out two websites (1) (2) which contain a plethora of references about relationship between vitamins and hair loss.  (1) https://draxe.com/vitamins-for-hair-growth/ (2) https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/best-vitamins-hair-growth",
        "id": 2032,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What to do when an earthquake hits while inside a MRI?",
        "body": "I never performed MRI scan in the past but I had experience of several quite big earthquakes within the last 10 years. So I provide my thought on this for your reference.  I have to say that you probably already in the safest place during an earth quake in a building for two reasons:   1) rooms for big scanners are usually build with solid concrete and very likely to be strengthened further comparing with standard concrete building for accomodation or office. That makes the room very unlikely to collapse during an earth quake.   2) MRI machine is basically a giant piece of metal. If earth quake strikes during your scan, you have already surrounded and protected by this heavy and strong metal structure. This makes your situation even safer as you will be well protected even the building collapse.   Based on my personal experience on earth quakes, I think you will be pretty safe even there is a magnitude 8 or less earth quake happen during your MRI scan. For the quakes that more than magnitude 8, shallow and close by, well, good luck.",
        "id": 1584,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any food restrictions after dog bite",
        "body": "That is myth. According to the World Health Organization:     There are no dietary restrictions during the course  of vaccination. ",
        "id": 1657,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to deal with pale fingers in cold weather?",
        "body": "The phenomenon you are describing and the one shown in the picture is known as Reynaud's phenomenon.  In cold temperatures, the body constricts the peripheral blood vessels to prevent losing heat from the blood to the outside air.  In Reynaud's phenomenon, this constriction is exaggerated  and may prevent blood flow to the fingers or toes (and sometimes other areas) giving rise to the pale appearance shown in your picture.  Reynaud's phenomenon can be classified as primary or secondary.    Primary Reynaud's phenomenon, often simply referred to as Reynaud's disease is where the phenomenon is not associated with any underlying disease, and the cause is ideopathic (unknown).  Primary Reynaud's phenomenon is considered to be a benign condition.  Secondary Reynaud's phenomenon occurs when there is an underlying disease that is causing the condition, the most common of which are connective tissue disorders such as lupus (SLE).  For treating the phenomemon, your doctor will first want to ensure that you do not have secondary Reynaud's phenomenon, and if you do, the treatment will vary depending on the underlying disease.  If you are found to have primary Reynaud's disease, then there are also a variety of treatment options available that should be discussed with your health care provider.  Some of the options include:   Vasodilators - Vasodilators relax blood vessels increasing blood flow.  Creams such as nitroglycerin cream applied to base of fingers may help heal ulcers. Calcium channel blockers - Relax and open small blood vessels in your hands and feat, decreasing frequency of attacks. Alpha blockers - These drugs counter the actions of noradrenaline, a hormone that acts to constrict blood vessels.   In addition, your doctor will likely advise you to not smoke (as smoking is associated with lower skin temperature due to constriction of blood vessels), exercise more (as exercising can increase circulation) and control stress (which may help avoid attacks).",
        "id": 106,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do anti-gas remedies work?",
        "body": "I cannot speak of all possible gas medicines. But there is a class of them which is indeed low risk and over the counter. These are silicones, and they work in a purely mechanical way, not getting absorbed by the body.   These silicones are the same stuff which you get in hair conditioner. They are quite inert chemically, and all they do is to change the surface tension of the liquid it is dissolved in - it becomes slippery, and if gas is pumped into it, it cannot form a bubble. As a result, it does not foam.   The bacteria in your intestine presumably continue to produce gas, but it quickly passes to its now-slippery contents, instead of being trapped and expanding them like the head of a poured beer. It does not exert painful, rumbling pressure anymore, and exits the intestine in small, less noticeable portions instead of creating mini-explosions.   For a reference, you can see this patent describing the mechanism of action of simethicone tablets: http://www.google.com/patents/US5612054. ",
        "id": 157,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any alternative to Accutane for acne treatment?",
        "body": "I have cured my acne with Accutane and I have come back to say the following: If you have tried everything like I have before and nothing has worked; You need to try Accutane it's pretty much the only thing that works for Severe Acne.  ",
        "id": 586,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Reading radiology reports: What do two numbers separated by a slash mean?",
        "body": "I called the radiology office and the technician I talked with said that the numbers should denote the series and frame in which the (in this case) lesions can be found. He said that these numbers would normally be accompanied with markup such as \"series 14, image 8\" or the like and that this abbreviated form is non-standard.  So for \"14/8\" I needed to go to the 8th image in the 14th series in the study. Note however that one of the software programs I used to view the MRI used a 0-indexed system to number the images meaning that the first image is viewed as image 0 and the 8th image as image 7.",
        "id": 1705,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long can you take tetracycline in the treatment of acne?",
        "body": "Doxycycline is a member of tetracycline group and these are antibiotics of choice in moderate to severe acne. For this group, Martindale pharmacopoeia states that they should show some improvement after 3 months and that:     Maximum improvement is said to occur after 3 to 6 months, but treatment may need to continue for 2 or more years.   Antibiotics act by affecting the bacteria causing acne, their mechanism of action is not based on affecting your organism. That's why the organism does not adapt and lessen their effectiveness. However, there is an issue of antimicrobial resistance to antibiotics. To prevent it, it is essential to take your medicines exactly as prescribed: not to skip/miss doses, not to take them with food or medicines and supplements that contain calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, zinc and other divalent and trivalent cations.   A concern with prolonged antibiotic use may be their adverse effects. It is important that your therapy as well as your progress is monitored by your physician. ",
        "id": 1394,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hard water and cardiovascular problems",
        "body": "Nothing much new.  Potential Health Impacts of Hard Water (PubMed Central, 2013)     Although, there is some evidence from epidemiological studies for a   protective effect of magnesium or hardness on cardiovascular   mortality, the evidence is being debated and does not prove causality.   In spite of this, drinking-water may be a source of calcium and   magnesium in the diet and could be important for those who are   marginal for calcium and magnesium intake.   The World Health Organization (2011) mentions several studies, none of which found any causal relationship between water magnesium or calcium content or total hardness and cardiovascular health.  Cardiovascular diseases and hard drinking waters: implications from a systematic review with meta-analysis of case-control studies (PubMed, 2017)     Hard water consumption seems to be protective against CVD. However,   the high heterogeneity and the existence of publication bias limits   the robustness and generalizability of these findings.   Anyway, hard water may not contribute that much to your calcium and magnesium intake. 2 liters of hard water (an average daily requirement) will likely contain only about 100 mg of calcium (Recommended Daily Allowance is 1,000 mg/day) and 50 mg of magnesium (RDA = 400 mg/day).",
        "id": 2077,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can HIV patients get further infected by their own blood?",
        "body": "No.  One is either infected or one isn't. There is no middle ground. Infection is defined as      invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, as in an infectious disease.   Also, biologically speaking, there aren't even viruses added because they remove them from their organism first (draw blood) and then re-insert them",
        "id": 2463,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When applying Neospirin to a wound, why is it advised to apply only a thin layer of it?",
        "body": "Like many medications you want to use the amount necessary, no more, no less. Contact dermatitis has been caused by Neosporin (and similar products). I would mention a few particular reasons:   Topical antibiotics can contribute to medication resistant germs, and having goop sliding out of a bandage and onto non-injured areas of your skin serves no beneficial purpose but does increase medication resistance.  The more you expose yourself to Neosporin-esque products, the higher your rates for contact dermatitis.  The effect of having a gooey half-Neosporin / half-body-fluid ooze coming out of your bandage isn't going to help anything, will weaken the bandage, and is spreading its little cocktail all over your skin.   In short it's pretty common to always use the smallest amount of pharmacology to achieve whatever ends. The more medicine you use, the greater the chance of side effects and the greater their impact will be.",
        "id": 4,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can thinking too much lead to brain damage?",
        "body": "No     A cerebral hemorrhage (also spelled haemorrhage) is a type of   intracranial hemorrhage that occurs within the brain tissue. It can be   caused by brain trauma, or it can occur spontaneously in hemorrhagic   stroke. Non-traumatic intracerebral hemorrhage (or hemorrhagic stroke)   is a spontaneous bleeding into the brain tissue because of rupture of   blood vessels that may be caused by high blood pressure, amyloidosis (Amyloidosis is a rare, serious disease caused by accumulation of proteins in the form of abnormal, insoluble fibres),   or structural weakness of blood vessel walls (aneurysms,   arterio-venous malformations).      Hemphill, J. Claude; Greenberg, Steven M.; Anderson, Craig S.; Becker, Kyra; Bendok, Bernard R.; Cushman, Mary; Fung, Gordon L.;   Goldstein, Joshua N.; Macdonald, R. Loch (2015-07-01). \"Guidelines for   the Management of Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage A Guideline for   Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association/American   Stroke Association\". Stroke. 46 (7): 2032\u20132060. ",
        "id": 1186,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Safely removing a foreign object from the human body without bleeding to death?",
        "body": "Treating a wound at home until emergency personnel arrive:   Lay flat on the ground, although head can be elevated for comfort. Leave object in wound: This is because the object acts as a plug and slows the flow of blood from the wound, also, emergency staff are trained to take the objects out without causing more damage to internal organs and muscles. Apply pressure and dress the wounds as best as you can around the object, trying not to move it too much. If the object isn't there, use a shirt or clean fabric to apply pressure on the wound. You can also place a credit card in the wound to try to stem blood flow. If it is really bleeding badly apply pressure to the artery (pressure points) leading to the wound. In limbs this is done by tying a string of cloth around the top of the limb close to the torso. Just make sure that fingers and toes are not turning blue or black from lack of blood flow.   (I learned this in first aid class, but here is the wiki that explains it: Attend a stab wound)    There is actually a new object that the FDA just approved to help aid in the treatment of wounds like this. It's called the XSTAT. It's been used on the battlefield already to slow blood flow in the wound(s). Basically it stuffs the wound to prevent further blood loss.  When you're in the hospital, the object will be surgically removed. It is like any other surgery like heart valve replacements or an appendectomy. These surgeons also have to be trained for accidentally nicking an artery. You can either sew the wound together or use heat to seal the wound. It's basically like any other surgery, only they have to use things like Ultrasound and Xrays to make sure that they've closed all of the bleeds. If you want more information, you can read here about a test case \"Ricky\" who was shot. ",
        "id": 656,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What causes optical floaters to be more or less visible?",
        "body": "   [S]ometimes they become more prominent again, usually for a few minutes at a time. Is this a difference in perception (something is causing me to notice them more) or a difference in placement (they've moved into the center of my field of vision for some reason and are thus harder to ignore)?   Floaters do move, but not very much. Mostly they \"sway and settle\" when we shift our focus of vision. Noticing floaters is likely a difference in perception, for example moving your line of sight from one which is complex to one with a simple background, for (a completely made up) example, from looking at a large painting to looking at a ceiling. The lack of contrast will make the irregularities in vision caused by floaters to stand out/be noticeable for a few minutes, maybe even be bothersome and worrisome, but it soon stops. You can \"find\" floaters by doing that, especially if you look into a softly lit surface, like an x-ray view box without the x-rays.      How do floaters \"work\"?   The vitreous humor (the very structures gel-like collagen &amp; fluid substance in the eyeball behind the iris) starts to break down/liquify in spots as we age; this is a common and benign cause of age-related floaters. You can picture how floaters work by imagining crystal-clear jello that had set in a clear glass. If you took a hot knife and quickly swiped it through the jello, some of the jello would melt; you would see an aberration in the path of light through that spot; you wouldn't see perfectly through it. Turn the glass and the aberration would be different at different angles. That's approximately how floaters work. Some are minimal, some are more marked because of the plane of liquifaction/separation of collagen fibers. They do not \"move\", though, through the vitreous any more than that melted jello moves through the whole.     This morning I had a particularly bad attack of this while I was looking down and reading something...   Sudden onset of floaters disturbing your visual field are most likely not the more benign aging process of vitreous breakdown, and merit a trip (or at least a call) to the opthalmologist. Those kinds of floaters (sometimes associated with flashes) tend to be caused by vitreous detachment from the retina, and can lead to retinal detachments and/or hemorrhages. While often just isolated in nature, it can be a sign of more serious and vision-threatening retinal pathology.     I'd like to avoid a recurrence.   I don't know of any way at all to predict or restrict recurrences unless there is retinal pathology being treated by an opthalmologist.  Floaters Acute-onset floaters and flashes  ",
        "id": 520,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do painkillers cure headaches or just stop us from feeling it?",
        "body": "How do painkillers work?  When part of your body is injured, special nerve endings send pain messages back to your brain.  Painkilling drugs interfere with these messages, either at the site of the injury, in the spinal cord or in the brain itself.   Many painkillers are based on one of two naturally occurring drugs: aspirin and opiates. Aspirin uses a chemical found in willow bark, used by the Ancient Greeks to relieve pain. Opiates all work in a similar way to opium, which is extracted from poppies.  Other Source: http://mentalfloss.com/article/18615/how-do-painkillers-find-kill-pain",
        "id": 1565,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are too high and too low levels of blood pressure?",
        "body": "You should consult a physician for treatment of hypertension if you fit into the categories below.   When should you be alarmed? That's subjective. Physicians are alarmed when they see systolic blood pressure (SBP) is equal to or greater than 180 mm Hg, or where diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is equal to or greater than 120 mm Hg; HBP with any signs or symptoms (especially stroke symptoms, confusion, hallucinations, etc.) is an emergency. Patients should be alarmed long  before physicians are - in other words, get treated before it becomes dangerous!   The Eighth Joint National Committee on Hypertension (JNC 8) analyzed large studies of hypertension from 1966 through 2009 - with some consideration of studies up to 2013 - and made recommendations for adults age 18 and older with hypertension. The outcomes considered in making these recommendations, i.e. what will happen if one fails to lower blood pressure (BP) were, among others:   overall mortality cardiovascular disease (CVD)-related mortality chronic kidney disease (CKD)-related mortality myocardial infarction, heart failure, hospitalization for heart failure, stroke need for coronary, carotid, renal, and lower extremity revascularization (bypass, etc.)   They rated their recommendations on strength of evidence. Grades were assigned.    A: Strong - based on substantial (good) evidence (strongly recommended) B: Moderate - the net benefit is moderate to substantial C: Weak - moderate certainty that there is a small net benefit D: Against -no net benefit or that risks/harms outweigh benefits. E: Expert Opinion  - insufficient evidence but the committee recommends (no great studies available) - further research recommended N: No Recommendation for or against - insufficient/unclear/conflicting evidence; further research is recommended in this area.  Grade A: aged 60 years or older, treat to lower BP if systolic blood pressure (SBP) is equal to or greater than 150 mm Hg, or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is equal to or greater than 90 mm Hg. Goal: SBP &lt; 150 mm Hg; DBP &lt; 90 mm Hg. (controversial for individuals 60 years or older who do not have diabetes or chronic kidney disease)  Grade A: ages 30 through 59 years, treat DBP of 90 mm Hg or higher; goal DBP &lt; 90 mm Hg.   Grade B: patients &lt; 60 years with hypertension (HTN): treat; goal: BP &lt; 140/90 mm Hg.   Grade E: ages 18 through 29 years, treat DBP of 90 mm Hg or higher; goal DBP &lt; 90 mm Hg.  In patients with SBP between 130-150 mm Hg, there was no increase in risk in adverse effects.  LOW BP: There are no JNC8 recommendations; the decision to treat is based on expert opinion only. Goal: decrease symptoms; treat underlying cause (if any) (I.e.: if you're active, have no problems, but your BP is 80/60 - well... that's great! No adverse outcome is known.  Please see references for other treatment groups and recommendation strength.  2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults. Report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8) How Is Hypotension Treated?",
        "id": 146,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is lemon juice bad for heart failure?",
        "body": "The study you link explains that the problem with grapefruit juice is its tendency to cause inhibition of the CYP3A4 liver enzyme, which is needed for the metabolism of many medications - including some statins prescribed to lower cholesterol. The wikipedia article on grapefruit explains this further, in particular:     Mechanism of grapefruit\u2013drug interaction      Grapefruit juice contains furanocoumarins. Furanocoumarins   irreversibly inhibit a cytochrome P450 metabolizing enzyme called   CYP3A4, as stated above. CYP3A4 is a metabolizing enzyme for almost   50% of drugs, and is found in the liver and small intestinal   epithelial cells. As a result, many drugs are impacted by   consumption of grapefruit juice. When the metabolizing enzyme is   inhibited, less of the drug will be metabolized by it in the   epithelial cells. A decrease in drug metabolism means more of the   original form of the drug could pass unchanged to systemic blood   circulation. An unexpected high dose of the drug in the blood   could lead to fatal drug toxicity.      The furanocoumarins found in grapefruit juice are natural chemicals.   Thus, they are present in all forms of the fruit, including freshly   squeezed juice, frozen concentrate, and whole fruit. All these forms   of the grapefruit juice have the potential to limit the metabolizing   activity of CYP3A4. One whole grapefruit, or a glass of 200 mL (6.8 US   fl oz) of grapefruit juice can cause drug overdose toxicity.   The article goes on to explain that these furanocoumarins are unique to grapefruit, and I have not heard of any other fruit being associated with grapefruit in drug interaction warnings. However, since grapefruit is a cross of pumelo and a bitter orange, and since pumelo tastes like a big grapefruit, I would be cautious of pumelo.  However, I found no evidence that other common citrus contains furanocoumarins and would cause any adverse effects on drug metabolism. Furthermore, this study found that grapefruit itself lowers cholesterol and recommended it for reducing the risk of heart disease.",
        "id": 315,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are cell phones still prohibited from the ER or other medical facilities? Why or why not?",
        "body": "Cairo University's Journal of Advanced Research (PDF) looks at all of the studies on ElectroMagnetic Interferene (EMI) from mobile cellular phones and medical equipment.  It says that based on the literature, it was realized that during the initial development of cellular phones, the 2G cellular phones had caused more interference in the functioning of some medical devices.  This has been observed because the medical devices were not originally designed to interact with cell phones on their first come on the scene.  By instant, it is the same way that the aircraft was not originally planned that passengers might use an RF emitting equipment onboard.  It also says that at present, the situation may be the similar in some developing countries, but elsewhere, the situation has changed a lot, and the current medical devices are designed to operate safely under any conditions of usage.  The UK Government also says     We do not recommend a ban on the use of mobile phones in hospitals.   However, a mobile phone can affect sensitive equipment if it is closer   than 1 metre.      Therefore we recommend that hospitals/trusts develop local policies to   minimise the risk of interference in places such as:         treatment areas such as:         intensive therapy units (ITU)   special care baby units (SCBU)   operating theatres   accident and emergency departments      by the patient\u2019s bedside when the patient is connected to any electro-medical device   other areas where interference with a device could have a detrimental effect on patients    ",
        "id": 1513,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Multiple Sclerosis and Chemotherapy",
        "body": "   Is there any truth behind chemotherapy actually curing Multiple Sclerosis?   Unfortunately, no. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic illness - meaning that it cannot be completely cured. There are, however, various therapeutic options for patients suffering from MS. Some of them include chemotherapeutics - but not as the first-line treatment.  The important thing to understand is that there are many forms of MS, which can roughly be categorised in four groups:   Relapsing - remitting (RR) Primary progressive Progressive relapsing Secondary progressive   Severity, clinical manifestations and treatment options differ across these types. The most common type is RR.     RR therapeutic approach  For RR there are two sorts of treatment:   Treatment in an acute relapse, where short-term corticosteroid treatment is used to stop the attack Disease modifying treatment - which is used regularly in order to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses, and improve prognosis.   It is the second group, where chemotherapy can be used, but, as mentioned above not as a first-line treatment. This means that other therapeutic options should be tried first. These are predominantly glatiramer acetate or interferon beta. If they don't work some other medicines are considered. Only if they don't work either, the next option is using chemotherapeutic agents.    How would a chemotherapeutic work in MS?  There are, again two approaches. The first one is to use these medicines, at lower doses than to treat cancer, to suppress the immune system. Since MS is an autoimmune disease, immune suppression reduces the inflammation and damage to the myelin sheet. Another approach is to use these medicines to ablate the immune system prior to autologous stem cell transplant, where the patient's bone marrow is replaced with their stem cells. This line of treatment is, however, still in experimental phase and has not been approved. There are many complications, difficulties and side-effects of this procedure, and thus far the risks outweigh the benefits.     Examples  Some sorts of chemotherapeutic agents that have been used or tested for MS:   Cladribine has been tested for MS and even approved in some countries, but after it was rejected by the FDA and EMeA on the basis of lacking evidence for benefits outweighing the risks, the manufacturer stopped marketing applications, since new clinical trials would be costly.  Cyclophosphamide has also been investigated. Efficacy in aggressive form of disease was reported, but so were some serious adverse effects. Further research in necessary, and official guidelines, such as those by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) do not recommend use of cyclophosphamide in MS treatment.  Methotrexate has shown no significant efficacy in primary progressive MS, and was less effective than interferon beta in RR.     References:  Drug Therapies for Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis  Recommendations for Drug Therapies for Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis  Multiple Sclerosis: A Primary Care Perspective  Treatment Optimization in MS: Canadian MS Working Group Updated Recommendations  A Placebo-Controlled Trial of Oral Cladribine for Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis  Merck: Regulatory Update on Cladribine Tablets  Interventions affecting disease progression: cyclophosphamide should not be used in patients with multiple sclerosis (because research evidence does not show beneficial effects on the course of the condition).  Effects of low dose methotrexate on relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis in comparison to Interferon \u03b2-1\u03b1: A randomized controlled trial  Methotrexate for multiple sclerosis  Hematopoietic stem cell therapy for multiple sclerosis: top 10 lessons learned.",
        "id": 785,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it so much harder to swallow pills than it is to swallow food?",
        "body": "The human (and other animals) upper digestive tract is 'designed' to ingest relatively large (compared to most pills), soft, moist boluses.  The muscles of the tongue and pharynx can propel these kinds of objects (including liquid) into the esophagus with ease, unless there is some specific pathology at work.  Chewing also tends to naturally push food toward the swallowing position.  The tablets and capsules you asked about, on the other hand, tend to be dry and hard and are not chewed.  There is little for the tongue and throat muscles to 'grab' as they try to push the object back to where it can actually enter the esophagus.  They also tend to get stuck because of their dryness.  Once you have actually swallowed a pill without water or food to help it along, the difficulty for the ingestion process does not end.  The esophagus also has difficulty pushing them down to the stomach, though gravity helps.  Sometimes they do end up lodged in the esophagus where they ultimately dissolve and pass on down, but not before they may have caused damage to the lining of the esophagus from their caustic properties or just from the pressure of it's presence.  The struggle is your tongue and throat telling you, \"You are asking me to do something I wasn't designed to do!\"  Anatomy and Physiology of Feeding and Swallowing  \u2013 Normal and Abnormal is an excellent discussion of human swallowing by Koichiro Matsuo, DDS, PhD and Jeffrey B. Palmer, MD.",
        "id": 267,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is ibuprofen contra-indicated for a child with chicken pox?",
        "body": "An earlier warning regarding medications in children with chicken pox came to the following conclusion:     The safety of ibuprofen suspension in children. (2003)    The risk of invasive Group A streptococcal infection was associated with demographic and environmental factors and persistent high fever. There was no association with the use of ibuprofen or paracetamol alone, but the use of both agents was significantly associated with streptococcal infection. These studies demonstrate that children with fever tolerate treatment with ibuprofen as well as treatment with paracetamol. Neither agent is associated with an increased risk of necrotising soft tissue infections.   But while this paper was deemed of high quality, things have changed:  NSAIDs in paediatrics: caution with varicella! (2015)  And these larger data sets now resulted in the following recommendations:     Nursing management of childhood chickenpox infection   (Boyd G, Heaton PA, Wilkinson R et al (2017) )      There has been much controversy in the media about the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) medication, such as ibuprofen, to manage fever in children with chickenpox. NICE (2016) recommends that NSAIDs should not be used in children with chickenpox due to its link to potentially life- and limb-threatening necrotising bacterial super-infection associated with group A streptococcus. A case-control study (n=140,111), undertaken in primary care in the UK, provides evidence to support this guidance (Mikaeloff et al 2008).   In summary, NSAIDs and aspirin should be avoided in patients with chickenpox, and pain and pyrexia should be controlled with reasonable alternatives, such as paracetamol (Durand et al 2015).   There are still very vocal practitioners, concluding from their professional experience and the evidence from literature, that especially in severe cases of fever iboprofen is still not strictly contra-indicated: Ibuprofen bei Varizellen nicht kontraindiziert. Although they too place paracetamol at first place for the medication of choice, they also emphasise a generally very cautious approach to previously too light heartedly prescribed medications in general.  My own conclusion from this would be to try to avoid ibuprofen, aspirin and paracetamol. If a medication of this profile \u2013 reducing pain and fever \u2013 would still and indeed be needed, than currently paracetamol \u2013 used alone \u2013 seems to win out.",
        "id": 2128,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can a hospital not have enough resources to deal with serious trauma?",
        "body": "It could mean any number of things. First and foremost, serious trauma requires immediate surgery, and quite often surgeons with different specialties. A single patient might need a thoracic surgeon, a neurosurgeon and an orthopedic surgeon (they might need more than that but you get the idea).   In addition to the surgeons, they'll also need a surgical team, an available operating room, anesthesiology, radiology with CT capabilities, blood bank, and a bed in ICU. Most smaller hospitals aren't likely to have multiple surgeons and all the support staff and facilities immediately available. It's extremely expensive to maintain such resources 24/7, especially since they would be idle much of the time at a small hospital.  This is why trauma systems were developed in the US. These are hospitals specially designated as trauma centers. Typically, they're large, urban hospitals that have the patient volume and financial resources to be able to afford keeping such staff and facilities available. Along with the trauma centers, regulations exist that define which patients meet the criteria of being \"trauma patients\" and EMS will transport all such patients to the nearest trauma center rather than simply the nearest hospital.  See also my answer to this question.",
        "id": 2045,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens to the brain after a hemispherectomy?",
        "body": "   Once hemostasis was achieved, the hemispherectomy cavity was copiously irrigated until the fluid was crystal clear. While keeping the cavity dry, a layer of Gelfoam and Surgicel was placed over the residual raw surface. This allows these materials to adhere and, hopefully, form the basis of an adhesive layer that will preclude subsequent hemorrhage.We have discovered no adverse effects from leaving the hemispherectomy cavity unfilled with saline. The dura was closed in a water-tight fashion and was not stitched medially to the falx and tentorium or laterally to the inner table of the skull. Eventually the hemispherectomy cavity fills with CSF   Hemispherectomy: a hemidecortication approach and review of 52 cases   The Encyclopedia of Surgery  also does not mention the cavity being filled during surgery.   The hemisphere that is left does not move towards the center, as can be seen in MRI scans, for example in this paper: Hemispherectomy in the treatment of seizures: a review",
        "id": 455,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does my routine effect my health and age?",
        "body": "Any routine and habits affect a persons health, for better or worse. There is no way anyone can tell you what health affects your routine will have on you, only that it increases or decreases your risks for certain diseases.    A sedentary lifestyle, increases risks of disease, both physical and mental. See:  https://www.lifespanfitn.ess.com/workplace/resources/articles/health-risks-of-a-sedentary-lifestyle   Having a routine such as using a bike as transportation can help reduce these risks, because bike riding is a form of exercise.  However,being consistently active throughout the day is best.   Diet also affects people, the healthier you eat, and the less junk you eat the better.  Sometimes peoples poor lifestyle choices do not catch up to them until later in life, or they may find that problems they never thought would happen to them, catch up to them sooner than they would like.  ",
        "id": 1871,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is \"we are the only species drinking milk from other animals\" a good argument against drinking milk?",
        "body": "It's not a good argument which doesn't meant hat there aren't better arguments in favor of it. The problem with \"we're the only animals that do X\" arguments, is that you can substitute for X a lot of other things besides drinking milk and then it becomes problematic in an obvious way. E.g. we're the only animals that walk upright, we're the only animals that cook food, etc. etc.  Now, there is something to be said about dairy products not being the ideal source of calcium and protein due to containing saturated fats. But they are rich in protein and minerals like calcium. If we leave out dairy products from the diet, then it seems to be quite difficult to get to the RDA of calcium. But here we must take into account another difference between humans and animals;  humans are sedentary animals whose typical fitness level falls way short of the maximum fitness level they could achieve.  Now, I do exercise a lot, I eat close to 4000 Kcal a day, and I do get a lot of calcium from sources that would be irrelevant for most other people. These sources are:   Water contains 60 mg of calcium per liter, I drink 3.5 liters a day, so I get 210 mg from tap water alone. Whole grain bread contains 30 mg of calcium per 100 grams, I eat 500 grams a day, so I get 150 mg from dry bread alone. Vegetables, some contain a lot of calcium, some contain oxalates that block calcium absorption, so one has to be careful with making estimates here. An example could be broccoli, this contains 47 mg per 100 grams. I typically eat 500 grams, so I get 235 mg from broccoli. Potatoes contain 12 mg per 100 grams, but I eat 1 kg of potatoes, so I'll get 120 mg from the dry potatoes alone.   So, an a typical day I can easily get to (210 + 150 + 235 + 120) mg = 715 mg of calcium (the RDA is about 1 gram) from sources most people wouldn't even count because \"they hardly contain any calcium\". Now, I do also eat cheese, yogurt and other dairy products. Just two slices of cheese contains 600 mg of calcium.   Most people eat only half the calories I eat, this would bring down the amount of calcium they could typically get to about 360 mg. However, most people also tend to get a smaller fraction of their calories from whole grains, and more from fat. Instead of eating a sandwich with meat, they eat meat with a sandwich like this:    Then you can forget about getting even that 360 mg of calcium from non-dairy sources. A few hundred mg of calcium is all most people can count on from getting from non-dairy sources, therefore they can't do without dairy products.",
        "id": 1474,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does someone get an STI if it has to be transmitted in the first place?",
        "body": "How are STIs different from other pathogens?  STIs are infections of pathogens that either live in the genital area and/or exist in body fluids and also usually don't get transmitted in simpler ways such as airborne particles or contaminated surfaces.   Sexual contact is simply one of the few ways that humans exchange those fluids or have skin contact between the genital areas of two individuals and the by far most common way for the disease to be transmitted.  For example, Staphylococcus aureus bacteria live very happily in the genital regions and could certainly be transmitted sexually, but we don't think of Staph as a sexually transmitted disease because it's found in/on other places too and is also transmitted easily without skin to skin contact.  Where do STIs originate from in the human population?  Bacteria and viruses that today are thought of as sexually transmitted are simply those that have specialized to infecting and spreading in the genital area. Given that there are relatives of those pathogens that have other patterns of infection, and given how evolution operates more broadly speaking, it is straightforward to say that sexually transmitted infections are caused by pathogens that evolved from similar species with other patterns of infection/transmission or other host species.  HIV is a special case in that it's a relatively new STI for humans and its history has been closely studied (see Sharp &amp; Hahn, 2011). Viruses similar to HIV seem to have been in monkeys for a long time, and at some point were transmitted to chimpanzees, probably due to blood contact between chimpanzees and monkeys they were eating, and most likely spread to humans from chimpanzees in the same fashion. Once a human was infected in this fashion, the primary way they spread the infection to other humans was sexually.  Where do STIs originate from in a given person or sexually active couple  Given two people who are not infected with STIs, they cannot spread STIs between them through sexual contact: STIs do not originate spontaneously.   However, someone who currently does not have an STI can in the future become someone who does have an STI and then spread infection to their partner, primarily by sexual contact with some third party who is infected.  It is possible for sexually transmitted pathogens to also be transmitted in other ways; for example, for several STIs transmission is possible during childbirth, herpes viruses can be transmitted by mouth contact, HIV is transmitted by blood contact such as contaminated blood supplies or reused needles in situations of poor medical practice or illicit drug use (or in the patient zero case described above for HIV, through blood contact of another host).   Someone infected in any of these ways can then spread the infection to a sexual partner.    Sharp, P. M., &amp; Hahn, B. H. (2011). Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine, 1(1), a006841. DOI",
        "id": 2714,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the indications for ethanol?",
        "body": "Fomepizole is indeed the preferred treatment for methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning, but ethanol can be used if fomepizole is not available.  Some doctors/ hospitals will treat alcohol withdrawal with alcohol (or at least did fairly recently), but everywhere I've worked uses benzodiazepines or similar medications to treat it.  I am not aware of any other indications for treating patients with ethanol.",
        "id": 2156,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any hazards associated with changing sleep schedules (shift work)?",
        "body": "It is difficult to know if your friend will experience adverse health affects associated with shift work, as everyone has different levels of tolerance for the effects of shift work.  Shift work however has been shown to increase the risk of some adverse health effects.  The following is a list of adverse health effects that have are commonly associated with those working shift work or working long hours:   Sleep   Scientific publications on the topic generally agree that working shift work or working long hours has adverse affects on sleep (1).  In particular the quantity of sleep may be reduced by up to 2 hours per day, with a reduction in REM and stage 2 sleep.   Fatigue   It is logical that decreased sleep will also lead to increased levels of fatigue.  Reports of fatigue among shift workers is very common, and remains an important, but vague symptom often a major cause of shift work intolerance.   Mental Health   There have been reports of increased anxiety and depression among shift workers.  The question of whether shift work causes increased psychiatric morbidity however is still an open question, as correlation doesn't always imply causation.   Cardiovascular Disorders   Scandinavian studies show that shift workers have a 40% increased risk of cardiovascular disease, including angina, hypertension and myocardial infarction.  It is thought this increase risk may be associated with disturbances in the circadian rhythm, increased stress, poor diet and lack of exercise.     Reproductive Disorders   There is increasing evidence that shift work may lead to increased risk of spontaneous abortion, low birth weight and prematurity.  The risks of developing any of these adverse health affects from shift work may also depend on age, sex and personality.  Evidence shows older people are able to tolerate shift work less than younger people.  References:   Harrington, J. Malcolm. \"Health effects of shift work and extended hours of work.\" Occupational and Environmental medicine 58.1 (2001): 68-72. Akerstedt T. Psychological and psychophysiological effects of shiftwork. Scand J Work Environ Health 1990:16(suppl 1):67\u201373. Boggild H, Knuttson A. Shift work, risk factors and cardiovascular disease. Scand J Work Environ Health 1999;25:85\u201399. Spurgeon A. Working time, occupational health and safety. Geneva: ILO (in press) ",
        "id": 117,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Insulin & break down of different nutrient groups",
        "body": "It is true that insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose, amino acids (from proteins) and fatty acids into the cells (PubMed, 2011: \"Insulin effects in muscle and adipose tissue\").  Diabetes.co.uk:     Carbohydrates tend to be the largest factor accounting for changes in   blood sugar. It\u2019s worth noting that proteins can also affect sugar   levels as well.   Fats are not specifically mentioned in this or other similar articles.  Most insulin adjustment guidelines, like this one from University of California, SF, mention only carbohydrates, so I'm not sure if you will find more reliable recommendation from random online users.   By the way, according to this article Tandofline, 2016: \"Impact of Diet Composition on Blood Glucose Regulation\":     Longer term intake of high protein diets in human has been shown to   result in whole-body insulin resistance. ",
        "id": 2047,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do extended release tablets work?",
        "body": "Some extended release products do remain in the stomach while the drug is being released but how they remain in the stomach is often not a function of the size of the tablet itself. To help explain I have included some background information about drug formulation. I am referencing the text, Applied Biopharmaceutics &amp; Pharmacokinetics, and my experience as a pharmacy student.   Another term used to describe extended release products is modified release products, this is differentiated from conventional immediate release products. However, even within immediate release formulations, absorption can be slowed due to the drug itself being in an inactive form or if the drug is very lipophilic resulting in slower absorption by the GI tract itself.   Among modified release products, there are several different types of technologies which provide different mechanisms for slowing the release of drugs or altering the drug release mechanism. Some examples of modified release formulations are delayed release (generally include enteric coated), extended release and orally disintegrating.    Delayed release tablets are sometimes enteric coated. This enteric coat is specifically designed to prevent dissolution of the tablet in the stomach. This is sometimes meant to protect the drug from the acidic environment of the stomach, but also sometimes meant to protect the stomach from the disrupting presence of the drug.   Specifically, extended release refers to a drug formulation where the rate of drug release is engineered by a special coating, membrane infused with the drug, capsule with a special opening, a capsule containing special beads, or difficult to dissolve tablet. Some products use multiple mechanisms to achieve the desired rate of drug release. Referencing your question specifically, there are many drugs that remain in the stomach while the release of the drug takes place but this not true of all extended-release formulations (ex: some drugs are designed to remain in the small intestine). Products that remain in the stomach while the drug is released are known as gastroretentive systems.   There are several designs that have been used to maintain the drug in the stomach. A few of these include but are not limited to high-density systems, floating systems, expandable systems, and mucoadhesive or bioadhesive systems. In the expandable systems, one example being metformin ER, a diabetes drug, the tablet unfolds or expands preventing passage through the pyloric sphincter. These expandable tablets make up only a small portion of gastroretentive products. A more common form being the floating or mucoadhesive systems. In the floating systems, the tablet or capsule is designed to be less dense than the stomach contents and thus remain at the top of the stomach while the drug is released. In the mucoadhesive/bioadhesive formulation, the drug has a special coating that allows it to adhere to the wall of the stomach and prevent it from passing through to the small intestine.   Ultimately there are many technologies that allow for extended release products to function. While the overall concept is the same, how it is achieved can be quite different from drug to drug.",
        "id": 1427,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to increase my bodyweight?",
        "body": "I think I can answer this question as I'm in similar situation. You can definitely gain weight by following these steps:   Consult a doctor and get yourself checked so as to make sure that you don't have any medical problem or any food allergy. Because you need to gain weight, you will have to start eating more than you do now. So, increase your number of meals from 3 to 4 and from 4 to 5. First, eat less in each diet but increase diet frequency. A time will come when you will start eating after every two hours of so. Exercise. It will take regular practise but you can start with these Youtube video And you need to make sure that you eat healthy afterwards you start gaining weight. It will confirm that the weight you gain is not in fat. So exercises and proper diet. Hoping that you follow these steps and do not give up.   sources: http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/healthy-weight/",
        "id": 250,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does M\u00f6ller\u2019s omega-3 fish oil help to improve brain possibility and reduce hight hertbeate?",
        "body": "The omega-3 supplement provider claims that omega-3 fatty acid supplements are important for proper functioning of the heart and brain, among other.  This review Reduction of heart rate by omega-3 fatty acids and the potential underlying mechanisms (PubMed, 2012) concludes:     Recent human and animal studies have shown that omega-3 fatty acids   can reduce heart rate.   In one small 2006 study in men with myocardial infarct, omega-3 fatty acids decreased heart rate at rest from 73 +/- 13 to 68 +/- 13 beats/min.   But this alone are just some dry statistical facts. For anyone with a high heart rate of an unknown origin, I strongly suggest to get a diagnosis from a heart specialist before starting any treatment, including omega-3 supplements. The treatment choice largely depends on the cause. ",
        "id": 2538,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is dry ice safe to ingest?",
        "body": "In addition to the extreme cold of dry ice when it warms and becomes a gas again it gains volume rapidly. If it is in your stomach you will inflate to fatal levels. There are many cases where this has happened. If you are drinking a beverage with dry ice in it make sure it has all evaporated (melted). It is used because of the 'cool' steam it gives of as it heats.  Supporting sources      http://chemistry.about.com/od/dryice/f/Why-Is-Dry-Ice-Dangerous.htm   Similar thread     http://www.instructables.com/answers/Is-drinking-water-with-dry-ice-in-it-dangerous/   The volume increase with sublimation is the same as liquid nitrogen:     http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/9594000/Warning-over-liquid-nitrogen-drinks-after-girl-loses-stomach.html ",
        "id": 592,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any disadvantages to using earmuffs?",
        "body": "When operating machines that make loud noises, it is sometimes necessary to protect your hearing. But when you take away the signal that comes from one of your senses, in this case your ears (not just because you are using hearing protection the loud noises from the machine overwhelm other noises), the computations the brain makes to give you representation of the environment you are in, is affected. When you are operating potentially dangerous machines, you may think you can rely on your vision, but you may underestimate that this is now affected by not getting any audio signals.  If you see something under normal circumstances, you have to consider why you were looking in that direction in the first place. In many cases there could have been some noise that on a subconscious level made you look in that direction, while at the conscious level you don't have the information about that sound, it may look like a random action. So, without the audio signals, you wouldn't have looked in the right direction, potentially making you not noticing a problem that needed to be addressed.  This does not mean that you should ignore any guidelines to use hearing protection. Rather, it means that you should stick to all the other safety instructions, like e.g. rigorously sticking to check lists when you may feel that's over the top, as well.  That vision and hearing are hard wired together can be seen very clearly from e.g. the McGurk effect. This demonstrates that what you hear is affected by what you see. ",
        "id": 749,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Did I catch a cold from eating unwashed fruit?",
        "body": "Unlikely.  There are different viruses responsible for the symptoms grouped together as \"common cold\":  .....................................    :     Virus     : Incubation period :    :...............:...................:    : Adenovirus    : 4-8 days          :    : Coronaviruses : 2-5 days          :     : Rhinovirus    : 2-4 days          :     :...............:...................:          Source: Lessler, J., Reich, N. G., Brookmeyer, R., Perl, T. M.,   Nelson, K. E., &amp; Cummings, D. A. T. (2009). Incubation periods of   acute respiratory viral infections: a systematic review. The Lancet.   Infectious Diseases, 9(5), 291\u2013300.   http://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70069-6   They all have been found to have an incubation period ranging from 2 up to 8 days. This includes \"normal\" infection, and I strongly doubt the strawberries will carry a lot more viruses than standard infections (see below). Only 5% of cases will have an incubation period shorter than 20 hours. Because they are distributed normally, it is very unlikely to have an incubation period of 3-6 hours, which is what you described.       It is important to wash all fruit and vegetables before you eat them to ensure they are clean and safe to eat.   Most people are aware of the importance of handling meat safely, but many consider the risk of food poisoning from vegetables to be low.   \"It's a myth that a little bit of dirt doesn't do you any harm,\" says Dr Andrew Wadge, chief scientist of the Food Standards Agency (FSA).   \"Soil can sometimes carry harmful bacteria and, although food producers have good systems in place to clean vegetables, the risk can never be entirely eliminated.\"      Source: NHS.uk   In the EU, imported fruits have a lot of regulations to match, and that they travel from the supplier to the consumer without being cleaned once is highly unlikely (still does happen sometimes, but highly unlikely). Because the gems can be quite devastating and infectious, on should always clean vegetables to prevent those to spread, but it doesn't seem too dangerous missing one out.   Also, think about exponential growth. If the amount of viruses in your body were doubled every 2 hours (I don't have any numbers for that, but anything above seems unlikely), and your incubation time was 30 hours earlier than expected, you would have to have taken in 215 more viruses than the normally infected.    Most important:     Since the virus is sensitive to pH and temperature, it replicates best below core body temperature and does not survive the acids found in the stomach, which means the virus does not infect the lower respiratory or gastrointestinal tract.      Source: Morgridge Institute for Research   This makes it even more unlikely, because the virus only has time to reach the nasal area until you've swallowed it.    Bottom line: Think about yesterday or the day before. With whom did you shake hands and touched your face afterwards without washing your hands? Who did you stand next to that had a running nose?",
        "id": 2290,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do fetuses' blood types ever cause Graft versus Host in the mother?",
        "body": "Very rarely, The AB father plus O mother scenario you describe can cause a disease: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn_(ABO)  More commonly, Rh-positive father plus Rh-negative mother can cause a disease: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease  I can't find any reports of the mother suffering any ill effects from the baby's immune system.    The likely reason for this is that fetuses don't make their own antibodies.  They rely on the mother's antibodies.   See:  https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5782/at-what-age-do-babies-begin-to-synthesize-their-own-antibodies",
        "id": 1571,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do vitamins protect you from common cold?",
        "body": "Research results are somewhat inconsistent but generally seem to be unfavorable to vitamins alone (in contrast to vitamins in combination with other things).  From \"Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence\" (2014):     Zinc appears to be effective in reducing the number of colds per year, at least in children. (...) vitamin D and echinacea showed no evidence of benefit. Vitamin C may provide some benefit in people under physical stress (e.g., marathon runners or soldiers in subarctic environments), but no meaningful benefit has been shown for the average patient. (...)  Evidence for interventions aimed at preventing and treating the common cold is frequently of poor quality, and results are inconsistent. The best evidence for the prevention of the common cold supports physical interventions (e.g., handwashing) and possibly the use of zinc supplements.   (Caution: be aware, that intranasal zinc may induce some adverse effects, i.e. anosmia syndrome.)  From \"Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold.\" (2013):     The failure of vitamin C supplementation to reduce the incidence of colds in the general population indicates that routine vitamin C supplementation is not justified   From \"The effect of exercise on prevention of the common cold: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trial studies.\" (2015):     Dietary supplements, such as vitamin C and E, are used by many people, especially athletes. The users often believe that high dosages of supplements improve health (resistance to illness and disease) and physical performance. These assumptions are, however, generally not supported in the scientific literature.   From \"Vitamin D for prevention of respiratory tract infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis\" (2012):     On the basis of this study, we can conclude that vitamin D is useful in prevention of respiratory tract infections. But looking at the availability of only five clinical trials there is need of conduction of more clinical trials so that more valid conclusion can be reached.   From \"Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on upper respiratory tract infections in healthy adults: the VIDARIS randomized controlled trial.\" (2012):     (...) monthly administration of 100,000 IU of vitamin D did not reduce the incidence or severity of URTIs in healthy adults. ",
        "id": 632,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eye drops came to mouth through eyes",
        "body": "Mucous membranes (think of skin like the inside of your lip) readily absorb most medications.  Your eyes, nose, mouth, etc are lined in mucous membranes.  They are contiguous; the eyes drain into the nasal passageways, the nasal and oral passageways are united at the nasopharyx.  Basically any over the counter or prescription nasal sprays or eye drops that you would use at the recommended dosage, if they dripped down your throat, would not be toxic in the mouth/stomach any more than in the eye or nose. Even if they taste gross. HOWEVER, this is only true at the doses you should be using them, for the small amount that might drip down the back of your throat after proper application.  This eye drop, for example, can cause toxic effects in kids at 1 or 2 ml dose.  But that's much more than the few drops you should be administering.  This is an article on child poisonings from drinking eyedrops.    Think of how Visine helps constrict the blood vessels in your eyes to reduce redness.  So you use a drop or two and it acts on the eye, barely anything is absorbed into the blood, and barely anything makes its way down into your nose/mouth.  But if you drank a squirt of it, it could have that vasoconstrictive effect throughout your whole body.    So keep your Visine out of tiny hands.  Also, I can't speak for all the special eyedrops used by ophthalmologists, but we're talking about meds you'd use at home.  Some important things to note:   If a nasal spray (like fluticasone or azelastine) is coming down the back of your throat enough to really taste it, you need to make sure you're using it correctly.  Look at youtube for videos on how to properly use nasal sprays. You mention ear drops - that's definitely not the same situation, as your middle ear communicates with your sinuses via the Eustachian tubes BUT your external ear canal is NOT connected with anything internal - it's a dead end.  Or it should be.  If you have ear drops draining into your sinuses/mouth, go to the ER or an ENT (otorhinolaryngologist) immediately to check for ear drum perforation!    If enough of a topical corticosteroid (e.g. fluticasone) is swallowed regularly, it can predispose to oral/esophageal thrush in some individuals, similar to inhaled corticosteroids.  Another reason to make sure you're spraying it right! ",
        "id": 1854,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Puncturing a vein vs. an artery",
        "body": "Venous punctures are typically done for regular blood work such as getting a CBC (Complete Blood Count) and are often enough for regular access - medications etc. Venous access is also used for things such as PIC lines (IV catheters that run almost all the way to the heart).  Arterial punctures are often done for getting a \"blood gas\". This is used to measure gas levels in the blood (such as CO2 and O2). Arterial punctures can also be used for establishing an arterial line in a large artery such as the femoral.   To sum things up a bit: although venous punctures are more common and often enough; arterial punctures are often needed for more specific testing.   For additional information, please visit MedScape and LabCE. I hope this information is helpful to you, if you have any additional questions, please let me know. ",
        "id": 1166,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you change involuntary reactions?",
        "body": "Reflexes  When it comes to physical reflexes, they are for the most part fixed. The link provided involves exploring a knee-reaction due to hitting the patellar tendon...     \"Okay, so I hit, and what happens is... her leg kicks forward. There\u2019s a muscle contraction happening...\"   This reflex is due to a sensory neuron connected to a motor neruon, but doesn't involve mental processing.  Learned Responses  Certain other behaviors that were learned over time, and have become \"automatic\", might be difficult to change, but might be able to. Sometimes, they can be over-ridden by \"learning\" a different reaction (using similar scenarios). So for example, one might have an involuntary gag-reflex when they consume certain vegetables, but over time, lose sensitivity to those things.  Thoughts  Although you asked about actions, there may be evidence that we can over time change both \"automatic\" actions and thoughts. \"Automatic\" is in quotes here because typically these are behaviors/thoughts that our brains have been trained to perform over a long period of time, and practiced so much that we basically due them by default, and one might argue involuntarily.  Research indicates that many people have subconscious racism, but      \"habit-breaking intervention allowed individuals to overcome implicit   racial bias\"   Since our brains control actions through the motor-cortex, theoretically, there are some actions too which, if the associated neurons pass through your motor-cortex, then by constantly practicing and training your body through mimicking the situation, you may be able to consciously override the default reaction (more easily over time).",
        "id": 631,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much nicotine is in tea and vegetables",
        "body": "Not much. Unless your vegetables or teas do contain tobacco or some exotic weeds.    In the letter mentioned in the comments was an interesting table listing different plant sources of nicotine. The highest amount was reported for eggplant containing 100ng/g of nicotine. In that letter this was translated into 10g of plant material needed for a consumer to ingest 1 \u00b5g of nicotine. These values were used because this level of exposure was deemed equivalent with the amount of nicotine obtained by a passive indoor smoker. An average cigarette contains around 10mg nicotine. (Take note of the different units of measurement.)  That would mean an unhealthy amount of vegetable is needed to be eaten to approach the nicotine levels of just one cigarette for a smoker.  Although this should have been clear from the start given the different magnitudes this letter provoked quite some reactions:     The main problem with the inferences in these authors' letter is a 500-fold error in the calculations used to determine the vegetable equivalent of toxicologically meaningful exposure to tobacco smoke.   Determining the amount of vegetable consumption suggestive of exposure to cigarette smoke is also more complicated and physiologically difficult than implied by Domino et al. First, it would take an approximately 500-fold increase in the amount of vegetables estimated by Domino et al. to produce exposure equivalent to half a cigarette a day -- e.g., more than 100 kg of tomatoes would have to be consumed in one day. Second, as acknowledged by Domino et al., nicotine exposure would be greatly reduced if vegetable skins, which contain most of the nicotine, were not eaten or if they were cooked in water, thereby extracting the nicotine. Third, ingesting nicotine is not equivalent to inhaling it, since absorption from the stomach is poor and 70 percent of the nicotine entering the circulation is metabolized during its first pass through the liver. Finally, it has been well confirmed that the exposure to tobacco smoke indicated by a plasma concentration of 5 to 10 ng of cotinine per milliliter is of clear toxicologic importance,3 whereas there is no evidence that daily exposure to the equivalent of 1 percent of the smoke from one puff of a cigarette would be of toxicologic importance or could possibly confound assessment of environmental exposure.[formatting and emphasis added]   To which the original author responded:     The amount of nicotine in certain vegetables is obviously too small to produce any pharmacologic or toxicologic effects. The difference between the small amount of nicotine in certain vegetables and the large amount in one average tobacco cigarette offers a marvelous lesson, both pharmacologic and toxicologic, on the importance of dose-effect relations. We never intended to suggest that vegetarians could become nicotine addicts, or that children who hate vegetables have a legitimate reason for refusing to eat them.   Many plants, only especially those of the nightshade family, contain chemicals that are classified as active drugs; like nicotine. But tobacco is specifically breed for nicotine content and cigarettes are standardised for its content.  Determination of the Nicotine Content of Various Edible Nightshades (Solanaceae) and Their Products and Estimation of the Associated Dietary Nicotine Intake:     Aubergines. Aubergines were investigated by Castro and Monji (1986), Sheen (1988), and Davis et al. (1991) with inconsistent results. The concentrations published previously include not detectable (Davis et al., 1991), >100 \u03bcg kg-1 wet weight (Castro and Monji, 1986), and 2.65 mg kg-1 dry weight (Sheen, 1988). We investigated four different types of aubergines, and nicotine could only be quantified in one sample. In two of the remaining samples, nicotine was detected but could not be quantified. [\u2026] Tea. Conflicting results are found in the literature concerning nicotine concentrations in black tea (Sheen, 1998; Davis et al., 1991; Domino et al., 1993). Therefore, tea samples were analyzed for nicotine to address these contradictory results. The concentrations that were found in the dry tea leaves (Table 6) were surprisingly high in concentration, ranging from 163 to 1600 \u03bcg kg-1. Large variations were found within the types of black tea, whereas the concentrations were more or less consistent within the green teas. For an estimation of the dietary nicotine intake from tea, the nicotine concentration of the tea leaves is less relevant than that in brewed tea. Tea was brewed using common amounts of tea leaves and water. The results show that nicotine is not efficiently extracted by conventional brewing techniques (Table 7). Even tea with very high nicotine concentrations in the leaves (e.g., teas 3 and 4) do not show high amounts in the brewed tea. If detectable, the extraction yield is in a range of 20-25%.    Averaged Nicotine Concentrations    Based on the Observed Nicotine Concentrations source                       nicotine (ng/g)  SD (ng/g) nicotine from potatoes       4.5              1.9 nicotine from tomatoes       2.7              0.7 nicotine from tomato paste   5.3              0.6 nicotine from tomato sauce   4.5              1.5 nicotine from ketchup        7.3              1.5 nicotine from aubergine      2.1              0.5 nicotine from brewed tea     4.0              0.3      The edible Solanaceae analyzed in this investigation were found to contain relatively consistent amounts of nicotine in the range of 2-7 \u03bcg/kg for fresh fruits. These results are in agreement with most but not all of the previous results reported in the literature. Nicotine appears to survive a variety of processing operations such as the preparation of tomato ketchup, sauces, and pastes as well as frying and boiling of potatoes. These products showed slightly higher concentrations in comparison to the related fresh fruits. Relatively large concentrations of nicotine found in tea leaves were not reflected in brewed tea. Using food consumption data from government sources, a mean estimated daily dietary intake of nicotine is approximately 1.4 and 2.25 \u03bcg/day at the 95th percentile based on the nicotine content and consumption data discussed in this report. It is possible that these estimates are low because of incomplete food consumption data. Further work is required to relate the estimated dietary nicotine intake to nicotine metabolite concentrations in biological fluids to be able to make reliable statements about the importance of dietary nicotine intake in comparison to environmental tobacco smoke exposure.   To bring that back into perspective, a reminder on SI units of magnitude seems appropriate:     10\u22123g  = mg = milligram   10\u22126g = \u00b5g = microgram   10\u22129g = ng = nanogram   And:     Nicotine is the principal alkaloid in commercial tobacco, N. tabacum, usually accounting for >90% of the alkaloid fraction whereas nornicotine, anabasine, and anatabine seldom accumulate to >5%. Further nicotinoids are present only in very small concentrations in tobacco (Bush et al. 1999).[\u2026]   Nicotinoid Content of Cured Tobacco Leaves and Tobacco Smoke. Of course there are differences concerning the qualitative alkaloid profile of green tobacco leaves, cured leaves, and tobacco smoke. This is also true from the quantitative point of view. Thus, due to enzymatic transformation during senescence and air-curing, e.g., the nicotine content may be reduced in favour of an increased amount of nornicotine. This may happen even to an extreme extent. Due to individual genetic conversion so-called \u201cconverters\u201d are able to metabolize leaf nicotine to its nor congener up to 95% (Siminszky et al. 2005 and references therein). This happens more frequently in burley cultivars than in flue-cured tobaccos. Moreover, aging and flue-curing turned out to lead to a reduction on the concentrations of minor nicotinoid components.   The accumulation of large amounts of nicotine and/or its congeners is confined to four solanaceous genera belonging to two clades of the subfamily Nicotianoideae (Nicotianeae clade: Nicotiana; Cyphanthera clade: Crenidium, Cyphanthera, Duboisia).   Eckart Eich: \"Solanaceae and Convolvulaceae: Secondary Metabolites: Biosynthesis, Chemotaxonomy, Biological and Economic Significance\", Springer: New York, 2008, Ch 3.3 Nicotinoids (Tobacco Alkaloids) p83   Perhaps the eggplant/aubergine is one species to really worry about?     Particularly high levels of calystegines have been determined in Solunum melongena, eggplant/aubergine, and Capsicum annuum var. annuum, bell pepper/paprika. (Eich, p165.)   N-trans-Feruloyltyramine (E-feruloyltyramine) and its octopamine [2-hydroxytyramine = 1-(p-hydroxyphe- nyl)-2-aminoethanol] congener as well as N-trans-p-coumaroyloctopamine were discovered in the roots of S. melongena L., eggplant/aubergine. Furthermore, the already known N-trans-p-coumaroyltyramine was detected in this sample (Yoshihara et al. 1978).(Eich, p 299.)       These changes in the nicotin content are in the order of      The nicotine content in the tobacco leaves varies between 0.05% (Virginia tobacco) through 3 - 4% (\"Burley\") to 7.5% (\"Machorka\", Russia)   To compare that value for tobacco of the mild Virginia kind again with the eggplant from the letter in the first paragraph with the absurdly high values given there, assuming both kinds of plant material were ingested:      source                       nicotine (ng/g)       nicotine from eggplant       ~100     nicotine from tobacco     ~500000      Keep in  mind that eggplant values seem to be a sensational result of the unreplicated kind. First hand smoking means not everything of that material is inhaled, some is burnt, some is lost to the environment. This concentration is much higher in commercial blends of tobacco found in cigarettes. The effect of second hand smoke is further diluted.     Nicotine is a very potent poison for most animals from protozoa to humans. The acutely fatal peroral dose for an adult is probably 60mg (Taylor 1995) which is equivalent to the nicotine content of five cigarettes or one cigar. However, smoking results in a considerable decomposition of this alkaloid due to pyrolysis; furthermore, much of the remaining volatile nicotine is not absorbed due to exhalation. (Eich, p98.)   The strict Swedish and Danish Health Council members conclude that      The average dietary exposure to nicotine from the food plants mentioned above was calculated to be 1.1 \u03bcg/day (88% from potatoes) in Sweden and 1.3 \u03bcg/day (70% from potatoes) in Denmark.   Nicotine is very toxic at high doses. The lethal dose in man is 50-100 mg, which approximately corresponds to the nicotine content of tobacco in 5 cigarettes. At lower doses it has many pharmacological effects.   In comparison, the total dietary exposure to nicotine is very low, and seems to be insignificant in relation to exposures giving rise to toxic and/or pharmacological effects.   The dietary exposure to nicotine is about two orders of magnitude lower than the exposure in passive smoking and around three orders of magnitude lower than the direct exposure during cigarette smoking (around 900 - 1 700 \u03bcg nicotine is assumed to be absorbed from a single cigarette). In addition to the difference in exposure level, absorption is much lower when exposure occurs in the diet than when by the inhalation route. Absorption from the stomach is poor and 60 to 70 percent of the nicotine is metabolised during the first pass through the liver, whereas absorption in the lungs is good and distributes nicotine systemically.     Thus, it seems very unlikely that the low nicotine levels from dietary exposure would cause any toxicological harm in human.   Christer Andersson &amp; Paula Wennstr\u00f6m &amp; J\u00f8rn Gry: \"Nicotine alkaloids in Solanaceous food plants\", TemaNord 2003:531   Summary  Yes, nicotine can be detected in vegetables. Although this is quoted above, it worth repetition: \"it would take an approximately 500-fold increase in the amount of vegetables estimated by Domino et al. to produce exposure equivalent to half a cigarette a day \u2013\u2013 e.g more than 100 kg of tomatoes would have to be consumed in one day.\" Unless one employs very sophisticated concentration and purification methods (or plays the long game in breeding those plants for nicotine content) the concentrations of nicotine in commonly consumed vegetables are much too low as to be of any concern (or value, depending on perspective).",
        "id": 1528,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any side-effects for using deodorant daily?",
        "body": "I had never heard about what your cousin refers to. Most studies about the impact of deodorants that I have ever found were regarding its effect on patients undergoing radiation therapy for breast cancer.  Even then, there does not seem to exist any evidence that deodorant increases the risk of breast cancer, as seen here:     We found no evidence from the combined published studies that deodorant promotes development of breast cancer, despite in vitro evidence supporting the parabens hypothesis   This matter is also approached in a French study:     Aucune \u00e9tude prospective \u00e9pid\u00e9miologique n\u2019a, \u00e0 ce jour,d\u00e9montr\u00e9 cette hypoth\u00e8se, mais l\u2019angoisse g\u00e9n\u00e9r\u00e9e par cessp\u00e9culations  pseudoscientifiques  am\u00e8ne  r\u00e9guli\u00e8rement  denombreuses patientes et femmes \u00e0 questionner leur m\u00e9decinsur l\u2019innocuit\u00e9 d\u2019utilisation de ces produits. (...) Au final, il semble possible d\u2019affirmer que cette question neconstitue pas un probl\u00e8me de sant\u00e9 publique et qu\u2019il appara\u00eetdonc inutile de poursuivre les recherches sur ce sujet.   Even at Cancer.Gov they say:     However, researchers at the National Cancer Institute (NCI), a part of the National Institutes of Health, are not aware of any conclusive evidence linking the use of underarm antiperspirants or deodorants and the subsequent development of breast cancer.    Overall, it seems safe to use deodorants. At least I haven't find any evidence otherwise.",
        "id": 536,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Causes of a heart attack without any blocked arteries",
        "body": "The Society of Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions has an excellent summary of the types of heart attacks on their web site. As you can see, the first type, STEMI, is generally due to blockages, but the other types are due only to partial blockages or no blockage at all.  He probably suffered one of the types of events other than a STEMI heart attack.     STEMI Heart Attacks      An ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is a serious   form of heart attack in which a coronary artery is completely blocked   and a large part of the heart muscle is unable to receive blood. \u201cST   segment elevation\u201d refers to a pattern that shows up on an   electrocardiogram (EKG).      This type of heart attack requires immediate, emergency   revascularization which restores blood flow through the artery. This   revascularization is achieved either with drugs in the form of   thrombolytics (clot busters), which are given intravenously, or   mechanically with angioplasty \u2013 a treatment using thin, flexible tubes   called catheters to open the closed artery.      These catheters are positioned at the beginning of the coronary   arteries (the arteries of the heart), and contrast dye is injected   through them to enable the interventional cardiologist to gather   images of any blockage in the coronary arteries. Very thin wires   (guidewires) are then advanced beyond the blockage and the clot is   sucked out and/or a small balloon is opened to push the blockage out   of the way. A stent\u2013 a metal, mesh tube \u2013 is often inserted at the   same time to permanently prop the cleared artery open to allow blood   to flow through.       NSTEMI Heart Attacks      A non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) is a type of   heart attack that does not show a change in the ST segment elevation   on an electrocardiogram and that results in less damage to the   patient\u2019s heart. However, these patients will test positively for a   protein called troponin in their blood that is released from the heart   muscle when it is damaged. In NSTEMI heart attacks, it is likely that   any coronary artery blockages are partial or temporary.      Treatment for an NSTEMI heart attack consists of medication and   evaluation for whether a blockage is present that should be treated   with medication only, cleared through angioplasty or treated with   cardiac bypass graft surgery.       Coronary Artery Spasm      A coronary artery spasm is when the artery wall tightens and blood   flow through the artery is restricted \u2013 potentially leading to chest   pain, or blood flow is cut off all together \u2013 causing a heart attack.   Coronary artery spasm comes and goes. Because there may not be a   build-up of plaque or a blood clot in the artery, a coronary artery   spasm may not be discovered by an imaging test called an angiogram   that is typically performed to check arteries for blockages.      Treatment for a coronary artery spasm consists of medications such as   nitrates and calcium channel blockers.       Demand Ischemia      Demand ischemia is another type of heart attack for which blockages in   the arteries may not be present. It occurs when a patient\u2019s heart   needs more oxygen than is available in the body\u2019s supply. It may occur   in patients with infection, anemia, or tachyarrhythmias (abnormally   fast heart rates). Blood tests will show the presence of enzymes that   indicate damage to the heart muscle. ",
        "id": 942,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How precisely can a physiotherapist assess muscles tightness?",
        "body": "As a continence and pelvic pain physiotherapist pelvic floor muscle tightness is actually an assessment of increased tone or muscle overactivity. Palpation is digital and sides are compared as are each individual muscle within the pelvic floor. Tightness/increased tone/overactivity will often manifest as trigger points or areas of pain or discomfort. Another objective measure is by using a perineometer which actually gives a reading in cmH2O or mmHg and has norms to compare against.",
        "id": 2059,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I calculate the daily recommended % value of calcium based on the information I have?",
        "body": "For calcium it depends on age and gender, as shown in this chart:    So for a male aged 19-50, 1 liter of Fiji water would be:  17 / 1000 = .017, or 1.7% of the RDV   And 1 liter of Evian would be:  78 / 1000 = .078, or 7.8% of the RDV   In other words, if you're looking for calcium in bottled water, you're looking in the wrong place. It's the most expensive possible source of calcium you could choose and not a very good one.  As Mayo notes:     Your body doesn't produce calcium, so you must get it through other   sources. Calcium can be found in a variety of foods, including:         Dairy products, such as cheese, milk and yogurt   Dark green leafy vegetables, such as broccoli and kale   Fish with edible soft bones, such as sardines and canned salmon   Calcium-fortified foods and beverages, such as soy products, cereal and   fruit juices, and milk substitutes         To absorb calcium, your body also needs vitamin D. A few foods   naturally contain small amounts of vitamin D, such as canned salmon   with bones and egg yolks. You can also get vitamin D from fortified   foods and sun exposure. The RDA for vitamin D is 600 international   units (15 micrograms) a day for most adults.   Notice that they don't mention water.",
        "id": 842,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to fall asleep while swimming?",
        "body": "In USMC basic training we had to learn the so-called T-Float. It's a survival float where you just hang in the water with your body limp, then every 10 seconds or so you bring your hands up towards your chest, straight out into a T, exhale, and then push down with your hands. You then tilt your head out of the water and inhale. In order to pass the, recruit has to do this for 30 minutes. I did, but fell quite asleep while doing so. They had to wake me up to get me out of the pool. Man, was I relaxed after that!So yes! You can fall asleep in the water, not necessarily while swimming, as in moving from point A to point B, but you can fall asleep without drowning.",
        "id": 1373,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to Quit Porn and Masturbation?",
        "body": "It's probably difficult but possible to quit. Here's a case report of a guy who was severely addicted. He spent up to 8 hours a day online, watching pornography, and lost several jobs due to addiction. He needed help from a psychiatrist, but did manage to get sexually sober. If he quit, you can too. :)  An Internet filter might help. Pluckeye is good. Or you can use a parental-control filter and have a friend hold the password.  Buy iOS devices, not Android devices. They're easier to filter.  Don't sleep with a cellphone next to your bed.  Keep a window shade open behind you when you're on the computer. That way, people can see in. Fear of being caught might help.  The Pornfree sub-Reddit might also be helpful. Visit and post every day.",
        "id": 1444,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the yolk of the egg should not be eaten for bodybuilding?",
        "body": "It is a common myth that egg yolk should not be eaten for bodybuilding. Unfortunately, it is a misguided thing.   Egg yolk contains vitamins and minerals in varying amount. It raises good cholesterol. Cholesterol promotes more muscle growth. A study showed that those with higher cholesterol levels built more muscle than those will lower levels. Egg yolks are a fantastic food source. This goes for everyone, but especially for the bodybuilder. ",
        "id": 1649,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "why is it not allowed to take aspirin based medicines before a day and after a week of cataract surgery?",
        "body": "Aspirin has a \"blood thinning\" effect; it inhibits platelet aggregation. Therefore, it gives a higher risk of bleeding in the period surrounding the surgery.  I have not found a review about specifically cataract surgery, but this large trial (>10000 patients) shows that in noncardiac surgeries, aspirin gives an increased risk of major bleeding.",
        "id": 1732,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of exposure to Solar/Lunar eclipse on Human body",
        "body": "NASA has this to say about the effects of eclipses on humans:     There is no evidence that eclipses have any physical effect on humans. However, eclipses have always been capable of producing profound psychological effects. For millennia, solar eclipses have been interpreted as portents of doom by virtually every known civilization. These have stimulated responses that run the gamut from human sacrifices to feelings of awe and bewilderment. Although there are no direct physical effects involving known forces, the consequences of the induced human psychological states have indeed led to physical effects.   In other words, any effects are psychosomatic, they exist only because one believes they exist. There cannot be any possible physical effect caused by eclipses, both lunar or solar, as there are absolutely no physical effects (gravitational, magnetic, or otherwise) caused by the particular alignment that produces eclipses. (Tidal effects to not apply to objects as small as a human body, because the difference in gravity produced by the earth, sun, or moon between the top of your body and the bottom is nil.)It is commonly believed that one should not look at the sun during a solar eclipse, and this is true if the eclipse is partial, annular, and before and after a total eclipse. NASA's 2017 Eclipse site says this about viewing the total eclipse:      During a total solar eclipse when the disk of the moon fully covers the sun, the brilliant corona emits only electromagnetic radiation, though sometimes with a greenish hue. Scientists have studied this radiation for centuries. Being a million times fainter than the light from the sun itself, there is nothing in the coronal light that could cross 150 million kilometers of space, penetrate our dense atmosphere, and cause blindness. However, if you watched the sun before totality, you will catch a glimpse of the brilliant solar surface and this can cause retinal damage, though the typical human instinctual response is to quickly look away before any severe damage has actually occurred.   The aforementioned site also covers some of the other myths about solar eclipses such as pregnancies, food poisoning, etc.",
        "id": 2388,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Without Trial and Error or a dental professional, how can you determine your size of Interdental Brush?",
        "body": "Some companies offer a probe that allows you to measure on your own the spaces between the teeth. Here is an example ",
        "id": 1014,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "life expectancy for cerebral palsy (spastic diplegia)?",
        "body": "Having done more searching over the last month, I thought it might be helpful to others if I answered my own question. I came to three realizations:  First, this is like asking, \"Dear Google, when am I going to die?\" It's impossible to know for sure and it's unnerving to even ask.  Second, searching for \"older people with cerebral palsy\" on the internet is a tricky proposition. Suppose that a person is 80 today (in 2016), and living with cerebral palsy. That means he/she was born in 1936. Would a person with a mild CP impairment even have been diagnosed as such, given the social stigma? Unlikely. Would such a person be tech savvy enough to be posting on message boards? Also unlikely. Would such a person be posting specifically about CP? Extremely unlikely. Looking for such people is like hunting for unicorns.  All that said, this comment thread features several older people with CP chiming in. I also found a few scattered forum posts from people in their 60s and 70s living with CP. The oldest person I was able to find was Maureen Arcand, who wrote extensively about living with CP and lived to be 86, despite considerable mobility impairments. That's actually above the current US average life expectancy of 81.6 years for women.  Third, there has indeed been some research on this topic, though it can be hard to find. Hutton and Pharoah (2006) distinguish between cases with and without severe impairments, and found that in cases where there were no severe impairments (i.e., able to stand and walk, able to care for oneself, no comorbid disorders such as epilepsy), survival outcomes were similar to the general population. Strauss et al (2008) found that in their highest-functioning category, survival rates were slightly reduced compared to the general population, but they go on to caution that, \"if a person's pattern of disabilities is at an extreme end of the range for a given group, their life expectancy may differ substantially from the group average.\" As Hutton says in this summary document, \"A child who is mildly affected by CP can expect to have much the same length of life as a child without CP.\"  To sum up, for those of us fortunate enough to be on the extreme mild end of the CP spectrum, all available evidence suggests that the CP itself doesn't put a drag on our lifespans. If you go to Dr. Google, you can find CP resource websites claiming that CP \"puts extra strain on the heart\" or that people with CP \"don't build up a reserve of energy when resting\". That may be true in more moderate or severe cases, but it seems to be an unlikely risk factor for mild cases.  Will I live to be 101, like my grandfather has done (and, unaccountably, continues to do)? Probably not, but then, that's true for most people. Just like everyone else, I don't know how long I've got, but the research says my odds are just about as good as anyone else's.",
        "id": 1187,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how does alcohol damage the brain?",
        "body": "When drinking alcohol, the small water-soluble ethanol enters the bloodstream and moves around till it reaches the brain. Since it is a small molecule, it enters the blood-brain barrier and passes between brain cells (neurons) interfering with the neurotransmitters of the nervous system. Ethanol causes the release of Dopamine (Happiness Hormone) and stops Glutamate (a neurotransmitter that normally excites neurons) and this makes the brain slower and the person calmer and sleepy.  References and for more details: http://www.drinkingandyou.com/site/uk/xdrunk.htm http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/drugs-alcohol/how-alcohol-makes-drunk.htm",
        "id": 1139,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does exercise improve health?",
        "body": "Exercise does seem to have beneficial effects in treating and preventing many chronic diseases. As far as mechanism is concerned, we should probably narrow the scope:  Question:     What is the mechanism for the beneficial effects of exercise in people who have high blood pressure?   It seems to be multifactorial, and independent of any impact on weight loss. Regular exercises (with or without associated weight loss) causes a number of physiologic adaptations in metabolic, vascular, and cardiac health, all of which seem to contribute to the beneficial effects for people with high blood pressure (lower blood pressure, better long term disease outcomes). There are, of course, many types of exercise and many causes of high blood pressure, but these seem to apply generally.   Changes in sympathetic/parasympathetic tone: regular exercise causes decreased catecholamine production and (associated) decreased sympathetic mediated vasoconstriction. This leads directly to lower blood pressure because of the decrease in systemic vascular resistance Increased perfusion and development of muscular capillary beds. Increased perfusion of muscular beds may be the primary mechanism for the acute decrease in blood pressure. With regular exercise, angiogenesis causes further development of muscular capillary beds as well. The opening of arterioles to perfuse these (now more developed) capillary beds also decreases systemic vascular resistance (and along with it, blood pressure).   Improved insulin sensitivity: insulin sensitivity is compromised in many people with high blood pressure, whether or not they have frank diabetes. The reduction in circulating insulin improves clearance of lipids and glucose from the blood, and theoretically reduces the downstream negative effects of high circulating lipids and glucose, including atherosclerosis. This has a direct effect on hypertension as well as the downstream negative effects of hypertension. Decreased inflammation: regular exercise reduces circulating levels of inflammatory mediators, improving endothelial function (and decreasing atherosclerosis). This also has a direct effect on hypertension as well as its sequelae.  Improved cardiac function: regular exercise improves diastolic filling (directly, through beneficial adaptations in cardiac muscle, and, probably, indirectly, through the above effects on systemic vascular resistance, atherosclerosis, and endothelial function).    An excellent broad ranging review of the health benefits of physical activity discusses these benefits. You can find it for free here  A more recent review by the same first author is here, but it is behind a paywall.",
        "id": 2362,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can honey help with diabetes?",
        "body": "One of the main constituents present in honey that contributes largely in exhibiting antidiabetic effect is fructose. There is evidence that fructose tends to lower blood glucose levels in rodent models of diabetes. Mechanisms responsible for this may include a prolongation of gastric emptying time,reduced rate of intestinal absorption and reduced food intake. In addition to fructose, oligosaccharides such as palatinose (isomaltulose) present in honey have been reported to delay digestion and intestinal absorption of glucose resulting in reduced glycemia  Additionally, fructose has also been shown to stimulate glucokinase in hepatocytes which plays a significant role in the uptake and storage of glucose (as glycogen) by the liver.  Likewise, Honey contains a number of mineral elements such as zinc, selenium, copper, calcium, potassium, chromium, manganese and so on. Some of these minerals such as chromium are recognized for their role in the reduction of elevated blood glucose, maintenance of normal glucose tolerance and insulin secretion from the pancreatic \u03b2-cells.  Honey as an antidiabetic agent is likely to be more effective and beneficial if combined with conventional antidiabetic therapy.  If combined with conventional antidiabetic drugs or insulin, the use of honey may necessitate lower doses of these synthetic drugs or insulin to achieve similar glycemic control.  1.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3399220/ 2.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22337138 3.http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/17/1/248. 4.http://www.iomcworld.com/ijcrimph/files/v05-n04-02.pdf",
        "id": 715,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how to get rid of a raised mole in my left thigh which is painful sometimes?",
        "body": "Yes, moles can definitely be cancerous. They can be malignant melanoma, which is a deadly cancer unless treated early. The fact that it is asymmetrical is not a good sign.  Do not attempt to treat it yourself. That mole needs to be examined by a doctor ASAP. ",
        "id": 1082,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there evidence that the over-avoidance of germs weakens our immune system?",
        "body": "The hygiene hypothesis     For some reason I hold the opinion that the immune system needs to be kept busy so it wont get weak   In scientific terms, this is known as the hygiene hypothesis. It was proposed in 1989 by Strachan and is about whether people who have been exposed to a lower amount of pathogens in their childhood are more likely to develop autoimmune or hypersensitivity (allergy) disorders later in life. Strachan actually didn't propose it in the context of hygiene, but in the context of families having less children and thus children being exposed to their siblings' infections less often, though. He found that children with fewer siblings had a higher incidence of asthma and hayfever and came up with the hypothesis to explain his observation. The name has stuck, though.  Is it true? Possibly.  Chromic inflammatory diseases are in fact more prevalent in the so-called developed world. As Ghana got richer and presumably 'cleaner', the rates of allergies and asthma increased.  The role of vaccinations     letting your kids get low-risk childhood sicknesses like mumps, rubella or chickenpox is \"training\" their immune systems   Basically, no, even despite the hygiene hypothesis.  First of all, whether these are not low-risk diseases is in fact debatable, but outside the scope of this question, I think. Mumps and measles can end in encephalitis. Since you can not guarantee that every child who isn't vaccinated will get the disease 'naturally', not vaccinating compromises herd immunity and can lead to the more vulnerable members of society (small children, immunocompromised patients, pregnant women) being exposed, which can lead to severe consequences.  The mechanism by which all of this works is a lot more complicated than that the immune system needs to be kept busy, though. It depends on what the infections are, when they are, and what kind of immune response they raise.  Scientists have tried to determine which pathogens play a role in the hygiene hypothesis, and the result is now called the old friends hypothesis. From the summary of the 99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders:        The most relevant organisms are those that co-evolved with mammals, and already accompanied early hominids in the Paleolithic.   More recently evolved \u2018childhood infections\u2019 are not likely to have evolved this role, and recent epidemiology supports this contention.      Pathogens usually indicated in research are worm/parasite infections, and general exposure to bacteria from the environment. Household hygiene is likely to only play a small part in the process, while an larger part is played by letting children be exposed to things outside of an urban environment. Diseases we vaccinate against don't seem to play a role.",
        "id": 596,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "L-carnitine effective for weight loss?",
        "body": "There has been some talk about this in the exercise world over the last few years, as there has been a push by supplement manufacturers to convince people that it is a needed item. The theory is that since it transports fatty acids to be broken down, more carnitine will transport more, thus driving increased fat utilization/breakdown.  L-Carnitine is a protein that is manufactured in the body, from the amino acids lysine and methionine by the kidneys and the liver. It can also be consumed, and it is mostly stored in tissues such as skeletal and cardiac muscle. It plays a role in delivering long chain fatty acids to mitochondria for energy metabolism, as well as transporting out waste products. The body excretes excess carnitine to maintain stable blood levels, so unless you are deficient (Or have a condition where your body does not independently produce it), you are unlikely to benefit from extra carnitine consumption.  I was able to find two different studies regarding the effect on weight loss. The first study was performed using obese rats fed a low calorie (hypocaloric) diet. One group was not given a supplement, the other group had added carnitine. At the end of the study, while there was weight loss and favorable fat to protein ratio shifts for both groups, the carnitine group did not produce a greater loss of weight.  The second study was similar, except it was performed using moderately overweight women, divided into two groups. One group consumed a placebo, the other carnitine, and they all did the same exercise program. In the end, there was no statistical difference between the groups for weight loss and body composition. In addition, 5 of the 18 (28%) in the carnitine group had to drop out due to diarrhea and nausea.",
        "id": 771,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Splitting pills in half",
        "body": "Yes, it's true, or at least it might be true for any given pill. In the US, the FDA specifically approves splitting of pills only when the manufacturer plans for it by including it in their drug approval application. By including it in their application the FDA will require the manufacturer to submit evidence that splitting the pills results in equal dosages and equal effectiveness. Without that evidence, you as a consumer have no way of being sure how it will behave. Maybe it will be okay and maybe it won't.   Per the FDA:     FDA has approved drugs where tablet splitting is part of the   manufacturer\u2019s drug application. \"If the tablet is approved for   splitting, the information will be provided in the drug\u2019s professional   prescribing information,\" says Mansoor Khan, Ph.D., director of the   Division of Product Quality Research in FDA's Office of Pharmaceutical   Science.   It's pretty far fetched to think that manufacturers are going to increase profits by telling consumers their pills shouldn't be split. The percentage of patients that would even apply to would be small since doctors don't make a practice of prescribing stronger strengths than patients actually need. Also, pill dosages are sized to meet the majority of patients' needs so any increased profits they actually realized would be trivial and probably not worth the risk of the bad PR that would result from being discovered.",
        "id": 829,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What diet can be appropriate for a person with obesity, diabetes, hypertension and chronic kidney disease?",
        "body": "Before going into nutrient-specific discussion, let's mention that weight loss alone can help in:  a) Diabetes 1 (Cleveland Clinic, 2014)     Many studies have shown that weight-loss surgery can improve or even   reverse symptoms of type 2 diabetes. A new study led by a Cleveland   Clinic physician shows the same surgery can significantly help people   with type 1 diabetes.   b) Hypertension (The Journal of Family Practice, 2013)     WEIGHT LOSS OF 4 KG by diet reduces systolic and diastolic blood   pressure (BP) by 4.5 and 3.2 mm Hg, respectively...     There may be no need to significantly restrict carbohydrates neither for weight loss nor diabetes. Saying that, it can help decrease both food craving and blood sugar spikes after meals if a person consumes \"slow carbohydrates\" - the ones with a low glycemic index, such as from whole grains and legumes, instead of fast carbohydrates (glucose from sweets, fruit juices and other sugary drinks) (Diabetes diet, Mayo Clinic).  Low sodium diet can help reduce high blood pressure and can be necessary in impaired kidney function (Low-sodium diet, UpToDate).  Diet restricted in proteins, potassium and phosphates may be necessary in chronic kidney disease, depending on the kidney function (Eating right for chronic kidney disease, NIDDK.gov).  After all these restrictions, there are still plenty foods to eat.",
        "id": 2468,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do corticosteroids cause high blood pressure?",
        "body": "I've found a supporting source for the fluid retention claim, in an excerpt from Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine, 6th edition (from 2003). This separates the effects on the kidney into two categories, depending in part on the drug: mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid.  Mineralocorticoid effects include   Loss of potassium and hydrogen Increase in extracellular fluid volume Increase in sodium retention   Glucocorticoid effects include   Increase in plasma flow in the kidney Increase in sodium retention   Both types of effects can occur in limited frequencies outside the kidney, generally in the gastrointestinal system.    These effects can then lead to a variety of symptoms, including high blood pressure. Mineralocorticoids can cause chronic arterial hypertension through long-term sodium retention. Glucocorticoids can do the same, through several factors (the details of which are unknown):   Increase in filtration fraction, the ratio of glomerular filtration rate to renal plasma flow[1] Increase in glomerular hypertension, high pressure in the glomerular capillaries[2] Increase in synthesis of angiotensinogen, a protein involved in regulating blood pressure,[3] and atrial natriuretic peptide[4], a peptide involved in regulating renal blood flow and sodium excretion Decrease in the synthesis of prostaglandin, lipids that in the kidney regulate blood flow and vasodilation[5] Increase in vasopressor responsiveness (interestingly enough, this can be related to angiotensin II; see Drury et al. (1984))   Vasodilation refers to the size of the capillaries; dilation of the capillaries decreases blood pressure, while the reverse increases blood pressure. This is perhaps the most direct effect of corticosteroids on hypertension and blood pressure.  Note: Here, the superscripts indicate secondary sources that explained the significances of these in more detail (which I included); the textbook merely listed them.    Additional sources cited:  [1]: Costnazo, Linda. Physiology: Cases and Problems  [2]: Juan Mac\u00edas-N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. The Aging Kidney in Health and Disease  [3]: AGT angiotensinogen (serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A, member 8) [ Homo sapiens (human) ]  [4]: Claudio Ronco et al. Critical Care Nephorology  [5]: Jasjit Bindra. Prostaglandin Synthesis",
        "id": 662,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name of medical instruments for laparoscopy?",
        "body": "The most important instrument is laparoscope/endoscope which is      a fiberoptic instrument inserted through an incision in the abdominal wall and used to examine visually the interior of the peritoneal cavity. (link)   Laparoscope is the instrument with video camera.  There are also:   veres needle needed for draining fluids trocar insufflator for insufflation (insufflation  looks like that)      Traditionally, the first step during laparoscopic surgery is to distend the abdomen, including entry into the abdomen and then insufflation with a gas (pneumoperitoneum), providing sufficient operating space to ensure adequate visualization of the structures and manipulation of instruments (link). ",
        "id": 1051,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is neurofibromatosis?",
        "body": "In essence, neurofibromatosis is a disorder that makes nerve cells grow out of control and develop tumors. These tumors can be anywhere nerve cells are, so in the brain, spine, etc. Tumors, to most people, mean cancer, but cancers are a special (malignant) form of tumors. The tumors in neurofibromatosis may or may not develop into cancer. However, even if neurofibromatosis doesn't develop into cancer, the tumors can cause pain and other symptoms (such as hearing loss) because they press on nerves.   It's usually recognized in childhood or early adulthood. There are three forms:  Neurofibromatosis 1:  The most common form, symptoms appear in children, some of them in young children (under 5)        Flat, light brown spots on the skin   Freckling in the armpits or groin area   Soft bumps on or under the skin (neurofibromas)   Tiny bumps on the iris of your eye    Bone deformities   Learning disabilities   Larger than average head size   Short stature      Neurofibromatosis 2   Less common and usually appears in teenagers. Symptoms are:         Gradual hearing loss   Ringing in the ears   Poor balance   vision problems   facial drop   numbness and weakness in the arms or legs   pain      Schwannomatosis  A rare form only recently discovered that usually doesn't get dicovered until people are over 20 or even 30. It causes painful tumors, but not in the nerves that are responsible for hearing, so it doesn't cause hearing loss  Neurofibromatosis is a genetic disorder, that means it's inherited and not caused by anything environmental.  Sources:  Mayo Clinic - general overview  Mayo Clinic - Symptoms (source of the quotes, and more details on the symptoms)  NINDS Neurofibromatosis Information Page",
        "id": 604,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can refined flour be addictive?",
        "body": "Most of the studies study food addiction as a whole, because most of the biochemical mechanisms of food addiction are similar for the consumptions of sugar, refined flour, fats, caffeine and other substances. Also, addiction has been studied in relation of people's habit of eating food that is prepared with a combination of ingredients, as donuts or french fries, not separated ingredients. There are many studies that address the issue of excessive consumption of food as a real addiction, similar to that caused by drugs such as cocaine, heroin, alcohol and tobacco (Blumenthal &amp; Gold, 2010; Moreno &amp; Tandon, 2011).  Dr. Ifland identifies the refined products (sweeteners, carbohydrates, fat, salt and caffeine) as the substances that have the greatest potential to cause addiction. Our body is programmed to recognize sugars and fatty substances as fundamental for life and health: they're energy reserves and address us toward the consumption of fruit, rich in fiber, vitamins and minerals. With the refining of foods we have an exaggerated concentration of sugars and fats, and this disrupts our evolutionary adaptation (Ifland et al., 2009).  In the explanation of the mechanisms of addiction, there are at least three factors that contribute to the excessive consumption of foods. In the case of sugar and refined flour, part of the explanation goes through the concept of glycemic index: foods with high glycemic index - and load - cause a rise in blood sugar, which leads to an increase of insulinemia and subsequent hypoglycemia that is felt as hunger (Lennerz et al., 2013; Ludwig, 2002). Other explanations rely on the production of endogenous opioids caused by sugars that then would act as stimulants (Drewnowski, Krahn, Demitrack, Nairn, &amp; Gosnell, 1992, 1995), and the lower efficiency of dopamine receptors, which would lead to increased consumption of food to achieve the same satisfaction (Wang et al., 2001; Wang, Volkow, Thanos, &amp; Fowler, 2004). Lastly, a final interpretation refers to the fact that a high consumption of carbohydrates leads to increased levels of serotonin, which is perceived as a pleasant sensation (Wurtman, 1988).  References  Blumenthal, D. M., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2010). Neurobiology of food addiction. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 13(4), 359\u201365. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833ad4d4  Drewnowski, A., Krahn, D., Demitrack, M., Nairn, K., &amp; Gosnell, B. (1992). Taste responses and preferences for sweet high-fat foods: Evidence for opioid involvement. Physiology &amp; Behavior, 51(2), 371\u2013379. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(92)90155-U  Drewnowski, A., Krahn, D., Demitrack, M., Nairn, K., &amp; Gosnell, B. (1995). Naloxone, an opiate blocker, reduces the consumption of sweet high-fat foods in obese and lean female binge eaters. Am J Clin Nutr, 61(6), 1206\u20131212. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/61/6/1206.short  Ifland, J. R., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., Rourke, K. M., Taylor, W. C., Burau, K., \u2026 Manso, G. (2009). Refined food addiction: a classic substance use disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 72(5), 518\u201326. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.11.035  Lennerz, B. S., Alsop, D. C., Holsen, L. M., Stern, E., Rojas, R., Ebbeling, C. B., \u2026 Ludwig, D. S. (2013). Effects of dietary glycemic index on brain regions related to reward and craving in men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98(3), 641\u20137. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.064113  Ludwig, D. S. (2002). The Glycemic Index. JAMA, 287(18), 2414. doi:10.1001/jama.287.18.2414  Moreno, C., &amp; Tandon, R. (2011). Should overeating and obesity be classified as an addictive disorder in DSM-5? Current Pharmaceutical Design, 17(12), 1128\u201331. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21492085  Wang, G.-J., Volkow, N. D., Logan, J., Pappas, N. R., Wong, C. T., Zhu, W., \u2026 Fowler, J. S. (2001). Brain dopamine and obesity. The Lancet, 357(9253), 354\u2013357. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03643-6  Wang, G.-J., Volkow, N. D., Thanos, P. K., &amp; Fowler, J. S. (2004). Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as assessed by neurofunctional imaging: a concept review. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 23(3), 39\u201353. doi:10.1300/J069v23n03_04  Wurtman, J. J. (1988). Carbohydrate craving, mood changes, and obesity. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49 Suppl, 37\u20139. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3045110",
        "id": 99,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effect of mother's emotional state on baby",
        "body": "Yes, a mother's emotional state can, unfortunately, adversely affect the fetus, and the effect can in some cases can be long-lasting.  To put it simply, your genetic code is the blueprint of your physical, and to some degree your cognitive, self. Just as many desirable and undesirable conditions have a genetic basis, so too are more and more psychological conditions being found to have a genetic component (as well as an environmentsl component that extends into the intrautering environment, but I'll ignore that now.)  However, stress can actually alter the way DNA (your genetic code) is read; this is epigenesis - a change above the level of DNA that changes the expression on one's genes. There are many studies now suggesting an epigenetic role in adult depression stemming from childhood trauma (e.g. child abuse).  Studies also show that maternal stress can cause epigenetic changes in utero. Most of the studies are animal studies with very significant stressors - like diabetes, malnutrition (enough to cause intrauterine growth retardation), etc., but it is likely that less severe stressors can likely cause some epigenetic changes.  The science here, though, is in it's infancy, and no predictions can be made. What should be kept in mind is that millions of women every year have high-stress pregnancies (some incredibly so) yet deliver infants who grow into well-adjusted adults.   Child Abuse, Depression, and Methylation in Genes Involved With Stress, Neural Plasticity, and Brain Circuitry DNA methylation analysis of multiple tissues from newborn twins reveals both genetic and intrauterine components to variation in the human neonatal epigenome",
        "id": 753,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Correlation between carbonated drinks and IQ",
        "body": "   Am I reading this right, that junk food and drinking soft drinks is   correlated with higher intelligence quotient ?  Does all that sugar beside its negative side effects (tooth decay, insulin highs) have this positive effect on intelligence ?   No you are not reading it right, but your mistake is very a common misunderstanding of statistics.    The key point to remember is: correlation does not imply causation.   That means that just because two things appear to coincide, you can't conclude that one causes the other - or even that they are related at all.  This is a cross-sectional study.  They are looking at these variables at a single point in time.  This kind of study allows you to say \"interesting, many people who own red cars have cats.\" Correlation. But what it doesn't do is allow any inference of which causes the other - you can't say that people who have cats are likely to get red cars, or the other way around.    To attempt to establish causation, a study design that manipulates or strictly observes factors across time is required.  Of these designs, the Randomized Control Trial design is generally the strongest for that purpose - but that is a discussion in and of itself.  This is a humorous website that I share to emphasize the key message to take from this - just because the prevalence or incidence of two variables coincides, you can't say anything about whether there is causation or relationship at all.  To answer your question, in review of the study, there is absolutely no evidence to support that one causes the other, or that they are in any way related.  Any theorizing about why they correlate would have to be tested in another study design in order to hold weight.",
        "id": 1647,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to swim during the healing period of a nipple piercing?",
        "body": "Breastfeeding Management for the Clinician: Using the Evidence  According to this link 6 to 12 months healing are for a nipple piercing, but some can take as long as 18 months.   Definitely avoid it.      Chlorine and the bacteria in unchlorinated waters may both irritate   your newly pierced ears. It is therefore recommended that you wait 2-3   weeks after your piercing.   And while that is about ear piercings, nipple and ear piercings both break skin integrity and so present the to risk of infection.   According Nhs.UK any water including lakes and hot tubs can cause harm. Harm including massive life threatening infections that can lead to death or disability. And states:      You should avoid swimming for at least 24 hours after having a   piercing, and ideally until it has healed properly. While it's still   healing, it's important to keep the piercing dry as there's a risk of   infection.   While, nipple healing times are defintely not the same as ear or tongue piercings probably I would consult on that and possible bandages to wear if you decide to swim during the healing time. But you should seek the council of a professional and for go swimming, it is better to be safe than sorry. ",
        "id": 949,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is hereditary cancer risk estimated?",
        "body": "There are really two distinct questions here, but they are common.   Is cancer heritable? Is cancer (or cancer risk) contagious?   tl;dr   Most cancer cases are not heritable. Some are. Heritable cases have particular characteristics (early onset, more than one close relative, often with cancer at multiple sites). Cancer is not contagious. Some cancer risk factors are contagious.   Is cancer heritable?  As Knudson, who developed the two-hit hypothesis, liked to say  Cancer is a genetic disease of somatic cells. This is related, but different in important ways from a genetic disease of individuals. Tumor cells are genetically distinct from non tumor cells in an individual with cancer. Though there are hereditary forms of most cancers, the great majority of cancer cases are not hereditary). That is to say, in most cases, the mutations that lead to the formation of the cancer are not inherited from a person's parents.  A family history of cancer becomes significant to a clinician when there is an early age at onset in two or more close relatives (See Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease, Ch. 7).  Often, these hereditary cancers involve multiple tumors (see the second Knudson reference above, as well as here). Relevant to the hypothetical case here, breast cancer in a woman in her 60s would not suggest a hereditary form a cancer that would be associated with a higher risk of cancer in the son. Breast cancer in a woman 45 or younger would make a hereditary form of cancer more likely, which would be associated with a higher risk of cancer in her son. There are other risk factors to be considered, though (e.g., multiple close relatives with breast or ovarian cancer, being of Ashkenazi Jewishish heritage, among others). Guidelines for testing for the involved genes are in flux.  In summary, in this hypothetical case, it is unlikely that the son is at higher risk of any cancer.   Is cancer or cancer risk contagious?  The general question here is complex. The specific question here can be answered relatively easily, though.  Here, the specific question seems to be: in a hypothetical scenario, given a mother with breast cancer, is there a risk of sexual transmission from the mother's son to his wife. The answer here is quite clearly no. As discussed above, the potential risk for the son here is that of a hereditary cancer syndrome. That risk is minimal, but if it wasn't, hereditary cancer syndromes are not transmitted horizontally through sexual contact.   The more complicated question has two parts itself:  a. is cancer contagious b. is cancer risk contagious  Is cancer contagious?  Transmission of tumor cells from one individual to another happens, but is quite rare. Though tumor cells do metastasize in an individual, when this occurs, tumor seeds must be able to evade the immune system and find an environment suitable for adhesion and replication. Tumor associated cells (non cancerous cells that regulate the microenvironment to make it favorable for growth and replication) are discussed in this 2011 Hanahan and Weinberg paper.  There are similarities to infectious processes, but cancer is not measles. Tumor cells don't shed in comparable numbers, aren't adapted for immune escape in a separate host, and don't express appropriate adhesion proteins for portals of entry on a new host or readily induce tumor associated niches in a new host. The cases where person-to-person transmission of cancer via tumor cell inoculation does occur seem to demonstrate more how cancer cells are not infectious agents.    Donor-related tumors in transplant patients occur in immunosuppressed patients, but are still rare. The low frequency of transmission seems to be due, in part, to screening. The fact that we see this at all demonstrates the significance of transmission route and immune escape. Maternal-fetal, and in utero twin-twin seem to be exceedingly rare, but have occurred, again, demonstrating the existence, but poor efficiency of transmission Inoculation of volunteers with tumor cells in a problematic series of experiments at Sloan Kettering in the 50s, transplantation of tumor cells into patients with other cancers, resulted in growth, recurrence after excision, and death in some cases. Transplantation into healthy volunteers (yes, they did this) resulted in nodules that spontaneously regressed. This experiment has since been interpreted as evidence for immune system control of transplanted tumor system in healthy individuals, as compared to growth and progression in a receptive niche in a cancer patient.   So person-to-person transmission of cancer cells is rare, seemingly because, unlike an infectious microbe, there is not a suitable receptor for adhesion at an exposed or accessible site, a suitable environment for replication, and adaptations for immune escape by tumor cells in the original host are not effective in a new host.  As a side note, there are contagious cancers in other species, but this doesn't seem to be particularly relevant to a question about whether cancer (or cancer risk) can be transmitted between two humans.  Is cancer risk contagious  17% of cancer cases worldwide are attributable to infectious agents (see Cecil Medicine, Ch. 183), these include viruses (e.g., HPV, hepatitis B and C, HIV, Epstein-Barr, and human herpesvirus-8) and bacteria (e.g., H. pylori).  These are all contagious. At least somewhat related to the question, many of them are transmitted through sexual contact.",
        "id": 2490,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Im buying BCAA's for building muscles but afraid of losing serotonin",
        "body": "Your understanding of the effect of BCAA's on serotonin is not 100% correct. Let me preface this with \"I am not a biochemist\", I'm learning like everyone and if anyone who has a degree could improve my answer, please do!  Lets get some science up in here.  Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) refers to three amino acids: Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine. Leucine plays an important role in muscle protein synthesis, while isoleucine induces glucose uptake into cells.  The central hypothesis of fatigue (which assumes that elevated serotonin concentrations in the brain are associated with induction of fatigue 1[2]) is thought to be related to the anti-fatigue effects of BCAA supplementation.[3]   During exercise, the plasma ratio of aromatic amino acids (tryptophan) to long chain neutral amino acids (the BCAAs and a few others) is altered in favour tryptophan [2][4][5] due to BCAAs undergoing oxidation and being destroyed [11], and due to tryptophan and BCAAs sharing the same transport into the brain [6][7][8] and this act of transportation is the rate limiting step [3] any alteration in the ratio will alter what amino acids transport into the brain, and exercise has been confirmed to increase tryptophan uptake in as little as 30 minutes[9][10] and increasing tryptophan availability via supplementation (without supplemental BCAAs) appears to promote fatigue in rats.[11]  Increased tryptophan transport into the brain (which produces serotonin via 5-HTP) is a possible causative factor of fatigue, and replenishing oxidized BCAAs to preserve the ratio can attenuate fatigue production.[3]  Supplementing BCAAs prevents a serum decline in BCAAs, which occurs during exercise. A serum decline would normally cause a tryptophan influx into the brain, followed by serotonin production, which causes fatigue.      Exercise raises brain serotonin release and is postulated to cause   fatigue in athletes; ingestion of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA),   by competitively inhibiting tryptophan transport into brain, lowers   brain tryptophan uptake and serotonin synthesis and release in rats,   and reputedly in humans prevents exercise-induced increases in   serotonin and fatigue. This latter effect in humans is disputed.       Branched-Chain Amino Acids and Brain Function J. Nutr. June 1, 2005 vol. 135  no. 6  1539S-1546S    Ament W, Verkerke GJ Exercise and fatigue . Sports Med. (2009)  Davis JM, Alderson NL, Welsh RS Serotonin and central nervous system fatigue: nutritional considerations . Am J Clin Nutr. (2000)  Blomstrand E A role for branched-chain amino acids in reducing central fatigue . J Nutr. (2006)  Blomstrand E Amino acids and central fatigue . Amino Acids. (2001)  Blomstrand E, Celsing F, Newsholme EA Changes in plasma concentrations of aromatic and branched-chain amino acids during sustained exercise in man and their possible role in fatigue . Acta Physiol Scand. (1988)  Fernstrom JD, Wurtman RJ Brain serotonin content: physiological regulation by plasma neutral amino acids . Science. (1972)  Fernstrom JD, Faller DV Neutral amino acids in the brain: changes in response to food ingestion . J Neurochem. (1978)  Pardridge WM Blood-brain barrier carrier-mediated transport and brain metabolism of amino acids . Neurochem Res. (1998)  Blomstrand E, et al Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on brain exchange of amino acids during sustained exercise in human subjects . Acta Physiol Scand. (2005)  Nybo L, et al Neurohumoral responses during prolonged exercise in humans . J Appl Physiol. (2003)  Meeusen R, et al   Effects of tryptophan and/or acute running on extracellular 5-HT and 5-HIAA levels in the hippocampus of food-deprived rats . Brain Res. (1996)      So?? Too many long and complicated words, make it simple!  Imagine the bus lane on a road going into town. Buses and taxis can use this lane but they cannot occupy the same space at the same time (without crashing).   Tryptophan Bus Company and BCAA Taxis are working the rush hour...  At the start the ratio is fairly even. Rush hour hits and lots of taxis are required, leading to the buses being inhibited from entering town. Once the taxis run dry the ratio swings back the other way with buses filling the bus lane. The result is after rush hour there are more buses in the lane meaning that you are tired (but happy!)  The following day...  BCAA Taxis supplement (get it?) their fleet by hiring more cabs. Rush hour hits again but instead of taxis running out really fast and buses clogging up the bus lane the ratio of buses to taxis remains constant through the period. The result is that after rush hour there is no imbalance in the ratio between Tryptophan and BCAA transport.    What should I take to offset the reduced serotonin?  You shouldn't, accumulated knowledge suggests that:     [Regarding BCAAs] In regards to the anti-fatigue effects, it is highly   plausible that this will only apply to untrained or lightly trained   persons doing prolonged exercise. There does appear to be a difference   between trained and untrained persons, and perhaps this is due to less   tolerance to exercise-induced sedation (fatigue tends to set in   earlier in newbies, so an anti-fatigue effect is going to affect them   more).   My personal recommendation is, READ UP ABOUT THEM. Try them out for 3 months, if they help then keep taking them, if they don't then stop. You should get enough of them from your diet if you are eating 1-1.5g protein per lb bodyweight per day. ",
        "id": 1122,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can wearing retainers at night affect sleep quality?",
        "body": "A systematic review of the side effects of retainers said nothing about sleep related side effects, so they probably are not a significant problem. There are a few related studies that look at an assortment of othodontic treatments and how they affect sleep. I've included them below. An orthodontist would be able to give a more concrete answer.  Also, note that some types of retainers are actually used to treat sleep apnea and related sleep issues (see this for example).  TLDR; Orthodontic treatments such as braces and and retainers can, in general, affect sleep and sleep quality (for good and bad). However, there seems to be little direct research into what specific sleep related side affects retainers cause.   Dry Mouth  From https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24554561 (I think this one was looking at braces)     The subjective parameters taste,   dry mouth and breath odor did not show statistical   differences.    Quality of sleep:  Impact of orthodontic appliances on sleep quality:     CONCLUSIONS: In young orthodontic patients, there appears to be no difference in sleep quality with or without the overnight use of these appliances after they have been worn for a minimum of 3 months.   However, contradicting that study is this one:     Impaired sleep the most rarely   occurred for patients treated with removable appliances   (40.6%) and braces (51.1%) and the most   frequently for patients treated with functional appliances   (85.7%) and braces, and head gears (88.9%).    Sleep Apnea  There's no evidence that I'm aware of that retainers (or other orthodontic retainers) cause sleep apnea. Similar devices are sometimes used to treat it, though.  However, people who need braces, retainers, etc. may be at higher risk for it. From the intro of an ape study apparently conducted because of similar complaints:     Oral respiration associated with obstruction of the nasal airway is a common finding among patients seeking orthodontic treatment. ",
        "id": 732,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the drug's effectiveness directly proportional to the half life formula?",
        "body": "Two key serum concentrations to know about in pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics are the Minimum Effective Concentration (MEC) and Toxicity Concentration (TC).    Some medications have stronger effects the higher the concentration, and other medications have the same effects regardless of the concentration as long as it is above the MEC.  Note that the ceiling is either the Toxicity Concentration, or the concentration at which adverse effects often arise.  That brings us to the concept of \"therapeutic window\" which are concentrations between MEC and TC.  The EFFECT of the medication entirely depends on which medication you're discussing.  But generally, the interval and dosing of most medications are designed specifically to keep it inside the therapeutic window.    Your answer ",
        "id": 2577,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the genetic vs non-genetic contribution to lifespan?",
        "body": "A few countries have large long-term databases and studies based on this data:   The heritability of human longevity: A population-based study of 2872 Danish twin pairs born 1870\u20131900  The Effect of Genetic Factors for Longevity: A Comparison of Identical and Fraternal Twins in the Swedish Twin Registry    There are also lots of review articles on the subject, for example Genomics of human longevity.  Most of the studies seem to show an impact of about 20 to 33 percent from genetics, for example from the first study:     The heritability of longevity was estimated to be 0.26 for males and 0.23 for females   and the second:     Over the total age range examined, a maximum of around one third of the variance in longevity is attributable to genetic factors, and almost all of the remaining variance is due to nonshared, individual specific environmental factors.    and the review:     Heritability studies comparing the concordance of lifespan in monozygous and dizygous twins estimated a 25\u201330% genetic contribution to human lifespan variation   Basically, this means that they compared identical to fraternal twins, and found that the variability in lifespan between identical twins was less than that of fraternal twins. When also taking into account that fraternal twins share an average of 50% of their genetic material, the influence of genetics appears to be around a quarter to a third. The second paper I linked to above has some explanations on how they calculate this and what the numbers mean.   Drawing conclusions from twin studies to the overall role of genetics is not a completely exact science1, but this is probably the closest we can get to putting a number on this, I think.   1) There may be other reasons for this, for example identical twins choosing to lead similar lifestyles more often. This is mentioned in the second paper: \"It is possible, for example, that this difference in risk is attributable to more similar environmental circumstances of MZ [identical] than of DZ [fraternal] pairs, rather than to their differences in genetic similarity.\"",
        "id": 638,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wrist (radial) artery vs thigh (femoral) artery route for angiography",
        "body": "Talking to a cardiologist at my hospital he said now almost all percutaneous coronary interventions can be done through radial access. He mentioned that he does still do certain procedures (valve repair, right heart ablations, etc.) through femoral access. His reasoning was that femoral access can be faster for certain procedures vs radial and this means that less x-rays will be used and less exposure to the patient. He did mention that most cardiologists have developed their own preferences for when to still use femoral access (some even choosing not to do them at all).  Radial seems to have become the main method because of decreased risk of bleeding and complications. This also allows patients to be ambulatory in less time than with femoral access, resulting in lower costs both to the hospital and the patient. However, the development of vascular closure devices (VCD's) have reduced the bleeding risks associated with femoral access.  This study did show no significant difference in death, myocardial infarction, and stroke between access sites.  Gersh, B.j. \"Radial versus Femoral Access for Coronary Angiography and Intervention in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndromes (RIVAL): A Randomised, Parallel Group, Multicentre Trial.\" Yearbook of Cardiology 2012 (2012): 235-38. Web.   In a large (8404) multicenter, randomized, superiority study, patients with radial access had less incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events: 8.8% radial vs 10.3% femoral (not significant)  In the same study, radial access had less \"net adverse clinical events\": 9.8% radial vs 11.7% femoral (significant)  The study concluded:      In patients with acute coronary syndrome undergoing invasive management, radial as compared with femoral access reduces net adverse clinical events, through a reduction in major bleeding and all-cause mortality.   Femoral access review",
        "id": 502,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tattoo on person with hepatitis b",
        "body": "A tattoo will be irrelevant to the person with Hep-B receiving it. The risks will be the same as anyone else receiving a tattoo, except of course that Hep-B won't be among those risks as it normally would. It will not make the condition worse.  However, it will present a risk to the tattoo artist and anyone else exposed to the used needles, ink, and other supplies that were exposed to the person's body fluids. Anyone exposed to the tattoo before it has healed will also be at risk.  The person with the disease is the threat, not the other way around.  http://www.who.int/ith/diseases/hepatitisB/en/",
        "id": 1840,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there literature or publications where I can find scientific explanation for muscle growth?",
        "body": " How do muscles grow?      Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size      Baechle, Thomas R.; Earle, Roger W., eds. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 978-0-7360-5803-2.   Note that: Microtrauma, which is tiny damage to the fibers, may play a significant role in muscle growth.     Resistance training leads to trauma or injury of the cellular proteins in muscle. This prompts cell-signaling messages to activate satellite cells to begin a cascade of events leading to muscle repair and growth. Several growth factors are involved that regulate the mechanisms of change in protein number and size within the muscle.      Charg\u00e9 SB, Rudnicki MA (2004). \"Cellular and molecular regulation of muscle regeneration\". Physiol. Rev. 84 (1): 209\u201338. doi:10.1152/physrev.00019.2003. PMID 14715915. Lay summary \u2013 Len Kravitz    How long does it take for lactic acid to clear out of muscles?   Depends on a lot of personal factors and can vary wildly. There are some myths on lactic acid that are explained well by this article.         Lactic acid is not responsible for delayed onset muscle soreness.   Lactic acid is not responsible for muscle cramping.   Lactic acid is not responsible for muscular acidosis (aka \"the burn\" during exercise within muscles). Thus, lactic acidosis is a   misnomer and false.   Lactic acid is not responsible for muscle fatigue.   Lactic acid can be used a semi-fuel source by some tissues such as the heart, brain, and type I muscle fibers, as well as remade into   glucose in the liver through the Cori cycle.         \"The Truth about Lactic Acid\". Steven Low (2016). http://stevenlow.org/the-truth-about-lactic-acid/ accessed: 20/2/16   This was posted on reddit and the most commented answer may be of some relevance:     If lactic acid doesn't contribute to muscle fatigue, why does the   lactate threshold matter for performance?       Because lactic acid build-up is a sign that anaerobic metabolism is   becoming more dominant, and other factors associated with anaerobic   metabolism lead to fatigue.      Unknown User, Reddit ",
        "id": 1555,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can biodegradable materials not increase limb length via surgery?",
        "body": "Victor, I'm not going to name off three reasons but instead ask you to think what is involved in leg lengthening, and try to explain why it's impossible to do so by the method you refer to.   Many people have heard of biodegradable materials in bone repair and often think it can be easily used as bone replacement. (I'm not implying that's what you think though it might be.) There's ongoing research into this field with better materials being developed and tested in animal models. The different kinds of suitable biodegradable material you ask about isn't used to replace bone but instead they're used as a platform for bone to form. After bone formation has taken place, the material gradually degrades until only the bone manufactured by the person's body remains.  Different materials need to be used depending where the bone repair is needed in the body. You ask about lengthening the limbs (you mentioned a leg in your comments). Biodegradable platform used in bone repair for a leg could be repair of a badly fractured bone where inserting titanium pins wouldn't work with too many shattered fragments. A biodegradable platform would be used that would allow bone to reform after the badly broken pieces are removed. No artificial piece of bone is used and meant to stay in.  The material used needs to be strong enough to be load-bearing but porous enough to allow to allow orthoblasts, bone growth factors, fibroblasts, collagen and tiny capillaries to infiltrate the platform and form solid bone again. I won't go into detail of what particular materials are best or how it actually happens. Suffice to say, this is major surgery and the leg has to be opened up (if not already due to an open fracture. Repair will start quickly but for the newly formed bone to be strong enough for active use, it will take many months.  The surrounding tissue of muscles, ligaments, tendons, blood vessels and nerves are largely intact, although damaged to an extent. They're available to provide the necessary cells and other factors that enable new bone formation. But what you're asking is for the leg to be opened, the bone to be cut through and a piece of bone platform to be inserted. So where will the extra muscles, nerves and blood vessels come from? It's not possible to put the platform in if there's no room for it.   There are already methods that work satisfactory now but they're slow and painful. Leg Lengthening Methods describes a number of them if you want to understand it better.",
        "id": 1656,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When internal hemorrhage occurs in an enclosed body cavity, is it possible to build up enough pressure to erupt through the skin?",
        "body": "It is very unlikely that the skin would rupture due to internal bleeding.  Adults have about 5.5 liters of blood inside the circulatory system (arteries/veins/heart/pulmonary circulation) or \"intravascular space.\" When about 40% of blood is lost from the intravascular space (so about 2 liters), the circulatory system collapses, and you die.  Clinical Review: Hemorrhagic Shock (PubMed, 2004):     Intrathoracic injuries, especially to the lung, heart, or the great   vessels, can result in the loss of several liters of blood into the   thorax without external evidence of hemorrhage. Intra-abdominal   injuries to solid organs (spleen and liver) and great vessels   (ruptured aneurysm, penetrating injury to intra-abdominal vessels) can   cause rapid loss of the entire blood volume into the abdomen.   From these examples you can see that internal bleeding does not break the skin.   During deep breathing, your chest volume can increase by 5 liters and nothing breaks. When gas builds in your intestine, the volume of your abdomen can increase by more than 5 liters, which results in obvious abdominal distension, and the skin does not break.  Let's say that a systolic (upper) arterial blood pressure in a healthy adult is about 120 mm Hg. When an artery breaks and the blood escapes into the chest or abdominal cavity, it instantly loses most of the pressure. If the blood accumulates in a cavity and the pressure within it rises to 120 mm Hg, the blood will no longer escape from the arteries and the pressure in a cavity will no longer increase. But the pressure in the chest or abdominal cavity is very unlikely to increase so much just from few liters of blood, because these cavities are quite expandable, mostly due to the diaphragm muscle that can move up or down a lot. I don't know exact pressures in internal bleeding, but, in one case, removal of 4.5 liters of fluid in a patient with ascites, decreased intraabdominal pressure by only 15 mm Hg (from 45 to 30 mm Hg) (ajemjournal.com).  Another comparison: Average see-level atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg.   In compartment syndrome (due to bleeding or muscle swelling), the pressure in a limb can increase to as high as 240 mm Hg, but I have never read this would result in skin rupture. Google search for \"compartment syndrome\" \"skin rupture\" also does not give any meaningful results.  Somewhat injured skin could break due to a hematoma buildup beneath it, but this is probably not what you are asking.  What happens with the blood in the chest or abdominal cavity? It is slowly decomposed and reabsorbed within weeks/months. Some internal scars (adhesions) may develop as a complication.",
        "id": 2690,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When should I seek medical help for food poisoning?",
        "body": "This is only a theoretical answer, I can't give a medical advice here.  The symptoms, as described by the OP, are possibly from viral or bacterial food poisoning. In mild cases, the symptoms can go away on its own within a week. If not, a visit to a doctor is recommended.   Diarrhea can quickly lead to dehydration (symptoms: fatigue, dry mouth, less frequent urination, dark yellow urine, loss of body weight). To correct dehydration, one needs to drink water (or \"oral rehydration solution\" you can buy in any bigger store or in a drugstore) until the urine becomes clear and the body weight is back to normal. You can eat what you are able to.",
        "id": 1475,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to regain lost lactose tolerance?",
        "body": "First, here is a small background on lactose intolerance:  Lactose is a disaccharide present in high quantity in mammalian milk. Once in the intestine, it is hydrolysed into glucose and galactose, which are then absorbed. Lactase hydrolisation is dependent on an intestinal brush border enzyme called lactase.  Intestinal lactase activity is highest during the perinatal period (where milk is essential for the nourishment of newborn). After this period (in general after the weaning period) lactase activity decreases at variable rates following a normal maturational down-regulation. As such, two groups of individuals emerge:    the lactase non-persistence group with low lactase activity (hypolactasia) the lactase persistence group where the level of lactase activity in the adulthood in similar or slightly less (moderate to high lactase activity) to the one found in the neonatal period.   Some studies have suggested a geographic pattern for the distribution of genes associated with the two conditions (the review by Misselwitz et al provides a good overview).  Interestingly, reduction in lactase activity does not always lead to symptoms. However, when symptoms occur, lactose intolerance is diagnosed.  The most frequent cause of lactose malabsorption is the so-called \u201clactase non-persistence\u201d (primary lactase deficiency), which is characterised by a decrease in lactase expression during infancy. Note, in some rare cases, lactase can be complete lacking causing severe symptoms in the newborns (congenital lactase deficiency).   There are other secondary causes of lactase malabsorption (secondary or acquired lactase deficiency): small bowel bacterial overgrowth, giardiasis (a type of infectious enteritis), coeliac disease, inflammatory bowel disease. In these cases, gastrointestinal disorders damage the brush border of the small intestine and leads to a decrease in lactase activity.  Your question     I was told that I am lactose intolerant. How did that happen after so   many years?   There are several possible explanations. First, some studies have shown an increased incidence of lactose intolerance in the elderly, suggesting that lactase activity might decline further with age. In particular, individuals with already intermediate to low lactase activity might be at higher risk of developing lactase intolerance decades after the infancy period. Second a secondary cause for lactase deficiency cannot be excluded. Finally, a study conducted in 1998 showed that there is sometimes a confusion between lactose maldigestion and lactose intolerance. My two later points are of course only hypothesis, as you don't provide enough information in your question (in particular how the diagnosis of lactose intolerance was made)  Your question     Is it possible to regain/rebuild lactose tolerance?   I have found no studies conducted in humans showing that lactase activity could be regained.  Current treatment of lactose intolerance aims at improving symptoms while maintaining sufficient calcium intake, which can be affected by mil restricted diet. According to a concensus of experts, initial management of lactose intolerance is to aim for remission of symptoms by avoiding milk and dairy products. Here an interesting extract of the recommendations:     most individuals with lactose malabsorption can tolerate up to 12 g of   lactose without significant symptoms. After the initially restricted   diet, lactose should be gradually reintroduced until the patient\u2019s   threshold for symptoms is reached. At this point, several behavioral   measures can be adopted to overcome possible symptoms, including   having fermented and matured milk products in the diet, consuming   lactose together with other foods, and distributing lactose intake   over the day.   If the above mentioned measures don\u2019t provide any relief, pharmacological strategies can be considered such as lactase supplements, lactose-hydrolyzed or lactose-reduced milk, probiotics, colonic adaptation, and rifaximin. However, some of these intervetions lack evidence based data and show large inter-individual variability.  Sources:   Misselwitz B, Pohl D, Fr\u00fchauf H, Fried M, Vavricka SR, Fox M. Lactose malabsorption and intolerance: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. United European Gastroenterology Journal. 2013;1(3):151-159. Mattar R, de Campos Mazo DF, Carrilho FJ. Lactose intolerance: diagnosis, genetic, and clinical factors. Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology. 2012;5:113-121. Lomer M et al. Review article: lactose intolerance in clinical practice \u2013 myths and realities. Alimentary Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics. 2008:27: 93\u2013103. Carroccio et al. Lactose intolerance and self-reported milk intolerance: relationship with lactose maldigestion and nutrient intake. Lactase Deficiency Study Group.J Am Coll Nutr. 1998 Dec;17(6):631-6. ",
        "id": 1070,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the \"leucovorin rescue\" work exactly? Why doesn't it make cancerous tumours grow?",
        "body": "I will interpret your question in the more generalised form of \"why doesn't folic / folinic acid supplementation reduce the efficacy of methotrexate treatment?\" The question may be better in this more generalised form so a moderator may want to edit it more towards that.  The review in [1] strongly suggests that folic acid supplementation does not reduce the efficacy of methotrexate treatment.   As for why that's the case, I don't think it's completely understood. But there are some pointers which I'll outline below.   In [2] the authors state that \"Both folic acid (FA) and folinic acid (FLN) supplements have been shown to reduce the toxicity of MTX [...] and may prevent the formation of the less effective metabolite 7-hydroxy-MTX\".  In [3] the authors state that \"Methotrexate is a competitive antagonist of folic acid. It inhibits dihydrofolate reductase with resultant interference of DNA synthesis leading to apoptosis.\" They also state \"inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase is not presumed to be the primary mediator [of efficacy] as supplementation with folic acid does not reduce the clinical efficacy\"  In summary, methotrexate inhibits cancer growth by other unknown mechanisms than just preventing DNA synthesis by competing for folic acid uptake. Folic acid supplementation only reduces the effect of the latter. In addition, the speed at which cancer cells divide when compared to normal cells may skew the folic acid vs methotrexate uptake antagonism in a way that makes folic acid supplementation more beneficial for healthy cells than cancer cells.  As for your other question in the title \"why doesn't folic acid supplementation make cancer tumours grow\", I assume you mean why supplementation in it's own right doesn't make them grow. This is because the rate at which cancer grows is limited by a whole range of factors including many different nutrients like oxygen, water and many others. Increasing folic acid would be only one of the nutrients it needs.  [1] : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8608361  [2] : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21044441  [3] : T. Bayless, S. Hanauer: Advanced therapy in inflammatory bowel disease, vol II: IBD and Crohn's disease. Page 667.",
        "id": 2591,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Flax seed vs supplements for omega-3",
        "body": "The omega-3 fatty acids with potential health benefits are EPA and DHA found in fish and fish oil.  The omega-3 in flaxseed is alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and there seems to be insufficient evidence about their effectiveness in preventing heart disease, for example.  It is true that ALA can be converted to EPA and DHA in your body, but this conversion is very poor.  NutrientsReview:     ...alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) from flaxseed, walnuts and soybeans is   much less effective in preventing heart disease than fish oil, which   contains EPA and DHA.   There is also some concern that ALA supplements might be associated with an increased risk of cancer, according to The Journal of Nutrition, while according to another source (PubMed) it is not.",
        "id": 1425,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the online blood testing services that allow to pick and choose exactly what test you want?",
        "body": "Somehow today I had a bit more luck in addressing my own question.  It seems that many of the online blood testing services do offer tests on a disaggregated basis.  Their more popular products are bundled tests that include some of the typical overall blood tests for an annual physical.  But, several of those enterprises also offer unbundled tests of more esoteric yet very important tests such as for C-Reactive protein and Fibrinogen.  The latter is a very good check to see how granular can you go in terms of specific independent blood tests you can order from such services.  Today, I found two companies that passed that check.  One is Accesa Labs that operates through Quest Diagnostics.  The other one is Health Tests Direct (HTD).  HTD is actually very interesting because they operate through both Quest Diagnostics and LabCorp.  As a result, HTD allows you to do some comparative shopping in terms of test prices between those two market leaders.    Although the above answer is reasonably inclusive, it does not preclude that others may uncover specific companies that could be equal if not superior to the two I mentioned above.   This is a short update as of December 2017.  As we know Theranos has run into all sorts of legal and regulatory troubles since I first wrote this answer.  They are now I think very much out of this business.  After considering many online lab testing providers I recently chose Personalabs.com.  They allowed you to select your blood test on a disaggregated basis as well as any other online competitors.  What differentiated them is that their website and their blood test selections were so much clearer than competitors.  They operated through Quest Diagnostics and LabCorp just like the other better services.  Interestingly enough, I got my lab test results through Personalabs.com within 5 days.  Yet, over 10 days later, I still could not get the same from Quest Diagnostics (QD).  I am still interested in getting the results from QD just to check that their interpretation of the results (healthy acceptable range of values) are the same as for Personalabs.    ",
        "id": 960,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Best way to heavy metal detox",
        "body": "Unless you live on an area known for having deposits of heavy metals, or you suspect that you have been exposed (in which case you should go see a doctor), your kidneys should be able to take care of the small amounts of heavy metals present in your diet and environment. That being said, heavy metal intoxication can be treated with chelation therapy if needed. There are many drugs for this, most of them target a different metal selectively. This is not exempt of risks and by no means should be performed without medical supervision.",
        "id": 1253,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the medical term for paralysis while sleeping?",
        "body": "The medical term for the natural paralysis that occurs while a person is in REM sleep \u2013 most often cited as 'official' in English \u2013 seems to be: REM atonia.  The medical condition associated with hypnagogic sleep paralysis is coded in ICD10 with G47: sleep disorders /  G47.4: (according to German Wikipedia) \u2013 or G47.8 Other sleep disorders, G83.8 \"Other specified paralytic syndromes\" (according to English Wikipedia).  Interestingly the German Wikipedia states that Schlafparalyse (=sleep paralysis) is the proper term in German to use with muscle relaxation during real sleep. \u2013\u2013 Conscious feelings of paralysis are more often described as \"hypgnagoge Schlafl\u00e4hmung\" (= hypnagogic sleep paralyss; but using only true German word components for the compound word)  de.Wikpedia: Schlafparalyse:     Im Englischen wird sleep paralysis ausschlie\u00dflich f\u00fcr die St\u00f6rung verwendet, w\u00e4hrend die nat\u00fcrliche L\u00e4hmung w\u00e4hrend des normalen Schlafes REM atonia genannt wird.   (In English sleep paralysis is used exclusively for the disorder, while natural paralysis during normal sleep is called REM atonia.)   REM-atonia in Rapid eye movement sleep:     Organisms in REM sleep suspend central homeostasis, allowing large fluctuations in respiration, thermoregulation, and circulation which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.   But it doesn't get much better: MedicineNet \u2013\u2013 Medical Definition of Atonia, REM sleep:     Atonia, REM sleep: See: Sleep paralysis   --> Sleep paralysis: Medically, sleep paralysis is sometimes called waking paralysis, predormital (before-sleep) paralysis, postdormital (after-sleep) paralysis, and REM sleep atonia.   In \"Unraveling the Mechanisms of REM Sleep Atonia\" the phenomenon is called:     We agree with the commentators that determining mechanisms of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep motor atonia is of major scientific importance and clinical relevance. The concept that REM atonia is under the control of one physiological mechanism and one neurotransmitter pathway has seduced many of us.     In summary, it seems that \"sleep paralysis\" is actually not that far off a choice to use for REM atonia judging by real world word usage. But in any case a further qualification like \"during real sleep\"?  This excerpt seems to set a very straght record:     Neural mechanisms prevent us from acting out our dreams during REM sleep. This normal \u201cparalysis\u201d during REM known as REM atonia is altered in patients with narcolepsy. Sleep paralysis is the intrusion of the normal atonia of REM sleep into wakefulness. The patient experiences inability to move with preserved aware- ness of surroundings. Sleep paralysis typically occurs during sleep\u2013wake transitions or arousals.   Lourdes M. DelRosso and Romy Hoque: \"Central Nervous System Hypersomnias\", in Raman K. Malhotra (ed): \"Sleepy or Sleepless. Clinical Approach to the Sleep Patient\", Springer: Cham, Heidelberg, 2015,  p 54. ",
        "id": 2259,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stomach cancer - as bad as it looks?",
        "body": "You said you went to google and found nothing. I find that puzzling because I went to google, typed in \"stomach cancer\" and found a wealth of info. Here's a sampling:  https://www.cancer.gov/types/stomach  http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/stomach-cancer/home/ovc-2020232  http://www.webmd.com/cancer/stomach-gastric-cancer#1  http://www.medicinenet.com/stomach_cancer/article.htm  And of course there's always Wikipedia, and it has a ton of references at the bottom of the article.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach_cancer  But one thing you need to keep in mind is that nobody on the internet can tell you anything about your grandmother. You really need to get that directly from her doctor, who is the only one who can tell you exactly what she has, what her prognosis is, and how he intends to treat it.",
        "id": 1761,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Consequences of habitual overconsumption of water?",
        "body": "Your body should tightly control the water concentration (osmolality) via sensors in the brain (osmoreceptors) which send chemical signals (vasopressin) to the kidneys. These receptors are very sensitive and are capable of making you thirsty with only 1% dehydration.  So a normal person drinking extra water will just make more urine and pee it out. An abnormal person (elderly, alcoholic or brain/kidney-damaged) may not be able to produce/react to these chemical messages properly.  However the kidneys need to make sure that this extra urine doesn't take salt (predominantly sodium chloride) with it - the salt concentration is also tightly regulated. The urine it makes must therefore be dilute.  If you drink too much water for a prolonged period of time, you wash concentrated salt from the part of the kidney that works to concentrate urine (the renal medulla).  So when you don't drink all that extra water, your kidneys are less able to conserve water, you will not be able to make concentrated urine and you will actually become dehydrated (volume deplete).  Moral of the story: your body knows what it is doing. Drink when you are thirsty.",
        "id": 1429,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a drug being developed for heart palpitations without arrhythmia?",
        "body": "A definitive answer is unlikely because drug companies don't normally make it publicly known what drugs they're developing.   There are a number of antiarrhythmic drugs already available that could possibly treat palpitations, and there are also ablation procedures. Treatments exist now for arrhythmias. ",
        "id": 2431,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens to the heart during cardiac arrest?",
        "body": "No, a heart does not necessarily stop beating during cardiac arrest. Cardiac arrest occurs any tine the heart cannot pump blood to the brain at a rate/volume sufficient for the patient to remain conscious.  From your second link:     To understand SCA [sudden cardiac arrest], it helps to understand how the heart works. The heart has an electrical system that controls the rate and rhythm of the heartbeat. Problems with the heart's electrical system can cause irregular heartbeats called arrhythmias.      There are many types of arrhythmias. During an arrhythmia, the heart can beat too fast, too slow, or with an irregular rhythm. Some arrhythmias can cause the heart to stop pumping blood to the body\u2014these arrhythmias cause SCA. [emphasis mine]   A patient can be in ventricular tachycardia (VT or Vtach) and still be awake. If they are, they are in Vtach, and treated as such. If their Vtach is in fact enough to cause compromised flow to the brain and the patient passed out, it's a cardiac arrest.  Congestive heart failure is a different animal.  The heart has cells which are supposed to fire synchronously. This is what allows the heart to pump effectively. Tachycardia means too fast, and if it's too fast, the ventricles can't fill enough to pump effective amounts to the brain. Fibrillation (\"VFib\") is when the cardiac cells which have some \"pacemaker\" activity are firing asynchronously, which means blood isn't getting pumped. The heart may not be beating in an organized fashion, but it's not at a standstill.  Administering a shock causes all of the units to fire at once (which causes a temporary asystole), in the hopes that when electrical activity resumes (after giving a shock, we wait and look at the monitor to see if there is a regular heart beat, we do not start CPR unless there is not), it will do so in an orderly, synchronous manner.   In asystole (flat line), there is no longer any effective electrical activity of the heart. There is basically no disorganized electrical activity to try to reset with a shock.  That is why it makes no sense to shock someone in asystole. On television, people in flatline are shocked into a stable sinus rhythm. That just doesn't happen in real life. Neither does a deep breath and fluttering open of eyelids, as often shown on television when someone arrests and resuscitation is successful.  Asystole @ Medscape.com Treatment of Asystole @ Medscape.com ",
        "id": 2194,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can any disease enhance Brain functioning instead of reducing it?",
        "body": "The Savant Syndrome is the only syndrome where there is an enhancement of one particular brain function but at a heavy cost to other cognitive functions.     Savant syndrome is a condition in which someone with significant mental disabilities demonstrates certain abilities far in excess of average.[1][2] The skills at which savants excel are generally related to memory.[1] This may include rapid calculation, artistic ability, map making, or musical ability.[1] Usually just one special skill is present.[1]   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome  Treffert, D. A. (2009). \"The savant syndrome: An extraordinary condition A synopsis: Past, present, future\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1522): 1351\u20137. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0326. PMC 2677584\u202fFreely accessible. PMID 19528017.  Miller, LK (1999). \"The savant syndrome: Intellectual impairment and exceptional skill\". Psychological Bulletin. 125 (1): 31\u201346. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.1.31. PMID 9990844.",
        "id": 2204,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Usage of progesterone for recurrent miscarriages",
        "body": "After some research, I believe I can answer my own question, even though it is a somewhat dissatisfying one.   There is no indication that progesterone supplementation helps prevent  sporadic miscarriages (women have not had three or more pregnancy losses before).      However, in patients with three or more consecutive miscarriages immediately preceding their current pregnancy, empiric progestogen administration may be of some potential benefit.   There is currently a large study underway to test this effect, however, no results have been published yet.   edited a month later  The results of that large trial were published at the end of November 2015.     The study of 826 women with previously unexplained recurrent miscarriage showed that those who received progesterone treatment in early pregnancy were no less likely to miscarry than those who received a placebo (or dummy treatment). This was true whatever their age, ethnicity, medical history and pregnancy history.   From the study:     Progesterone therapy in the first trimester of pregnancy did not result in a significantly higher rate of live births among women with a history of unexplained recurrent miscarriages.    A Randomized Trial of Progesterone in Women with Recurrent Miscarriages  Sources and further reading:  Evidence-based management of recurrent miscarriages   Promise study   Progestogen for preventing miscarriage (meta analysis of studies showing no impact on sporadic miscarriages, but effect for recurrent miscarriages) ",
        "id": 547,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does staying at home expedites recovery from infections?",
        "body": "Quarantine (self or imposed) does help prevent the spread of infectious diseases. This is sufficient to recommend convalescence at home, but there is no good evidence for a shorter recovery period for those who stay at home. The idea that resting at home helps conserve energy and recover from illness is pervasive and seems sensible, but has little data supporting it. Clinical recommendations here don't have a strong evidence base, but we can look at other related questions and make a judgment call. On one end of the spectrum, complete bed rest has been shown to be harmful in critical care contexts, and though still widely prescribed in a few contexts is generally not effective in those contexts.  On the other end of the spectrum, poor sleep and psychosocial stress may increase susceptibility to infection or impair the immune response. With a self limited contagious disease, I usually recommend staying at home to prevent the spread of disease, specifically not staying in bed all day, but instead, getting a regular amount of sleep, with light exercise as tolerated (for otherwise active individuals) and other relaxing activities.",
        "id": 2637,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Diagnosing by ruling things out",
        "body": "Diagnosis of exclusion     A\u00a0diagnosis of exclusion\u00a0(per exclusionem) is a\u00a0diagnosis\u00a0of a medical condition reached by a\u00a0process of elimination, which may be necessary if presence cannot be established with complete confidence from history, examination or testing. Such elimination of other reasonable possibilities is a major component in performing a\u00a0differential diagnosis.   https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion",
        "id": 2219,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Infrared light therapy for menstrual pains?",
        "body": "I think that red light therapy can help in this case. The idea behind red light therapy for pain is that red light penetrates the skin without cutting it. There is evidence that red light stimulates mitochondrial functioning. The mitochondria is the part of the cell that stimulates healing and produces protein and collagen You can read more about this method here: https://paindoctor.com/red-light-therapy-for-pain/ and here http://lighttherapyaz.com/red-light-therapy-reviews/lightstim-reviews/ Hope it helps your wife!",
        "id": 1189,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any untoward synergistic effects in taking a combination of acetaminophen plus ibuprofen?",
        "body": "Reference 1 refers to studies that trail various combinations of analgesics. Of note is the study concerning paracetamol (acetaminophen) and ibuprofen.   The study compared the adverse effects of 4 groups:   paracetamol  ibuprofen  paracetamol and ibuprofen, and;  placebo.   They found \"adverse events (signi\ufb01cant difference)\" consisted of:   Vomiting: 24%\u201332%  Drowsiness: 5%  Abdominal pain: 3%\u201310%    And stated that the \"paracetamol group was drowsier than other groups.\"  Reference 1 states: \"Combining [the two] analgesics may increase the incidence of adverse effects.\"  A similar clinical trial was described in Reference 2. The paper found that adverse events were \"numerically higher in the groups receiving combination tablets.\"  From this it can concluded that the likelihood of experiencing adverse effects is increased by combination of the two analgesics.  I could not find anything solid in regards to your last question. The increased likelihood of experiencing adverse effects may be due to the two agent's similar mechanism of action. Reference 3 states: \"Due to their mechanisms of action, using paracetamol and ibuprofen together theoretically increases the risk of renal and hepatic toxicity.\" It is possible that this extends to other adverse effects.  References   Combining Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) with Nonsteroidal Antiin\ufb02ammatory Drugs: A Qualitative Systematic Review of Analgesic Ef\ufb01cacy for Acute Postoperative Pain, http://www.endoexperience.com/documents/APAPOngetal.pdf Paracetamol, ibuprofen, or a combination of both drugs against knee pain: an excellent new randomised clinical trial answers old questions and suggests new therapeutic recommendations, http://ard.bmj.com/content/70/9/1521.full Evidence that alternate dosing of paracetamol and ibuprofen in children with fever may reduce temperature: other benefits uncertain http://www.bpac.org.nz/BPJ/2014/July/docs/BPJ62-news.pdf ",
        "id": 637,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any long-term effects of marijuana?",
        "body": "A recent literature review of the evidence regarding long term effects of cannabis (3 weeks or longer since last use) reported:     Cannabis appears to continue to exert impairing effects in executive   functions even after 3 weeks of abstinence and beyond. While basic   attentional and working memory abilities are largely restored, the   most enduring and detectable deficits are seen in decision-making,   concept formation and planning. Verbal fluency impairments are   somewhat mixed at this stage. Similar to the residual effects of   cannabis use, those studies with subjects having chronic, heavy   cannabis use show the most enduring deficits.   The complete review is open access and available here:   Crean RD, Crane NA, Mason BJ. An Evidence Based Review of Acute and Long-Term Effects of Cannabis Use on Executive Cognitive Functions. Journal of addiction medicine. 2011;5(1):1-8. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e31820c23fa.",
        "id": 1202,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I take plenty carbs?",
        "body": "Eating large amounts of carbs is not good if you already have diabetes or are prediabetic. But otherwise, whole grain carbs are very healthy. Type-2 diabetes is not caused by eating carbs, but by eating fat. This is explained in detail here. As pointed out in this lecture, countries like Japan where people used to eat large amounts of carbs used to have low rates of diabetes, and that changed when they started to eat less carbs and more fat.  Fat consumption at levels considered to be normal in the West is not only implicated in diabetes, it also causes cardiovascular disease. This was first rigorously established in the late 1950s, see also here for an article on this subject by the first author written more than 50 years later.  A more recent research result:     ...the Tsimane, a forager-horticulturalist population of the Bolivian Amazon with few coronary artery disease risk factors, have the lowest reported levels of coronary artery disease of any population recorded to date.   And note how similar the diets of the Tsimane and the Africans in Uganda are, e.g. they both get less than 20% of their calories from fat.   In general, it's not good to argue on the basis of X is bad because it will cause adverse health effects to people suffering from disease Y. Take e.g. X to be strenuous exercise and Y to be heart disease. Exercise can lower the risk of heart disease, but once you got heart disease, the exercise intensity may need to be limited. ",
        "id": 2421,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When is PCP prophylaxis necessary in non-HIV patients?",
        "body": "Given the breadth of knowledge and clinical experience required to answer this question in full (and given that it is not typically something I deal with in my specialty), I will rely heavily on this UpToDate article.  To summarize:   Research involving non-HIV immunosuppressed patients mostly involve patients with cancer (especially receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplants [HCT] ) and solid organ transplant recipients. There are no published guidelines for PCP prophylaxis among patients with rheumatologic diseases receiving immunosuppressive drugs. A meta-analysis performed in 2014 including 13 trials and involving 1,412 patients suggests that PCP prophylaxis using trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), commonly referred to as Bactrim, is recommended in non-HIV immunosuppressed patients when the risk of PCP exceeds approximately 6%. The number-needed-to-treat (NNT) to prevent PCP was reported as 19 patients (95% CI 17 to 42). Patient populations considered at great enough risk to necessitate PCP prophylaxis include patients:   receiving a glucocorticoid dose equivalent greater than or equal to 20mg daily for one month or longer with another concomitant cause of immunocompromise; receiving temozolomide and radiotherapy, until recovery of lymphopenia; with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL); receiving allogeneic HCT for as long as immunosuppressive therapy is given; certain autologous HCT recipients; solid organ transplant recipients, usually for 6-12 months following transplantation; with certain primary immunodeficiencies (severe combined immunodeficiency [SCID], CD4 T-lymphocytopenia, hyper-IgM syndrome, etc.) those receiving a purine analog in combination with cyclophosphamide.    The above bullet points are sourced from multiple studies; I have obviously not taken the time to perform a full literature review and suggest you dig further into those resources if you need more information.  In regards to the safety of using methotrexate with cotrimoxazole; this appears to be a very real but rare risk. I am not aware of any studies that bear out the extent of this risk or the incidence of co-toxicity, but the authors of the UpToDate article do suggest that low prophylactic doses of TMP-SMX should be safe in patients receiving MTX. Some published authors would disagree. I have personally discussed this risk with a rheumatologist in my hospital who agrees with the above statement. Obviously, this is only one doctor's experience and opinion.  If a patient can not take TMP-SMX or you would prefer to use a different agent due to the risk of myelosuppression, alternatives include dapsone or atovaquone   The typical PCP prophylactic dose is usually 1 Bactrim double-strength tablet daily or three times per week.",
        "id": 2197,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are fizzy \"Effervescnt C\" drinks any better than Vitamin C pills?",
        "body": "Effervescent pills have the advantage that since you ingest the active compount already dissolved the absorption rate is generally faster than for normal pills. This is useful when you need the drug to kick in as soon as possible, like medicines for pain or fever. In the case of vitamin C, I see little to no reason why you would need such a fast action, so I assume that there is no benefit on taking one over the other.",
        "id": 1406,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can we survive on liquid diet?",
        "body": "   What if I am getting all my nutrition from fluids that includes vegetable and fruit juices, milk etc. Will it effect my body, metabolism, or digestive system in any way?   What you're describing is something that I did for a several years. I went to all these dieticians because I wanted to make sure I was not killing myself slowly and none of them could give me an adequate reason.  I will note two things that you may wish to consider:   The GI tract may require some coarse material from time to time so that the cells lining it can be sloughed off. This was suggested to me by a professor of anatomy and it's by far the best suggestion. Things like nuts might act as abrasive material to help facilitate this process. If you decide to revert back to solids, you might want to consider doing so very slowly. I base this on having lived off a liquid diet for several years, only to lose a good 10 kg of muscle while traveling overseas and being forced onto solids.    It's a matter of use it or lose it: if there is no need for enzymes to be excreted, then production will be downregulated. Likewise the histology of the cells lining the epithelium of the GI tract will be modified. If you switch to solids overnight, it will take time for your body to adapt, and in the interim, you may have issues will malabsorption.  EDIT  The following reference is quite old but a good overview of adaptive response to changes in diet.   Some excerpts from  The adaptation of digestive enzymes to the diet: its physiological significance  Dietary changes instantiate robust adjustment to digestive enzyme secretion and/or production:     From the above analysis, it is clear that any alteration in the amount   of protein, carbohydrate or lipid intake causes an adjustment in the   enzymes hydrolyzing those substances. For example, increasing starch   intake causes pancreatic amylase activity to augment, which in turn   induces an increase in the quantity of disaccharides releas- ed. It   was seen that the latter increase stimulates disaccharidase enzyme   activity ; this is also true for protein and lipid digestion. The   enzymes adapt to the diet within 2 to 3 days and this adaptation is   stabilized after 5 to 7 days (Ben Abdeljlil and Des- nuelle, 1964 ;   Corring and Saucier, 1972 ; Corring, 1975). However, recent studies   have shown that quantitatively changing a substrate has a very rapid   effect on the corresponding enzyme activity.   And the following may be of relevance to chronic utilisation of liquid diet:     To explain why it takes a relatively long time for enzymatic   adaptation to be established, Corring (1977) suggested that it   depends on the adjustment of other digestive processes such as gastric emptying or intestinal motility. The   presence of a stable amount of substrate in the intestinal lumen,   leading to a new enzyme activity, would thus necessitate the previous   adaptation of digestive motor processes. The stimulus of changing the   diet composition would cause a very short-term digestive response   which must be repeated (intake of several meals of the new diet) in   order to establish a new enzyme activity. In studies on digestive   enzyme adaptation to the diet, the values of enzyme activities are   usually the daily means which do not show the immediate effects of   intake. Moreover, the adaptation time may vary with the synthesis   site, depending on the enzyme.   The adaptiveness is an attempt to accommodate temporary deficiencies, and modifications to diet:     The first part of this paper showed that the organism has a complete   digestive equipment which can adapt to any alteration in the amount of   substrate intake. In the second part of the paper, it was seen that   this increase seemed to have no apparent advantage in the development   of the normal, well fed animal. On the contrary, it would be useful   when all the nutritional requirements are not covered by the diet.   Dietary deficiency, particularly protein deficiency, if it is not too   severe, is compen- sated for by digestive secretion supply ; this   compensation is only possible because of the adaptive capacity of the   enzymes. In man, in which malnutrition or undernourish- ment are well   known, it would seem that such cases would be rapidly and inevitably   fatal, if there was no process of enzyme adaptation. Dietary   deficiency could also be the result of a lack of substrate due to   enzymatic deficiency ; in some cases, enzyme adaptation limits its   effects owing to digestive compensation. Although it cannot be   considered as an endogenous digestive secretion, the intestinal   microflora plays a crucial role which it is necessary to define, if   the microflora is to be used as a digestive enzyme source in humans   suffering from enzyme insufficiency or deficiency. ",
        "id": 467,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "cardiac arrest effects on blood pressure",
        "body": "By definition, cardiac arrest means the heart is not pumping blood; therefore, there is no blood pressure. None at all. So if you were to cut a person in cardiac arrest, they would not bleed.  If a heartbeat can be restored, the findings after cardiac arrest will vary. In general, if a normal heartbeat can be restored and the heart is once again pumping effectively, vital signs such as blood pressure should return to normal or near-normal levels fairly quickly. However, everything that was wrong with the patient before the arrest will still be present, so if they had hypertension before the arrest, they will probably have it afterwards. However, the cause of the arrest may have been a heart attack that left heart tissue damaged, and that might result in lower BP.   In short, there is no single answer as to what the pressure will be afterwards. It will depend on many things.",
        "id": 1311,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Heat/cold bags filled with bean/flax seed/etc.: does the content matter?",
        "body": "This is only a partial answer. Actual studies on this are indeed hard to find.  First of all: the healing information waves of the herbs you bring near your astral body and other such nonsense will feature in some related answers; not here.   Grain bags or cherry pit pillows are indeed used as a heat storage and delivery device. Only for heat delivery they currently feature as \"doesn't hurt, may help, increases comfort and well being\" for physician guidelines for lower back pain.  For the primary effect they are intended to deliver there might be even more convincing findings behind them:     When heat over 104 degrees Fahrenheit (40 Celsius) is applied to the skin, heat receptors deeper down, where the pain is, are switched on. The heat receptors in turn block the effect of chemical messengers that cause pain to be detected by the body.   Specifically, King and his colleagues discovered that a heat receptor called TRPV1 can block P2X3 pain receptors.   The filling of these bags or pillows actually does matter for a variety of reasons.  In the past they were most popularly filled with simple grains like wheat, rice or barley. This provides a nice and even, down-weighing sensation of heat. But these are problematic because of their moisture content and inherent instability. They break down and dehusk, releasing harmful dust and particles.   If used in this way they also tend to rot and mould quickly. Also the allergenic potential of the ingredients is concerning. This is another reason for not using them to apply cold: moulding will be even quicker then. For a quick make-shift heat applicator they might still be an option, just discard them after some very few uses to make sure.  Cherry pits seem less problematic in both regards, being described as a much \"drier heat\" but they too can be quite a surprising fire hazard when brought to heat in a microwave.   From the manufacturer of a cherry stone pillow sold as medical equipment:     Attention: Important safety information:         Please do observe the specified heating instructions. Prolonged heating can cause higher energy and damage the pillow (ignition hazard)!   Please warm the pillow under supervision and ensure it is not humid!   Let the pillow cool before the next heating!   [\u2026]   Important Note:   While using the cherry stone pillow for babies / children, please also note the following:   Make sure the product is intact and sealed properly! For loose cherry stones can cause choking hazard and suffocation!   Use only under close adult supervision!   Check for the suitable temperature for your child using your elbow (max. 41\u00b0C)![\u2026]      Special instructions: To prevent decay/ formation of mold:   Do not wash the Cherry stone pillows.   Store product dry! Protect from moisture!      The heat storing and distribution properties of different fillers is an obvious variable to consider. Together with a parameter that is less easy to measure: coziness.  Adding other flowers, herbs and spices is often done for the non-part of this answer from the first paragraph. But when using it for delivering heat they obviously can relase volatile substances like essential oils which can have a variety of effects. Adding lavender flowers will smell beautifully and calm you down. However, all those additives I saw added to these pillows substantially increase the mould, allergy and fire hazards. If they are known or even just suspect to be effective and wanted it's probably best to use them isolated.   So, yes: the content of the bags does matter quite a bit. Using hard and dry kernels \u2013 like cherry pits or grape seeds \u2013 seems as good as using just pure sand; and both are better than grains or colourful mixtures of sometimes dubious effect.",
        "id": 739,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dangers of smoking hookah",
        "body": "Well, it isn't healthy. It will not provide you vitamins, or cure you from cold.  TL;DR But it isn't very unhealthy. What that means is that there are health risks you must take into account and decide whether it worths it. Smoking hookah can also be very beneficial in terms of the way you feel. For some people, those benefits overly exceed these on cigarettes, which is one of the reasons they quit smoking, which is a good thing, because cigarettes are more harmful than hookah, but they can also be less harmful than hookah. It depends on how much you smoke. The more you smoke the more the risk increases. People have tendency to abuse cigarettes more than hookah, partially because smoking cigarettes is easier, cheaper and more practical.  So, generally there are much more harmful chemicals in generic tobacco, but we will discuss the top 3 most hazardous of them. Videlicet:   Nicotine Tar Carbon monoxide (and dioxide when oxygenation)   Let's start off with the nicotine.  Not all hookah is prepared with a tobacco that contains nicotine. It could still be tobacco, but wiped out tobacco, soaked in water even boiled, until its full purification. I would still not give my bets on that though as it may still contain some levels of nicotine, which immediately turns it into an unhealthier product. You can also smoke shisha gels, shisha fruits, steam stones and Hookah Creams - all of these do not contain nicotine unless explicitly added. Although there is insufficient evidence to classify nicotine as a carcinogen, there is an ongoing debate about whether it functions as a tumor promoter. Almost all hookah tobacco (like Al. Fakher, Gazi and whatever) contain approximately .05% nicotine. If it says .5%, that is probably a typo. Nakhla shisha is the only brand that boast .5% approx. these percentages will stay the same regardless of whether you load a 20g bowl or a 100g bowl. That means if you buy 50grammes you will be smoking 0.025mg of nicotine around 5 times. Note that this is the general content of nicotine not the actual amount, being absorbed from the organism. The smoker inhales smoke, by which the nicotine absorbs. Hookah is something to be shared with a company, so very often it is being shared from 2 to even up to 10 people, distributing the total nicotine intake, but eventually exposing all to the secondhand smoke. How much of the substance you would get is determined by variety of different factors such as how long you smoke, how much smoke you inhale, how often you inhale. Some people think that because of the huge amount of smoke the hookah produces it is by any chances loading you with much higher levels of nicotine, which is not true, because 1. 50% of the smoke being produced is actually a vegetable glycerine and 2. Because the nicotine level will not magically increase, specially for your bigger clouds. Bigger clouds only means overtoasting the tobacco, which ultimately leads to a reducing time of use. At least pleasurable time. Almost all the times bigger clouds means shorter hookah session lifespan. One hookah session can vary but people generalize it to between 45 minutes and one hour. So there is still some nicotine you will absorb, which makes it unhealthy. Lots of people smoke cigarettes for 45 minutes too, smoking much cigarettes that contain much higher density of poison. Nicotine leads to addiction. Adding good flavors only make it more charming and more addictive.  Tar  The tar is a known carcinogen. Sometimes, this substance is even more dangerous, because unlike the nicotine, which absorbs in your body fast, the tar does not and it produces dense accumulation over time, that kills the pulmonary tissue. It may also cause cancer. (Support Reference) The process of purifying tobacco removes some of the tar, but not completely. Cigarettes take advantage of some 3 centimeter filter of \"foam\" while the hookah gives you a few hundreds of water filtration, which \"wash\" the smoke itself. And it works a-okay. As the time goes and you smoke, you can notice that the water becomes more yellowish. Some people wrongly assume that's all tar, but it is proven that it contains so much more, including molasses and solid particles /heavy metals. The water does not only filter, but it also cools down the smoke and when the smoke is cooled down, it is lighter and when it is lighter it is easier for your lungs to aspirate it. So a good practice is to put ice in the water phial. You can also try one of those water enhancers. Manufactures claim that it empowers the water with special molecular level filtration abilities. I haven't encounter scientific studies remotely related to this product yet, but from using it I can not tell.  Carbon monoxide and dioxide  This is what is being produced from the process of burning. It is being released by the charcoal. When smoking cigarettes you are exposed to a direct burning of a tobacco set on fire, which gives you a lot of carbon mono and some dioxide. When you smoke hookah, the shisha does not burn. It bakes. On a temperature of anything around 100C. But, I shall tell you that, the carbon monoxide released from angry lighter coal might exceed that from cigarettes and cigs, mainly because of the duration of your drag. Carbon monoxide might be the least of your problems. It causes dizziness, caused by the blood vessels (arterial) tightening, whereat the heart rate increases to compensate the blood delivery to your brain.    To summerize: Nicotine is in very low levels and density - there is a slight but existing risk of developing cancer and increase of cholesterol levels and even greater risk of addiction. Smoking inside somewhere may lead to a nicotine exposure equal to or greater than that if you were smoking, it depends on the place, its ventilation, air flow and how much people smoke.  The tar is in low levels and density, the more you smoke, the higher levels of it you accumulate. Smoking way too frequent leads to more tar being accumulated, which may damage everything between your mouth and lungs and cause cancer.  Carbon dioxide isn't risky - it WILL violate human internal processes.  So it is unhealthy, obviously. Not so unhealthy to lead to death or cause irreversible consequences as such haven't been documented, to my knowledge.    Read this: http://www.electroniccigaretteconsumerreviews.com/how-much-nicotine-is-in-one-cigarette/  Very broad NCBI article on nicotine's effects: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4363846/  In case you need, you can find more support for all that, all over the internet. Trust only trusted articles though, because in this topic, there are a lot of disagreements, from all kind of people: concerned parents, politicians, kids, \"informed\" bloggers, gov agencies with an unclear amploa, critics, conspiracy diggers etc and etc",
        "id": 2083,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can filling cavities affect Invisalign treatment?",
        "body": "1) Depending on the location of the cavities, the fillings could impact your Invisalign treatment, especially if you have many Invisalign molds that have already been pre-fabricated.  This is due to the fact that Invisalign wraps itself tightly around the surface of individual teeth to cause their displacement. Any change of tooth morphology (\"Shape\") could have an impact on how well the Invisalign sits on the teeth and compromise its efficiency.   2) Depending on the depth of the cavity, the dentist could decide to monitor the cavity instead of immediately filling it.  If dental hygiene is improved, the cavity could stop growing or in some cases the cavity can remineralize. On the other hand, if it is too deep, it is more urgent to fix the cavity than doing the Invisalign treatment. Keep in mind that if a tooth is damaged, there is no sense in moving it around in the first place.   To conclude: Dental Hygene is crucial during ortho treatment, since the ortho appliances, including Invisalign can Harbor food debris and bacteria, as well as hamper the cleaning action of saliva, causing an increase in the likelihood of getting cavities. Communication between the orthodontist, the dentist and the patient (you!) is very important. Everyone has to be aware of each other's wants, needs and actions. If you don't let your dentist know you are getting an orthodontic treatment or you don't tell your orthodontist that you had fillings done, there is a possibility that they won't become aware of a problem which could result in additional fees, and delays in the treatment plans.   Sources:   My field of study http://www.painfreedentistry.uk.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=126&amp;Itemid=13 ",
        "id": 788,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I need a psychologist ,i want to write him online",
        "body": "Call your psychologist and ask for such option if you can get the e-mail, because you would like to explain your situation in writing.  If they don't have, you can explain your situation on the paper either handwriting or on the computer and print it before going to the appointment.  Especially when it's a private psychologist, they'll love to read what you've written to understand better your situation. In public clinic usually they've tight timeframes. But it may all depend on the specific psychologist and their approach, some of them would want to assess your situation by the direct approach.  Even when they wouldn't want to read it, it's worth to print such document just for your self (even if it's just a mind map), so you won't forget any details what you wanted to share.  If you looking just for online psychologist, I'm sure you can write to them as you like, whether via e-mail, chat or web forms. Search online for some, then send the message explaining your situation and find the most suitable for you who can understand your problems and can help you.",
        "id": 1430,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "High Risk Of Death When Contracting Hepatitis A After Contracting Hepatitis C",
        "body": "In Fulminant Hepatitis Associated with Hepatitis A Virus Superinfection in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C, out of 17 patients with chronic hepatitis C infection who also got infected with hepatitis A, 6 died, so about one third.   In an Italian population based study, 77 patients with chronic hepatitis C (52 with hepatitis C, 25 with hepatitis C and hepatitis B) also got infected with hepatitis A. None died from the hepatitis A infection. This is a published letter to the journal the first study appeared in - the researchers from Italy wrote in because they were surprised by the high mortality rate in the US study, as they had seen no such correlation.   Hepatitis A virus vaccination in persons with hepatitis C virus infection: consequences of quality measure implementation pooled data from 10 studies and puts the mortality rate for hepatitis C patients with a hepatitis A superinfection at around 7 percent (95 percent confidence interval: 1.24-42.12)   That figure of 85 percent dying that the TV show House MD mentioned is made up.   Vaccination against hepatitis A is recommended for chronic hepatitis C patients by    the World Health Organization the CDC  and the NHS ",
        "id": 834,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will taking Clonazepam daily as a sleeping aid for long term cause any side effects?",
        "body": "Yes, clonazepam is known to cause tolerance, as well as other side effects (such as dependence) after a prolonged use.   From the medication Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC):     Prolonged use of benzodiazepines may result in dependence with withdrawal symptoms on cessation of use. [...]      In particular long-term or high-dose treatment, may lead to reversible disorders such as dysarthria, reduced coordination of movements and gait disorder (ataxia), nystagmus and double vision (diplopia).   NHS also states:     Long-term treatment with benzodiazepines isn't usually recommended because they can become less effective over time and some people become dependent upon them.   What's more, Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference doesn't list clonazepam as a medication of choice for insomnia. Nor does NHS article on the treatment of insomnia. Although clonazepam does belong to benzodiazepines, group of medication that is used to treat insomnia, other medicines are recommended. Clonazepam has other indications, such as epilepsy.     Clonazepam, same as other benzodiazepines, is a prescription-only medicine. This means that you shouldn't be able to purchase it, without physician's recommendation. Your physician is able to explain to you the dosage, duration of use, and possible side-effects.     References:  Clonazepam SPC  NHS: Insomnia - Treatment   Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference, 2005 The Pharmaceutical Press. ",
        "id": 805,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is wrong with taking coffee and methylphenidate together?",
        "body": "As far as I can see, your source for saying these two shouldn't be combined is a user on Reddit. That is not a reliable medical source. The package inserts of Ritalin and Concerta don't mention coffee consumption. This is interesting because  coffee being such a ubiquitous drug, you'd think if the combination was dangerous or discouraged, there would be easily available studies and it would be mentioned in the package insert of the medicine.   Most studies on the subject compare methylphenidate to coffee intake, because they are both stimulants, but there has even been a study where caffeine and methylphenidate were combined and given to children:     in which they received caffeine in low (158.6 mg) or high (308.6 mg) doses. Methylphenidate was added to both dosages, as well as administered alone. Results indicate that caffeine in low doses when added to methylphenidate was superior to all other treatment conditions and could not be differentiated from 10 mg of methylphenidate.   This was a really small scale study, though, with only six patients, which is not nearly enough to look at side effect. Or effects.   Now, caffeine and methylphenidate are both stimulants, though with different mechanisms of action. Methylphenidate effects dopamine transportation, while caffeine effects adenosine receptors. There is a good overview on this in the paper found by Susan, Psychostimulants and Cognition: A Continuum of Behavioral and Cognitive Activation, which compares the mechanism of action and effects of several stimulants. The section most relevant for your question is this:     At low doses, stimulants produce an increase in wakefulness, attention, and confidence and vigor. Drugs with low potency or maximum effect, such as caffeine or modafinil, act much like low doses of amphetamine or methylphenidate   This is why the study linked above was about combining caffeine with methylphenidate - seeing whether the dosage of methylphenidate can be lowered if combined with caffeine. It stands to reason that at one point, combining the two can lead to nondesirable effects because of too much stimulation. However, we don't seem to know when this will happen.   This is not medical advice and I am not recommending you go out and combine these two, or not do that, you should ask the doctor prescribing the methylphenidate that. But your source recommending against combining them isn't reputable. ",
        "id": 568,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there evidence that Himalayan Crystal Salt is more healthy than other salts?",
        "body": "Salt is entirely mineral based, so these are the only micro-nutrients of concern.  I could find a few articles containing a spectral analysis of various salts. Here is one for Himalayan pink salt:  http://themeadow.com/pages/minerals-in-himalayan-pink-salt-spectral-analysis  Here is the best comparison I could find, it's mostly just a summary, I couldn't locate the raw data:  http://www.spexcertiprep.com/knowledge-base/files/AppNote_GourmetSalts.pdf  Of note is that while some of the coloured salts may contain higher amounts of essential elements, they also contain higher amounts of harmful elements. Although we're generally talking less than one part per million, so not enough to be of a concern, especially given the small amount you'd ingest. It's this mix of elements which gives the salts their colour.   All of these essential minerals are available in other foods, often in much higher amounts, especially considering the small amount of salt that it's recommended to have in a healthy diet. Perhaps the best salt to use is an iodised salt, especially if your food is coming from areas where levels of iodine in the soil are too low for the adequate intake, although iodised salt is also quite common in bread and some other processed foods now.",
        "id": 891,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's Disease",
        "body": "This is an interesting question. The role of deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease has increased in the last years.  Recently, de Souza et al adressed your concern and reviewed studies investigating the timing of DBS in PD. Here are their conclusion:     From the evidence available, we conclude that surgical management of   PD alone or in combination with medical therapy results in greater   improvement of motor symptoms and quality of life than medical   treatment alone. There is evidence to support the use of DBS in less   advanced PD and that it may be appropriate for earlier stages of the   disease than for which it is currently used. The improving short and   long-term safety profile of DBS makes early application a realistic   possibility.   To your question regarding why DBS is not used as first line therapy: Well, while various studies have shown a significant reduction of dyskinesias, improvement of motor symptoms and significant improvement of quality of life when compared with best medical treatment, DBS is also associated with side effects (surgery related, device related and stimulus related).  Concerning stimulus related side effects (ie other structures than the targeted Subthalamic Nucleus or Globus Pallidus Interna get stimulated through the produced electric potential), you have to imagine, that the electrical field produced by DBS can propagate to other brain regions and may therefore lead to psychological symptoms or motor symptoms. Research on this field is ongoing but because \"in vivo\" testing can't be undertaken (it would not be unethical), bioengineers are creating \"models\" than enable to stimulate DBS electrical field distribution.  Overall, yes, DBS is promising and current debate suggests it should be used earlier. BUT our current understanding on how DBS works (on neuronal level) is still poor and further research is needed.  Sources (both are open access):  Groiss SJ, Wojtecki L, S\u00fcdmeyer M, Schnitzler A. Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders. 2009;2(6):20-28. doi:10.1177/1756285609339382.  deSouza R-M, Moro E, Lang AE, Schapira AHV. Timing of Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson Disease: A Need for Reappraisal? Annals of Neurology. 2013;73(5):565-575. doi:10.1002/ana.23890.",
        "id": 1162,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does LASIK (laser eye surgery) work?",
        "body": "LASIK is an acronym for Laser-Assisted in situ Keratomileusis, with Keratomileusis meaning surgical improvement of the cornea's refractive capabilities, i.e. usually to overcome the defects of myopia (short-sightedness), hyperopia (long-sightedness) and astigmatism (distorted vision).  The process involves first cutting a corneal flap to allow access to the defective corneal tissue. This process involves keeping the eye open, and making an incision across the protective cornea tissue to form a flap. This is achieved via a suction ring. The flap is then lifted back (note that it is still connected to the rest of the eye). Lasers are then used to reshape the cornea tissue to remove the defects. The flap is pulled back over the cornea tissue and left to heal.  The laser used operates using rapid pulses of low-energy-level ultraviolet light. The are other forms of eye surgery other than LASIK, but they depend more on the patients individual eye issues.  This video from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration shows the processes involved.",
        "id": 26,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the coral-like structure in my nasal cavity?",
        "body": "The structure you are searching for is called nasal conchae. They are bone lamellae coated with  mucosal tissue and their main purpuse is the augmentation of the surface of the nasal cavity, with the task To clean, warm and moisturize the inhaled air. It's unlikely that you will be able to damage it  with your toungue.    ",
        "id": 1042,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Exercising a leg with a broken femur",
        "body": "This is a question to ask the surgeon who operated on the leg. Eventually, once the femur heals, you should be able to exercise on it unless there are some unusual individual circumstances. However, you do not want to start exercising if the bone has not healed yet. Whether the bone is healed or not will depend on (a) how long it has been since the surgery (a day? a year?), (b) how bad the break was, (c) the type of surgery performed to repair it, and (d) the general health of the patient. Pain is generally a warning sign that means \"be careful\" so if your leg is in pain, you should listen to that warning sign and avoid stressing the area. So, in summary: (1) Talk to the doctor who operated and ask how long you need to wait before you can exercise, and what types of exercise would be appropriate; (2) After your doctor clears you for exercise, consider talking to a physical therapist about the best way to strengthen the area. Exercise is great for improving many aspects of health, but you need to be careful if you have a broken bone. ",
        "id": 1900,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can ElectroConvulsive Therapy help us to forget our memories?",
        "body": "   Is it possible to forget our past(bad memories) through Electroconvulsive Therapy?   No.  To simplify somewhat, ECT is associated with:   immediate general cognitive and memory dysfunction represented by disorientation (e.g. \"Where am I? Why am I here? What's the date today?\"): transient and generally resolves in a matter of 30-60 minutes after the procedure.   ECT is often associated with:   loss of short-term memory during the period of time that you are having ECT treatments (e.g. \"Did I have lunch already? I saw you today? What did I say?\": Your ability to remember new information will generally return to your normal level within a few weeks to a few months after the treatments are finished.   ECT is sometimes associated with:    memory loss for past events. Events of 2-6 weeks before treatment are the more sensitive. Some patients have \"spotty\" memory loss for events as far back as 6 months before beginning ECT. (\"I can remember Christmas with my family, but I can't remember what gifts I got.\" \"I remember going to New York, but I don't remember where I stayed.\" This memory impairment is potentially (not certainly) permanent. Rarely, patients have reported a more severe memory loss of events which date back further than the 6 months preceding ECT treatments.   You can't count on ECT for any memory loss, since the norm is to remember everything within a few months at most. Also, as mentioned in comments, there is no way to know which memories will be affected. You might remember every painful detail of the past year, and forget some of the more pleasant ones.  Electroconvulsive therapy",
        "id": 172,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a reliable website about cosmetic science?",
        "body": "I would trust the professional organizations' websites and journals:   American Academy of Dermatology  http://www.AAD.org American Osteopathic College of Dermatology http://www.aocd.org/ American Journal of Clinical Dermatology https://link.springer.com/journal/40257 Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01909622?sdc=1   Or google your terms followed by site:aad.org  or site:aocd.org etc  Finding evidence for the newest procedures is harder; there's simply less of it.  I find this to be the case myself.  Dermatologists themselves differ in what they accept and practice from newer technologies.  Any other major peer reviewed medical reference, like UpToDate, I would as well. ",
        "id": 1927,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is UV light necessary for vitamin D generation?",
        "body": "Short answer: No.  Longer answer: UVB rays are essential for Vitamin D synthesis. According to some studies, 1 hour of sunshine is needed even in sunny climates - but only in average, still depending on latitude, skin color and other factors - to prevent Vitamin D deficiency. Still, even the average sun exposure in mid-latitude regions summers might not fulfill your body's needs for UV radation to supply itself with Vitamin D, but opinions on this differ (as can be seen in comparison with the first link of this paragraph).   But when comparing it to 1 hour of full sun exposure in mild climates, it is safe to conclude that the UVB levels behind glass windows, as measured in the first overall link above, are so low that it is highly improbable to reach sufficient Vitamin D levels behind them.",
        "id": 190,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Headphone usage with audiobooks",
        "body": "I cover the answer to the vast majority of this question in this answer. Basically, there are standards regarding the total sound exposure that is safe, but the evidence base for these standards is limited. This a a nice online calculator for calculating the noise dose.  The unique part of your question relates to the difference between audiobooks and music. The safety standards are essentially based on the average sound level and the duration (there are special standards for impulsive noises like gun shots). With some relatively simple signal processing (phase randomization), it is possible to transform speech or music into noise without changing the average sound level. Therefore the standards and safe exposure limits are the same for speech, music, audiobooks and noise.",
        "id": 1844,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true that humans use 10% only of the brain on a regular basis?",
        "body": "It certainly is not true.  There are a few reasons which might help you understand why this \"humans only use 10% of their brain\" is a myth:   If humans only used 10% of their brains, it would be fine if one removed the 90% that is unused. However, in most cases (if not all), even slight damage to the brain causes impair of performance. This is the case of strokes, for example. The brain weights around 2% of your body weight (that's 1,5 kg), but it spends around 20% of your body's energy. If it were true that we only use 10% of our brains, such large brains would constitute a highly survival disadvantage. Natural selection would benefit humans with smaller brains -- but this was not the case. Neuroimaging shows activity in all areas of the brain, even during sleep.   There are several other explanations that try to deny the 10% myth. You may read about this at:   Do We Use Only 10% of Our Brains? Myths About the Brain: 10 percent and Counting Do People Only Use 10 Percent of Their Brains S. Della Sala, Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain, Wiley, 1999. ",
        "id": 760,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Nasal congestion on wakeup in healthy individuals vs. vasomotor rhinitis sufferers",
        "body": "Let's first clarify that \"vasomotor rhinitis (VMR) otherwise known as non-allergic rhinitis\" is the non-allergic reaction (NAR), which can be similar in symptoms to the allergic reaction (AR), but not the same.     Vasomotor rhinitis is a poorly understood disorder which mimics many   of the symptoms of nasal allergy, but has a completely different   basis. Failure to recognize these differences has led to a great deal   of misunderstanding about this disorder.   This symptom might be more common in allergic rhinitis (AR), though we can't really be sure, since we don't know how commonly it occurs in everyone else. (It breaks down into a statistics problem which we can only approximate with certain assumptions.)  However, based on this study: Nonallergic Rhinitis, With a Focus on Vasomotor Rhinitis Clinical Importance, Differential Diagnosis, and Effective Treatment Recommendations     [One survey of US medical practices] suggest that at least 57% of rhinitis   patients have some   contribution from NAR [Nonallergic rhinitis] causing their rhinitis symptoms. Similar   European studies have found that approximately 1 in 4 patients   complaining of nasal symptoms has pure NAR [2].   So it seems that people often mix up Allergic Rhinitis (AR) and NAR so much, that even many cases of \"AR\" are actually still just NAR. So maybe people with AR have AR occurances instead of NAR, and NAR to NR ratio is about 1-to-1. However, if we assume that all people have relatively the same number of NAR symptoms, then it seems likely that people with AR have at least slightly higher occurances of this symptom.",
        "id": 259,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much water does a 30 year old male need to drink daily?",
        "body": "The daily water requirements for a 30 years old male are in general the same as for other adults. You need to consume as much water as you lose it. A young adult loses at least about 1 liter per day -- this is the obligatory water loss, which includes the loses by urinating, invisible perspiration and breathing, but not by sweating (NAP.edu). Practically everyone sweats at least a little , so everyone probably needs to drink more than 1 liter per day.  Roughly speaking, a sedentary adult living in a temperate climate will usually need about 1.5-2 liters of water per day, including the water from beverages and foods (water, tea, milk, vegetables, fruits, cooked cereals). However, even in moderate climate, on a hot summer day, with few hours of a simple exercise like walking, you will probably sweat a lot, so you might need 4 to 5 liters or more water.  Since it is not practical to measure the total water intakes and loses, you can just take care that you are well hydrated, which means you are not dehydrated or overhydrated. The main symptoms of dehydration are thirst, dry mouth, bright yellow or dark urine, increased heart rate and fatigue. When you drink more than you need, you will excrete the excessive water, so you will urinate frequently, probably more than 6 times per day.  Here is a detailed article about how much to drink per day, with all the reasoning, tests and references.   Have a bottle of water at your desk - it helps you not forget to drink.",
        "id": 1542,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Very painful sex AND flaccid after foreplay",
        "body": "Disclaimer: Health Stack Exchange is for educational purposes. I speak about these problems in general; I cannot give you health advice.  There are several possible causes for insertional pain like you described. Women with these symptoms may have anatomical issues that make penetration painful and/or difficult (such as a thick hymen). If there are any lesions in the vaginal area, such as warts, sexually transmitted diseases, or (perhaps most likely here) unhealed areas from earlier intercourse, these all can definitely cause pain.  Lastly, some women experience involuntary muscle spasms with penetration, which makes penetration VERY painful to her. This is often involuntary, and it isn't \"just in your head\", however it is most frequent in women with anxiety about sex, holding personal taboos or having an upbringing with strong social/cultural taboos against sex, or a history of physical or emotional trauma. Having that kind of history is not required though. Treatment involves psychotherapy and techniques to gradually help her relax those muscles (it does not happen overnight).  As L.B. said, perhaps there are cuts there from earlier, in which the best thing may be to let them heal before irritating that area. Any of the other causes can definitely benefit from seeing a gynecologist, as doctors can help all of these issues.  Sounds like sex has been stressful for you both! I hope you are able to relax, smile, and accept that this may take some time before it goes smoothly.",
        "id": 1451,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is the exterior part of my left foot Toe is ALWAYS in pain",
        "body": "I had a similar issue, which turned out to be pretty simple: I had missed a part of my toenail when trimming it.    The part wasn't actually visible as I've drawn it here\u2014it was in between the skin there. As the toenail grew, that part began to painfully poke into the skin, especially when wearing shoes.  The pain disappeared immediately on trimming off this part:    Reaching all that way in to the edge of the nail was difficult with ordinary nail clippers (which is why I had missed it), but much easier with nail scissors:  ",
        "id": 1298,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Confusing thoughts/depression",
        "body": "Professional Advice is vital   Psychologist: I know you said you can\u2019t afford to see a psychologist, and I can\u2019t judge you. I don\u2019t know of your financial background and costs of health care in your local region. I do want to point out that basically, what you have to ask yourself is how much your health is worth to you. If you can somehow manage to see a psychologist, you\u2019d benefit greatly from it. Churches: Again, this is very dependent on where you live. In my area, local (Christian) priests have the qualifications of professional grief counsellors and chaplains. They usually offer their services for free.  Aid Organisations: Organisations like the Red Cross also have professional psychologists and chaplains on a voluntary bases and demand little to no money for their services. ",
        "id": 2024,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What exercise should I do to be medically healthy?",
        "body": "Mayo Clinic recommends 150 minutes of moderate/aerobic exercise weekly - so 30 minutes for 5 days. \"As a general goal, aim for at least 30 minutes of physical activity every day.\"  It sounds like you already do a good job at including physical exercise in your daily routine, so that's great! If you can, try to do those activities with a workout buddy too. I learned in my stress class that interpersonal sports (such as games where you work with teammates) also have good health benefits... (Sorry I don't have the source on hand right now.)  If your concern is \"medical health,\" then consider your diet and other aspects of your lifestyle as well; it's not only about your activity. But because you asked about exercises, I won't go into those details for now - I'm only recommending that you think about other factors as well for your health. For example, are you interested in deep breathing exercises for mental health?  You can also think about your health while you're sitting at desk the whole day: how is your posture? Would you consider standing at your desk if it can change levels? How is the air quality in your office?",
        "id": 1205,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does one manage sarcopenia as one ages?",
        "body": "Morley (2016) states (with more references than I am copying across here),     At a basic level, protein synthesis and/or degradation are controlled by activation of the insulin or IGF-1 receptor.            ...      The primary treatment of sarcopenia is resistance exercise. As was shown by the LIFE study (Pahor,&nbsp;et&nbsp;al.&nbsp;2014), aerobic exercise can also decrease functional decline in lower limb muscles. Exercise has also been shown to be an important therapeutic approach to reversing frailty. There is evidence to support that excess protein [1\u20131.2 g (kj day)] may also enhance muscle mass and, to a lesser extent, function (Bauer,&nbsp;et&nbsp;al.&nbsp;2013). This is particularly true for leucine enriched essential amino acids (whey protein). Essential amino acid supplementation prevents muscle mass loss due to bed rest. A recent multicenter study has shown that whey protein together with vitamin D increased both muscle mass and stair climb. There is some evidence for synergistic effects of exercise and protein to enhance muscle function. Vitamin D supplementation increases muscle strength without increasing muscle mass or power. Vitamin D is more effective in older persons and those with low vitamin D levels. It also decreases falls in persons who are vitamin D deficient. At present, no drugs have been shown to be clinically more therapeutically effective.   For exercise and diet there is the following from Waters,&nbsp;et&nbsp;al.&nbsp;(2010)     With exception of ACEI as a pharmaceutical intervention, the most compelling evidence to combat sarcopenia is resistance training either alone or in combination with nutritional supplements.   For anabolic steroids/SARMs, Morley (2016), states that with:   Nandrolonethere is no evidence that it increased strength MK0773 (TFM-4AS-1)a 4-aza steroidal drug that has androgen gene selectivity. In females, it increased IGF-1 as well as stair climbing power and gait speed (Papanicolaou,&nbsp;et&nbsp;al.&nbsp;2013). This study was terminated because of an increased signal for cardiac failure. In women with sarcopenia, it increased muscle mass, bilateral leg press, and stair climbing power but not gait speed (www.clinicaltrials.gov). The study in males was reported at the 90th Endocrine Society in 2008. It showed anabolic effects of MK0773. EnobosarmIn a 12-week study, increased total lean mass and stair climb (Dalton,&nbsp;et&nbsp;al.&nbsp;2011). In female patients with cancer, enobosarm increased lean mass compared to baseline, but not significantly compared to placeboOverall, these studies of SARMs have shown no advantage over testosterone. Growth Hormone/Insulin Growth Factor-1Increased nitrogen retention and increased muscle mass Ghrelin antagonistsOverall, while ghrelin agonists will increase food intake and muscle mass, it is unlikely that they will produce a significant effect on function in persons with sarcopenia. Myostatin antibodiesIncreased lean body mass and handgrip Activin 11R antagonistsIncreased thigh muscle volume, muscle mass, and 6-min walk distance Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor (perindopril)Increased distance walked and decreased hip fracture Espindolol (B1/B2/B3 adrenergic receptor antagonist)Maintains muscle mass and increased hand grip strength Fast skeletal muscle troponin activators (Tirasemtiv)Improves muscle function   References  Bauer, J., Biolo, G., Cederholm, T., Cesari, M., Cruz-Jentoft, A. J., Morley, J. E., ... &amp; Visvanathan, R. (2013). Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: a position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group. Journal of the american Medical Directors association, 14(8), 542-559.PMID: 23867520 DOI: 10.1016/j.jamda.2013.05.021  Dalton, J. T., Barnette, K. G., Bohl, C. E., Hancock, M. L., Rodriguez, D., Dodson, S. T., ... &amp; Steiner, M. S. (2011). The selective androgen receptor modulator GTx\u2010024 (enobosarm) improves lean body mass and physical function in healthy elderly men and postmenopausal women: results of a double\u2010blind, placebo\u2010controlled phase II trial. Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle, 2(3), 153-161.PMID: 22031847 PMCID: PMC3177038 DOI: 10.1007/s13539-011-0034-6  Morley, J. E. (2016). Pharmacologic options for the treatment of sarcopenia. Calcified tissue international, 98(4), 319-333.DOI: 10.1007/s00223-015-0022-5  Pahor, M., Guralnik, J. M., Ambrosius, W. T., Blair, S., Bonds, D. E., Church, T. S., ... &amp; King, A. C. (2014). Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults: the LIFE study randomized clinical trial. Jama, 311(23), 2387-2396.PMID: 24866862 PMCID: PMC4266388 DOI: 10.1001/jama.2014.5616  Papanicolaou, D. A., Ather, S. N., Zhu, H., Zhou, Y., Lutkiewicz, J., Scott, B. B., &amp; Chandler, J. (2013). A phase IIA randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial to study the efficacy and safety of the selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM), MK-0773 in female participants with sarcopenia. The journal of nutrition, health &amp; aging, 17(6), 533-543. PMID: 23732550 DOI: 10.1007/s12603-013-0335-x  Waters, D. L., Baumgartner, R. N., Garry, P. J., &amp; Vellas, B. (2010). Advantages of dietary, exercise-related, and therapeutic interventions to prevent and treat sarcopenia in adult patients: an update. Clinical Interventions in aging, 5(1), 259\u2014270.PMCID: PMC2938033",
        "id": 2199,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much hard liquor is safe for very small children?",
        "body": "As I argue in my answer to this question, there seems to be a threshold in terms of the amount of alcohol likely to cause hepatocellular necrosis based on the production of acetaldehyde. However, alcohol causes damage to other cells in the body such as in the brain and throat. Since your example is of hard liquor, there would be damage to the mouth and esophagus not present from consumption of more dilute solution. Although beyond the scope of your question, many people would consider changes like habituation to the effects and long-term tolerance, and even \"developing an acquired taste\" which could increase the propensity for alcoholism, to be harmful.  A study of two hospitalized toddlers found that their alcohol consumption was somewhat under 20 mL for the first one (who drank an acetaminophen elixir) and 2 to 7 mL for the second one (who drank mouthwash and collapsed). So it seems that toddlers are more sensitive to the depressant effect of alcohol than adults per kg of body weight, and that it is feasible for them to drink enough alcohol to suffer respiratory arrest.  There is a whole thread on reddit discussing your very question. None of the answers were satisfyingly quantitative, but people pointed out that some pediatric medications contain ethanol (which should make it possible to calculate a \"sanctioned\" dose), that people in France and other places have a history of giving a little alcohol to young children, that ethanol is a metabolite (rum flavoring) or additive (flavoring extracts) in some foods, that it forms spontaneously in sugar-containing foods like juice and that it can form naturally in the intestine. So any of these approaches should make it possible to estimate a \"normal\" exposure of toddlers to ethanol, if not a \"safe\" one.",
        "id": 239,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Elderberry seeds toxicity",
        "body": "From your own link     Although the ripe, cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of Sambucus are edible,[6][9][10] uncooked berries and other parts of plants from this genus are poisonous.[11] The leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, and roots of Sambucus plants can contain a cyanidin glycoside. Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanidin glycosides may produce illnesses.[6][11]   Cooking destroys the small amount of cyanogenic glycosides found in the fruit that is poisonous.  When making jam you can sieve out all the seeds.",
        "id": 2220,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Clonazepam and pregnancy",
        "body": "This is an issue for which YOU NEED to have a risks-benefits discussion with a doctor. Only they can help guide you whether to continue the medication or not, as there may be risks either way.  I am answering this question because it is helpful to be aware that until recently, the FDA classified medications into Pregnancy Risk Categories based upon evidence from studies or lack thereof.  They removed these labels (for reasons outside the scope of this question) but the categories are helpful at least to start with.  Benzodiazepines as a class were Category D in pregnancy including clonazepam.  Some Benzodiazepines were Category X.     Category D   There is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse reaction data from investigational or marketing experience or studies in humans, but potential benefits may warrant use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks.   Example drugs: lisinopril, alprazolam, losartan, clonazepam, lorazepam      Category X   Studies in animals or humans have demonstrated fetal abnormalities and/or there is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse reaction data from investigational or marketing experience, and the risks involved in use of the drug in pregnant women clearly outweigh potential benefits.   Example drugs: atorvastatin, simvastatin, warfarin, methotrexate, finasteride   This does NOT mean 100% for sure that a medication should not be taken - it is ALWAYS IMPORTANT to have a risks-benefits discussion with a doctor for medications during pregnancy!",
        "id": 1929,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do using trackballs put more stress on the hand, wrist and arm than a traditional mouse?",
        "body": "I am currently using a logitech ambidextrous trackball and I am starting to develop pain for clicking with the thumb. The wrist seems to remain stable, but there is still a certain amount of tension when moving the ball in the wrist.   Else at my job, I try to move the mouse by moving my whole arm instead of the wrist to reduce wrist pain. There does not seem to be a perfect solution.",
        "id": 132,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could we cure HIV through transplantation of white blood cells resistant to HIV?",
        "body": "This is not a silly question. While transfusing white blood cells, with the CCR5 mutation isn't a solution because these cells will be rejected by the recipient's body (and also because those cells have a limited life time), transplantation of so called \"stem cells\" have provided promising results in HIV+ patients with blood cancer undergoing stem cell transplantation.   So to summarise (the protocol is quite complicated but since you mentioned you are not in the biomedical field, I will try to explain it in a simple way), these patients receive an ablative chemotherapy (+/- total body irradiation) in order to destroy all their \"cancerous\" cells. They then get transplanted with stem cells from a donor which has the CCR5-delta32 mutation. These cells then replace the previous population of white blood cells (which have been killed during the ablative phase) leading transplanted individuals to become HIV resistant.   So, now, you must wonder while this has not been more used?   Because this method is very toxic and associated with several complications (ex: patients undergoing this high risk ablative therapy are at risk of developing infections during the process as their immune cells get destroyed) Patients need to take immunsuppresive therapy for a long time to avoid rejection of the transplanted stem cells and theses drugs are also associated with side effects Studies have still to show whether this method is at least as effective (in terms of short and long term outcomes) as taking HIV drugs (which become more and more efficient) in healthy individuals (remember that this method was used in HIV+ patients with blood cells cancer, who, anyway, needed a chemotherapy)   Hope this provides some clarification to your question!  Here two references (which provide a good understanding for the layperson)  http://www.nature.com/news/stem-cell-transplants-may-purge-hiv-1.13297  http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090211/full/news.2009.93.html",
        "id": 1129,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is O positive male compatible (fertility wise) with AB positive female?",
        "body": "This is something to be confirmed by your doctor and I'm not sure why you're worried, but     ABO blood group incompatibilities between the mother and child does not usually cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) because antibodies to the ABO blood groups are usually of the IgM type, which do not cross the placenta. However, in an O-type mother, IgG ABO antibodies are produced and the baby can potentially develop ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn.    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system#ABO_hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn  This means that you being O and her being AB is not an issue in terms of conceiving or carrying a baby.  You are both \"positive\" on Rh factor.      The hemolytic condition occurs when there is an incompatibility between the blood types of the mother and the fetus. There is also potential incompatibility if the mother is Rh negative and the father is positive. When any incompatibility is detected, the mother often receives an injection at 28 weeks gestation and at birth to avoid the development of antibodies toward the fetus.   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_blood_group_system#Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn  You don't have a combination known to cause trouble, and if you did, there are treatments during pregnancy to prevent the trouble.  Why are you worried you might not be \"medically compatible\"? There doesn't seem to be any evidence that you are not.",
        "id": 2397,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a common standard to assess the safety of medical procedures?",
        "body": "No. There is not a set standard for the safety of medical procedures. The  risks of procedures varies and is balanced against the potential benefits of the procedure (which will also vary). Unlike medications or devices, procedures themselves are not subject to approval by a regulatory authority.  The professional ethical standard here is informed consent, that is, the patient must be informed of the risks and potential benefits of a procedure. After understanding and considering these risks and benefits, the patient consents. Informed consent as a process should occur for any treatment, but clear documentation is required for surgical procedures.  Some of these issues are discussed here.",
        "id": 2623,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often should I use mouthwash?",
        "body": "I think the comment made by Carpetsmoker is important in this context.  Some may find surprising (at least I did) that actually fluoride toothpaste is not clearly superior to fluoride containing mouth rinses according to a Cochrane Review published in 2009. Unfortunately all reviews are about  children or adolescent patients.  Mark Gabriel wonders the intermittent use of mouth rinses. When one is planning of intermittent use it is only natural that mouth rinse is used alongside with regular brushing. Then were faced with the important aspect pointed out by Carpetsmoker. Of course one could use brushing and mouth rinse alternatively since they are equally effective preventing caries. I think one should use either one and not to alternate since usually the more complex routines one developed, more likely they fail.  As so, I think we should look at whether mouth rinses provide any additional benefit to brushing. Three most common active ingredients in mouth rinses are some form of alcohol, chlorhexidine and fluoride (Wikipedia).  The longer-term effects of any treatment should always be evaluated, especially in this case since the use is projected to last possible of life-time. Chlorhexidine containing mouth rinses may cause staining and affect oral flora. The are no specific guidelines how long to use chlorhexidine containing mouth rinses  but one sources discourages using it more than 3-4 weeks (1,3).   There are some health concerns also regarding the alcohol containing mouth rinses. Currently it is controversial whether alcohol containing mouth rinses predispose to cancer (1,2,3). In general the possible adverse effects of long-term use are quite poorly established.   There is a 2004 Cochrane review investigating the effects of combining mouth rinse to regular brushing (Free review).    The main outcome was caries increment measured by the change in decayed, missing and filled tooth surfaces (D(M)FS).  Five authors investigated brushing+mouth rinse versus brushing. There is some benefit from the combination treatment but it is very minimal. The same conclusion was drawn in two reviews by American Dental Association: \"Based on his findings, the author said that mouthrinses made with CHX, essential oils, or CPC could help reduce plaque and gingivitis in people who brushed and flossed. He also said that using these rinses along with brushing and flossing reduced plaque and gingivitis more than brushing and flossing alone.\" (4).  After a long commentary I still did not answer the question in the topic. But, to conclude, there may be some benefit combining mouth rinse and brushing. Intermittent use may be better if mouth rinse contains alcohol or chlorhexidine. I am fairly certain that current literature does not include explicit answer to the OP\u00b4s question.",
        "id": 156,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long would someone be able to live if they suddenly became allergic to water?",
        "body": "Due to the rarity of the condition, pathogenesis is poorly understood. According to Aung, Montelibano, &amp; Zin (2017), water may act as a solvent in aquagenic urticaria, solubilizing an antigen that permeates the skin and activates dermal mast cells. It is also possible that water may interact with sebum to form a substance capable of acting as a direct mast cell degranulator.\u00a0  Is it plausible that a person would live so long as to get a news article made about them?  There is a recent paper I found (Fukumoto, et al. 2018) which might shed some light on the subject.  The paper discussed an 8-year-old girl who suffered a history of shortness of breath, syncope and urticaria induced by cold water.     Treatment of AU remains a discussion. Although AU has been reportedly mediated in both a histamine-dependent and independent manner, antihistamines have been recommended as the first-line treatment. Barrier creams, ultraviolet radiation monotherapy, and ultraviolet therapy in combination with anti-histamines are also reported treatments for AU. The patient's condition has been successfully controlled with loratadine. This result supports the hypothesis that histamine is involved in AU.   References  Aung, T., Montelibano, L., &amp; Zin, K. (2017). P184 Aquagenic urticaria.\u00a0Annals of Allergy, Asthma &amp; Immunology,\u00a0119(5), S49.DOI: 10.1016/j.anai.2017.08.237  Fukumoto, T., Ogura, K., Fukunaga, A., &amp; Nishigori, C. (2018). Aquagenic urticaria: Severe extra-cutaneous symptoms following cold water exposure.\u00a0Allergology International,\u00a067(2), 295-297.DOI: 10.1016/j.alit.2017.10.007Free PDF: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/allergolint/67/2/67_295/_pdf",
        "id": 2381,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bio identical cortisol and metformin",
        "body": "This study was examining the effects of metformin on hormone levels responding to hypoglycemia. It found that metformin did not significantly alter the body's hormonal response to hypoglycemia in their study population.  Study  It looks like according to the study that recurring hypoglycemia can cause a lowering of cortisol:     Antecedent hypoglycemia significantly reduced epinephrine, ACTH, cortisol, glucagon, GH, and symptomatic responses to hypoglycemia (P &lt; 0.05 for all variables)   This may have been partially misconstrued; since metformin helps lower blood glucose, and low blood glucose is associated with decreased cortisol levels, one could assume that metformin could in theory lower cortisol levels, but this does not seem to be the case at least according to this study.  Metformin works by decreasing the absorption of glucose, decreasing the amount of glucose the liver produces, and by improving insulin sensitivity. It does not directly stimulate insulin release or mimic the actions of insulin; therefore it is not linked to much hypoglycemia.  When checking interactions between hydrocortisone (cortisol as a medication) and metformin the only interaction reported was: cortisol may decrease the effect of metformin and other anti-diabetic agents.",
        "id": 1168,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can posture affect the jaw position?",
        "body": "Here you have   1 - https://occlusionconnections.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/gnm-approach-compilation-clayton-a-chan-dds.pdf  2 - https://occlusionconnections.com/gneuromuscular-dentistry-gnm/physiologic-rest  It seems i have to write more to my answer be acepted",
        "id": 1952,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Thyroid Peroxidase (TPO) Ab Test- normal or abmormal",
        "body": "Normal. A result of 9 where the reference range is 0 - 34 indicates that you're within the normal range. For this test, an abnormal result would be a value over 34 because it's not possible to have a result below zero.   Keep in mind that each testing lab can different reference ranges, and they can differ over time too.",
        "id": 1034,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Olive oil - healthy as a substitute, or in its own right?",
        "body": "Good Question!   Here we all know, the excess of everything is bad. If your larger quantity means the use of 1-2 TBSP of olive oil in the breakfast time and then in the dinner time is completely fine. The effect of oil on your body totally depends on your way of intake- this also includes the quantity. You also need to take care of your other intakes.   For example, If you are taking olive oil in warm milk before going to bed then the effect would be different on your body. If you are just pouring some oil onto the food then the effect would be different. What else are you taking which includes fats, and similar nutrients?   There are many benefits of olive oil that we cannot even count. But it also depends on how pure is your Olive OIL is. if it is not pure then it is very harmful to you to take in high amount. if it is pure and you are sure, you still wanna use good amount then you should be doing some exercise in order to consume it properly.",
        "id": 2182,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much alcohol intake is required to trigger withdrawal?",
        "body": "I don't think that you will find a definitive answer on this, unfortunately. There are too many factors on an individual basis to make it a blanket kind of projection. The closest that I found for any kind of writeup that addresses it is this published article.  The pertinent part of that is this section here:     How Much Alcohol Must Be Ingested (and over what period) for a Person to Develop Alcohol Dependence and to Be at Risk for Alcohol Withdrawal?      There is no absolute relationship between pattern of alcohol use and the risks of physiologic dependence and withdrawal, which most likely reflects the significant number of variables, in addition to duration and quantity of alcohol use, that can contribute to dependence and withdrawal risk for a given individual. Some of these additional variables include age, medical comorbidities (such as hepatic dysfunction), concomitant medication use, and seizure threshold.      It has been easier to quantify the risk of benzodiazepine withdrawal, based on degree of benzodiazepine use (even though benzodiazepines act at the same receptor as does alcohol and are cross-reactive with it). For example, daily use of 20 mg of diazepam for 3 weeks or longer is believed to be sufficient to induce physiologic dependence.3 However, the shorter half-life of alcohol (1\u20132 hours) has made similar predictions elusive in the case of alcohol abuse. In general, any suspicion of daily alcohol use over several weeks or more, regardless of quantity, should raise concern over possible alcohol withdrawal.   So, while you can make some possible predictions, you may just have to look at the drinking history pattern and project from that, and make preparations for withdrawal symptoms to occur in cases of extended consumption, even if it the first time the patient has consumed in that manner.  As far as the preparations, there is this article which addresses the clinical features, assessment and management of AWS (Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome).",
        "id": 161,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the hormonal patch (used for contraception) waterproof?",
        "body": "Yes, or at least waterproof enough to bath and swim while wearing it.   According to the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals:     You can wear the patch while bathing, showering, swimming, and exercising   And the NHS:     You can wear the patch in the bath, in the swimming pool and while playing sports   And according to the review Transdermal ethinylestradiol/norelgestromin: a review of its use in hormonal contraception.      During three efficacy studies in which more than 70 000 patches were used (7-day duration of application), 1.8% were replaced because of complete detachment and 2.9% for partial detachment. Neither living in a humid climate nor physical activity, including exercise, heat, humidity, and water immersion, seemed to affect patch adhesion   If the patch detaches, it needs to be replaced, but water immersion such as bathing and swimming does not appear to significantly increase the risk of it happening. Water immersion also doesn't reduce the hormone uptake of the patient",
        "id": 414,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to scratch an itchy throat",
        "body": "Typically itchy throats are associated with post nasal drip, dry air, allergies, or some other irritant.   If it's allergen related, an antihistamine (Benadryl, Zyrtec, Claritin, etc) can be helpful. If you're developing some sort of virus or bacterial infection, often a warm salt water gargle helps to alleviate discomfort and can prevent a full-on infection.  How long has your throat been itchy? If this is an on-going problem, I'd advise seeing your health care provider.  Also, hot tea with honey can provide temporary relief as the honey will coat your throat.",
        "id": 1350,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Breathing through one nostril",
        "body": "This question already has a longer answer on our sister site, Biology Stackexchange. In summary, this is normal.   I will quote from the answer of Mike Taylor. The complete answer is a bit longer.      This is natural phenomenon called the nasal cycle. It is discussed in this paper by Telles et al. (1994), among many others. The nostrils are used on an alternating cycle of about 2-3 hours, controlled by the autonomic nervous system. If you notice alternating congestion, that also seems to be coupled to the nasal cycle (Hasegawa and Kern 1977, 1978).      The nasal cycle is a natural ultradian cycle (see here and here. Not only is it present in humans, the nasal cycle has been observed in rats, rabbits, domestic pigs, cats and dogs (see references in Eccles 1996]). Thus, the nasal cycle may at least be a feature of mammals but it may be a feature of other bilateral animals that use nostrils for respiration. In addition, the nasal cycle may be an artifact of the evolution of bilateral symmetry in animals, and how the autonomic nervous system operates between the two sides.       The autonomic nervous system controls the nasal cycle. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. Interestingly, these two divisions show a lateralized ultradian rhythm (Shannahoff-Khalsa 2007).  This means that the parasympathetic nervous system dominates one side of the body and the sympathetic nervous system dominates the other side of the body. The two systems later switch dominate sides. This dominance swithcing back and forth between the parasympathetic and sympathetic happens with a regular rhythmic cycle every few hours. As it happens, this switching between sides correlates very well with the nasal cycle (Shannahoff-Khalsa 1991).  When the parasympathetic-sympathetic systems switch sides, so do the nostrils. This is also associated with a switch in EEG activity between the two brain hemispheres (Werntz et al. 1983).      Therefore, the nasal cycle may not have a specific function, adaptive or otherwise. Instead, it could result from dominance of the parasympathetic system. Whichever side is dominated by the parasympathetic system will have the primary nostril in use for respiration. However, others have argued that the nasal cycle does provide a function. For example, Eccles (1996) argued that the nasal cycle may function as a respiratory defense mechanism. They found that the rate of cycling increases when nasal infection is present in the nose. They argue that the congestion-decongestion helps generate \"plasma exudate\" (nasal fluids derived from blood plasma) which may help remove bacteria and viruses.      The nasal cycle is an interesting phenomenon but whether it evolved as an adaptation (such as a mechanism proposed by Eccles et al. (1996) or is simply an artifact of the operation of the autonomic nervous system may never be known for sure.   Original question: Why do I only breathe out of one nostril?",
        "id": 621,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Alternatives to Talcum powder for personal hygiene?",
        "body": "The evidence is inconclusive linking talcum powder to cancer. However, most doctors say there is no reason for you to use it, at all, ever, on any part of you.   If you want to absorb perspiration, use clothing. For example, choose soft absorbent cotton underwear over shiny synthetic fabrics. Choose larger underwear that contacts more skin over \"thong\" or \"string\" style skimpy underwear. Wear a soft cotton chemise or camisole under your blouse. Avoid pantyhose or other tight fitting clothing that might make you sweat. Wear a cotton nightdress instead of polyester pajamas. Choose soft cotton socks and go without shoes and socks as much as is practical (eg at home in private.) If your feet sweat dramatically, don't wear the same shoes two days in a row: give them a chance to dry thoroughly.  Some people use corn starch as a talcum replacement; this is an especially bad idea in your underwear or in a baby's diaper, since the corn starch can feed yeast that is naturally on the skin, and lead to a yeast infection. The concerns over breathing powder are also apparently an issue with corn starch, though I can't find a reference for it at the moment.  Bottom line: talcum powder doesn't keep you cleaner or prevent infections. You probably shouldn't use it, and you probably don't need a substitute. If you have a specific condition or issue, discuss with your doctor the specific place you want to use it (it's far safer on your feet than in your underwear, for example) and how often. If it's ok to use it, do take good care not to breathe any in while applying it.",
        "id": 1978,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Use of injection containing both insulin and glucose",
        "body": "Glucose and insulin could co-exist in the same container without reacting.  Intravenous insulin has been used to treat hyperglycemia. There is a risk of severe hypoglycemia and even death after intravenous insulin (Diabetes Spectrum), which makes it inappropriate for use outside hospitals.    What naturally happens during stressful physical work?  Stress triggers the adrenal glands to release the hormones adrenaline and cortisol, which break down glycogen (in the liver and muscles) into glucose, and fats into fatty acids, which then appear in the blood. This triggers the pancreas to release the hormone insulin, which stimulates the entrance of glucose and fatty acids into the muscles thus providing substrate that can be broken down into energy. Adrenaline stimulates this breakdown. Adrenaline also dilates the bronchi in the lungs thus enabling more oxygen to enter the blood. It also dilates the arteries in the muscles thus increasing the blood flow and hence the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the muscles.  So, insulin merely enables glucose to enter the cells, but they are adrenaline and cortisol that enable the release of energy (energy boost).  What is exhaustion?  Simply put, exhaustion after physical work is lack of energy, mainly due to depleted glycogen stores (the source of glucose) in the liver and muscles.  Without glycogen, one would be much less able to run fast and fight.  How to naturally replenish glycogen stores?   Having several high-carbohydrate meals provides glucose that appears in the blood. This triggers the release of insulin, which stimulates the entrance of glucose into the cells. Glucose that is not needed for the energy at the time is used to replenish glycogen stores - this process is also stimulated by insulin. This way, glycogen stores can be fully replenished in about 24 hours (PubMed, 2018).  Glycogen replenishment is optimal when one starts to consume carbohydrates immediately after exercise. If the consumption is delayed for 2 hours, glycogen synthesis can be reduced by 50% (Today's Dietitian). This also very likely applies to glucose injection.   The optimal amount of carbohydrates is 0.6 g per kg of body weight every 30 minutes, so, for a 70 kg person about 40 g carbohydrates every 30 minutes for four hours (up to 700 g per day) (PubMed, 2018).  How could glycogen replenishment be artificially accelerated? (pure theory, not proven effective or safe)  According to one study, intravenous glucose stimulates glycogen synthesis, but there is no timing mentioned.  Fructose and galactose injection can result in twice as quick glycogen synthesis as a glucose injection (PubMed, Diabetes).  Concluding from the following article (PubMed, 1991), insulin by injection might not stimulate glucose uptake by the liver and hence glycogen synthesis beyond the rate already achieved by naturally secreted insulin.      Experiments carried out in man have suggested that insulin may play   only a permissive role in the determination of splanchnic glucose   uptake. In a study by DeFronzo et al. (5), in which the plasma glucose   and insulin levels were raised via peripheral intravenous infusion to   223 mg/dl and 55 \u03bcU/ml, respectively, net splanchnic glucose uptake   was 1.0 mg/kg per min. The rate of glucose uptake did not change   appreciably when the arterial insulin level was raised further to 191   \u03bcU/ml.   Here you can see that, as a natural response, insulin levels can reach 276 \u03bcU/ml 1 hour after glucose administration.  SUMMARY  Theoretically, it seems that the optimal recovery (glycogen replenishment) after exhaustion could be achieved by injections of a mixture of glucose + fructose, at the rate 0.6 g per kg body weight, starting immediately after exercise and repeated every 30 minutes for 4 hours. Full glycogen replenishment in a 70 kg person might require 700 g of the mentioned carbohydrates per day. Some transient hyperglycemia could occur this way, but this would be likely without symptoms. 70% glucose (dextrose) solutions are available.  Intravenous insulin might not stimulate glycogen synthesis significantly more than naturally secreted insulin. Intravenous insulin injections would also require constant measurements of blood glucose levels to avoid hypoglycemia.",
        "id": 2670,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What influences vaginal odor?",
        "body": "This is an interesting question, which comes frequently on Health SE.  First, here a small background on vaginal secretions:  More than 30 compounds have been described in the vaginal secretions. Several \"sources\" for those secretions have been indentified:  vulvar secretions from sebaceous, sweat, Bartholin and Skene glands, secretions from the endometrium, transudate from the vaginal walls and exfoliated cells from the vaginal mucosa.   Compounds of vaginal fluid are proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids. There is also a vaginal bacterial flora (such as vaginal lactobacilla) which produces organic acids as metabolic byproducts which can contribute to the vaginal odor.  So what influences those odors?  Certainly the menstrual cycle. Here an interesting study published some decades ago (more than > 30 years) in Science:   A research group sampled vaginal secretions in women and asked participants to \"sniff\" the bottle containing the secretions. They were then asked to evaluate the intensity and pleasantness of the odor's secretion. Here a graph of the variation in vaginal odor during a menstrual cycle:    As you can see there is high variability, although slightly less unpleasant odor were noted in the preovulatory and ovulatory phase. So there is probably the role of sex hormones and an inter-individual variability  Infections or medications (in particular antibiotics) which alters the vaginal ecoflora, leading some bacteries to outpower other bacterias, which in turn leads to the production of other organic compounds, associated with different odors.  In women with bacterial vaginosis (= altered vaginal flora), one recent study has reported that      increased dietary fat intake is associated with increased risk of BV   and severe BV, whereas increased intake of folate, vitamin A, and   calcium may decrease the risk of severe BV.   so maybe diet can influence this vaginal odor.  Finally, hygiene habits and sexual activity have also been linked to a change in vaginal flora, and might therefore lead to a change in vaginal odor.  As odor perception can be \"subjective\" an inter-individual variability of its pleasantness should also be taken into account.  Sources:  Doty et al. Changes in the intensity and pleasantness of human vaginal odors during the menstrual cycle. Science\u00a0\u00a026 Dec 1975: Vol. 190, Issue 4221, pp. 1316-1318. DOI: 10.1126/science.1239080  Fashemi B, Delaney ML, Onderdonk AB, Fichorova RN. Effects of feminine hygiene products on the vaginal mucosal biome. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease. 2013;24:10.3402/mehd.v24i0.19703. doi:10.3402/mehd.v24i0.19703.  Neggers YH, Nansel TR, Andrews WW, et al. Dietary Intake of Selected Nutrients Affects Bacterial Vaginosis in Women.\u00a0The Journal of nutrition. 2007;137(9):2128-2133.  Paavonen J et al. Physiology and ecology of the vagina. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl.\u00a01983;40:31-5.  Priestley CJ, Jones BM, Dhar J, Goodwin L. What is normal vaginal flora?Genitourinary Medicine. 1997;73(1):23-28.",
        "id": 1160,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why don't small wounds leave scars?",
        "body": "Most wounds leave some kind of scar. It's just that we sometimes can't really tell because it's so small.   Here's how wound healing generally works:    Blood clots and forms a scab (this may not happen, for example in burns and puncture wounds that didn't draw blood  White blood cells (macrophages) \"clean\" the wound - the wound may appear to be oozing some fluid. Blood flow increases, the macrophages produce growth factors.  Blood flow increases more, red blood cells deliver more oxygen. Cells at the edge of the wound secrete collagen. The wound fills with tissue called granulation tissue.  New skin grows over that tissue.    These stages are called hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This process can take weeks to years depending on size and location of the wound.   Now, what's a scar? Scars look different from \"normal\" skin because of collagen. Collagen is a protein on the outside of the skin cells holding them together and making skin strong (it's also a major part of tendons). In normal skin the collagen sort of forms a \"criss-cross\" pattern, while in scar tissue it's more parallel. That probably comes from the wound healing process.   In small wounds, you won't notice that the skin looks different because of that. In larger wounds, it's very apparent at first, though scars also start looking less noticeable with age.   Sources  How Wounds Heal, John Hopkins  Health Library   Factors Affecting Wound Healing (introductory section)   How wounds heal - US National Library of Medicine   Collagen morphology in human skin and scar tissue: no adaptations in response to mechanical loading at joints.",
        "id": 549,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name of the sense that keeps track of where your body parts are?",
        "body": "This so-called sixth sense is called kinesthesia or proprioception. There are some slight differences between the two, in that kinesthesia only refers to moving parts, whereas your proprioceptive sense can identify the position of your body even when still.  kin\u00b7es\u00b7the\u00b7sia  awareness of the position and movement of the parts of the body by means of sensory organs (proprioceptors) in the muscles and joints.  pro\u00b7pri\u00b7o\u00b7cep\u00b7tion   the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement.",
        "id": 313,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does halving the quantity of an oil-based time-release intramuscular injection medicine also require halving the time between dosing?",
        "body": "The intramuscular injection has rather erratic pathways of a drug absorprtion. Moreover the drug absorptions rate depends on a drug type and a target organ.   However for a purpose of illustration of the point raised by OP a simple   pharmacokinetic model (y-axis - concetration, x-axis - time in hours) could be considered:   You can see that the amount of drug injected takes roughly the same time to absorb for different concentration values.  As an answer of the OP's question, halving the administrated drug dose will not halve the inter-administration periods. For further details please consult Pharmacokinetics",
        "id": 2451,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it healthy to be really petite",
        "body": "There are health risks associated with being underweight. The NIH BMI calculator returns 16.6 for a 5'1\" 88 lb person and says anything under 18.5 is underweight. There is less information available about the risks of a low BMI than a high one, but I found a page from the NHS in the UK. It suggests fatigue and a lowered immune system are worries.  There is a difference between being very thin even though you eat and move normally, and being very thin because you are restricting your diet. There are also health risks with losing weight quickly. All of these are things for your friend to discuss with her own doctor. A single point like a height and a weight is useful to confirm \"yes, that's a really thin person\" but not for anything more such as \"you should stop dieting\" or \"you should try to gain weight.\" ",
        "id": 2097,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Take and analyse blood samples at home",
        "body": "Probably not.   Few things that people can check by just looking at their own blood under the microscope, if they take some time to learn the skill. Counting red and white blood cells, for example. But without a lot of practice, those numbers could be very wrong. Also, you probably won't be able to differentiate between the types of white blood cells.    There are also some things that can be done using tests that you can buy at a pharmacy (and maybe even a supermarket), for example blood sugar. These are usually very easy to use so people can use them at home. When in doubt, ask a pharmacist or doctor.   Some bacteria can be stained and identified with equipment that can be purchased from specialised businesses. Again, this takes practice. It's easy to get something wrong.   And unless we are talking about diabetes or leukemia, both of which would also show up when being tested at a doctor's office, these tests are not helpful in your scenario. Almost all other medical tests, like testing antibodies, hormones, vitamins, CRP, need specialized lab equipment and people with training.   There would be the possibility of taking blood and having it analyzed later. But while blood can be stored in a cold environment and analyzed later (most doctor's offices I know only deliver to a lab once a day, storing the blood in a fridge before that), most people aren't trained at taking whole vials of blood,  and even people who are don't usually take their own blood.   The patient's best bet in this scenario is to have some doctor take the blood while the symptoms are occurring and send the sample to the lab. Doesn't necessarily have to be the treating specialist - one of mine is 70 kilometers away, so I have my blood tests done by my GP I can walk to.   As a bit of an aside, I have a hard time coming up with anything that would show up in the blood sample while showing symptoms, but fail to show up in one taken a few hours later after symptoms subside. Then again, I am not a doctor.",
        "id": 679,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are farm raised fish unhealthier than their wild caught counterparts?",
        "body": " The claim that farmed salmon have more PCBs than wild salmon is true.  For example, this paper from Science shows that the PCB (and other organic pollutant) concentrations are approximately 8 times higher in farmed than in wild salmon.       The claim that Omega-3 fatty acids are lower in farmed than wild salmon is false.   According to the USDA, farmed salmon has a higher concentration of Omega-3 fatty acids than wild salmon at 4.2g vs 3.4g for the default 1/2 fillet tested.    The claim that dyes are added to make salmon pink is true.   This paper describes an assay to measure astaxanthin content, which is one of the dyes added to the feed of farmed salmon.      Astaxanthin is the single most expensive constituent in salmonid fish feed. Even though astaxanthin constitutes less than 20% of the total fish feed costs, control and optimization of the concentration of astaxanthin from feed to fish is of paramount importance for a cost effective salmonid fish production. ",
        "id": 92,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much time does it take for medical advances to be used in practice?",
        "body": "Title of this publication speaks it all: The answer is 17 years, what is the question: understanding time lags in translational research (2011). Some quotes:     This process of conversion of basic science to patient benefit is often called \u2018translation\u2019      Using different endpoints, different domains and different approaches,   Balas and Bohen and Grant et al. both estimate the time lag in   health research being 17 years. Wratschko also suggested 17 years as   the highest limit for the time taken from drug discovery to   commercialization.   From Making the Leap: the Translation of Innovative Surgical Devices From the Laboratory to the Operating Room (2016):     Innovative surgical devices have preceded many of the major advances   in surgical practice. However, the process by which devices arising   from academia find their way to translation remains poorly understood.   (...) The probability of a first-in-human at 10 years was 9.8%.   From An overview of recommendations and translational milestones for genomic tests in cancer (2015):     The median time from discovery to recommendation statement was 14.7   years.   There are people trying to lower those lag times, see for example Faster by a power of 10: a PLAN for accelerating national adoption of evidence-based practices (2015):     We propose an ambitious goal: to increase the speed of adoption of   evidence-based practices by a power of 10, from 17 years to 1.7 years,   and present a 4-step PLAN to achieve this.   So maybe in the future things will be better.",
        "id": 1258,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rationales behind the order of applying the torso straps of a Kendrick Extrication Device",
        "body": "Kendrick Extrication Devices (KED) are used during extrications (Such as in automobiles) where space is limited, and a backboard can't be used safely.  Generally the mnemonic for securing the straps is My Baby Looks Hot Tonight.   Middle Body (Torso) Legs Head Top   It is to be noted, that recently in the US, the recommended order is My Baby Looks Totally Hot, recommending securing the Top before the Head.  Some of the reasons behind the order are that if the top is secured first, it creates uneven pressures (Think of a teeter totter, securing one end pushes the other away), and that securing one end does not prevent the other from sliding around. This is why torso and body are secured first.  According to the wiki entry, there is no peer reviewed support for preferred strap order:     An exhaustive search of the literature for peer reviewed scientific data regarding the positive or negative effects of application of the K.E.D. straps in any specific order found no results. It is likely such data does not exist, and that there are valid arguments on both sides of the issue. However, best practices indicate that the manufacturer's directions should be followed whenever using any piece of medical equipment. That being said, whenever the EMS professional is in doubt about a medical procedure it is advisable to contact your local medical director.   The most recent user manual that I could find is dated 2001, and it recommends the MBLHT order of strap securing. I did find a clarification memo from the State of Connecticut dated 2009, which states that they will be following the manufacturers recommendation:     Teaching and testing standards for long backboard and short spine board fixation sequences have always been clear. Criteria identified by the National Registry and observed by OEMS for several years have identified that the sequence for both long and short spinal immobilization   devices should be in the following order:    1. Torso fixation  2. Leg fixation  3. Head fixation      Many of the commonly used EMT-Basic and Paramedic texts have also identified this sequence as the standard. However, the Kendrick Extrication   Device (KED) product manual suggests that the top torso strap be secured last, and after the head is secured. This apparent \u201cexception to the   rule\u201d may have contributed to student, instructor and examiner confusion.       The Office contacted the Ferno \u2013Washington, Inc., the manufacturers of the KED for clarification. Based on responses from Ferno spokespeople and effective immediately, the expected sequence of strap application in the Spinal Immobilization - Seated (if the KED is used) will be: Middle Strap, Lower Strap, Leg Straps, Head Immobilization and lastly the Top Strap,   as described in the Ferno KED user manual.   However, these are all dating from up to 2009, and several forum postings from 2011 and later suggest that the order changed, and this is supported by the testing sheet currently in use by the National Registry for EMT's (NREMT) in the United States.   Secures the device to the patient\u2019s torso Evaluates torso fixation and adjusts as necessary Evaluates and pads behind the patient\u2019s head as necessary Secures the patient\u2019s head to the device   Further supporting this is Mosby's Paramedic Manual which also specifies the head being last (Step 4).  In the absence of evidence to the contrary (Such as a current user manual), I would state that the current recommendation in the United States is the MBLTH order, with the head being last. (It is to note that this is different than when I was certified EMS, in that the Top was the last strap, not the Head).  As far as the differences between different countries/districts, I would posit that they are following whatever protocol exists, and it either was not updated, or there was a feeling that no update needed to be made in this case. Hardly definitive, but this is the most that I could find that is in any way current enough to be relative.",
        "id": 91,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a name for a phobia of certain textures?",
        "body": "It actually does have a name. The term is trypophobia. However, it's not an officially recognized phobia. This is a summary of trypophobia from a rather extensive paper on the subject:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5811467/     This condition has not yet been recognised by diagnostic taxonomies   such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.   Trypophobia usually involves an intense and disproportionate fear   towards holes, repetitive patterns, protrusions, etc., and, in   general, images that present high-contrast energy at low and midrange   spatial frequencies. It is commonly accompanied by neurovegetative   symptoms.   The first documented case of trypophobia was published by Rufo in 1998.     Rufo M. [The little girl who was afraid of holes]. Soins Pediatr   Pueric (1998) 18:3.   The article is in French. ",
        "id": 2485,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health detriments to holding in a fart if any?",
        "body": "It can have negative effects on our internal organs. Stomach bloating, abdominal pain, and constipation can all be caused by holding in gas. When the gas mixes with our blood and then enters the lungs, it can even become the cause of halitosis (bad breath).  Holding it in, however, while polite and good politics, is bad for your health. That\u2019s because the pressure of a flatus must go somewhere. If not expelled, the gas can blow up the intestinal wall, creating pockets called diverticula. When these pockets get infected, a painful and life-threatening condition called diverticulitis can result.  Because of fart phobia, diverticular disease is a major problem in our society. It is estimated that 30 million Americans suffer each year from this condition, including 40 percent of those aged 65 and 60 percent of those aged 80.  Modern medicine recognizes that pressure inside the colon causes the marble-sized diverticula to form. But the cause of the pressure is still regarded as unknown.  http://www.naturalhealth365.com/flatulence.html/",
        "id": 611,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is blood glucose measured using molar concentration internationally?",
        "body": "Short answer  Using mmol/L helps with revealing some useful relationships between groups of analyzed substances while using mg/dL might obscure those relationships.  Long anwer  I wasn't able to find original proposition to switch from mg/dL to mmol/L which should be in \"Quantities and Units in Clinical Chemistry. Including Recommendation 1966 of the Commission on Clinical Chemistry of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and of the International Federation for Clinical Chemistry. Munksgaard, Copenhagen\" by Dybk\u00e6r and J\u00f8rgensen (1967), but by knowing where it should be helps tracking later publications discussing the change. There are also some other publications from Dybk\u00e6r like for example \"Quantities and units in clinical chemistry\" (1969), where he shortly states:     (...) it is recommended, as far as possible, to use the 'chemical' basic kind of quantity 'amount of substance' with its basic unit 'mole' (symbolized mol) instead of 'mass' and mass units.   This seems to suggest, that mmol/L is better because it's more suitable to proper chemical, laboratory work. This is too vague. Some really interesting comment is made in \"SI Units: One Step Closer\" (1985) by Lehmann and Beeler:     The rationale for the introduction of concetration units based on amount of substance, first proposed internationally in 1967, was that use of those units might reveal functional relationships between analytes, potentially useful in in the interpretations of results, but obscured when concentrations are expressed in mass units. (...) With further advances in understanding molecular bases of disease, and with the introduction of new technologies into the clinical laboratory (...), we may expect increasing use to be made of such biochemically nad physiologically related groups of analytes in order to derive new diagnostic and prognostic information from laboratory tests, and thereby to increase the usefulnesss of laboratory data. Reporting results in amount of substance units will most likely contribute to this process. ",
        "id": 1302,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Help reading an eyeglass prescription: What does \"PL\" or \"PC\" mean?",
        "body": "I finally found this:     Plano - PL - This indicates there is no spherical correction in this   eye. A plano lens would have no focusing power or correction to it.   So it's 0.  Source: How to Read and Enter Your Eyeglass Prescription - aclens.com.",
        "id": 1415,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Verify Credentials for Nurse Practitioner",
        "body": "Each state should have their own licensing board, that may or may not have a search function to verify a licensure.  As an experiment, I went to the Texas website and entered the name of a nurse practitioner that I gathered off of the internet, and it came back with a verification of their initial licensure, how long it was good for, and the recognized level of accreditation.  Your own state should have a way to verify all licensed medical practitioners in the state.",
        "id": 476,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to never grow a full beard",
        "body": "Growing a beard is mostly due to genetics and your sensitivity to testosterone levels:     When people have no facial hair, they tend to think it\u2019s because of the fact that they have low testosterone. That\u2019s not the case, it\u2019s actually based on how sensitive your body is to testosterone. In other words, if you are highly sensitive to it, you\u2019re going to have a lot more hair on your face and body. The good news for those without much or any facial hair is that they don\u2019t have to worry about being bald later on in life      The Royal Beard Club     As has been pointed out, a commercial site does have it's own interest. While I have been struggling through an advertisement jungle to find free sources that back up the first claim (hair growth is related to hair follicle sensitivity to testosterone), I have been able to find a source backing up the second claim (that hair loss is related to hair follicle sensitivity to testosterone):     It\u2019s not the amount of testosterone or DHT that causes baldness; it\u2019s the sensitivity of your hair follicles. That sensitivity is determined by genetics. The AR gene makes the receptor on hair follicles that interact with testosterone and DHT. If your receptors are particularly sensitive, they are more easily triggered by even small amounts of DHT, and hair loss occurs more easily as a result. Other genes may also play a part.      Healthline.com      Alternatively WebMD.com     So, to answer your question: Yes, it is totally possible to be unable to grow a beard, and there\u2019s not much one can do about beard thickness.",
        "id": 2039,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Asthma lead to a Cardiac Arrest and thus require CPR?",
        "body": "Asthma can lead to shortage of breath and in severe cases to death by suffocation (called asthmatic asphyxia). Failure of breathing inherently involves that the heart rate stops (called cardiac arrest).     A victim who is unresponsive and not breathing normally is in cardiac arrest and requires CPR.      European Resuscitation Council, New Guidelines 2015 p. 82   So, if the asthmatic victim did not breathe normally anymore (no regular breath in 10 seconds, ibid), they did everything right.  Even if they weren't sure whether the patient was still breathing, they did everything right:    Image Taken From European Resuscitation Council, New Guidelines 2015 p. 85",
        "id": 2046,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is taking x-rays during a dental check-up harmful?",
        "body": "The American Dental Association states that the overall exposure to all sources of radiation per year is estimated to be in the USA 6.2 mSv.  And from an OPG which is probably similar to what you're having as 0.01 mSv.  If you're a child, a young woman, or pregnant, you should ask for neck-shielding with a lead collar, or a lead apron to protect your thyroid and fetus.  As for do you need yearly x-rays, then I suggest you discuss with your dentist. If you don't need fillings due to a lack of dental caries, you may get away with less frequent x-rays.  And with the newer digital x-ray systems, there's a lower dose again.    http://www.ada.org/en/member-center/oral-health-topics/x-rays",
        "id": 2002,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is food poisoning?",
        "body": "Food poisoning is something of a catch-all term for any one of a number of infections caused by microbial contamination of food - it should be noted that it is not necessarily just bacterial contaminants. For example, Norovirus is actually the most common food-borne pathogen in the United States.  As for why not just calling it an infection, there are two reasons:   It is possible to get food poisoning from microbially produced toxins within food even without an active infection. For example, enterotoxins might be present in sufficient quantities to produce clinical illness even if the bacteria that produced them are dead. The two are not mutually exclusive - food poisoning relates more to a common exposure source (food), and a collection of similar symptoms, such as nausea, diarrhea and vomiting, and especially in mild cases, similar treatments.    Although food poisoning may be caused by an infection, it's mainly a syndromic description of a disease.",
        "id": 118,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do people smoke? Everyone knows it is unhealthy",
        "body": "Because when tobacco is smoked, nicotine causes physical and psychological dependency. You see, it acts on brain reward mechanisms, both indirectly (through endogenous opioid activity) and directly (through dopamine pathways). It actually extends the duration of positive effects of dopamine and increases the sensitivity of the brain's reward system to rewarding stimuli. It makes you to want more of it.  It is suggested that it is even more addictive than cocaine!  In addition, nicotine is unusual in comparison to most drugs, as its profile changes from stimulant to sedative with increasing dosages. That explains why people smoke even more when they are under stress.  I will not comment on why people start smoking in the first place. The reasons are numerous. Peer pressure is one of them.  References:   Easton, John (March 28, 2002). \"Nicotine extends duration of pleasant effects of dopamine\". The University of Chicago Chronicle. 21 (12). Kenny PJ, Markou A (Jun 2006). \"Nicotine self-administration acutely activates brain reward systems and induces a long-lasting increase in reward sensitivity\". Neuropsychopharmacology. 31 (6): 1203\u201311.  Nesbitt P (1969). Smoking, physiological arousal, and emotional response. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University. Parrott AC (January 1998). \"Nesbitt's Paradox resolved? Stress and arousal modulation during cigarette smoking\". Addiction. 93 (1): 27\u201339. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287555-overview#a3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine ",
        "id": 1768,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does more time off from work increase mental happiness",
        "body": "More vacation time  will come at the expense of a higher daily workload, which can cause even more stress, see e.g. here. If you can work 8 hours a day, exercise, eat dinner and go to bed on time, there should be no need to go on vacation just to wind down. So,on the long term, you'll be better off having a bit more free time every day and using that extra time to get some quality relax and exercise time. You'll become physically and mentally a lot stronger, which will allow you to enjoy the few weeks vacation per year a lot more.",
        "id": 309,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does pulse oximetry work?",
        "body": "Introducing Energy States  Around an atom, there are 7 different electron shells1. When the electrons receive the necessary amount of energy, they jump from one state to another (called \"ground state\" and \"excited state\"), as shown in the image below:  The figure (generated by POV-Ray) shows excitations of copper 3d orbitals on the CuO2-plane of a high Tc superconductor; The ground state (blue) is x2-y2 orbitals; the excited orbitals are in green; the arrows illustrate inelastic x-ray spectroscopy;        When a molecule absorbs light in the UV-vis (Ultra-Violet-Visible) region ranging from 400nm to 780nm wavelength, an electron is promoted from a lower- energy occupied orbital to a higher-energy empty orbital resulting in an excited state molecule. One requirement for a molecule to absorb light is that the energy of the photon needs to match the energy difference between the orbitals.      Photons having insufficient energy will be transmitted. Therefore, the colours of light absorbed proved us with experimental information about the energy spacing between orbitals.         Source: Scott Cummings, 2008; The Chemistry of Excited States     Introducing Spectroscopy  Newton first had ideas regarding spectroscopy, and later on, William Wollaston and Joseph von Fraunhofer built the first spectrometers and discovered the spectral signatures.   As different elements have different spacing between electron orbitals, the energy needed to absorb or emit photons is different and therefore2 photons of different wavelengths are absorbed or emitted. This results in a specific spectral signatures of a molecule, a set of spectral lines.   Spectroscopy is really important for astronomers because it can tell them about the molecular make-up of planets, stars and nebulae.    Further Reading: Fraknoi, Andrew; Morrison, David (13 October 2016). \"OpenStax Astronomy\"    Introducing Hemoglobin and Oxyhemoglobin  Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, an iron-containing protein (thus oxygenated hemoglobins are red), which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. The oxygenated hemoglobin is called oxyhemoglobin.    Left: Molecular Graphic of a Human Oxyhemoglobin (HHO), two of the four oxygen module this fully saturated haemoglobin currently carries are circled blue by me (the red \"stick\" represents the oxygen molecule in this graphic). Right: The same molecule in the same resolution, this time with a highlighted solvent accessible surface.    Putting it all together  Luckily for modern medicine, the absorption of light at wavelengths of 660nm and 940nm differs significantly between haemoglobin loaded with oxygen (oxyhaemoglobin) and haemoglobin lacking oxygen.      The isobestic point is the point at which two substances absorb a certain wavelength of light to the same extent. In oximetry, the isobestic points of oxyhaemoglobin (HbO) and deoxyhaemoglobin (Hb) occur at 590 nm and 805 nm. These points may be used as reference points where light absorption is independent of the degree of saturation. Some earlier oximeters corrected for haemoglobin concentration using the wavelength at the isobestic points.      Thus comparison of absorbencies at different wavelengths allows estimation of the relative concentrations of HbO (oxyhaemoglobin) and Hb (haemoglobin) (i.e. saturation). Modern pulse oximeters may use two or more wavelengths, not necessarily including an isobestic point.         Source: Anaesthesia.uk   Basically, this is how pulse oximetry works. It can tell saturated and unsaturated haemoglobin apart, using different absorption of light due to different electron configurations in the molecules. Below is an extract about the technical aspects of pulse oximetry:     There are two methods of sending light through the measuring site:   transmission and reflectance. In the transmission method, as shown in   the figure on the previous page, the emitter and photodetector are   opposite of each other with the measuring site in-between. The light   can then pass through the site. In the reflectance method, the emitter   and photodetector are next to each other on top the measuring site.   The light bounces from the emitter to the detector across the site.   The transmission method is the most common type used and for this   discussion the transmission method will be implied.      After the transmitted red (R) and infrared (IR) signals pass through   the measuring site and are received at the photodetector, the R/IR   ratio is calculated. The R/IR is compared to a \"look-up\" table (made   up of empirical formulas) that convert the ratio to an SpO2 value.   Most manufacturers have their own look-up tables based on calibration   curves derived from healthy subjects at various SpO2 (Peripheral Oxygen Saturation) levels. Typically   a R/IR ratio of 0.5 equates to approximately 100% SpO2, a ratio of 1.0   to approximately 82% SpO2, while a ratio of 2.0 equates to 0% SpO2.             Source: Oximetry.org   The Dangers of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning  The spectral signature of carboxyhemoglobin (hemoglobin saturated with CO) is so similar to that of oxyhemoglobin that standard oximeters mistake one for the other, as multiple studies have shown:     This report confirms that pulse oximetry may be misleading during carbon monoxide poisoning as the pulse oximeter does not differentiate between HbO (oxyhemoglobin)and HbCO (carboxyhemoglobin). Diagnosis of carbon monoxide poisoning therefore relies on clinical evidence and must be confirmed by measuring the HbCO concentration with a multiple band CO-oximeter (Carboxy-oximeter).      Carboxyhemoglobinaemia and pulse oximetry, British Journal of Anaesthesia, 1991   Nowadays, CO-oximeters exist that can differentiate between oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin.       1: An explanation as to why this is the case would lead way too far. It has to do with the wave-particle dualism of quantum mechanics and a good analogy can be found in this answer on Physics.SE.   2: The energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency and  and thus inverse proportional to the wavelength. All other factors in the Planck-Einstein equation are constant. More information can be found on Physics.SE",
        "id": 1995,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long it takes to return to daily activities?",
        "body": "Your doctor would be the most qualified to answer this.  I am not able to interpret x-rays, but I do know that fractures usually take 6-8 weeks to heal.  That can differ based on a persons age, nutrition, and whether they have any other underlying health conditions, and the severity of the fracture.  Your doctor who knows your health condition would be able to give you the best estimate based on the variable factors.  Also, after the bone heals the muscles may be tight or weak due to the decrease in activity from the time needed to heal.  This can also contribute to pain.  Don't start exercising until your doctor gives you the OK or you can do more damage than good.",
        "id": 1734,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Brown vs White rice",
        "body": "The main reasons why brown rice is less popular than white are not likely related to health concerns but to the facts that it is:   More expensive, at most places Relatively less available in the stores More rough to eat Less appropriate to make certain meals with it, especially the ones with sugar Less durable: it has much shorter shelf life (brown rice: 6-8 months; white rice: 4-5 years) (EatByDate)    It is like why whole-grain bread is less popular than white.  Brown rice may contain 80% more arsenic than white rice. One 2017 study found an association between rice (and hence arsenic) consumption and increased prevalence of diabetes mellitus in some Asian countries.  Some people could be allergic to certain substances in brown rice, but I have found no evidence this would be especially common.",
        "id": 2288,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Systemic effect of topical diclofenac",
        "body": "Not a lot, it seems, which reduces side effects, but of course also makes the effect more local instead of systemic.   The pharmacological study  Systemic Bioavailability of Topical Diclofenac Sodium Gel 1% Versus Oral Diclofenac Sodium in Healthy Volunteers concludes      Systemic exposure with diclofenac sodium gel 1% was 5- to 17-fold lower than with oral diclofenac. Systemic effects with topical diclofenac were less pronounced.   Which is conclusive with an earlier study In vivo bioavailability and metabolism of topical diclofenac lotion in human volunteers, which measured a systemic absorption of around 7 percent (around a 15-fold decrease).   Most side effects from topical diclofenac affect the skin, gastrointestinal system are much lower than when a comparable oral dose is given. For example, in a study on 200 elderly patients, no gastrointestinal issues were reported. A meta analysis of 14 studies concludes that it has a low incidence of gastrointestinal issues, with the main complaints being nausea.   However, as the first referenced study also says, topical diclofenac       inhibited COX-1 and COX-2 less than oral diclofenac   And therefore      Systemic effects with topical diclofenac were less pronounced   So in terms of effect, topical application is not quite the same as taking it orally. ",
        "id": 644,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hemoglobin level is not increasing in blood - Why?",
        "body": "Iron supplements will only increase your hemoglobin levels if they are low because you lack iron. Ferritin levels are a better indicator of how much iron you have than hemoglobin. If this is the case, animal sources of iron are much more efficient than fruits and vegetables.",
        "id": 1418,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is prolonged use of melatonin supplements safe for a 3-year-old?",
        "body": "Since melatonin is secerned by many glands (pituitary, thyroid, pineal, adrenals, and gonads), it might be a malfunction of one of these. I am not yet a physician, but I suggest you to try to properly address underlying causes. Maybe melatonin supplements are just a palliative which helps controlling symptoms of something else, like an adenosine lack.  That said, let's get to the science:   This study states that, in relation to development delay risks,     [...]Melatonin treatment in children can be sustained over a long period of time without substantial deviation of the development of children with respect to sleep quality, puberty development and mental health scores[...]   So it apparently is safe to use it on a regular basis. Just remember it's not helpful when there are wake-up-in-the-middle-of-the-night problems, which are often not idiopathic, they mean something, be it a psychological, health, or anything-else related issue.  Have a nice day",
        "id": 344,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is There Any Point In Getting Lab Tests Done If I Can't Find a Primary Care Physician?",
        "body": "Then the physician at the urgent care center will either treat you or refer you to someone who can. Just because it's an urgent care center doesn't mean the physicians there don't have a duty to act or can't provide followup care. In fact, in an area like yours with a shortage of doctors, I would imagine they're accustomed to situations like this and handle it routinely.",
        "id": 1845,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pacemaker and MRI",
        "body": "Some new pacemakers are MRI compatible ([1]). Of those, some have an exclusion zone where the body may not be scanned. I wouldn't be surprised if, in a few years, all new pacemakers and ICDs will be MRI compatible. Older pacemakers still won't be, however. The following quote from [1], lists problems MRI fields may cause with pacemakers:   Heating at the lead tip and at the lead tissue interface Force and torque on devices Image distortion Alteration of programming with potential damage to the pacemaker circuitry Rapid atrial pacing Pacing at multiples of the radiofrequency pulse and associated rapid ventricular pacing  Reed switch malfunction Asynchronous pacing Inhibition of pacing output Induction of ventricular fibrillation Electrical reset Component damage Death   To be certified as MRI compatible by the FDA, T&Uuml;V, etc., each pacemaker system (device and leads) must be tested for MRI compatibility by the manufacturer.  In the interest of full disclosure, I work for one of the one of the device manufacturers listed in the paper[1].",
        "id": 334,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would it be fair to say heart disease, diabetes (II), and Alzheimer's disease are all the same health issue expressed different ways?",
        "body": "Sure, Alzheimer's is considered by some to be type III diabetes and the pathology induced is a combination of hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, and elevated glycation products.",
        "id": 1946,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What stages of REM sleep occur in medically induced sleep?",
        "body": "Sleep and general anaesthesia share a few similarities, but also have differences. From what I have read, they are sufficiently different that comparing anaesthesia to a certain sleep phase doesn't make sense.  I recommend reading General Anesthesia and Altered States of Arousal: A Systems Neuroscience Analysis, which I found trying to answer a different question I had myself. Here are a few quotes related to your questions, but it's really all quite interesting.      The EEG patterns and other features of general anesthesia generally differ from those of sleep   These patterns are shown in figure 1.     There is similarity between the EEG patterns seen in slow-wave sleep and those seen in phase 2 of the maintenance period of general anesthesia   Phase 2 and phase 3 are the phases the actual surgery is performed in.  For example, a difference between anaesthesia and sleep is muscle tone:     in contrast to the drug-induced atonia described above, rigidity and spasticity are typically seen in patients who are in a coma or a vegetative state, and muscle tone is preserved during slow-wave sleep   Generally it appears that anaesthesia is closer to being in a coma than to being asleep.      confusion arises because anesthesiologists use the term sleep as a nonthreatening description of general anesthesia when speaking with patients. A level of general anesthesia appropriate for surgery is not sleep but rather a\u00a0coma. However, like sleep, general anesthesia is reversible and can allow dreaming   General Anesthesia and Altered States of Arousal: A Systems Neuroscience Analysis (I recommend the Introduction and Implications sections)   Anaesthesia is not necessarily restful, they can cause a symptom called \"rebound REM sleep\" where patients need more sleep following anaesthesia because anaesthesia isn't like sleeping:     REM sleep rebound after exposure to volatile anesthetics suggests that these volatile anesthetics do not fully substitute for natural sleep   Rapid eye movement sleep debt accrues in mice exposed to volatile anesthetics",
        "id": 591,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Psychological aspects to time organisation",
        "body": "Yes there are. The following are advantages.  Less Stress \u2013 Managing your time can directly reduce your stress level. Fewer surprises. Fewer tight deadlines. Less rushing from task-to-task and place-to-place.  Get More Done \u2013 Of course, being productive is one of the main goals of time management. When you are aware of what you need to do, you are able to better manage your workload. You will be able to get more (of the right tasks) done in less time.  Less Rework \u2013 Being organized results in less rework and mistakes. Forgotten items, details, and instructions lead to extra work. How often do you have to do a task more than once? Or make an extra trip because you forget something?  Less Life Friction and Problems \u2013 How often do you create your own problems? Whether it is a forgotten appointment or missed deadline, not managing your time results in increased life friction. Avoid creating your own problems by planning and preparing for your day.  More Free Time \u2013 We can\u2019t create more time, but you can make better use of it by managing your time. Even simple actions like shifting your commute or getting your work done early can produce more leisure time in your life.  Less Wasted Time \u2013 When you know what you need to do, you waste less time in idle activities. Instead of wondering what you should be doing next, you can already be a step ahead of your work.  More Opportunities \u2013 Being on top of your time and work produces more opportunities. The early bird always has more options. As well, luck favors the prepared.  Improves Your Reputation \u2013 Your time management reputation will proceed you. At work and in life you will be known as reliable. No one is going to question whether you are going to show up, do what you say you are going to do, or meet that deadline.  Less Effort \u2013 A common misconception is that time management takes extra effort. To the contrary, proper time management makes your life easier. Things take less effort, whether it is packing for that trip or finishing up that project.  More Time Where it Matters \u2013 Managing your time is allotting your time where it has the most impact. Time management allows you to spend your time on the things that matter most to you.  Disadvantages include Non-clear objectives, Mismanagement, Obstacles, Inactivity, Load of different works at one time, Fatigue and stress become part of life, No time for recreation.   Reference : https://timemanagementninja.com/2013/10/the-top-10-life-benefits-of-time-management/  http://content.wisestep.com/top-advantages-disadvantages-time-management/",
        "id": 1437,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Normal high lymphocyte count in children",
        "body": "Such type of relative lymphocytosis may be due to:  1)vaccinations in children  Vaccinations increase the number and the types of antigens available to the developing T-cells for their central tolerance.  Thymus is the centre for central tolerence of the T-cells.The T-cells are so important for the immunity in children because they (memory T-cells)can also trigger the formation of B-cells for humoural immunity.  B-cells,however undergo central tolerance in the bone marrow.[REFERENCE]  2)Thymus activity which is at peak during the period from childhood to puberty.[REFERENCE]",
        "id": 1817,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the USDA not examine aliments for weighted mean nutrient reduction potential and weighted mean fat viscocity and divulge such information?",
        "body": "So, the question is if the knowledge about fat viscosity could help design diets to prevent or treat diseases and why is not more research about this.  There is an ongoing research; I don't know how much USDA is involved, though.  There is some evidence that the fatty acids with 4 or more unsaturated bonds (arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA) improve fluidity of the cell membranes, and that the diets high in these fatty acids could, theoretically, help to prevent against Alzheimer's disease (PubMed, 2010).  Some short-term clinical trials also suggest that DHA from fish or supplements may help to prevent Alzheimer's disease and one of the proposed mechanisms is increased fluidity of the brain cell membranes (PubMed, 2010). On the other hand, a 2012 Cochrane reiew has not found any association between high intake of fish oil (high in DHA) and dementia.  According to a 2018 Cochrane review, \"taking omega\u20103 capsules does not reduce heart disease, stroke or death. There is little evidence of effects of eating fish.\"  The problem with studies about nutrients effects on health is that they need to be long-term (>10 years) and include a lot of participants to be convincing. Many studies about nutrients have been disappointing with no beneficial effects shown, which may discourage some researchers to start new studies.  I can make another answer about antioxidants if you ask a separate question.  The questions only USDA can answer can be asked here: https://www.usda.gov/ask-expert",
        "id": 2692,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stomach ache after drinking tea",
        "body": "One of the possible solutions might be to try decaf tea. Although decaffeination also reduces the amount of polyphenols to some extent, in many cases there is still a lot of them left. The reduction of polyphenols seems to vary among different brands according to this article so it might be worthwile to try several brands before you come to a conclusion.  Another approach might be to try tea with milk, since milk proteins precipitate tannins. However, this reaction is pH dependant and works better with other types of polyphenols than those found in tea, as shown in this research, but if you compare it with how you reacted to decaf tea, you might come to a conclusion.  It is important to stress that your stomach ache, even though exacerbated by tea, might have a different underlying cause. If it occurs regularly with tea drinking or if it is not regular but causes great discomfort, you should talk to your doctor to get to the bottom of the problem and receive adequate treatment.    References:   The Bioactive Compounds of Tea and Decaffeinated Tea (Camellia sinensis) Interaction between some plants tannins and milk protein ",
        "id": 1282,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Not taking bath or shower when sick",
        "body": "Is there any evidence that taking a bath or shower when sick has negative effects?  This is quite interesting because I've heard MANY patients with this same belief. Some people believe that bathing when sick will make you more sick. Some women do not bathe during their menstrual period because their mothers told them it would lead to some adverse effects. Even some mothers who just gave birth do not take a bath in the immediate post-partum period because they believe it will be harmful.   In all the medical books I've read, I've never encountered one that cautions against bathing when someone is sick. I also searched PubMed just now and I didn't find a study that details the negative effects of bathing during a sickness. On the contrary, there are a lot of studies that encourages people to bathe during illness, especially when they are febrile. In fact, it is a common practice in the medical profession to advise patients to have a sponge bath when their temperature is up. Aside from the cooling effect of bathing, it also cleans the body and prevents the spread of infection.  The only situations I could think of when I would advise patients to not take a bath is when a patient is too weak to stand up and take a bath or is at risk of falling by doing so. But then again, these patients can still have sponge baths in their bed. What they're not allowed is to ambulate, but they're allowed to bathe. Also, if patients have skin lesions or contraptions that shouldn't be wet; but then again, these can easily be covered by waterproof dressings and the patient can still take a bath. The last thing I could think of why I wouldn't allow a patient to bathe is when a patient is hypothermic (or has low body temperature). But then again, they can have warm baths instead. So overall, I really couldn't think of a reason--and I haven't read any--why baths can worsen illnesses.  I got interested to know the source of this belief, and I've come across this article. http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2011/05/why-bathing-was-uncommon-in-medieval-europe/     Before the Middle Ages, public baths were very common, as was the   general public regularly taking time to bathe in one way or another.   Even during the 4th and 5th centuries, Christian authorities allowed   people to bathe for cleanliness and health, but condemned attendance   to public bath houses for pleasure and condemned women going to bath   houses that had mixed facilities. However, over time, more and more   restrictions appeared. Eventually, Christians were prohibited from   bathing naked and, overall, the church began to not approve an   \u201cexcessive\u201d indulgence in the habit of bathing. This culminated in the   Medieval church authorities proclaiming that public bathing led to   immorality, promiscuous sex, and diseases.      This latter \u201cdisease\u201d point was very common;   it was believed in many parts of Europe that water could carry disease   into the body through the pores in the skin. According to one medical   treaty of the 16th century, \u201cWater baths warm the body, but weaken the   organism and widen pores.  That\u2019s why they can be dangerous and cause   different diseases, even death.\u201d  It wasn\u2019t just diseases from the   water itself they were worried about.  They also felt that with the   pores widened after a bath, this resulted in infections of the air   having easier access to the body.   Interesting, right? Anyway, if you find a logical, scientific explanation for the harmful effect of bathing during an illness, please tag me. I'd like to know it too.",
        "id": 1618,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health concerns with using a laptop on your lap?",
        "body": "The main energy emissions (i.e. ways of affecting its surroundings) of a laptop computer are\u2014   Sound: Unless your laptop has extravagant bass speakers that can physically rattle your organs hard enough to be painful, this will have no effect. Heat: A laptop can run quite hot, and heating the testes can be used as a method of contraception, as the ideal temperature for sperm to survive is a little lower than your body temperature otherwise.  The effect is not permanent\u2014heat strong enough to cause lasting damage would be physically painful.  However, I think the effect of a laptop on the user's testes is likely to be negligible.  A usual sitting position puts lots of room between the testes and the laptop, allowing most of the heat to dissipate (see inverse-square law).  If you are trying to conceive, and your laptop runs very hot, and you use it in your lap for a large part of your waking hours, then its positioning may be worth considering. Radio waves: Computers use low-power non-ionising radiation for WiFi communication channels.  Such radiation has not been shown to damage human tissue in any way.  Cutting-edge devices with a wireless charging feature also receive low frequency radiation from a base station.  This radiation is also non-ionising and safe.   I see no way a laptop could cause skin discoloration, except unless \u24d0 the skin was burned because the laptop was hot, or \u24d1 if the skin's blood supply was cut off due to long-lasting pressure from a very heavy laptop in the same position.    In summary, the only health concern with having a laptop in your lap is heat.  Treat a hot laptop like any other hot object: carefully!",
        "id": 1292,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is my diet affecting my skin?",
        "body": "Your doctor is probably right about it being a hormonal imbalance, but why do you have a hormonal imbalance?  That would be a great question for you to ask your doctor.  Hormonal imbalances can be caused because of a food sensitivity.  Dairy, wheat and soy are the big ones, but it may be one, two, or all three of them. Or it could be something unrelated to food.  Everyone is individualized.  The following site helped me to figure out what worked for me, it is a great resource for figuring out your individual needs.  https://www.acneeinstein.com/. This site is very detailed and explains the problem of acne in understandable language.  As well as multiple causes.  When cutting something out of your diet you also need to be sure you have completely cut it out.  Milk includes butter, and any processed foods with milk, so no milk chocolate and even most dark chocolates have milk.  However, everybody is individualized and this may not be the case for you.  Also, to make the question more appropriate for the site you could ask... Does diet affect skin? Then make the more detailed portion a bit more generalized.",
        "id": 1864,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does hand lotion make me feel thirsty?",
        "body": "No, there's no scientific or medical reason why applying hand lotion makes one thirsty. Personally, I think its not the hand lotion making you thirsty, it could be something else.",
        "id": 1320,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calories composition and weight loss",
        "body": "Macronutrient (carbs, proteins, fats) composition of a diet does not have a significant direct effect on weight loss.  Comparison of Weight-Loss Diets with Different Compositions of Fat, Protein, and Carbohydrates (PubMed, 2009, a randomized clinical trial involving 811 overweight adults)     Reduced-calorie diets result in clinically meaningful weight loss   regardless of which macronutrients they emphasize.   On the other hand, certain macronutrient compositions and forms may be associated with increased satiety (and hence lower food intake):   Solid, compared to liquid carbs (PubMed, 2011) Foods high in fiber, such as whole-grain pasta, compared to refined-grain pasta (PubMed, 2016) Foods high in viscous soluble fiber, such as whole-grain oats (PubMed, 2016) Low-carb, high fat diets (PubMed, 2016) ",
        "id": 2429,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you cure an allergy by repeatedly consuming the allergen?",
        "body": "This is an old technique called desensitization, or, if you want to be fancy, allergen immunotherapy.  Among other techniques, is this one     Allergy injections start with a very low dose. A small needle is used which may be uncomfortable, but not very painful. The dose is gradually increased on a regular (usually weekly) basis, until an effective (maintenance) dose is reached. This usually takes three to six months. This dose may vary between patients, depending on the degree of sensitivity.      Once the maintenance dose is reached, injections are administered less often, usually monthly, although still on a regular basis. Immunotherapy injections should always be administered in a medical facility under medical supervision. You should stay at the medical facility for the time recommended by the clinical immunology/allergy specialist (30-45 minutes) after the immunotherapy injection has been given.   And here's a oral trial in children with peanut allergy      Forty-eight children were enrolled in the PPOIT trial and were randomly given either a combination of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus with peanut protein in increasing amounts, or a placebo, once daily for 18 months.      At the end of the original trial in 2013, 82% of children who received the immunotherapy treatment were deemed tolerant to peanuts compared with just 4% in the placebo group.   Now the issue with doing this at home as you're asking is that you risk anaphylaxis and death if your allergy is severe.",
        "id": 1921,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is \"stagnation in the prostate\"?",
        "body": "You can search using operators \"site:gov\" or \"site:edu\" and find texts, such as this one from PubMed:      Sexual behaviors represent potential modifiable risk factors and may   influence prostate cancer development through a variety of specific   mechanisms. One biological mechanism involves prostatic accumulation   of potentially carcinogenic secretions, which may create more   opportunity for prostate cancer development, sometimes referred to as   the prostate stagnation hypothesis.   The term \"blood stagnation\" is not related to prostate stagnation hypothesis and is mentioned as a problem after prostate cancer surgery, for example in this article about acupuncture treatment after prostate surgery.",
        "id": 2530,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much time will take for receiving 1 bag blood?",
        "body": "Normally whole blood is not used for transfusion purposes.  Instead it is separated into components which are then transfused after first being aggregated.  If someone needs a blood transfusion, then normally they are given packed red cells without platelets and without plasma.  The transfusion times are:     The infusion rate for blood products depends on the clinical context, age and cardiac status of the patient. In stable, non-bleeding adult patients typical administrations details are:      Red cells:                      1-3 hours      Platelets:                       15-30 minutes      Fresh frozen plasma:      30 minutes      Cryoprecipitate:              30-60 minutes per standard adult dose   https://transfusion.com.au/transfusion_practice/administration",
        "id": 2265,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to get rid of from intertrigo by using home remedies?",
        "body": "Intertrigo: For prevention and stopping furthering of symptoms      Shower and dry off thoroughly each day. Keep your skin as dry and cool   as you can. Avoid wearing tight shoes or clothing. Wear a bra with   good support. If the areas between the toes are affected, consider   wearing open-toed shoes. For infants with diaper rash, change diapers   more frequently. If you are overweight, do what you can to lose   weight.   Medscape     Take steps to eliminate friction, heat, and maceration by keeping   folds cool and dry. These steps can be accomplished by using air   conditioning and absorbent powders, wearing moisture-wicking polyester   underwear and socks (eg, Orlon) and by exposing skin folds to the air.   Compresses with Burow solution 1:40, dilute vinegar, or wet tea bags   often are effective, especially if followed by fanning or cool   blow-drying.   The above is treatmebt for Intertrigo. A doctor's visit is recomended however due to some cases needing steroids or other topicals and the risk for infection. ",
        "id": 985,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it ok to have water when hungry?",
        "body": "gulping water is good for health but when ur hungry and having water will keep your stomach full for some time. If possible carry a fruit/chocolate/ biscuits with you to eat coz it will give you more bliss than having water  ",
        "id": 1354,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it reasonable to put a crown on a baby tooth?",
        "body": "The reason that dentists might want to crown a baby tooth instead of removing it is to prevent crowding of the jaw from premature tooth loss, and to prevent the decay spreading to adjacent teeth.  http://www.aapd.org/events/stainless_steel_crown_indications_and_technique_for_placement/",
        "id": 2280,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can drinking alcohol release stored caffeine?",
        "body": "Caffeine is not stored in the body.   For a normal person, peak concentration of caffeine in the bloodstream is reached between 30 minutes and 2 hours after consuming it.  It's then metabolized with a half-life of 3 to 7 hours.  In the situation you describe, caffeine levels are probably no more than 25% of their peak.  Various conditions and medications can reduce the clearance of caffeine from the body (most notably, pregnancy and the use of oral contraceptives both increase the half-life to around 15 hours).  However, this doesn't affect the rate of uptake.  There is an interaction between caffeine and ethanol, but it's ethanol's metabolism that gets reduced, not caffeine's.  Source: Drugbank.ca's entry on caffeine",
        "id": 2079,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Statistics of knotted-cord related death and variables of its formation",
        "body": "The number seems to be somewhere between 4 and 10 times larger as with no umbilical cord knot present.   In a study of 70000 births, umbilical cord knots occurred in 1.2 percent of births. The fetal death rate in these births was four times higher than for the control group without knots, at 1.9 percent of births.   Risk factors associated with true knots of the umbilical cord  In another study, on 20000 births, a 10 times increased risk of intrauterine death was found.   Umbilical cord knots  In yet another study, for around 27000 births, an eight fold increase in fetal death was found.  True umbilical cord knot and obstetric outcome  Umbilical cord knots can sometimes be determined by ultrasound before delivery. If a cord knot is found, a C-section is performed.   According to the first study, risk factors appear to be      gestational diabetes, hydramnios, patients undergoing genetic amniocentesis, male fetuses ",
        "id": 360,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is kimchi low FODMAP?",
        "body": "According to Alittlebityummy.com (a website maintained by some dietitians), both sauerkraut and kimchi are high-FODMAP, because during fermentation, some carbohydrates are converted to mannitol, which is a polyol.  A different reasoning from BodyEcology: Both sauerkraut and kimchi are already fermented, so they are no more fermentable by the intestinal bacteria, and could therefore be considered low-FODMAP. They do not say anything about mannitol, though.    Kimchi has not been tested for the FODMAP effect, as far as I know, so the above reasoning may be just a theory, which leaves you with \"try and see.\"",
        "id": 1454,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Questions about the use of Vitamin-E to prevent scar formation after blood donation",
        "body": "WebMD seems to suggest no:   \"Atopic eczema (disorder causing skin itching)  Vitamin E has been applied to the skin to prevent scars. However, because of a risk of allergic skin reaction, some researchers have advised against the use of this therapy. Further studies are needed.\"  And   \"Scar prevention  Vitamin E applied to the skin does not appear to reduce surgical wound scarring. Because of a risk of allergic skin reaction, some researchers have advised against the use of this therapy.\"  http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/vitamin-e/evidence/hrb-20060476",
        "id": 1006,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a better treatment combinet with omega 3 , for improoving studying performance and reducing anxiety?",
        "body": "In general concentration issues can be related to any lack of vitamins.  E.g. you may supplement Vitamin B12 contained in Spirulina or chlorella algae.   Another Thing which can remarkably encourage your Brain capacity is curcuma. Combine it with pepper and add it into smoothies or eat it as a whole. A little portion of virgine plant oil may also increase the effect of curcuma.  You need to understand, that anxiety is triggered by a fight-or-flight mechanism thats inside us.  To reduce anxiety, there are several things to do which all lower your anxiety.   sleep at least 8 hours a night Eat something when you wake up (Your body may cause stress because of a low blood sugar) Take walks into nature. Really enjoy it! Meditation, especially breath control generally Eating healthy ",
        "id": 1356,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term usage of loperamide to treat IBS",
        "body": "Safety of Loperamide  Loperamide (anti-diarrhoea medication such as Dioraleze or Imodium) is often the go-to treatment for\u00a0diarrhoea.  As the medication only acts on the digestive tract, there appears to be little risk associated with long-term or frequent use of Loperamide, and the medication is considered to be a relatively safe, well-tolerated option for dealing with diarrhoea.  There are precautions to be followed however, if you take them long term and/or suffer from inflammatory bowel disease\u00a0(IBD).  A prescription is required for   a child under 12 years old a child aged 12 to 17 years old with IBS or long lasting diarrhoea an adult aged 18 years and older with long lasting diarrhoea   Precautions  Amongst other precautions,   Do not take any more Loperamide and drink plenty of water if you become constipated.  If you are told to take Loperamide long-term, wait for the constipation to go before taking more. Do not take more than the recommended amount. Too much loperamide can cause serious heart problems (including a fast or irregular heartbeat). You must never take Loperamide for more than 48 hours without seeking advice from your doctor or gastroenterologist. Seek medical advice if you have blood in your poo and/or a temperature (more than 38&deg;C).   People who suffer from IBD  This is different to IBS  You should not take Loperamide without permission from your doctor. The use of anti-diarrhea medications such as Imodium places IBD patients at risk for the development of\u00a0toxic megacolon, a potentially life-threatening disorder.  Sources  A.D.A.M.: \"Toxic Megacolon.\"  American College of Gastroenterology : \"IBD.\"  NHS : \"Imodium (Loperamide)\"  VeryWell Health: \"Imodium (Loperamide)\"",
        "id": 686,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does sodium content on food items indicate?",
        "body": "While salt is an essential compound that the body needs, we need less than 0.1 grams of salt per day while a very strict low salt diet will lead to intakes of the order of a few grams per day. It has been argued that people with normal blood pressure readings of 120/70 mmHg actually suffer from hypertension caused by lifelong excessive salt intake. While such arguments may be bit controversial, limiting sodium intake by as much as you can is recommended by all health agencies. You can do this by avoiding ready made foods and instead preparing your own food which gives you the option to not add any salt to your food. As pointed out in this article where the arguments of a critic are debunked:     ...in addition to, and independent of, raising blood pressure, a high salt intake increases the mass of the left ventricular wall,[20] stiffens conduit arteries11 and thickens and narrows resistance arteries,[22] including the coronary[23] and renal arteries.[24] A high salt intake is also directly related to the number of strokes,[25] severity of cardiac failure,[26] adhesiveness of platelets,[27,,28] carcinoma of the stomach[29] and, to bone demineralization.[30]   Blood pressure of people who have an extremely low salt intake :     RESULTS:   The findings in the Yanomami population were as follows: a very low urinary sodium excretion (0.9 mmol/24 h); mean systolic and diastolic BP levels of 95.4 mmHg and 61.4 mmHg, respectively; no cases of hypertension or obesity; and they have no knowledge of alcoholic beverages. Their BP levels do not elevate with age. The urinary sodium excretion relates positively and the urinary potassium excretion relates negatively to systolic BP. This correlation was maintained even when controlled for age and body mass index. ",
        "id": 989,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it harder to get up when forced to wake up?",
        "body": "When you are forced to wake up, you've interrupted your body's circadian rhythm. If your body is used to waking up at particular time and you're woken before that time, you'll still feel very tired. Because to your body, you're still meant to be sleeping.",
        "id": 2387,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "News by ICD 10 code?",
        "body": "Not by ICD10 code that I am aware of.  But there are for diagnoses, which is obviously what ICD10 codes for.  There are a variety of sites that bring together references by topic.  Most require a $subscription.  Some examples used in the USA include   UpToDate (usually incorporates recent research into consensus report, but may lag behind new studies) Medscape (similarly may lag, look carefully at article date) Epocrates Dynamed Societies like AAFP, AAP etc have by-topic research and guidelines  Pubmed (the ultimate hub for search by topic, results are scientific journals published)   There are some resources that are integrated into the EMR, depending on the EMR build, which might use ICD10 coding to query their database.   If someone finds something, definitely share it.",
        "id": 2502,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How often is \"X times a day\"?",
        "body": "4 times a day means those 4 doses should be spread roughly evenly over a 24 hour period, so approximately 6 hours apart. The best way to do this is usually to take a dose right before bed and right after you wake up. Don't worry too much if you sleep for more than 6 hours. Dosing schedules aren't generally down to the minute, as everybody metabolizes drugs differently, so delaying one dose for an hour or two likely won't make a big difference.  If you were to do the latter dosing schedule you suggested, you'd take pills at 9am, 1pm, 5pm, and 9pm, for example. That gives you a 12-hour lapse between doses, which is fully double the expected interval of 6 hours. That's probably outside the acceptable flexibility in the schedule.",
        "id": 2003,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any studies on health effects of smoking once a month or less?",
        "body": "Today, most studies about smoking talk about passive smoking, pollution effect and how to compare pollution effect to smoking intensity etc.  Now, what is considered as a light smoker by almost all studies starts about 3cigarettes/day. This is understandable since the pollution effect in crowded places or near highly exposed places is equivalent to 3-10 passively smoked cigarettes/day (see here for an article about air pollution effect near an Amsterdam freeway).  Your concern being about one cigarette/month, you can see it is truly negligible compared to air pollution concerns for example. That's why there are no studies about this.  However, one should acknowledge a last thing. Daily life, involving simple things such as walking under shining sun, exposes us to hazard. Our body is made to be adapted to it, and handles it fairly well (otherwise humanity would have already been annihilated by viruses, skin cancer etc). When one smokes, he increases the risk for his body to develop bad things. Even though the risk is much lower in that case (1cigarette/month), it is still present. It's a bit like playing lottery; if you play very often, well, you might win.",
        "id": 980,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical procedure to sever the brain's ability to communicate with the heart?",
        "body": "I believe the term you're looking for is cardiac sympathetic denervation (CSD). This is a fairly non-technical explanation of the procedure. It can be left side only (LCSD), right side only (RCSD), or bilateral (BCSD). In short, it's a procedure of last resort to control ventricular arrhythmias when drugs and endocardial ablation procedures have failed. ",
        "id": 2361,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can people suffering from Ankylosing Spondylitis manage their weight",
        "body": "To answer your question, Yes. You can focus on boosting your metabolism since you can't freely do sport.   To answer the person that downvoted my answer, we can see that boosting one's metabolism is a commonly used concept in approved Health SE sources. E.g. based on this article on WebMD:      Can you change your metabolism? Yes. Whether you're born with a fast,   average, or slow metabolism, there are things you can do to speed   yours up or slow it down.   Source: Boosting Your Metabolism - https://www.webmd.com/diet/tc/boosting-your-metabolism-topic-overview  Here are some suggestions which I've put in application in my own life. Hope it helps somebody out there.  Intermittent fasting:  The idea is to extend as much as possible the fasting period around your sleep. E.g. to give myself as an example, I eat two times per day, once at noon and once at 6PM, fulfilling complete meals.      Some research shows that intermittent fasting works. In one study,   overweight adults who cut calories by 20% every other day dropped 8%   of their body weight within 8 weeks. They also had less inflammation.   Source: https://www.webmd.com/diet/a-z/intermittent-fasting  Drink green tea/coffee throughout the day     In a small study, green tea appeared to raise metabolic rates and   speed up fat oxidation.   Source: https://www.webmd.com/diet/news/19991128/green-tea-boosts-metabolism-protects-against-diseases#1  Improve the look of your abs with the vacuum exercise rather than crunches:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_exercise  Helps strengthen the core and definitely improves the aesthetics of the abs.   Some other readings:  https://www.webmd.com/diet/ss/slideshow-boost-your-metabolism",
        "id": 2151,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What health information does saliva contain?",
        "body": "Many substances that can be found in blood are distributed into saliva (but in different concentrations) so saliva as a biological material can be used for a wide range of tests. All of these have their advantages and disadvantages, and many are still not routinely used. The important thing to have in mind is that, in blood, substances are bound to plasma proteins to some extent, and only the free (unbound) fraction can pass into saliva, so the concentration in saliva is proportional to the concentration of free substance in blood.   Let's have a look at some possible applications:  Pharmacokinetic studies  Monitoring the concentrations of certain medicines can be useful, and saliva is a good material for monitoring neutral substances, weak acids or weak bases. Saliva is often used in therapeutic drug monitoring, metabolic phenotyping (determination of activity of metabolic enzymes in a patient), compliance monitoring and determining the free fraction of the medicine. These are all used in highly individalised approaches to treatment, and are not routinely used.  Diagnostic applications  These can be found if you visit the websites of some laboratories that do these tests, and see what they offer. Some of those that I have found include:   steroid hormone testing (this is by far the most common one I found) peptide hormone testing antibody testing (for some infectious diseases, HIV e.g, and possibly allergies) there is a commercially available nitric saliva test   (by testing I mean - detecting presence and determining the concentration).  This procedure is definitely non-invasive, and as such it can be very convenient when multiple samples have to be drawn at certain time periods. This is often the case with steroid hormones, and this is why saliva can be preferred to blood - sampling saliva is less invasive than venipuncture.   On the other hand there are some analytical limitations: saliva is a complex matrix and some substances in it interfere with analysis; the concentration of tested substances is usually low in saliva, so method sensitivity is an issue. These sensitive methods are often advanced and sophisticated, and may be quite costly.    There are other options which are being used or studied (some are successful and entering diagnostic use, some require further research):   Markers for systemic malignancies  Biomarkers for oral diseases Biomarkers for some autoimmune diseases Forensic analysis samples Illicit drugs and their metabolites   I take it that your question was out of curiosity. Clinical applications of these tests, whether they are necessary and cost-effective, and other clinical justification issues are up to a physician to determine in each individual case.    An interesting aside:  There are several collection methods. In some you don't actually have to spit into a tube - you chew a special swab and place it into a tube, and the saliva is obtained by centrifugation. Pretty neat, huh?   Image source: Salivette\u00ae instruction manual    References:   Rocky Mountain Analytical - Our Tests - commercial website, used as an example only Diagnos-Techs, Inc.\u2122 - Why Saliva - commercial website, used as an example only Steroid Analysis in Saliva: An overview Saliva as a Diagnostic Fluid ",
        "id": 339,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do lice survive on body parts other than the scalp?",
        "body": "Human head lice generally do not survive very long when they are out of their preferred habitat. But they can adapt: \"Head and body lice used to be designated Pediculus capitis and P. corporis but they are now known to belong to the same species, P. humanus x[16,17]. Fifty years ago Levene and Dobzhansky [18] showed that head lice could be trained or adapted to become the rather larger body lice by attaching them to the body in small pill boxes.\"  That should read as: an infestation should be looked at as a locally serious problem. Although any spread from there is not that likely, looking for them elsewhere is prudent advice. Treatment should be guided by actual symptoms. They are quite hungry. If a certain amount of time has passed after \"the war is over\" and no symptoms appeared elsewhere in the meantime, then a scalp repopulated  from other sources on that body is very unlikely. Eggs surviving in the hair itself are much more likely.",
        "id": 1892,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Anorgasmia with SSRI and SNRI prescriptions",
        "body": "First of all, anorgasmia can be either a primary effect caused by depression itself, along with decreased libido. But then it may also be a side-effect of the medication itself, adding to the underlying problem and quite likely decreasing not only libido, erectile function or ability to orgasm but also having a negative effect on compliance with the whole treatment regime.  It is therefor prudent to talk about these aspects, pro-actively. Maintaining or improving self-efficacy and locus of control are to be appreciated on their own. Although this is tricky as focusing on this side-effct might also increase a nocebo-like effect. That last effect is also a big chance in that psychotherapy or even sex-therapy may also be used to improve outcomes to a limited degree. After all, if it is \"just\" reduced response to stimuli, then the intensity of stimuli might be increased to compensate.  A still valid matrix of average effects and resulting course of action is outlined below:     Robert L. Phillips &amp; James R. Slaughter: \"Depression and Sexual Desire\" (2000)     Medication                Libido Effect    Other Sexual Effects    SSRIs Fluoxetine (Prozac),     Decrease         Anorgasmia, delayed ejaculation,  paroxetine (Paxil),                       erectile dysfunction fluvoxamine (Luvox),  citalopram (Celexa),  sertraline (Zoloft) # Imipramine (Tofranil),   Decrease         Erectile dysfunction phenelzine (Nardil) # Bupropion (Wellbutrin)   Increase         None # Trazodone (Desyrel)      Increase         Priapism (rare) # Nefazodone (Serzone)     No change        None          Then there are different medications available with differing profiles and they can be differentiated by amount of side-effects, scope of side-effects and individual tolerability. Tolerance for this case in terms of sexual function needs to be addressed, so that you may recommend a lower dose,  different medications or a compensating additional treatment.Different medication does not necessarily mean immediately switching the whole class of drugs. It might also yield improvement to switch     Glen L. Stimmel &amp; Mary A. Gutierrez: \"Sexual Dysfunction and Psychotropic Medications\" (2006)   Psychotropic drugs are often associated with sexual dysfunction. The frequency of antidepressant-associated sexual dysfunction is greatly underestimated in clinical trials that rely on patient self-report of these adverse events. Direct inquiry reveals that delayed orgasm/ejaculation occurs in >50% and anorgasmia in at least one third of patients given selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction can be successfully managed. A different antidepressant without significant sexual effects, such as bupropion or mirtazapine, can often be substituted. Other strategies involve drug holidays or adjunctive therapy with drugs such as sildenafil. Dopamine antagonist antipsychotic drugs are most commonly associated with decreased libido. [\u2026] Because sexual dysfunction can be related to many factors, care must be taken to establish the patient's baseline sexual functioning before the initiation of psychotropic drug therapy and to rule out other etiologies before drugs are implicated as causative.   (Caution: Clear Conflicts of Interest)   Unfortunately, this field is still under researched and all the options above are only trying to solve a poorly understood problem.     Mechanisms and treatments of SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction.   SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction affects 30% to 50% or more of individuals who take these drugs for depression. Biochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5HT2 and 5HT3 receptors; decreased dopamine; blockade of cholinergic and alpha-1 adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels. Five approaches to treatment include conservative approaches such as wait and see, decrease dosage, and drug holidays. More aggressive strategy for treating SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction are changing antidepressants and augmentation.    One possible mechanism in rats:     5-HT(1A) receptor antagonism reverses and prevents fluoxetine-induced sexual dysfunction in rats.   Sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressant treatment continues to be a major compliance issue for antidepressant therapies. 5-HT(1A) antagonists have been suggested as beneficial adjunctive treatment in respect of antidepressant efficacy; however, the effects of 5-HT(1A) antagonism on antidepressant-induced side-effects has not been fully examined. The present study was conducted to evaluate the ability of acute or chronic treatment with 5-HT(1A) antagonists to alter chronic fluoxetine-induced impairments in sexual function. Chronic 14-d treatment with fluoxetine resulted in a marked reduction in the number of non-contact penile erections in sexually experienced male rats, relative to vehicle-treated controls. Acute administration of the 5-HT(1A) antagonist WAY-101405 resulted in a complete reversal of chronic fluoxetine-induced deficits on non-contact penile erections at doses that did not significantly alter baselines. Chronic co-administration of the 5-HT(1A) antagonists WAY-100635 or WAY-101405 with fluoxetine prevented fluoxetine-induced deficits in non-contact penile erections in sexually experienced male rats. Moreover, withdrawal of WAY-100635 from co-treatment with chonic fluoxetine, resulted in a time-dependent reinstatement of chronic fluoxetine-induced deficits in non-contact penile erections. Additionally, chronic administration of SSA-426, a molecule with dual activity as both a SSRI and 5-HT(1A) antagonist, did not produce deficits in non-contact penile erections at doses demonstrated to have antidepressant-like activity in the olfactory bulbectomy model. Taken together, these data suggest that 5-HT(1A) antagonist treatment may have utility for the management of SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction.   But notice the possibly contradictory explanation when relating this proposed mechanism with Flibanserin:     Flibanserin, a potential antidepressant drug, lowers 5-HT and raises dopamine and noradrenaline in the rat prefrontal cortex dialysate: role of 5-HT1A receptors   Interestingly \"unconventional\" options are apparently not completely off in this regard:     The Mayo Clinic Proceedings Antidepressant-Induced Female Sexual Dysfunction (2016) considers the Peruvian herb/tuber Maca (Lepidium meyenii) an option because of this: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of maca root as treatment for antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction in women.   In conclusion this leaves not really much from the category \"definitively\" on the table right now: talk and try.     Sexual Dysfunction Due to Psychotropic Medications. (2016)   Effective strategies to manage medication-induced sexual dysfunction are initial choice of a drug unlikely to cause SD, switching to a different medication, and adding an antidote to reverse SD. Appropriate interventions should be determined on a clinical case-by-case basis. ",
        "id": 1637,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does it help to add fiber to sugary foods?",
        "body": "In short yes. Fiber reduces the postprandial blood sugar. It reduces both how much and how fast the blood sugar raises after a meal, as found in this study.   Having high blood sugar, in turn, affects your health in several negative ways, such as     By Chrizz, Glykemiskt Index (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glykemiskt_Index.PNG) [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons  However, the amount of calories consumed is still the same, so it does not help in that regard.  At any rate, sugar is overall bad for your health, so staying away from it completely is still best, And it is not even that hard.",
        "id": 1149,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can wearing a mask when sick help fight off infection?",
        "body": "No, wearing a mask cannot help fight infection when sick.  A sick person can wear a face mask when around others only to help prevent the spread of flu. Wearing a face mask limits the spread of tiny infected drops that are released when a person talks, coughs or sneezes.  After all, the masks were originally designed to protect patients from the coughs and sneezes of a surgeon and not to help fight an infection.  http://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/06/22/416466284/will-a-surgical-mask-keep-you-safe-in-a-viral-outbreak  http://www.sfcdcp.org/fluill.html",
        "id": 1414,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take for heroin withdrawal to begin?",
        "body": "Early symptoms around 6 to 12 hours, more severe symptoms at around one to three days. All depending on how much the individual was using previously and what you interpret as \"serious\".   According to the NHTSA:     Withdrawal can begin within 6-12 hours after the last dose and may last 5-10 days. Early symptoms include watery eyes, runny nose, yawning and sweating. Major withdrawal symptoms peak between 48-72 hours after the last dose and include drug craving, restlessness, irritability, dysphoria, loss of appetite, tremors, severe sneezing, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, elevated heart rate and blood pressure, chills alternating with flushing and excessive sweating, goose-flesh, abdominal cramps, body aches, muscle and bone pain, muscle spasms, insomnia, and severe depression.   The Australian Guidelines for the Management of Heroin Withdrawal state basically the same:     Physical symptoms generally commence 6 to 24 hours after last use, peak in severity during days two to four, and generally subside by day seven, while the psychological features of dysphoria, anxiety, sleep disturbances and increased cravings may continue for weeks or even months.  ",
        "id": 418,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mistakenly took Atarax",
        "body": "Hydroxyzine Hydrochloride (Atarax, Ucerax) is a first-generation (sedative) antihistamine. Drugs of this type tend to have a pretty tame clinical profile, and it's unlikely you will experience any undesirable effects, apart from the sedation.   Without knowing your medical history, it can be difficult to ascertain whether you will suffer any drug-drug or drug-disease reactions.  You may find coffee (caffeine) can help to counteract the sedative/hypnotic effect, although this will not reverse the effects of the antihistamine. According to this document, the amount of Hydroxyzine Hydrochloride (Atarax) in the body will half within 14-24 hours.   It's recommended you do not drive or operate heavy machinery without first assessing your ability to concentrate under influence of the medication, or while the drug is still in your system.",
        "id": 1324,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a MRSA test work?",
        "body": "MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is suspected in the face of any acute staph infection that does not respond to normal antibiotics. Even staph that is more resistant to other antibiotics than it is to methicillin is routinely called MRSA.  The standard test for MRSA (differentiated from other forms of staph) is as straightforward as it seems. After S. aureus bacteria is isolated, it is cultured in the presence of methicillin and (usually) other antibiotics. If the staph grows in the face of antibiotics that usually are effective against staph, it is obviously resistant and the diagnosis of MRSA can be made.  By using more than one antibiotic in the growth medium, the technician can identify for the practioner which antibiotics are most effective. The different antibiotics are present on specific locations on the agar (or other medium) plate, usually using Kirby-Bauer antibiotic discs . Even among strains that are called MRSA, there are variances as to what antibiotics are effective against that particular colony.  The challenging part is that the cultures can take several days, during which time the patient can be growing steadily worse. As such, sometimes it's the patient herself who becomes the most relevent growth medium.  Contamination of the medium or weak growth of the bacteria can both lead to inconclusive results.",
        "id": 482,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could lithium be considered alternative medicine historically?",
        "body": "Alternative medicine is medicine that is outside the standard of care and typically has no strong evidence for effectiveness beyond placebo effects. If there is sufficient scientific evidence that a treatment is effective, it becomes part of the standard of care and is no longer alternative medicine.  Alternative medicine does not mean \"using 'natural' ingredients\" or anything like that, because \"natural\" doesn't have any relationship to what is safe or effective: naturally occurring compounds can be poisons just as effectively as synthetic ones can be, chemistry doesn't care about the history of the atoms included in a molecule.  Lithium used as a medicine has always been based on experiments that showed effectiveness (even if mechanisms are/were poorly understood). Therefore, no, it is not an alternative medicine when used to treat anything for which there is evidence of effectiveness.  Lithium has also been used as patent medicine - in that context it could be thought of as \"alternative\" in that marketing claims were made that were not based on scientific evidence.  Lithium was not originally regulated, nor was anything. Regulation of anything is a relatively recent phenomenon, with the US FDA for example only founded in the early 1900s. Not everything is regulated immediately, new regulations are continually added as evidence for harm is discovered. Pharmaceuticals are a bit of a special case in that they must be \"approved\" rather than simply absent from a \"harmful\" list, but their regulation is related to marketing them as medical drugs, not based on their production or consumption.    Marmol, F. (2008). Lithium: bipolar disorder and neurodegenerative diseases Possible cellular mechanisms of the therapeutic effects of lithium. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 32(8), 1761-1771.  Shorter, E. (2009). The history of lithium therapy. Bipolar disorders, 11, 4-9.",
        "id": 2524,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Misophonia and autism",
        "body": "Regrettably, there has been no diagnostics code or preliminary research done for a connection between misophonia and autism. Instead, there are some commonalities between the two.  Autism or autism spectrum disorder is a complex neural damage caused in the brain wiring of a person with remarkable signs of learning disabilities and repetitive behavior.  Misophonia, like autism, is in reference to the psychiatric or mental health of a person. It is a condition likely to show a number of influences without much of the evidence.  Individuals with autism often become overwhelmed by sensory processing disorder. Loud noises can irritate and even lead to a lack of functioning near the sounds resulting injurious for an autistic person. This certainly is a similar case to misophonia.  References:  https://misophoniainstitute.org/how-children-develop-misophonia/  https://www.misophoniainternational.com/misophonia-autism-connection/",
        "id": 2022,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Body's response to rapid ingestion of water?",
        "body": "I don't belive it is possible for the body to produce too much ADH.  The body will likely produce insufficient ADH to eliminate the ingested water, thus you will still remain in a state of hyponatremia even after the body's ADH response.  The body will then return to homeostatus by reducing thirst.  This means of course that if you ingest too much water (ignoring your lack of thirst) you can create serious health problems for yourself.",
        "id": 286,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Nexium a Nitrate?",
        "body": "No. Nexium is the trade name of a generic drug called esomeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor used to treat gastro-esophageal acid reflux. \u201cNitrates for chest pain\u201d refers to the class of cardiac drugs that share a similar biochemical structure structure and pharmacologic mechanism, which involves conversion to nitric oxide. In the U.S., the available nitrates are:     nitroglycerin  isosorbide mononitrate isosorbide dinitrate   These are vasodilators, used for anginal chest pain, usually in combination with beta blockers. They work by dilating the arteries around the heart and improving blood flow.  A google search reveals that C4 is a dietary supplement that contains caffeine. I suspect that the warning about nitrates has to do more with identifying people who have cardiac problems (which could be exacerbated by caffeine) than any specific drug interaction.   I have no idea why your chest was on fire, and this site is not a good place to try to find out. You should certainly discuss this with your doctor if you\u2019re concerned. ",
        "id": 304,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Olive oil versus sunflower oil",
        "body": "Actually, sunflower oil is very high in omega 6 and poor in omega 3 which isn't a good thing considering that the body needs a good balance between omega 6 and omega 3 to be healthy, and most modern food is way too high in omega 6.  In my opinion there aren't good oils and bad oils, it's all a matter of balance. I personally use olive oil for hot dishes, and colza oil for salads and stuff... most of the time. But you still can try and pick most of the oils if you feel curious (I think that palm oil is the only vegetable oil which isn't good for health even if used just a little).  Sources   How to Optimize Your Omega-6 to Omega-3 Ratio The Shocking Truth About Sunflower Oil ",
        "id": 192,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a vault somewhere that contains vials of ALL the diseases? Even the eradicated ones? (Like the Svalbard Global Seed Vault)?",
        "body": "Apparently, from my research it's only the small-pox virus that is presently being stored.  But still, the find was disturbing because for decades after smallpox was declared eradicated in the 1980s, world health authorities believed the only samples left were safely stored in super-secure laboratories in Atlanta and in Russia.  There is a vaccine against smallpox that was a key tool in the eradication of the disease. This vaccine does not contain the variola virus which causes smallpox, but a closely related virus called vaccinia. When this vaccine is given to humans, it protects them against smallpox. However, it may have rare, but serious side effects, which in extreme cases can be fatal. Since smallpox was eradicated, the vaccine is not recommended in routine immunization. It is used to protect researchers who work on the variola virus that causes smallpox and other viruses in the same virus family (known as orthopox viruses). It could also be used to protect anyone else judged to have a high risk of exposure to smallpox.   Vaccination with the vaccinia virus as a protection against smallpox is not recommended for widespread use. No government gives or recommends the vaccine routinely since it can cause serious complications, and even death. It should be given only to those persons who have a high risk of coming into contact with the virus which causes smallpox, or who have been exposed.  http://nypost.com/2014/07/08/scientist-finds-lost-vials-of-extinct-smallpox-virus/  http://www.who.int/csr/disease/smallpox/faq/en/",
        "id": 1364,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What procedures do dentists use for cleaning teeth, is there variation, and what is the rationale?",
        "body": "Your question seems to be about the \"cleaning\" or periodontal maintenance portion of your appointment. (Periodontistry is a field in dentistry which is concerned with the gums or soft tissues around teeth)  As part of an initial exam or routine checkup, many dentists and their hygienists will perform all or some of the following steps:   Assess if there were changes in your health (medical history). Perform a dental exam, including taking the necessary radiographs. It is here that the dentist uses a periodontal probe, an instrument that looks like a ruler to mesure the depth of the crevice around teeth (the space between the gums and the tooth) to assess changes in your periodontal \"gum\" health.     During the second half of the appointment or at another date, the dentist and hygienist will proceed as follows:   Performe anesthesia (\"Freezing\"), if going far bellow the gums, which allows the scalling and root planing (S&amp;RP - Deep cleaning) of the roots with minimum discomfort to the patient. Some clinics have a mouth rinsing protocol to reduce the amount of bacterias preoperatively, to avoid having the bacterias in the aerosols produced by the cleaning. I don't have literature that supports the assumed purpose of this intervention. The fastest way would be to simply ask your dentist. Use a water-cooled ultrasonic scaler (for instance Cavitron\u00ae) to break up most of the calculus. This shortens the appointment times considerably, but produces aerosols which may contain bacteria.  Use manual hand-instruments such as curettes to remove any remaining calculus on and in-between the teeth.  Use an abrasive past to perform prophylactic (preventive) smoothing and polishing of the teeth surfaces. This step is necessary to discourage plaque from latching onto the freshly scaled surfaces, which can be rough at the microscopic level. This makes your home care more efficient too and can help decrease the frequency of appointments. If the previous 2 steps were done, this should take a minimal amount of time.   If severe gum disease is already present or for whatever reason the attempts at nonsurgical therapy are unsuccessful, a Surgical therapy can be planned and initiated, but this goes beyond the scope of your original question.  For a more in-depth look at basic and non-surgical periodontal care, one can look at the following article: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11155183  N.B.: This is a general explanation of what is done in dentistry, and should not be taken as a treatment plan specifically for you or anybody else, as per Health.SE rules.",
        "id": 2300,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does iron poisoning stay in your body?",
        "body": "We can't diagnose your friend on the internet; only her doctors can do that. Guesses are good in game shows; in medicine, it helps to have more to base a diagnosis on.  You are correct that acute iron toxicity (for example, from children eating iron-containing vitamins because they are candy-like) can result in coma. But to my knowledge (and I have seen and treated many metallic foreign bodies), iron toxicity from such an exposure would be unlikely.  Aside from ingestion, the two most common reasons for iron overload are   1) repeated transfusions required for various anemias (where red blood cells are destroyed by the body and need to be replaced), or when bone marrow has stopped functioning properly and RBC's must be supplied; this is called secondary hemochromatosis,  2) iron-overload disorders owing to genetic misregulation of iron absorption, referred to as hereditary hemochromatosis (or primary hemochromatosis).   Primary hemochromatosis can be treated by removing blood periodically, forcing the body to use up the excess iron, or by chelation therapy. So, untreated, yes, iron overload from this source is permanent. Acute iron toxicity can be treated with chelating agents is severe enough.  While hemochromatosis is not rare, fainting is very common (so common it is difficult to estimate it's occurrence due to underreporting); rough estimates are that at least 35% of the population will have at least one episode in their lifetime. There is a bimodal distribution, with the first peak around the late teens (one-third of medical students report at least one syncopal episode) and the second starting around the seventies.  Again, numbers are hard to obtain for fainting (syncope), but the most common cause is vasovagal (fear, pain, prolonged standing, etc.), followed by cardiac causes.  Although fainting is common, the only real way to determine its probable cause is to see a medical professional, who can gather the information necessary to make a diagnosis.  Hemochromatosis (Iron Storage Disease) Molecular basis of HFE-hemochromatosis Epidemiology of syncope/collapse in younger and older Western patient populations Incidence and prognosis of syncope",
        "id": 272,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does carbon monoxide poisoning make you tired before it kills you?",
        "body": "   Does carbon monoxide poisoning make you tired before it kills you?   The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning can vary per person it affects, and it can also depend on the the levels of exposure to each person.  The short answer would be yes, general fatigue and tiredness can be a symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning.   I believe this is accurate for one being based on a symptom being weakness(2) which weakness can correlate to fatigue or tiredness.  Furthermore, based on the bio-molecular\\bio-mechanical explanation of       Once inhaled, carbon monoxide passes from your lungs into your bloodstream, where it attaches to the hemoglobin molecules that normally carry oxygen. Oxygen can't travel on a hemoglobin molecule that already has carbon monoxide attached to it. As exposure continues, the gas hijacks more and more hemoglobin molecules, and the blood gradually loses its ability to carry enough oxygen to meet your body's needs. Without enough oxygen, individual cells suffocate and die, especially in vital organs such as the brain and heart.(1).    This correlates to oxygen being depleted and cellular respiration not taking place to produce energy for the human body to optimally function; thus, another reason general fatigue and tiredness would occur.    Why-feeling-tired-time-mean-theres-killer-house Carbon Monoxide Poisoning(1)      Carbon monoxide poisoning(2)      Signs and symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning may include:         Dull headache   Weakness   Dizziness   Nausea or vomiting   Shortness of breath   Confusion   Blurred vision   Loss of consciousness         Carbon monoxide poisoning can be especially dangerous for people who   are sleeping or intoxicated. People may have irreversible brain damage   or even be killed before anyone realizes there's a problem.      When to see a doctor      The warning signs of carbon monoxide poisoning can be subtle. But the   condition is a life-threatening medical emergency. If you think you or   someone you're with may have carbon monoxide poisoning, get into fresh   air and seek emergency medical care. ",
        "id": 747,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When should I drink from the sea?",
        "body": "In the attempt to prevent or treat dehydration you should not drink sea water.  In short: By drinking seawater you ingest excessive amount of sodium chloride, which needs to be excreted by urine in order to maintain normal blood sodium concentration. Since the human kidneys have a limited ability to concentrate urine, the amount of water lost by urine in order to excrete sodium chloride is greater than the amount of water in the drunk seawater. This results in a net water loss.   Detailed explanation is below:  E. Hall, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 13th edition, 2016 (p. 373)      The limited ability of the human kidney to concentrate the urine to   only 1,200 mOsm/L explains why severe dehydration occurs if one   attempts to drink seawater.      Sodium chloride concentration in the oceans averages about 3-3.5% with   an osmolality between about 1,000 and 1,200 mOsm/L.      Drinking 1 liter of seawater...would provide a total sodium chloride   intake of 1,200 mOsm. If maximal urine concentration ability is 1,200   mOsm/L, the amount of urine needed to excrete 1,200 mOsm would be...1   liter.      The kidneys must also excrete other solutes, especially urea, which   contribute about 600 mOsm/L when urine is maximally concentrated.   Therefore the maximal concentration of sodium chloride that can be   excreted by the kidneys is about 600 mOsm/L. Thus for every liter of   seawater drunk, 1.5 liters of urine volume would be required to rid   the body of 1,200 mOsm of sodium chloride ingested in addition to 600   mOsm of other solutes...This would result in a net fluid loss of 0.5   liter for every liter of seawater drunk. ",
        "id": 1240,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "7700 Kcal deficit per per kg weight loss, or just 3600 Kcal deficit per kg weight loss?",
        "body": "Weight loss induced by calorie restriction is rather complex phenomenon which depends on plethora of factors like metabolic pathways, energy conservation, nutrient composition, BMI, age etc. (Reducing Calorie Intake May Not Help You Lose Body Weight, D. Benton et al, Perspectives on Psychological Science, June 28, 2017 ). However as a general guideline it can be taken that:     Reduced energy intake (by about 500 kcal/d) will promote gradual   weight loss over time at the expected rate of 1\u20132 kg per month.      \"2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children\", CMAJ, April 10, 2007, Vol. 176, No. 8   After simple arithmetic transformation, ~10 000 kcal calorie restriction leads to the loss of 1 kg body mass. If we take an average of 25% of mass of human body is attributed to the fat tissue so roughly 40 000 kcal restriction is required to loose 1 kg of body fat.  For additional information you can consult:   Managing Overweight and Obesity in Adults: Systematic Evidence Review from the Obesity Expert Panel; Diet in the management of weight loss, I. Strycher, CMAJ. 2006 Jan 3; 174(1): 56\u201363 ",
        "id": 2453,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I prepare my body for a trip by boat and don't get motion sickness?",
        "body": "Motion sickness is a complicated process, and as you've noticed, different people are affected to different degrees.  People can and do become habituated to vertigo-inducing motion, but it takes a long time. Similarly, the potential benefit you might gain from any exercises you do (they would be similar to those one does when experiencing benign paroxysmal positional vertigo) would take weeks to acquire.  There is nothing you can do in this short time span to naturally decrease the probability of having a recurrence. Your best hope is in getting a good drug to prevent it.  Astronauts often experience motion sickness, and the reference I used is from space aviation literature (it is available in full online but as a PDF), and is a pretty thorough treatment of the condition.  There are a few things which (in addition to drugs) might help:        Decrease the motion of your eyes as much as feasible (no reading, people watching, etc.) Instead, look at the horizon. This is because a disparity between brain signals from your eyes and those from your vestibular system often do not correlate well, which is one of the proposed mechanisms of motion sickness.   If possible, stay outside, or at least where you're getting some fresh air.   Try to find a spot mid-ship (where there is the least rolling/pitching) and sit, don't stand.   Try to avoid heavy/greasy meals before travelling, and to avoid strong odors while traveling.      Scopolamine is one of the most effective anti-motion sickness drugs available. Note that a transdermal scopolamine patch doesn't hit it's peak effect until 6-8 hours after it's been applied. Scopolamine isn't for everyone. Ask a pharmacist for drug information if it's available without a prescription where you are.  If you opt for an antihistamine, dimenhydrinate, cyclizine, meclozine, and promethazine are the antihistamines most widely used for prophylaxis and treatment of motion sickness. Since you already tried the dimenhydrinate, you might try a different one. Please note, however, that they should be taken long before the voyage starts to be effective. This might be why yours didn't seem to last. One usually needs to build up to something a bit closer to a steady state.  Cinnarizine is very popular in Europe but it is not available in the United States.  A very small study found ginger (a natural anti-emetic) helpful, but this has been disputed.  This is a presentation of some of the available literature. You need to discuss your specifics (age, medical conditions, etc.) with a doctor or pharmacist.  Good luck.  Shupak A, Gordon CR. Motion sickness: advances in pathogenesis, prediction, prevention, and treatment. Aviat Space Environ Med 2006; 77: 1213\u20131223 Effects of ginger on motion sickness and gastric slow-wave dysrhythmias induced by circular vection Scopolamine (hyoscine) for preventing and treating motion sickness",
        "id": 764,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Withdrawal symptoms of pornography addiction",
        "body": "First of all, porn addiction withdrawal is also equivalent to dopamine withdrawal.  The chemicals that your brain creates when you use porn \u2013 Dopamine and Delta Fos-B \u2013 are the exact same ones it creates when you use cocaine or meth.  Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain's reward and pleasure centers. Dopamine also helps regulate movement and emotional responses, and it enables us not only to see rewards, but to take action to move toward them.  During the first to seventh (1-7) day of porn withdrawal, your brain's still in shock. During this period, such symptoms persist:   Grumpiness - Every little thing will irritate you Mood swings - This is mainly due to the fact that the brain is still trying to rebalance itself. Headaches  Anxiety - Some men have legitimate panic attacks. Pornographic thoughts - Obviously, during the first few weeks of porn withdrawal, you keep having lustful thoughts, causing you to remember your last pornographic experience.   Between the fourth to eighth (4th-8th) week, majority of men begin to feel the withdrawal symptoms wear out, if you aren't, there's no problem, just keep enduring. During this period, the following symptoms persist:   Random Temptation - You might have made it so far, only to have a bad day that sends you back into relapse. Insomnia - This occurs mainly to those who are heavily addicted to porn. It's almost impossible to treat, as over-the-counter sleep aids might be of much help. Depression - Not all mean suffer depression, as this mainly occurs during the early stages of porn withdrawal. It's uncommon for it last several weeks, but it always eventually goes.   For more info, visit this site and this for info on how porn morphs the brain. I hope I was able to answer your question correctly.",
        "id": 2170,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Good sources of protein for vegetarians?",
        "body": "Here are some good sources of protein:   hemp seeds (10g/2tbsp) peanut butter (8g/2tbsp) chia seeds (4g/2tbsp) pumpkin seeds (7g/oz) almonds (6g/oz) seitan (6g/oz) tempeh (30g/cup) tofu (20g/cup) black beans (15g/cup) quinoa (8g/cup) soy milk (8g/cup) buckwheat (6g/cup)   Do you eat dairy? If you do, try:   cottage cheese (26g/cup) Greek yogurt (20g/cup)   Note that these numbers are approximate (depending on the brand, etc.). There are many other sources of protein, but I hope this provides you with a starting point.  Here is some more data:   Table of Protein (and Amino Acids) in Common Foods List of Vegetarian Foods High in Protein ",
        "id": 583,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is eating spicy food bad for health?",
        "body": "It may have to do with the chemical structure and how they bind to specific receptors (see:  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsaicin on capsaicin) causing a \"sensation of burning\" and irritation. It does also seem to directly affect the GI lining:  \"Many substances directly irritate the lining of the esophagus and can contribute to heartburn. These include spicy foods, citrus fruits and juices, tomatoes and tomato sauces, cigarette smoke, aspirin, and ibuprofen (with brand names such as Motrin and Advil). Some of these foods can also increase the production of stomach acid and decrease the LES pressure, leading to heartburn.\" http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/mobileart-emh.asp?articlekey=59146&amp;page=3",
        "id": 1196,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are these perfectly circular red shapes on the back of that person?",
        "body": "Disclaimer: we cannot give individual medical advice or diagnoses. This is a general discussion.  What you are describing is most consistent with bruising left by the process of cupping.  Cupping is a common treatment involving suction. It is used in integrative medicine practices, and is very common in some Asian regions.  It has been used for ages, and some studies have even shown some statistically significant positive effects. There are several proposed mechanisms of action, including increasing localized circulation and drawing tension from muscle/fascia.  It has commonly been misinterpreted as illness or abuse by those unfamiliar with it.",
        "id": 2426,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Changing Toothpaste brand harmful for teeth?",
        "body": "You can find more information here about this issue:     Comparison between different concentrations of fluoride toothpaste for preventing tooth decay in children and adolescents      [...] Although none of the trials included in the review looked at fluorosis or mottling of the children's teeth, fluorosis may be an unwanted result of using fluoride toothpaste in young children and a Cochrane review on this topic has also been published. The possible risk of fluorosis should be discussed with your dentist who may recommend using a toothpaste containing less than 1000 ppm fluoride.      Authors' conclusions:       This review confirms the benefits of using fluoride toothpaste in preventing caries in children and adolescents when compared to placebo, but only significantly for fluoride concentrations of 1000 ppm and above. The relative caries preventive effects of fluoride toothpastes of different concentrations increase with higher fluoride concentration. The decision of what fluoride levels to use for children under 6 years should be balanced with the risk of fluorosis.   Cochrane review on fluorosis which may be an unwanted result of using fluoride toothpaste in young children     Is the use of fluoride toothpaste during early childhood associated with discolouration/mottling of teeth?      [...] There is some evidence that brushing a child's teeth with a toothpaste containing fluoride, before the age of 12 months, may be associated with an increased risk of developing fluorosis. There is stronger evidence that higher levels of fluoride (1000 parts per million (ppm) or more) in toothpaste are associated with an increased risk of fluorosis when given to children under 5 to 6 years of age. However, for some children (those considered to be at high risk of tooth decay by their dentist), the benefit to health of preventing decay may outweigh the risk of fluorosis. In such circumstances, careful brushing by parents/adults with toothpastes containing higher levels of fluoride would be beneficial.      Authors' conclusions:      There should be a balanced consideration between the benefits of topical fluorides in caries prevention and the risk of the development of fluorosis. Most of the available evidence focuses on mild fluorosis. There is weak unreliable evidence that starting the use of fluoride toothpaste in children under 12 months of age may be associated with an increased risk of fluorosis. The evidence for its use between the age of 12 and 24 months is equivocal. If the risk of fluorosis is of concern, the fluoride level of toothpaste for young children (under 6 years of age) is recommended to be lower than 1000 parts per million (ppm).      More evidence with low risk of bias is needed. ",
        "id": 945,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of microdosing alcohol on liver performance and the ability to metabolize toxins",
        "body": "What are effects of microdosing alcohol on the liver's ability to metabolize toxins?  There seems to be no effect.  Alcohol can induce the enzyme system CYP2E1 in the liver, which can speed up the metabolism of toxins thus making some more and others less toxic. But according to niaaa.nih.gov:     ...CYP2E1 only is active after a person has consumed large amounts of alcohol...   What are effects of microdosing alcohol on the liver performance?  There seems to be no studies about the effects (beneficial or harmful) of microdosing alcohol (1-2 g alco/day) on liver function, but light drinking (up to 17 g alco/day) can show signs of impaired liver function, such as increased blood levels of the liver enzymes (PubMed).      What is the relation between microdosing alcohol and mortality?  In a systematic review of 87 studies including 3,998,626 individuals (PubMed, 2016), no significant reduction in mortality risk was observed for low-volume drinkers (1.3-24.9 g ethanol/day) and occasional drinkers (&lt;1.3 g ethanol/day):     ...low-volume alcohol consumption has no net mortality benefit compared   with lifetime abstention or occasional drinking.   Another analysis of several surveys including 333,247 individuals (JACC, 2017):     Light and moderate alcohol intake [up to 2 drinks or 28 g ethanol/day]   might have a protective effect on all-cause and cardiovascular   disease-specific mortality in U.S. adults.   According to both reviews, microdosing (consuming 1 g or similarly small amount of alcohol per day) is not associated with significantly lower mortality than abstention (see the graph with a J-curve in the 2nd review).    Can microdosing alcohol improve your immunity like antivenom can protect you against venom?  No, not likely. Mithridatism - practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts (Wikipedia):     ...immunity generally is only possible with biologically complex types   [usually proteins] which the immune system can respond to... In some   cases, it is possible to build up tolerance against specific   non-biological poisons. For some poisons, this involves conditioning   the liver to produce more of the particular enzymes that deal with   these poisons (for example alcohol).   But, according to rcpe.ac.uk, p. 140, this increased liver alcohol clearance (alcohol tolerance) develops only after     prolonged use of alcohol in substantial doses.   Concluding from studies that included larger amounts of alcohol, microdosing alcohol does not seem to have any significant beneficial or harmful effects on the liver, but there is a lack of direct evidence.",
        "id": 1398,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Nicotine withdrawal\u2019s effect on sleep rhythms?",
        "body": "Nicotine withdrawal can cause insomnia rather then oversleeping.     The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) reports 7 primary symptoms associated with nicotine withdrawal: irritability/anger/frustration, anxiety, depressed mood, difficulty concentrating, increased appetite, insomnia, and restlessness ",
        "id": 2080,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the time frame of developing adrenal suppression when taking oral corticosteroids?",
        "body": "This question arises from your (correct) understanding that administration of exogenous (i.e. not produced by the body) glucocorticoids (GCs) can suppress the body\u2019s ability to produce its own GCs in the adrenal glands. In order to understand the answer, a little background is necessary.  Why does the body become unable to produce cortisone? As in many endocrine systems, negative feedback maintains homeostasis. Exogenous GCs exert negative feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (a series of hormones starting in the hypothalamus) that normally stimulates GC production in the adrenals. This negative feedback is almost immediately reversible. However, with extended administration of exogenous GCs, the lack of stimulation via the HPA axis leads to atrophy of the adrenal gland, and it becomes unable to produce the horomone even when the feedback suppression is removed. Your question is, how much exogenous GC is required to produce this effect?  It\u2019s a very practical question because it affects how doctors prescribe steroids. If adrenal suppression is expected, they must be tapered slowly. If not, a \u201cburst\u201d can be administered and then immediately stopped. Because it\u2019s such a practical question, people thought to study it quite a while ago, and the relevant literature is mostly pretty old (relative to most biomedical data, at least). (See below.)  The time required to achieve suppression depends upon:     the dose;  the length of time administered; and   factors unique to each patient, probably resulting from (ultimately genetic) differences in their rates of GC metabolism.   Who is likely to be suppressed: some general guidelines  Not suppressed     GC treatment (any dose) for less than three weeks.    Treatment with less than 10 mg total daily dose (prednisone equivalents) for any time period.   Suppressed   Oral GC treatment of >20 mg prednisone daily (or equivalent) for >3 weeks   Any patient with clinical Cushing\u2019s syndrome (see this answer for description)   Uncertain suppression: The degree of suppression in this intermediate group is related to individual metabolism parameters that are not (yet!) established in a way that can be measured and used clinically.     Less than 20 mg prednisone daily (or equivalent) for >3 weeks. Any dose for >3 weeks administered every other day.   The rule of thumb I learned (which is fairly conservative): >10 mg for >3 weeks requires tapering.    In those patients who fall into the uncertain category, there is something called a \"cosyntropin stimulation test\u201d that helps make the distinction. In this test, a doctor administers a hormone (cosyntropin, a.k.a. ACTH) that stimulates the adrenal gland and measures plasma cortisol concentrations to see if it responds appropriately.  I\u2019ve been talking in prednisone \u201cequivalents.\u201d There are steroid equivalent converters around. In general, prednisolone and prednisone have a 1:1 dosing relationship.   The answer to your question, then, is no. Seven days is a common prescription for a steroid \u201cburst\u201d, and tapering is generally considered to be unnecessary.      Ackerman GL, Nolsn CM. Adrenocortical responsiveness after alternate-day corticosteroid therapy. N Engl J Med. 1968;278(8):405.       Christy NP. Corticosteroid withdrawal. In: Current Therapy in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 3rd Ed, Bardin CW (Ed), BC Decker, New York 1988. p.113.      Danowski, et al. Probabilities of pituitary-adrenal responsiveness after steroid therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1964;61:11.      Myles AB, Bacon PA, Daly JR. Single daily dose corticosteroid treatment. Effect on adrenal function and therapeutic efficacy in various diseases. Ann Rheum Dis. 1971;30(2):149.  ",
        "id": 240,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can oral contraceptives prevent ovarian cysts from forming?",
        "body": "   [I]s it logical/healthy to take in oral contraceptives on a regular basis even if one is not engaged in intercourse?   There are several reasons to take oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) that have nothing to do with contraception. In that way, they can be considered medications to treat medical conditions, not contraceptives.  In the case of women who bleed heavily during their periods, or those have their periods too frequently or irregularly, OCP's can reduce the amount of bleeding preventing anemia and can \"regulate\" cycles.   When a woman has excessive pain with menstruation, OCPs can decrease the pain significantly. If women suffer from debilitating premenstrual dysphoric disorder symptoms (aka PMS), OCP help considerably.  OCPs have been used to treat acne, hirsutism (excessive body hair, especially facial), and significant menstrual-related migraines.  In women with premature menopause, OCP's can decrease the risk of endometrial and ovarian cancer.  Interestingly, OCPs are not considered a good treatment of functional ovarian cysts, though intuitively one would think they were.      Most patients are unaware of these health benefits and therapeutic uses of oral contraceptives, and they tend to overestimate their risk. Counseling and education are necessary to help women make well-informed health-care decisions ...   As with any medication, discussion about the risks of OCP use should take place with the prescribing physician, and in the case of the benefits outweighing the risks, the choice to treat the condition with OCPs is quite logical.   Noncontraceptive benefits and therapeutic uses of the oral contraceptive pill. ACOG Guidelines on Noncontraceptive Uses of Hormonal Contraceptives Hormonal treatment of functional ovarian cysts: a randomized, prospective study. Consensus on infertility treatment related to polycystic ovary syndrome Effect of Long-Term Treatment with Metformin Added to Hypocaloric Diet on Body Composition, Fat Distribution, and Androgen and Insulin Levels in Abdominally Obese Women with and without the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome",
        "id": 202,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Healthy way to become numb",
        "body": "These could be symptoms of different medical problems, depression, anxiety, or other issues.  In lieu of personal advice or a discussion of treatments, I advise seeing your primary care provider as a starting point for evaluation and management; they can guide you best.  In addition to a medical evaluation, mindfulness medication and deep breathing are techniques commonly used in behavioral health for stress, anxiety, and other issues. They use principles of quieting the external stimuli and internal stimuli and being present in the moment, still, at peace.   However: this would be in addition to, not instead of, seeing a medical professional to evaluate potential causes of your multiple symptoms.",
        "id": 1231,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is orange juice still healthy for me, if it's been opened and hasn't been refrigerated for an entire day?",
        "body": "At a recent, local science expo some high school kids did research on effects of oxidisation reducing Vit. C content over time.  Their results (and OK, not 100% authoritative) were that the Vit. C concentration actually increased even beyond the point that fruit went bad and were inedible.  So I myself would drink it with the confidence it still has health benefits.  In fact, recently I increased my Vit. C intake to 2000 mg per day, on the first hand advice of someone who took at that level to reduce cholesterol.  He said he saw reduction in this after seven days, using a commercial cholesterol tester.  2000 mg is a lot of oranges, about 20.  Need to go to vitamin pills to get that high level.  But don't forego the whole orange (or full fibre orange juice) if doing that, there is other good nutrition in the whole fruit too",
        "id": 2184,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can i do pranayama when i am suffering from asthma?",
        "body": "I'm a physical therapist and do yoga in my free-time. So I'll provide some of the information I have.  Pranayama exercises and active/passive techniques that are used in physical therapy to treat asthma are very similar.  You cannot cure asthma with any of those two methods, but it can lead to bettering of the symptoms and it gets easier to deal with asthmatic attacks, when you know some techniques that help you get over an asthmatic attack.   Concepts, that are used:   Consciousness for your breathing - Pranayama uses different approaches to make you more conscious of your breathing (where do you feel movement, when you breath? stomach? ribcage? shoulders? how fast do you breath? do you breath through mouth or nose? ...) and helps you breath more deeply or let's say effectively. Breathing techniques - Pranayama uses exercises to help you deepen your breath. Body postures - differents asanas (well this is not pranayama itself, but yoga after all) stretch the respirational muscles (pectoralis major and minor, scm, and so on) and the intercostal muscles - this makes breathing easier and deeper. Your muscles get tense, when you have asthma/asthmatic attacks, so stretching helps your muscles relax so they can work more efficiently. Example asanas: http://www.yogajournal.com/slideshow/tias-little-sidebending-sequence/ - but please find an instructor to help you with this. Body in space - the way your body is seated in the 3 dimensions, affects your lungs. The lower half of the lung is supplied better with blood (due to gravity) and the upper half is better ventilated. So lying on your right side, doing some breathing exercises has a different effect on either side of your lungs. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilation/perfusion_ratio   I'd recomment to find a competent yoga instructor, who can provide you with more information and can lead you through some exercises.  I have worked with long-term patients, who profitted from weekly sessions and exercising at home daily. Sessions can last between only a few minutes up to an hour, where the above mentioned concepts are combined. E.g. you start on your back and get conscious of your breathing. afterwards you are lying on your right side, lay your arm over your head, so the left ribcage is stretched and you do a breathing technique(pranayama). after a few minutes you turn on your back and feel teh difference between your two body sides and how your breathing has changed. then do the same exercise for your other side. But again, find an instructor to help you with this.  As I said it does not provide a remedy, but helps you deal with the symptoms.",
        "id": 1008,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Has finasteride been shown to cause erectile dysfunction?",
        "body": "There have been a couple of studies, including the one you cite, that link finasteride with persistent erectile dysfunction.  (Bear in mind that the rates of PED reported in these studies are actually quite low, and it is possible that they are due to other factors.)  There is also a meta-data analysis of the clinical trials for finasteride claiming that none of the trial reports provided adequate information about the severity, frequency or reversibility of sexual adverse effects.  Based on the currently available research, there is (in my opinion) cause for concern, but I would not conclude that there is an established causative link between finasteride and persistent erectile dysfunction.    Citations  Persistent erectile dysfunction in men exposed to the 5\u03b1-reductase inhibitors, finasteride, or dutasteride  Persistent Sexual Dysfunction with Finasteride 1 mg Taken for Hair Loss  Sexual Dysfunction Inadequately Reported In Hair Loss Drug Trials For Men",
        "id": 2309,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Amount of phytoestrogens in processed soy like tofu",
        "body": "Below are the amounts of phytoestrogens content calculated from results of several analyses.  DAIDZEIN   Tofu - 76\u00b5g/g Soy sauce - 8\u00b5g/g Soy milk - 18\u00b5g/g Tempeh - 190\u00b5g/g Soy hot dog, tempeh burger - 49\u00b5g/g   GENISTEIN   Tofu - 166\u00b5g/g Soy sauce - 5\u00b5g/g Soy milk - 26\u00b5g/g Tempeh - 320\u00b5g/g Soy hot dog, tempeh burger - 139\u00b5g/g   For more info, visit: http://extoxnet.orst.edu/faqs/natural/phytamt2.htm -  ",
        "id": 1434,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the rules on getting personal prescriptions mailed to you in Canada?",
        "body": "You can import 90 days (3 months) drug prescription supply - it sounds like you can do this in multiple times. There is a concise summary of this at  https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20140321030753AARucHH but the closest (imperfect) primary source I've found is http://travel.gc.ca/travelling/health-safety/medication :  \"The drug must be for your use or for the use of a person who is travelling with you and for whom you are responsible. The drug must be shipped or carried in hospital or pharmacy-dispensed packaging, the original retail packaging, or have the original label attached to it clearly indicating what the health product is and what it contains\"  However I also remember finding this from a more direct government source a year ago when I looked for myself.",
        "id": 264,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Have candles been linked to cancer?",
        "body": "Scientists have found some perfumed products in the home can create unhealthy levels of formaldehyde, for example scented candles. In view of its widespread use, toxicity, and volatility, formaldehyde is a significant consideration for human health.   In 2011, the US National Toxicology Program described formaldehyde as \"known to be a human carcinogen\".  An interesting article that talks a bit of it:     With the winter winds howling at the door, the thought of battening the hatches and lighting a scented candle is understandably appealing.      But new research suggests scented candles could actually be far more harmful than previously thought, giving off potentially dangerous levels of the toxic substance formaldehyde.      A study carried out by Professor Alastair Lewis of the National Centre for Atmospheric Science at the University of York found that an ingredient commonly used to give candles their scent mutates into formaldehyde upon contact with the air.      The ingredient in question is limonene, which is used to give citric-scented candles their aroma. In its unaltered state limonene is considered so safe that it is used to flavour food, as well to give cleaning products and air fresheners a lemony scent.      But limonene also reacts with naturally occurring ozone when released into the air, causing one in every two limonene molecules to mutate into formaldehyde.      While it is already well known that limonene, which occurs naturally in plants, can degrade into formaldehyde, almost every test into its harmful impacts was carried out decades ago.      Professor Lewis\u2019 concerns are therefore two-fold. Firstly the concentrations of limonene he found in scented candles were up to 100 times higher than previously thought.      Secondly homes now let so little energy and air escape that these high concentrations of formaldehyde linger longer and can cause long term harm.      Speaking to the Telegraph he said: \u201cThe really surprising thing is just how high the concentrations of some fragrances are now in people\u2019s homes\u2026Fragrance chemicals now completely dominate the inside of most homes.\u201d      \u201cThe issue is we don\u2019t really know what the consequences of long-term exposure to formaldehyde are. It is a chemical that is known to harm you long-term,\u201d he added.      Taken from Telegraph. ",
        "id": 761,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take to beat vitamin D deficiency",
        "body": "Ideally, people should get enough vitamin D from their\u00a0food. However, that's difficult to do, Many folks don't get enough of the nutrient from dietary sources like fatty fish and fortified milk. Ref: here  It's not known\u00a0exactly how much time is needed in the sun to make enough vitamin D to meet the body's requirements.Ref.here  This is\u00a0because there are a number of factors that can affect how vitamin D is made, such as your    skin colour  People with dark skin, such as those of African, African-Caribbean or\u00a0south Asian origin, will need to spend longer in the sun to produce the same amount of vitamin D as someone with lighter skin. how much skin you have exposed. time of day. (Ref.here)   Risks   The American Cancer Society does not support sun exposure for increasing vitamin D. \"Because excessive ultraviolet radiation is a major risk factor for skin cancer, we do not recommend obtaining vitamin D from the sun as a way to boost vitamin D levels in the blood,\"\u00a0 Ref:here But you should be careful not to burn in the sun, so\u00a0take care to cover up or protect your skin with sunscreen before your skin starts to turn red or burn. Ref.here   Balancing Solar risks and benefits:  There's no risk of your body making too much vitamin D\u00a0from sun exposure, but always remember to cover up or protect your skin before the time it takes you to start\u00a0turning red or burn.",
        "id": 2640,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the liver produce less cholesterol if a person eats a lot of cholesterol?",
        "body": "\"The net daily synthesis of cholesterol is equal to the amount of cholesterol lost in the feces minus the dietary cholesterol\"  The body synthesizes an amount approximately equal to the amount it absorbs  Source: Balancing Cholesterol Synthesis and Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract David E. Cohen, M.D., Ph.D.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2390860/",
        "id": 2443,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The \"gay bomb\" and medical aphrodisiacs",
        "body": "PT-141 (bremelanotide)     To my knowledge, PT-141 is the only substance that has shown any promise in increasing libido, and that's only in the case of women with depressed sexual response.    I think this is only partially correct. One question is how to you would go about operationalising libido in males? For example, one could argue that an intervention that gives a male an erection in the absence of any visual sexual stimuli is for all intents and purposes, an aphrodisiac.   PT-141 (bremelanotide) does seem to have these properties:     Evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects of subcutaneously administered PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy male subjects and in patients with an inadequate response to Viagra\u00ae      PT-141, a cyclic heptapeptide melanocortin analog, was evaluated following subcutaneous administration to healthy male subjects and to patients with erectile dysfunction (ED) who report an inadequate response to Viagra\u00ae. An inadequate response was defined for this study by patient report indicating that achievement of an erection suitable for vaginal penetration occurred \u226450% of the time while taking 100\u2009mg Viagra\u00ae. Erectile responses were assessed by RigiScan\u2122 in healthy subjects in the absence of visual sexual stimulation (VSS) and in ED patients in the presence of VSS. Doses ranging from 0.3 to 10\u2009mg were administered to healthy male subjects, resulting in a statistically significant erectile response at doses greater than 1.0\u2009mg. ED patients were treated with placebo, 4 or 6\u2009mg PT-141 in a crossover design in the presence of VSS. The erectile response induced by PT-141 was statistically significant at both doses. PT-141 was safe and well tolerated in both studies. The erectogenic potential of PT-141, its tolerability profile and its ability to cause significant erections in patients who do not have an adequate response to a PDE5 inhibitor suggest that PT-141 may provide an alternative treatment for ED with a potentially broad patient base.      If some pheromone were effective in increasing libido in men then I would've expected to see a huge market for it and perhaps big pharma creating products that combine PDE5 inhibitors like \"Viagra\" with pheromones.    You're correct here. In fact, perhaps the closest currently available to this is concomitant administration of PT-141 with PDE-5 inhibitors:     Co-administration of low doses of intranasal PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, and sildenafil to men with erectile dysfunction results in an enhanced erectile response      Objectives To evaluate the safety and pharmacodynamic effect of co-administration of subtherapeutic doses of PT-141, a cyclic heptapeptide melanocortin analogue, and sildenafil to patients with erectile dysfunction.      Methods Nineteen patients with erectile dysfunction who were responders to either Viagra or Levitra by self-report were given 25 mg sildenafil and 7.5 mg intranasal PT-141, 25 mg sildenafil and an intranasal placebo spray, and a placebo tablet and an intranasal placebo spray in a randomized cross-over design. Erectile activity in response to two 30-minute episodes of visual sexual stimulation was assessed by RigiScan during a 6-hour postdose period.      Results The erectile response induced by co-administration of PT-141 and sildenafil was significantly greater than the response elicited by administration of sildenafil alone. Co-administration of PT-141 and sildenafil was safe and well-tolerated and did not result in new adverse events or adverse events that were increased in frequency or severity compared with monotherapy.      Conclusions Co-administration of intranasal PT-141 and a phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor may constitute a treatment alternative for patients in whom higher doses of a single therapy are not effective or well tolerated.   EDIT:  As correctly pointed out to me, in the above, I have mischaracterised the presence of an erection with male libido. One should not confuse raging passions for getting a raging clue. This is not a trivial point:     The Subjective Sexual Arousal Scale for Men (SSASM): Preliminary Development and Psychometric Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Subjective Male Sexual Arousal       Male sexual arousal has been historically   described as a central physiological state, with   penile erection in a sexual context as its most valid   objective measure [21]. Bancroft de\ufb01nes sexual   arousal as a state that is motivated toward experi-   encing sexual pleasure and possibly orgasm, which   involves the processing of relevant stimuli, general   arousal, incentive motivation, and genital response   [22]. A multifaceted process of male sexual arousal   is supported by functional magnetic resonance   imaging data indicating different patterns of brain   stimulation during sexual arousal, penile tumes-   cence, and penile erection in healthy male volun-   teers [23]. Furthermore, studies in men without   sexual dysfunction have demonstrated that penile   erection is not always highly associated with sub-   jective mental aspects of sexual arousal [24,25].   Based on these \ufb01ndings, a lack of subjective sexual   arousal may explain why some men with ED fail to   respond to treatment with PDE5 inhibitors   despite having the physiological ability to achieve   and maintain an erection.   However, my reference to the role of exogenous testosterone may more accurately reflect what is meant by \"libido\" or sexual desire.  Exogenous testosterone  Alternatively, you might have some measure of sexual interest in males, in which case administration of exogenous testosterone displays efficacy in this regard:     The effects of exogenous testosterone on sexuality and mood of normal men       The effects of supraphysiological levels of testosterone, used for male contraception, on sexual behavior and mood were studied in a single-blind, placebo-controlled manner in a group of 31 normal men. After 4 weeks of baseline observations, the men were randomized into two groups: one group received 200 mg testosterone enanthate (TE) weekly by im injection for 8 weeks (Testosterone Only group), the other received placebo injections once weekly for the first 4 weeks followed by TE 200 mg weekly for the following 4 weeks (Placebo/Testosterone group). The testosterone administration increased trough plasma testosterone levels by 80%, compatible with peak testosterone levels 400-500% above baseline. Various aspects of sexuality were assessed using sexuality experience scales (SES) questionnaires at the end of each 4-week period while sexual activity and mood states were recorded by daily dairies and self-rating scales. In both groups there was a significant increase in scores in the Psychosexual Stimulation Scale of the SES (i.e. SES 2) following testosterone administration, but not with placebo. There were no changes in SES 3, which measures aspects of sexual interaction with the partner. In both groups there were no changes in frequency of sexual intercourse, masturbation, or penile erection on waking nor in any of the moods reported. The Placebo/Testosterone group showed an increase in self-reported interest in sex during testosterone treatment but not with placebo. The SES 2 results suggest that sexual awareness and arousability can be increased by supraphysiological levels of testosterone. However, these changes are not reflected in modifications of overt sexual behavior, which in eugonadal men may be more determined by sexual relationship factors. This contrasts with hypogonadal men, in whom testosterone replacement clearly stimulates sexual behavior. There was no evidence to suggest an alteration in any of the mood states studied, in particular those associated with increased aggression. We conclude that supraphysiological levels of testosterone maintained for up to 2 months can promote some aspects of sexual arousability without stimulating sexual activity in eugonadal men within stable heterosexual relationships. Raising testosterone does not increase self-reported ratings of aggressive feelings.   If we consider both testosterone and PT-141 in tandem, sexual awareness and sexual arousal can be dissociated from one another.  Dopaminergic stimulants e.g. meth/amphetamine  There is some evidence from animal studies to suggest that amphetamine increases libido, as operationalised by frequency of sex. Again, I could suffer from the same folly as above where I confuse libido for some other construct, but this is also supported by subjective reports among meth users who like to have sex with other dudes. However, I will need to dig up some references.     Former Nobel laureates and other researchers at Harvard awarded the 2007 Ig Nobel Peace Prize to the creators of the \"gay bomb\" -- a non-lethal military weapon under development intended to induce demoralizing homosexual behavior with aphrodisiacs.    If the above regarding amphetamines is correct, it would be hilarious to see what effect acute administration of methamphetamine among a male prison population would be.   Marketability of aphrodisiacs in general  One problem is that the current milieu within which drugs are evaluated by the FDA is that a drug will only be approved for sale if it can treat a disease. Any use of the term \"aphrodisiac\" is effectively a no-no. What I imagine would happen is that eventually the diagnostic criteria for erectile dysfunction would be relaxed considerably, or some equivalent of sexual arousal disorder for males would enter into the vernacular.  I'm a little surprised that recreational use of some combination of testosterone/methamphetamine/PT-141/PDE-5 inhibitors as some sort of sex aid isn't \"a thing\". Well, I'm sure it is somewhere in the world.",
        "id": 950,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Treatment for severe Pain",
        "body": "Firstly what you are going through is called cluster headache.   https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_headache.                                                                                        Secondly, three main treatments are available to relieve pain when taken soon after a cluster headache starts. These are: sumatriptan injections, which you can give yourself up to twice a day. sumatriptan or zolmitriptan nasal spray, which can be used if you would prefer not to have injections.        http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cluster-headaches/Pages/Introduction.aspx",
        "id": 1296,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can induced deafness cure tinnitus",
        "body": "Short answer  Sometimes (and yes, deafening has been used as a treatment for some patients).  Tinnitus has multiple causes  Although the mechanisms of tinnitus are not completely understood, many forms of sustained tinnitus are not caused by activity in hair cells. Rather, the causes involve auditory brain regions beyond the inner ear, likely due to those circuits no longer receiving the input they used to receive after damage to the cochlea.  Hearing damage in certain frequencies both kills the hair cells (causing deafness) and also induces tinnitus. Therefore, deafness as a cure for tinnitus seems not only undesirable but quite counterproductive in those cases.  In contrast, cochlear implants have in some cases reduced tinnitus, and this is effectively the opposite solution: restoring some version of lost hearing, rather than removing what remains.  Deafening can be a cure for peripheral (originating in the ear) tinnitus  Some forms of tinnitus seem to have a peripheral origin. For example, tinnitus may occur when there is a selective loss of outer but not inner hair cells in a region of the cochlea. In this context, lesioning those inner hair cells could possibly solve the problem, while also deafening the patient at those frequencies. I am unaware, however, of a surgical procedure that can successfully produce such a selective lesion (please comment if anyone knows differently).  Curing tinnitus by lesioning the auditory nerve (thereby deafening the patient) can cure tinnitus in some patients. However, deafening a patient is a rather severe course of action.  Summary  In summary, tinnitus refers to a spectrum of conditions, and depending on the causes in a particular patient, completely different courses of action may be appropriate. Deafening can cure tinnitus in some intractable cases, but is completely inappropriate in others.    References  Arts, R. A., George, E. L., Stokroos, R. J., &amp; Vermeire, K. (2012). cochlear implants as a treatment of tinnitus in single-sided deafness. Current opinion in otolaryngology &amp; head and neck surgery, 20(5), 398-403.  Baguley, D. M. (2002). Mechanisms of tinnitus. British medical bulletin, 63(1), 195-212.  Baguley, D. M., &amp; Atlas, M. D. (2007). Cochlear implants and tinnitus. Progress in brain research, 166, 347-355.  Hesse, G. (2016). Evidence and Lack of Evidence in the Treatment of Tinnitus. Laryngo-rhino-otologie, 95, S155-91.  Jackson, P. (1985). A comparison of the effects of eighth nerve section with lidocaine on tinnitus. The Journal of Laryngology &amp; Otology, 99(7), 663-666.  Pulec, J. L. (1995). Cochlear nerve section for intractable tinnitus. Ear, nose, &amp; throat journal, 74(7), 468-470.",
        "id": 2193,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The upside to hookworms? Possible treatment to asthma?",
        "body": "Yes. There are scientific reasons and treatments involving worms and allergies or other immune system disorders. But the results are not overly conclusive and still understudied.  This is based on the so called hygiene hypothesis in immunology.  Short version to this: our immune system evolved in a world full of dirt and germs  where it had to be quite aggressive against all those threats and invasions in order to keep  our ancestors alive. In recent years \u2013 since Leuwenhoek, Semmelweiss, Lister, Koch and Pasteur \u2013 we learned that and how germs could make us ill and tried to eradicate all of them. Or at least keep them away from us as to limit the danger of getting infections.   That would theoretically translate into the very simple reasoning: Trying to eliminate all germs, or improving hygiene, ensures a much healthier population across the board. But the problem observed was that allergies were on the rise into previously unheard of dimensions despite the direct living environments getting cleaner and cleaner. That is, in modernised or Western societies allergies have become very widespread. In less developed nations the rise of allergies was seen as much less pronounced.  The hypothesis is now that a lack of actual threats and \"proper training\" is directing the immune system to attack otherwise rather benign substances (like pollen) or even the own tissues (auto-immune disorders). Turning this process from its head back to its feet again it was then tried whether a deliberate infestation with once very common hookworms might alleviate the symptoms of sufferers. And apparently it sometimes did.   Apart from currently being still very promising there are downsides to its applications. The effects seem to rely quite heavily on early childhood exposure and diminish with age. Having a worm is not much fun and of course, once the worms have \"modulated the immune system\" you have to get treatment to get rid of them again (which might cause an impressive range of side-effects on its own; example).  And while overuse of certain hygienic agents, like disinfectants and antibiotics, are certainly a problem, cutting back radically on hygiene or even to introduce deliberate infections of any kind seem like an easy inference \u2013 and a bat droppings crazy stupid one on top. It's complicated and we're still figuring out much of the basics.   Good overviews are presented here: Worm therapy. Why parasites may be good for you and Health by Hookworm and Gut instinct: the miracle of the parasitic hookworm.  Although there were early speculations about this coming from Russian fringe doctors many decades ago and emerging in Western science in the seventies, the hypothesis really came into form with Hay fever, hygiene, and household size and took off after German reunification provided a really large quasi-experimental corroboration for it.  Another word for this is helminthic therapy. This whole concept is now even largely superseded (or refined?) with the Old Friends hypothesis, including bacteria and even viruses. This presents a much more re-balanced view of \"us\"\u2013 taking for example also our whole microbiome into consideration and not just a few \"key players\" like the hookworm in question.  More up-to-date and in a more scientifically constructed wording than the gross oversimplifications above are these papers:  Interactions between helminth parasites and allergy(2009)     Helminth infections have strong modulatory effects on anti-parasite inflammatory responses in the human host but it is not clear if helminths can affect allergic inflammatory responses to aero-allergens. Helminth infections have been associated with both a reduced prevalence and increased prevalence of atopy and atopic disease in different populations. The immune regulatory effects of tissue helminths are likely to be stronger than those of geo-helminths. Further research in prospective observational and intervention studies is required to address the question of causality. An understanding of the mechanisms by which helminth parasites modulate the host allergic inflammatory response may lead to the development of novel anti-inflammatory interventions. The demonstration of a causal association between some helminth parasites (particularly geo-helminths and toxocariasis that have a worldwide distribution) and an increased risk of asthma could lead to anthelmintic treatment programmes in populations considered to be at high risk.   The Hygiene Hypothesis and Its Inconvenient Truths about Helminth Infections(2016)     Current iterations of the hygiene hypothesis suggest an adaptive role for helminth parasites in shaping the proper maturation of the immune system. However, aspects of this hypothesis are based on assumptions that may not fully account for realities about human helminth infections. Such realities include evidence of causal associations between helminth infections and asthma or inflammatory bowel disease as well as the fact that helminth infections remain widespread in the United States, especially among populations at greatest risk for inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.   That means that the parasites are well known to be able to modulate the immune system response. But this does not translate into proven, always beneficial effects. It can also go very wrong and actually worsen any associated condition. We do not know with certainty how the parasites do it. We do not know with certainty which parasites might be good or bad for what. We do not know with certainty if early exposure (at a young age), where the observed effects seem strongest, is necessary and therefor a treatment for adults much less effective. Having parasites is not very pleasant, just copying their mechanism looks much more promising.     A recently emerged attractive alternative hypothesis to explain the rise of inflammatory diseases is a \u201cbiome depletion\u201d theory. This suggests inflammatory disease may be due to a loss of species diversity or alteration of composition of the commensal microbiome within the human body.       The immense conflicting data regarding the benefits versus harms of live helminths as a therapeutic modality to date warrants further questioning of the utility of additional human clinical trials. Therefore, directing future research and trials towards helminth-derived immunomodulatory molecules allows for safer and better-described therapies that could alleviate the suffering from autoimmune conditions without the commensurate risk of a parasite infection. Indeed, the aim of experimental animal models should be to develop novel treatments that mimic the effects of helminths without requiring the presence of parasites in the host.   Human helminth therapy to treat inflammatory disorders \u2013 where do we stand? (2015)     Parasitic helminths have evolved together with the mammalian immune system over many millennia and as such they have become remarkably efficient modulators in order to promote their own survival. Their ability to alter and/or suppress immune responses could be beneficial to the host by helping control excessive inflammatory responses and animal models and pre-clinical trials have all suggested a beneficial effect of helminth infections on inflammatory bowel conditions, MS, asthma and atopy. Thus, helminth therapy has been suggested as a possible treatment method for autoimmune and other inflammatory disorders in humans.   Especially in relation to asthma:  Asthma &amp; Helminthic Therapy. Evidence for the use of helminthic therapy to treat Asthma.",
        "id": 1636,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fat vs. Obesity",
        "body": "Fat is a lay non medical term. Obesity is defined as a BMI > 30 in adults  What are overweight and obesity?  Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health.  Body mass index (BMI) is a simple index of weight-for-height that is commonly used to classify overweight and obesity in adults. It is defined as a person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of his height in meters (kg/m2).  Adults  For adults, WHO defines overweight and obesity as follows:  overweight is a BMI greater than or equal to 25; and obesity is a BMI greater than or equal to 30.  http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/  Health Risks  Are related to the degree of being obese.  It makes you more likely to have conditions including:   Heart disease and stroke.  High blood pressure.  Diabetes.  Some cancers. Increased rate of relapse from eg. breast cancer Gallbladder disease and gallstones.  Osteoarthritis.  Gout.     Breathing problems, such as sleep apnea (when a person stops breathing for short episodes during sleep) and asthma. Psoriasis Poor response to drugs for arthritis   https://www.webmd.com/diet/obesity/obesity-health-risks",
        "id": 1925,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do apps that measure heart rate work? Are they precise?",
        "body": "They work as photoplethysmogram:     Because the skin is so richly perfused, it is relatively easy to   detect the pulsatile component of the cardiac cycle.   Basically the light flash measures your heart rate.     The change in volume caused by the pressure pulse is detected by   illuminating the skin with the light from a light-emitting diode (LED)   and then measuring the amount of light either transmitted or reflected   to a photodiode.   Example: Pulse Oxemitry    How accurate are the IOS apps?      a phone is not a proper photoplethysmograph, so the realistic   achievable accuracy is likely dependent on a number of factors,   including camera performance, proximity of the illuminating LED to the   camera lens, and the algorithm used to extract the pulse from the   video return.   all photoplethysmographs are very sensitive to mechanical movement. It   is essential that you hold your finger as still as possible, and avoid   moving the phone relative to the finger.   This site did a study on app proficiency and they did show that they are highly accurate most of the time, but can vary in reading by being a couple off the mark:     GP\u2019s normally instruct adding or subtracting ten from the reading of a   digital device depending on the trend (if your reading is normally   higher than average, add ten, if it is less than average, minus ten). ",
        "id": 909,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many eggs can one eat per day?",
        "body": "Metabolic rate, individual genetics, cholesterol-absorption controversies, nutrients of the egg, size of the egg, and definition of \"maximum\" all contribute to ambiguity. This list of egg sizes and corresponding nutrition panels with daily recommended values is a good starting place, but I will also address this in a general context of what experts recommend and nutrient content.  Cholesterol  When people talk about eggs, they usually want to talk about cholesterol.  The problem is that the body doesn't fully absorb all of the cholesterol, so there's no hard rule. What we do know is:   A large egg contains about 185 mg of cholesterol. {2} Although there is no precise basis for selecting a target level for dietary cholesterol intake for all individuals, the AHA recommends &lt;300 mg/d on average. {3} Your body doesn't absorb everything you eat. (That's part of why we go to the bathroom.)   Registered dietitian Leslie Beck recommends:     People at high risk for cardiovascular disease \u2013 e.g. people with diabetes, high cholesterol, and/or hypertension and smokers \u2013 should definitely limit their intake of egg yolks... some experts advise avoidance.   However, for healthy people with no medical condition, regular exercise and maintaining a healthy weight are better strategies to guard against heart disease and stroke, not cutting down on eggs (for 70 - 75% of the population). The two studies cited indicate that consumption of eggs does not raise cholesterol levels significantly for about 3/4ths of the population.  Fat and Calories  Each egg yolk contains 6 g of fat and 54 kcal. Even though they're full of nutrients, they still do contain calories, so factor that into your daily intake. Someone who does an average amount of physical activity would probably require an average amount of eggs. Definitely not something on the level of dozens, but even so, giving any numbers would be hard since there are so many factors in play.  Vitamins and Minerals  Eggs are naturally rich in vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B12, vitamin D, selenium and iodine. They also contain vitamin A and a number of other B vitamins including folate, biotin, pantothenic acid and choline, and essential minerals and trace elements, including phosphorus. {6}  Before reaching a daily recommended value of any of these nutrients though, you would probably far exceed the daily recommended values for fat and calories first, but it's possible to overdose on anything, so be sure to keep track of how much of these nutrients are in each egg that you consume in the event that you're burning off all the fat and calories.  Summary  To know your \"maximum\" number of eggs, you should probably talk to a dietitian.  Sources   http://www.eggnutritioncenter.org/egg-facts/nutrition-facts-panels/ http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/expert-answers/cholesterol/FAQ-20058468 http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/102/18/2284.full http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16340654/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21776466 http://www.egginfo.co.uk/egg-nutrition#sthash.ueExphBh.dpuf ",
        "id": 79,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take for the vagina to return to the way it was after giving birth?",
        "body": "During birth, the pelvic floor is stretched significantly, and the stretch is probable to never get back to the way it was exactly before.  The NHS states it takes a few days for the swelling and openness [...] to reduce [...] after your baby is born. An interview on the independent says that it should at most take 6 weeks for the vagina to get roughly back to before:     The vagina is an extremely forgiving part of the body, it can be very swollen and can look quite distressing to some people but after six weeks when the healing has happened it can go back to looking quite normal. If you have had a normal delivery it is common, for some degree, to have bruising on the vagina but this and the swelling should all go within six weeks.       Source: The Independent: What Happens to the Vagina after Childbirth? Obstetrician reveals it all, 2017.   It is strongly recommended to visit a doctor 6 weeks after the birth (other sources say prior to 12 weeks) so they'll check the vagina, cervix, and uterus. If one feels pain, if the vagina is bleeding more than usual, one should schedule an appointment before.     For further reading, this is a good study regarding postpartum care:  Romano M, Cacciatore A, Giordano R, La Rosa B (April 2010). \"Postpartum period: three distinct but continuous phases\". Journal of Prenatal Medicine. ",
        "id": 657,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In a house on fire, do children faint more easily than the adults?",
        "body": "There's a reason why, in a house fire, the phrase to remember is \"Get down low and go, go, go\"  The most common ailment of someone in a house fire is from smoke inhalation. As smoke rises, the closer you are to the floor, the less smoke you will breathe in (until the entire room is filled with smoke in which case you're dead anyway).  From this perspective, as long as the child stays away from the flame, they are actually more likely to last longer than an adult, purely because they are smaller, lower to the ground and not breathing in as much smoke.",
        "id": 915,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there an optimal body fat percentage?",
        "body": "Currently I am not aware of any scientifically based recommendations for levels of healthy body fat. There are empirical observations and actuarial tables/considerations, but there hasn't been a definitive \"For a 30 year old Caucasian male, 8-15% body fat is ideal for health\" studies out yet.  There was a study in 2000 that was published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition that attempted to lay some groundwork for this kind of evaluation, and they came up with some interesting formulae for body fat assessment, but it was left as very open ended and needing much more study.  There is a chart available through the American Council on Exercise (ACE) that shows levels of fat for various categories of men and women, but it makes no distinction on age, merely on activity level.    Another pair of charts from Accufitness (Makers of body fat calipers) I like better, as it accounts for both age and sex, but makes no allowances for activity level.     If you look at BMI charts, anything below 18.5 is considered unhealthy, and anything over 25-30 (depending on chart) is trending towards the obese range. These are more statistical/actuarial tables than anything, however and have been around (largely unchanged) since inception in the early/mid 1800's.  As far as the measurement, there are three different types of fat, subcutaneous (under the skin), visceral (Around body organs) and intramuscular (In the muscles, like marbling on a steak). Bioelectric impedance (Such as the scale you mention) work by passing a low electric current through the body and measuring the resistance. These can have a +/- accuracy range of 3-10% depending on the model, and can be affected by hydration, time of day, wet skin, and other factors.  Skin calipers done by an experienced practitioner can have a variance as low as 3%, underwater weighing (Again done properly) can get below 3%, and the gold standard is a DXA scan that measures everything from bone density to total fat.  So far everyone agrees that too low or too high a weight is bad and carries risk of injury/illness/disease, but we haven't agreed yet on what is good for which population cohort.",
        "id": 35,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Aspirin / statin for preventing coronary heart disease in prediabetes?",
        "body": "It is difficult to say, because the matter is controversial and in both cases it is still being investigated. The general rule for any medicine is that the benefits should outweigh the risks. (1) Both types of medicines that you ask about have some potentially serious side-effects. For aspirin they go from gastrointestinal disturbances, mucosal damage and slight asymptomatic blood loss to increased bleeding time and hemorrhagic stroke. (2,3) Statins, on the other hand, can also cause gastrointestinal disturbances, hepatitis and pancreatitis. Rhabdomyolysis, although rare is a very serious potential side-effect. (2)  Now, what about the potential benefits?  Aspirin  As for aspirin, some studies have shown that aspirin is effective in primary prevention and recommendations for its use are (3):     If an annual risk of coronary heart disease of &lt; or =0.6% exists, aspirin is normally not indicated; for a risk of 0.7-1.4% the facts should be discussed with the patient. If a risk of > or =1.5% exists, aspirin should be given.   Some authors state that in diabetic patients the annual risk is always higher than 1.5% and therefore aspirin should be indicated in there patients. (4) However, the same study reports evidence from scientific literature showing that:     cardiovascular mortality of diabetic patients is as high as in nondiabetic patients with known coronary artery disease   Another meta-analysis concludes (5):     Whereas estimates of benefit among patients with diabetes remain imprecise, our analysis suggests that the relative benefit of aspirin is similar in patients with and without diabetes.   (emphasis mine)  This is in line with The European Society of Cardiology and European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) guidelines published in 2007 (6):     Aspirin should be given for the same indications and in similar dosages to diabetic and non-diabetic patients.   Note that all of these studies are for patients with diabetes, not pre-diabetes. So, we can probably conclude that pre-diabetes on its own, without other proven risk factors for cardiovascular disease is not sufficient to indicate preventive use of aspirin.   Statins  European recommendations state:        In diabetic patients with CVD, statin therapy should be initiated regardless of baseline LDL cholesterol, with a treatment target of &lt;1.8\u20132.0\u2005mmol/L (&lt;70\u201377\u2005mg/dL)   Statin therapy should be considered in adult patients with type 2 diabetes, without CVD, if total cholesterol >3.5\u2005mmol/L (>135\u2005mg/dL), with a treatment targeting an LDL cholesterol reduction of 30\u201340%      (emph. mine)  So the presence of risk factors additional to diabetes are clearly required.   Another review says that several studies have (4):     demonstrated that patients with diabetes showed similar relative risk reductions compared with those without diabetes ranging from 19 to 58%, dependent on the study population and the statin used.    The same study cites:     The authors of the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study trial even suggested that the debate about whether all patients with type 2 diabetes warrant statin treatment should now focus on whether any patients can reliably be identified as being at sufficiently low risk for statin treatment to be withheld.   As long as there are those, or as long as we don't know if there are such patients, it would be irresponsible to make a stiff guideline to prescribe these medicines without consideration of risks and benefits. If there are no other risk factors, it seems that evidence of benefits in pre-diabetic patients doesn't outweigh the risks of such therapy.    One of the studies does suggest that (4):      Co-administration of aspirin and statins shows additional effects in reducing cardiovascular mortality.   But this can be used as an argument for making combination medicines known as fixed-dose combination medicines. The only true benefit is the convenience of taking one pill instead of two. A huge disadvantage is the inability to individualise the dose, along with potential interactions and double-dosing. The cost and cost-effectiveness over single active ingredient medicines depends solely on the manufacturer and other manufacturers in the field. Sometimes combination medicines are cheaper, sometimes they are more expensive.     References:   Concepts in Risk-Benefit Assessment: A Simple Merit Analysis of a Medicine? Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference, 34th edition Primary prevention of coronary heart disease with aspirin Should We Prescribe Statin and Aspirin for Every Diabetic Patient? Is it time for a polypill? Aspirin for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Events A systematic review and meta-analysis comparing patients with and without diabetes Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases: executive summary  ",
        "id": 471,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to cease masturbation for good?",
        "body": "Lifelong abstainance from masterbation is completely safe.  As @Noah said in his comment, there are plenty of celibate people out there with no adverse health from their life choice.  Even though sperm is constantly being produced, dead sperm will be shed after time anyway.  See my answer to a similar question at Effects of masturbation on Health.  I have also seen this good answer from @Narusan at How many times a week is masturbating good for health? which mentions that there is no defined amount which is healthy or unhealthy.  It is down to individual choice and health.  -- Edit to answer queries in the comments --  @user8840 questioned this answer in the comments.  He/she said,     How about \"blue balls\", \"the condition of temporary fluid congestion in the testicles accompanied by testicular pain\"   I agree with what @ShadowWizard said, which was that     this only applies when you're sexually aroused for long period of time. I am pretty sure this answer assumes no sexual arousal is involved.   I would like to stress on some of the points surrounding this \"condition\", and some of these points are mentioned in the Wikipedia article linked above.   Vasocongestion, (temporary fluid congestion) as mentioned in the link provided in the Wikipedia article, is required for erection in men and clitoral arousal in women.  It is the increase in blood and pressure in the relevant body parts. Blue balls is a slang term and has no official term which I have been able to find.  The Wikipedia article says that some urologists call it epididymal hypertension, however, researching a bit more, one article in the journal Pediatrics, published in 2000, discussed \"epididymal hypertension\" as a potential diagnosis in young adult males.  The problem is that \"epididymal hypertension\" is a diagnosis which is a general, all encompasing diagnosis for all sorts of causes of testicular pain.      The condition described, what the urologists often term \u201cepididymal hypertension,\u201d and some have labeled \u201cdeadly sperm buildup\u201d or \u201cDSB,\u201d has many other manifestations of which physicians and their caretakers ought to be aware. (Rockney &amp; Alario, 2001)   another article states the fact that     The medical community hasn't spent a ton of time on this particular phenomenon. For one thing, it is absolutely non life-threatening, despite the belief otherwise by many a first time sufferer. Plus, any topic even suggesting sexuality among the sub voting aged crowd is politically charged and uncomfortable for many healthcare providers to broach with either their patients or their patients' parents (especially the moms).      Worse yet, the immediate relief of the pain is most efficiently handled by the immediate release of the arousal. The easiest way to do this, of course, is through orgasm.    Boys and men will often wake up with an erection in the morning, with or without stimulation or erotic dreams.  These erections are sometimes referred to as \"morning wood\" or \"morning glory\".   Whether the erection was nocturnal or not, the easiest (and quickest) treatment for this is ejaculation. However, even without release, the condition will subside on its own within an hour or two, although it can be within minutes.  Although rare, epididymal hypertension could last as long as 24 hours.",
        "id": 1655,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What leaf resembling a mint numbs toothaches?",
        "body": "I am not sure about the leaf you are asking about. But in India we use Cloves since centuries to soothe toothache.  It is a flower bud and very effective against toothaches.",
        "id": 237,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What factors cause an unfit person to get out of breath faster?",
        "body": "Part of why some people get out of breath faster is due to an inefficiency in the lungs and in the muscles.  Muscles use oxygen when they move, the more they move the more oxygen they use.  However, muscles are able to adapt and become more efficient in someone who is consistently active.  Also, the lungs are powered by intercostal muscles, which are a bunch of small muscles, and the diaphragm.  Someone who is fit usually takes deep breaths to account for the increase in Oxygen needed for physical activity, and do this consistently with their exercise routine. Their diaphragm and other lung muscles get stronger with the regular deep breaths taken, making their lungs work more efficiently as well.http://www.active.com/articles/breathing-101-increase-your-efficiency-for-better-oxygen-uptake",
        "id": 1727,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any studies on the tradeoff between losing weight and being less stressful?",
        "body": "There a none and the reason may be that it would be a hard study to design in a way that would answer the trade-off dilemma. Some answers are so individual that designing a general population study is so difficult that it is not done.",
        "id": 2717,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Getting rid of caffeine addiction",
        "body": "A paper in Psychopharmacology reviews studies of caffeine withdrawal symptoms and concludes that these symptoms \"meet the bar\" for being clinically proven withdrawal symptoms:     headache, fatigue, decreased energy/activeness, decreased alertness, drowsiness, decreased contentedness, depressed mood, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and foggy/not clearheaded   It lists some others that might be withdrawal symptoms as well, and points out     the incidence of headache was 50% and the incidence of clinically significant distress or functional impairment was 13%. Typically, onset of symptoms occurred 12-24 h after abstinence, with peak intensity at 20-51 h, and for a duration of 2-9 days.    If you really want to stop using caffeine, do so, knowing that the first few days will be the hardest and then it will get easier. By a week without it, you should be generally past the symptoms.  Since some of the drowsiness is actually just a withdrawal symptom, you may find after a week that you don't need a replacement (natural alternative.) Or you may find that you need more sleep, or to eat earlier in the day. Figure out what to replace it with once you are not feeling those withdrawal symptoms any more.",
        "id": 1742,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Combined consumption of green tea and cheese / meat",
        "body": "Cheese and meat are both high in fat, which slows down the emptying of the stomach content (including tea) into the small intestine more than carbohydrate foods (vegetables and grains). So, taking tea with fatty foods will slow down the absorption of caffeine and other tea components and result in lower peak blood caffeine levels than taking tea on an empty stomach or with carbs.  Source: The effect of meal energy content on gastric emptying. PubMed     Increasing the energy content of the meal of fixed composition   progressively delayed gastric emptying.   Cheese and meat usually have more energy than the same amount of carbohydrate foods.",
        "id": 2215,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Recurrent schwannoma implications?",
        "body": "Neurofibromatosis comes in three forms, one of which is called \"Schwannomatosis\". It usually develops in the patient's 20s or 30s and is characterized by people developing schwannomas.   The most common symptom is pain. A study I could find: Clinical Features of Schwannomatosis: A Retrospective Analysis of 87 Patients recommends      a proactive surveillance plan to identify tumors by magnetic resonance imaging scan in order to optimize surgical treatment and to treat associated pain, anxiety, and depression   However, for perspective:     Patients with schwannomatosis represent 2.4 to 5% of all patients requiring schwannoma resection    Diagnostic criteria for Schwannomatosis  So it's not likely. Just one condition that presents with a predisposition for schwannomas. ",
        "id": 500,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Omega-3 does NOT improve cognitive abilities, memory, and brain function?",
        "body": "Individual studies often contradict each other. Systematic reviews of studies can at least filter out low-quality studies, so they may show more realistic picture.  In short: Omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil supplements) may have a slight beneficial effect on cognition in those who are omega-3 deficient but not in those with normal omega-3 levels.   PubMed, 2012      The available trials showed no benefit of omega-3 PUFA supplementation on cognitive function in cognitively healthy older   people.    PubMed, 2015      There is marginal evidence that n-3 PUFA supplementation [fish oil   containing EPA and DHA] effects cognition in those who are n-3 PUFA   deficient. However, there is no evidence of an effect in the   general population or those with neurodevelopmental disorders.    Cochrane, 2016      ...we found no evidence for either benefit or harm from omega-3 PUFA supplements in people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.    PubMed, 2018      Current evidence indicates that n-3 LC-PUFAs administered during   pregnancy or breastfeeding have no effect on the skills or cognitive   development of children in later stages of development. Evidence   regarding the improvement of cognitive function during childhood and   youth or in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is   inconclusive. Moreover, it is still unclear if n-3 LC-PUFAs can improve cognitive development or prevent cognitive decline in   young or older adults. ",
        "id": 2157,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there an inexpensive test (IE: perhaps a form of litmus paper?) for keeping tabs on oral pH at home?",
        "body": "I found this medical/scientific article that reviews 3 different saliva pH testing kits including a litmus paper test.  Litmus paper strips are apparently ubiquitous and many such products available at Walmart, for example.",
        "id": 2681,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I get a researcher to research a drug for my affliction?",
        "body": "You can contact the FDA from their website, fda.gov.  Since you're a patient with a disease, I would use the FDA Patient Network Program.  Office of Health and Constituent Affairs: 301-796-8460; email: PatientNetwork@fda.hhs.gov  Please note that your doctor does not need FDA approval to use a drug in an off-label manner.     Can there be any problems for doctor if a drug is prescribed for conditions that are not on the label or FDA-approved? ",
        "id": 444,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much sleep is too much?",
        "body": "People who sleep less than 6 hours and people who sleep more than 9 hours have been found to have a greater risk of suffering from adverse health effects, see e.g. here. But one cannot conclude from such observed correlations that changing sleeping behavior will help, this requires one to analyze the cause of these correlations. The way long sleep is associated with increased mortality is not well understood, as mentioned in this article:      It is therefore possible that long duration of sleep might be a consequence of, rather than a causative risk factor for, unrecognized chronic comorbidity, which in turn could explain the higher risk of mortality, particularly mortality from noncardiovascular causes, observed in many studies (1\u20134). Long sleep duration might represent a useful diagnostic tool for detecting other subclinical or undiagnosed mental or physical comorbidity (13). ",
        "id": 492,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is a general vaccine against getting a cold possible?",
        "body": "The problem with treating \"the common cold\" is that it's really a large collection of similar illnesses caused by completely different strains of virus. The effects are similar, but the causes are different. Any treatment for one type would likely be ineffective against many of the others.  Here are some stats from a Business Insider article:   A \"cold\" can be caused by over 200 different viruses. 20-30 types of rhinovirus - the most common class of culprit - can be in a given area in a certain period. It's likely that a different set of viruses will be in that area the next year, meaning people would need to be vaccinated annually, at the least. It's impossible to predict what strains will pop up next.   To have a completely effective vaccine, you'd need to have as many strains as possible in either a single vaccine or a series of them, and that's simply not easy. It could be impossible.  That said, there are ongoing efforts, as always. A couple different paths have been taken; I've given an example for each.  The brute force approach  One technique is to simply stuff as many strains into a vaccine as possible. An attempt I've seen mentioned quite a lot is Lee et al. (2016). They tested a vaccine on macaques (monkeys, not too different from humans) and found that certain antibodies were produced in response to types of human rhinovirus. They attempted to use 50 strains at once in the vaccine, which is quite impressive, and got good results for 49 out of those 50.  The alarm approach1  There have also been other attempts in recent years. One group went on a different path, using a specific protein found when viruses invade cells as a vaccination in mice. This has the advantage that it can be used to train the immune system against many different strains; one protein can serve as a vaccine against dozens of types of viruses.  The cell sacrifice approach  A few years back, a group at MIT (Rider et al. (2011)) developed a technique called Double-stranded RNA [dsRNA] Activated Caspase Oligomerizer (DRACO). DRACO essentially gets infected cells to shut themselves down - killing themselves - to stop the infection from spreading. After all, viruses need cells to reproduce. So far, DRACO has worked in mice, defeating over a dozen types of viruses.    All of these approaches need testing! Human subjects have not yet been used; the closest any have gotten have been macaques, as well as isolated human cells. Additionally, no treatment has been tested against more than a fraction of rhinoviruses and other strains. There's absolutely no guarantee that any of this will work, but it's certainly steps in the right direction.    1 I've taken this from the \"home invasion alarm\" analogy used in this explanatory article.",
        "id": 1758,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) really helps in Weight loss or not?",
        "body": "It does! This has been proven by reserach.  \"Long-term supplementation with CLA-FFA or CLA-triacylglycerol reduces BFM in healthy overweight adults.\" - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15159244 (BMF means fat in your body.)  \"CLA reduces body fat but not body weight in healthy exercising humans of normal body weight.\" - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11725826  From examiner.com: \"CLA is a supplement that has shown good results in rodents for weight loss however (like many bogus products) these studies have not been reliably replicated in humans.\" In my option, this is not true, as I shown in my previous answer. To take or not? Though question. Some reserach found it's safe and great, other found the opposite. I would try to obtain it naturally from grass-fed beef and Raw Grass-Fed Dairy, here I included some of the best sources of CLA:  Food Sources of CLA:  Food - Mgs. Of CLA/gm of total fat:  [30 - Grass-fed (G-f) Beef  20 - 30 - G-f Whole Milk  20-30 - G-f Cheese  5.8 - Lamb]1",
        "id": 868,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is one only allowed to drink water from four hours in advance of an echo (ultrasonography)?",
        "body": "There are two major issues with eating.   Swallowing and digesting food allows air to get into the digestive tract. Air is a barrier to the ultrasound waves so renders tissues distal to the air invisible as the ultrasound will reflect off the tissue air interface Food can cause the gall bladder to contract pushing its contents into the small bowel. A contracted gall bladder is not easily identified    Carbonated beverages are also not advised due to the CO2 bubbles that form and release which can interfere with ultrasound interpretation.  http://blog.cincinnatichildrens.org/radiology/why-cant-my-child-eat-anything-before-an-ultrasound/",
        "id": 2050,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Passing out after injections",
        "body": "Fainting due to vaccination occurs only occasionally, your immune system usually takes longer to react to viruses or bacteria (this is the incubation time of an illness). 1 hour is a very unusual incubation time, furthermore the virus you get injected is not active anymore.  It is therefore much more likely that a combination of anxiety and pain caused your vasovagal reaction.  How to prevent this from happening the next time?   You are warned and can prepare this time. I would recommend sitting in a chair for roughly 30 minutes after you have received the injection so that your anxiety decreases. If you were to collapse in the chair, it will also prevent heavy injuries. Close your eyes and rest your head in your hands if you feel your blood pressure drop. Do not hyperventilate! (I know, that's said easily):    Pay attention to your breath and focus on breathing in... and out.... and in Drinking a glass of water also helps me  In General, drinking water and not being dehydrated will help.  Bring chocolate with you. The sugar is a fast way for your brain to absorb energy. Have someone with you so that if you start to feel dizzy, they can help you and, if necessary, contact emergency services if you collapse.   Apart from this, sedatives will help but I wouldn't recommend to use them.  Have a nice trip! ",
        "id": 1765,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What education background is generally required in order to understand and study advanced topics in cancer?",
        "body": "To \"understand cancer on some very serious advanced level\" is a major endeavor for someone coming from outside of a biological sciences background.  You might look at it that biology and chemistry are the foundation of medical sciences, where physics and math are the foundation of engineering sciences.  Physics and math are of course important in medical sciences, but I might say that it's only insofar as their role in biology and chemistry.  Biomedical engineering is where the two really start to cross over. If you are considering focusing on cancer with your career, you might consider studying Biomedical engineering - but either way, I recommend you take a look at the coursework of a Biomedical engineering degree to see what you HAVE and HAVE NOT studied yourself.  If I had to break cancer into fundamentals: when a malfunction occurs in the genes (or \"processing\" of genes) in the cells of a tissue of an organ in an organ system of an organism, each specific malfunction can cause specific normal histological structures and physiological functions to go \"wrong\" in specific and complex ways that have specific and complex effects.  There are specific conditions that can cause those genetic malfunctions to occur.  And there are a LOT of things we still don't understand about many of those steps.  Therefore, to truly understand cancer, you need to understand many layers of material that are rooted in those below.   Pathology requires knowledge of histology and anatomy. Pathophysiology requires knowledge of physiology - not just of the organ/system in question, but also general endocrinology (signaling pathways). Physiology and histology both require cell biology, molecular biology, and genetics. All of those require a solid grounding in biology and biochemistry.   As has been suggested, it may be easier to start with a specific cancer and start making a list of concepts you need to read about when you find your gaps.  OR you might look at TED talks or university lectures posted online for a video on the fundamentals of cancer, and see what you understand already vs what you would need to learn.   I can only offer a single person's opinion, so take it with a grain of salt, and I am light years from being an expert in cancer. But the first time I really felt that all the concepts fully came together and sprung alive was a lecture in a pathology review course called Pathoma - and that was my second year of med school after an undergrad degree in biology.  That's also when I grasped that there is SO much more to it that I will never understand without dedicating enormous time to it.  He might offer a free video, I don't know, but it was the best framework I'd seen.",
        "id": 1968,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which oil is healthiest for frying?",
        "body": "There are 2 main issues: smoke point and content  For frying, it is obviously better to avoid oils with a low smoke point. Heating oils beyond their smoke point causes them to break down and oxidise. However this is complicated by the way in which the oils are processed. Highly refined oils will have a higher smoke point than unrefined or less refined oils.   The ratio of Omega-3 to Omega-6 is also important since most western diets have far too much Omega-6.   Therefore, choose an oil which has a high smoke point and a low Omega-6 content, and avoid oils with low smoke point and/or a high Omega-6 content.  Some contenders, bearing in mind the comment about processing:  For high temperature frying:   Avocado oil (271\u00b0C, high in Omega-9). Extra light olive oil (242\u00b0C, high in Omega-9).   For medium temperature cooking:   Macadamia nut oil (199\u00b0C, high in Omega 9, low in Omega 6)   For low temperature frying:   Coconut oil (177\u00b0C, no Omega's) Extra virgin olive oil (160\u00b0C, high in Omega-9) Hemp seed oil (160\u00b0C, high in Omega-3)   Sources:   https://jonbarron.org/diet-and-nutrition/healthiest-cooking-oil-chart-smoke-points http://nutritiondata.self.com https://www.thespruceeats.com/smoking-points-of-fats-and-oils-1328753 ",
        "id": 2252,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Epidermis destruction after fish eating skin?",
        "body": "The epidermis, the outer layer of the skin, is comprised of both living and dead, keratinised tissue.  Here is a link to Leeds University histology department describing the structure of epidermis (https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/skin/epidermis_layers.php).  You are right to say that keratinised epidermis (\"dead cells\") are a vital part of the protective mechanism of the skin.  However, many people find that excessive keratinised skin is not desirable for comfort, aesthetic or practical reasons.  Callous (callus) formation at sites of pressure and friction is probably the most common example and many people will use a pumice stone, file or blade to remove excess skin.  Removing callous and keratinised skin will not necessarily render one vulnerable to infection provided there remains enough of a covering to maintain a protective barrier.  With regard to \"fish pedicures\" by the \"Doctor fish\" Garra rufa there are isolated case reports of infections or risk:   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28677579 - mycobacterium infection https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24771416 - S. aureus infection https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23460407 - MRSA infection https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22608013 - presence of zoonoses   However, there is no epidemiological data to provide an estimate of risk.  The Health Protection Agency (HPA) of the United Kingdom has published recommendations on fish pedicures:  http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20111108140133/http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1317131045549  Which concludes:     \"On the basis of the evidence identified and the consensus view of experts, the risk of infection as a result of a fish pedicure is likely to be very low, but cannot be completely excluded.\"   But does suggest:     \"Certain groups of clients such as those who are immunocompromised or have underlying medical conditions including diabetes and psoriasis... ...are likely to be at increased risk of infection and fish pedicures are not recommended for such individuals.\"   So, overall we can probably say that there is little risk associated with fish pedicures and it is likely comparable to other forms of keratinised skin removal.",
        "id": 2347,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can drinking magnesium citrate cause tooth enamel erosion?",
        "body": "Magnesium citrate is not citric acid. In fact, it's not even acidic. And trimagnesium citrate is even less acidic. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_citrate  It's on the alkaline side of neutral, and in fact it's used in medicine to alkalinize patients who are acidotic. Oh, and it's also a pretty strong laxative. So your teeth will be fine. And even if it were acidic, you could just rinse your mouth with plain water afterwards and that would prevent harm.",
        "id": 1295,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a standing desk prevent the health issues with sitting?",
        "body": "Per this NPR article in a meta-analysis it seems it's not yet clear:     there isn't really any evidence that standing is better than sitting,   Verbeek adds.   And:     Carr says the finding of the Cochrane review doesn't mean that   standing desks and variations are useless. It just means there hasn't   been enough study of the desks to say either way. \"The state of the   science is definitely early,\" he says. \"There needs to be longer   studies with more people to get a good sense these desks actually   cause people to stand.\"   Also this answer says movement is more important than standing:     it's the inactivity with sitting that is unhealthy. You can   stand and be inactive just as well (standing desk). ",
        "id": 2029,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Understanding the difference between IgG and IgE results",
        "body": "Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is an antibody which is important part of type 1 hypersensitivity, or allergy in common language. It is said that, ie. milk allergy is IgE-mediated. This means that exposure to milk protein causes the immune system to \"sensitize\" (= milk IgE is produced) to milk during the first exposure. During the subsequent exposures the milk protein activates the immune system due to the presence of these milk associated IgEs. The results of this activation is the allergic symptoms. Amount of each food-IgE level in the blood is quite good surrogate for presence of allergy. I recommend to read the Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States.  I find it strange that immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels are measured in association to IgE levels. For example, the guideline earlier has no mention of IgA with regard to food allergy. IgA may have a mediator role in type 1 hypersensivity but I have trouble finding any record that this would have any clinical significance. Moreover, there are IgA-related diseases, but these have nothing to do with food allergy.  Corresponding guideline from Europe by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology does not mention anything about IgAs. Of course, there is the non-IgE-mediated food allergy but nevertheless that does not involve IgAs.  If these were your own test results, I would recommend you ask from the provider of the test about the clinical significance of IgAs. I would be very interest about their response.  EDIT: Are we talking about IgA or IgG here? IgA is mentioned in the text and IgG in the topic. In the case of IgG, my answer would be different.",
        "id": 358,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a \"senior\" tongue depressor?",
        "body": "From the products online labelled as such, there seems to be no difference between \"adult size\", \"Standard\" and \"Senior\" sized (6\") tongue depressors. On the other hand, I would assume \"Senior\" is used to differentiat that product from the \"Junior\" (5.5\"), \"Infant\" (4.5\") tongue depressors, which some companies label as such.   Source: http://www.puritanmedproducts.com/products?cat=1085%261076&amp;search=&amp;brand=&amp;sterile=&amp;material=",
        "id": 1147,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true that brains can metabolize ketones?",
        "body": "My limited understanding is that fat does not get converted to glucose only to ketones. Protein can be converted into glucose (sugar) by gluconeogenesis.  Ketones are used by the brain, though apparently only for 70ish percent of energy use.  It should be noted that the amount of carbohydrate needed by the brain is not actually that high. Lyle Macdonald sets the amount of carbohydrate a day needed to prevent ketosis at around 100g (~ 400 kcal) from a literature review.",
        "id": 1716,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "White patches on skin that keep growing gradually",
        "body": "\"White patches on skin that keep growing gradually\" Disease conditions mistaken for Vitiligo:   Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis.       multiple, rounded or tear shaped light colored patches that appear on   the body parts that are exposed to sun. Like limbs, shin and forearm.   From WebMD:     affects fair-skinned people at a younger age........discrete, angular   or circular macules that are 1-3 mm in diameter. However, lesions may   measure up to 10 mm in diameter. These lighter-than-normal skin   macules are off white, hypopigmented, or achromic    Progressive macular hypomelanosis.       easily identified using a Wood's lamp. The lack of pigment results and   a clear observation of homogeneous white areas, while the involvement   of propionibacterium Acnes will show an orange fluorescence due to its   coproporphyrin III. That way it can be differentiated from other   hypopigmentary disorders such as vitiligo    Nevus anemicus.       it is characterized by skin patches which are of different size and   shape. They are paler than the normal skin.    Conditions with similar symptoms to Vitiligo:   Pityriasis alba, Tuberculoid leprosy, Postinflammatory hypopigmentation, Tinea versicolor, Albinis, Piebaldism, Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis and Progressive macular hypomelanosis. ",
        "id": 777,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should my kid get a flu shot if I'm coming down with something?",
        "body": "In general, it is not recommended to get a flu shot while fighting any infection or illness as it could add stress to the immune system (I've had this assumption confirmed by my doctor). If your child was infected by the bug you have (some of the infectious agent made it into his/her body, but his/her immune system is keeping it at bay for the time being), the bug could be on its way to causing illness. If this is the case, the child's body is already working to deal with the pathogen and extra stress from the flu shot may overwhelm his/her system.   In short, my recommendation from my experience and knowledge would be to wait until you are sure you are both healthy and infection free. ",
        "id": 603,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to tell if a person is awake or sleeping by capturing his finger print at that moment?",
        "body": "The fingerprint of a person doesn't change when they're asleep, but their heart rate and breathing slows. It is also possible to determine whether they are asleep or not by monitoring activity in their brain and muscles or watching their eyes. If they are in a REM (rapid eye movement) phase their eyes will move.",
        "id": 1096,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does sweat expel toxins?",
        "body": "The generally accepted medical wisdom seems to be that sweat is an insignificant mechanism for toxin elimination. However, there have been studies that suggest that wisdom may not be entirely correct.  For example, Genuis et al. found that some toxic elements were preferentially excreted in sweat, including elements that were not found in blood serum. That suggests those elements are bound in tissues and therefore not readily removed by the liver and kidneys.   They conclude that:     Sweat analysis should be considered as an additional method for   monitoring bioaccumulation of toxic elements in humans.   Note that they do not conclude that sweating plays a significant role in toxin elimination.   Note also that the sample size in this study was very small, and the author has numerous publications based on this single study.  A literature review of the subject found support for the idea that certain toxins are excreted in sweat, sometimes in higher concentrations than urine. They also noted as Genuis did that concentrations of some elements can be found in sweat that aren't detected in plasma.     In individuals with higher exposure or body burden, sweat generally   exceeded plasma or urine concentrations, and dermal could match or   surpass urinary daily excretion. Arsenic dermal excretion was   severalfold higher in arsenic-exposed individuals than in unexposed   controls. Cadmium was more concentrated in sweat than in blood plasma.   What I cannot find is research showing that sweating produces any clinically significant benefit. Just because a compound can be found in sweat does not necessarily mean that sweating more will have a beneficial effect, and in fact no benefit to excessive sweating is known while there are known negative consequences, including potentially lethal ones.  I conclude from my research that the question can't be answered at this time, but there is sufficient evidence to justify additional research. I suspect that the most likely outcome will be new and/or improved testing methods rather than treatment methods.",
        "id": 278,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dataset for Tele-medicine Vital Signs",
        "body": "In a typical ambulance operating at the paramedic level in the US, the following vital signs might be recorded:   Heart rate Respiratory rate BP SpO2 GCS EtCO2 Pupil size   The last two would be uncommon and only found with certain patients. It's likely there would be more than one set of vitals if the transport time is longer than a few minutes.  As for size, that's for a programmer who knows how the data is being transmitted and stored to figure out. It's not really a medical question, but using the maximum possible ranges of the numbers the minimum bit sizes I come up with are:   HR: 9  BP: 16  RR: 6 SpO2: 7 GCS: 4 EtCO2: 7 Pupils: 4   Total: 53  Recognize that those are the minimum sizes you could pack the data into. It's not likely stored in those minimal sizes but rather larger, traditional data types supported by modern databases and programming languages.  There is no way to calculate a bitrate requirement without knowing how much data has to be transmitted within what period of time. In any case, that's definitely not a medical question.",
        "id": 1171,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What STDs can be transmitted if both parties have no open sores/cuts?",
        "body": "This answer covers herpes, with both HSV1 (usually appearing and transmitted orally) and HSV2 (usually called genital herpes).   So-called \"asymptomatic shedding\", when the virus can be transmitted despite the carrier not showing any sores, is unfortunately very common in both herpes types.   An in my opinion good article is Asymptomatic Shedding of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2: Implications for Prevention of Transmission. It given an overview over several studies, for example one where 144 heterosexual couples where only one partner was infected were tracked.      Transmission occurred in 14 (9.7%) of the couples, including 13 in which diaries were maintained during the period when transmission occurred. Although 4 couples (31%) reported sexual contact during the prodrome (1 case) or within hours before lesions were first noted by the symptomatic partner (3 cases), in 9 cases (69%) transmission resulted from sexual contact when the source partner reported no symptoms or lesions   PCR studies, looking for genetic material of the virus in the genital regions of infected but asymptomatic people confirmed that asymptomatic shedding is common:     asymptomatic shedding from anogenital sites was documented in 80%\u201390% of seropositive men and women, was present on ~20% of days with daily sampling, and was present at even higher frequency during the first 3 months after acquisition of first-episode genital herpes   The samples in these studies were daily swipes of the vulvar or penile region. Studies usually checked for lesions or open cuts.   There are also studies were multiple samples were taken each day:     Anogenital shedding was detected on 20% of 962 days, and the median duration was 13 h. Oral shedding was detected on 12% of 691 days during which all 4 samples were collected, and the median duration of shedding was 24 h.   The CDC factsheet on genital herpes basically agrees with this, saying:     Transmission most commonly occurs from an infected partner who does not have visible sores and who may not know that he or she is infected. 4 In persons with asymptomatic HSV-2 infections, genital HSV shedding occurs on 10% of days, and on most of those days the person has no signs or symptoms   As for your two specific questions:     Possible transmitted diseases if saliva/semen/pre-cum/etc is swallowed?   Herpes can be transmitted during oral sex, both from oral herpes being transferred to the genitals, and from genital herpes being transferred to the oral region.      Possible transmitted diseases if fluids (pre-cum/semen/saliva/etc) are spilled on the vagina, or the head of the penis?   That's how herpes occurring in the genital region is usually transferred, even in the absence of sores (see above), so in that way herpes fits your criteria. ",
        "id": 397,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "is saltwater bad or good for your skin?",
        "body": "I have been swimming 3 to 5 days a week!  About 45 min each sessiob for 5 months.  Before that. The skin of my feet was like leather.  Now they are so soft that I dont recognize my own feet.  So from my experience,  livestrong is correct. Cheers",
        "id": 1167,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the benefit of effervescent tablets?",
        "body": "The main reason why you'd want to prescribe effervescent tablets is when the person can't swallow tablets, or, the tablet is unpleasantly large such as some calcium tablets.  Then one can use dispersible calcium tablets.   However, the reasons one manufacturer lists are:     Oral dosage forms are the most popular way of taking medication, despite having some disadvantages compared with other methods. One such disadvantage is the risk of slow absorption of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), which can be overcome by administering the drug in liquid form and, therefore, possibly allowing the use of a lower dosage. However, because many APIs only show a limited level of stability in liquid form, effervescent tablets, which are dissolved in water before administration, have been formulated as an alternative dosage form   This also allows:   an opportunity for formulators to improve the taste;  a more gentle action on a patient's stomach;  marketing aspects (fizzy tablets may have more consumer appeal than traditional dosage forms).   However, it requires a more complex manufacturing process     Fundamentals of effervescents Effervescents consist of a soluble organic acid and an alkali metal carbonate salt, one of which is often the API. Carbon dioxide is formed if this mixture comes into contact with water. Typical examples of the acids and alkalis used include:    citric acid  tartaric acid  malic acid  fumaric acid  adipic acid  sodium bicarbonate  sodium carbonate  sodium sesquicarbonate  potassium bicarbonate  potassium carbonate   http://www.pharmtech.com/effervescent-dosage-manufacturing",
        "id": 2235,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "can a person get infected by Hepatitis B while taking Hepatitis B vaccine",
        "body": "It's hard to imagine such a scenario but the answer is yes. If you haven't completed the vaccination series and therefore haven't developed immunity yet, then you remain susceptible to infection.   https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/hep-b.html",
        "id": 1803,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is \"FMD\" or Fasting-mimicking diet?",
        "body": "This is a diet produced by a group of researchers at USC led by a Dr. Longo that was used to try to avoid the effects of prolonged fasting (PF), by instead using a 5 day period once a month where nutrient intake was slashed by 34-54%.  Here is the summary from the publication in this June's \"Cell Metabolism\", that outlines the effects and benefits.  It grew out of yeast studies, where they noticed that independent of the yeasts actual life cycle, fasting produced longer life spans. When they expanded it to mice and humans, they found that IGF-1 (Insulin Growth Factor 1) was reduced. This is a hormone that helps promote aging, and is possibly linked to increased cancer susceptibility.  Since prolonged fasting (traditional, no food fasting) is hard for people to stick to, they came up with a reduced diet, with specific ratios of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and other nutrients.  However, they did stress that it is not something that should just be done without intervention, and also that if you are at or below a normal body weight, it probably shouldn't be done.  It's currently in review with the FDA to see if/how it can be introduced as a possible way to combat obesity, so I don't expect any books or other guidelines out on it any time soon.  There are websites such as this one that have created mimic plans, but they are not endorsed by, nor affiliated with Dr. Longo and the study group.",
        "id": 336,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "MRI scans for diagnosing Crohn's disease?",
        "body": "As far as I know MRI scans are mainly used to assess the location and extent of crohn's disease manifestations and crohn's associated complications (strictures, fistulas, wall thinkening). MRI is usefull to determine the phenotype of someones crohn's (e.g. localized terminal ileitis, perianal disease).   An MRI of course is not suitable as sole instrument to establish a crohn's disease diagnosis. In my case diagnosis was established by ileocolonoscopy, examination of the biopsies collected thereby by a phatologist, stool markers and full blood count. MRI was used as additional diagnosis instrument since ileoscopy raised the gastrologists strong suspicion of a crohn's, the phatologist examination of the biopsies was inconclusive. Blood count showed the typical crohn's associated malnutrition signs and all the signs of an immune system actively fighting an inflammation. In addition a bacterology of the stool sample showed no evidence of yersinia enteritis.   The ecco guidelines thoroughly describe the establishment of a crohn's diagnosis [ecco guidelines part definition and diagnosis][1].   [1] http://ecco-jcc.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/11/10/ecco-jcc.jjw168",
        "id": 627,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a pregnant woman in a coma still be able to give a vaginal birth? Will her body instinctively contract?",
        "body": "Though difficult and time consuming, the body will instinctively contract and give birth to the baby. In the case of a strong epidural anesthetic, the woman is unable to push, but the contractions will continue. In some cases, the mother would even pass out during labor and still be able to give vaginal birth. A woman will still be able to eventually give birth while comatose, but it may take longer than a concious pushing effort.",
        "id": 1333,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How common is Anaesthesia Awareness?",
        "body": "Previous estimates were at 1 in a 1000 patients (1\u2030) suffer from intraoperative awareness:     The medical literature suggests that in- traoperative awareness with recall while under general anesthesia may occur to some degree at a frequency of approximately 1 \u2013 2 in 1,000 anesthetics. Most patients experiencing intraoperative awareness do not feel any pain.      Source: American Association of Nurse Anaesthetists, Patient Awareness Brochure.   However, the 5th National Audit Project (NAP5) conducted a study on accidental awareness during general anaesthesia in 2014 with the largest test group so far found that incidents were as low as 1 in 19.000 cases. This huge project has been compiled into a book (with the chapters available as PDF here), below are just some extracts:        Source:   5th National Audit Project of The Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland: Accidental Awareness during General Anaesthesia in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Report and findings of the 5th National Audit Project, Chapter 6, p. 40. 2014   However, not all incidents were accompanied with pain or distress:     The proportion of patients judged to have experienced distress at the time of the AAGA increased with Michigan score (Figure 7.5): distress was most common when pain and paralysis were experienced together, with 17 of 22 patients reporting distress (77%).         Source:   5th National Audit Project of The Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland: Accidental Awareness during General Anaesthesia in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Report and findings of the 5th National Audit Project, Chapter 7, p. 51. 2014   This means that of the on-average 0.0051% cases of AAGA, only 77% reported distress, and of those 77%, 80% experienced pain and paralysis, the sort of locked-in-experience that is presented in most newspapers.   The actual chance of such a locked-in-experience is thus 0.0031%.  As a comparison, below is a table of risks of lifetime-death by cause.   Values taken from: National Safety Council, What Are the Odds of Dying From..., 2017. nsc.org.",
        "id": 2216,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Building new muscle and effects on blood glucose absorption",
        "body": "If you have more muscles, you will have more place to store glucose in them (in the form of glycogen), but what seems to be more important is the rate of glucose uptake by muscles, which increases with endurance training (running, swimming...) rather than with resistance training (body building).  The Role of Skeletal Muscle Glycogen Breakdown for Regulation of Insulin Sensitivity by Exercise     The glycogen content is higher in endurance trained subjects compared   to untrained subjects and glycogen content increases in muscles after   endurance training.   Also:     The reduction of skeletal muscle glycogen after exercise allows a   healthy storage of carbohydrates after meals and prevents development   of type 2 diabetes.   Exercise increases the glucose uptake by muscles by increasing insulin sensitivity:     Acutely, exercise improves insulin sensitivity in both healthy   subjects and insulin resistant people. The improved insulin   sensitivity after a single bout of exercise is short-lived but   repeated bouts of endurance training improve insulin sensitivity   beyond the acute effect of the last training session. ",
        "id": 2161,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can acute liver failure be caused by an alcohol binge?",
        "body": "   Can acute liver failure be caused by an alcohol binge?      Yes        Are the harmful effects of alcohol on the liver limited to chronic abuse?      No. The harmful effects of alcohol on the liver are in general certainly not limited to chronic abuse.  The immediate dangers of alcohol are often as much overstated as the long time dangers from it. \"Often overstated\" means portrayed as such from moral crusaders that want to condemn the substance as such. That is unfounded. The liver is usually quite resilient and capable of taking quite a lot of abuse.  But consumption of alcohol is not without dangers. Also not for a single incident. Of course it depends. The question does not indicate \"how much\" alcohol would be involved in that hypothetical incidence. \"One/Once too many\" can easily kill a human. That does not necessarily include involvement of acute hepatoxicity, although it mainly is common knowledge for acute overdose.  Depending on individual genetics, nutritional status, fitness level, other health parameters, a single sufficiently large dose of alcohol can really damage a liver. Adding some drugs \u2013 like paracetamol \u2013 into the mix and the liver gets even more vulnerable.  Some overview might be found in Definition, epidemiology and magnitude of alcoholic hepatitis",
        "id": 2183,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the mechanism of heartburn?",
        "body": "WebMD has an interesting article on heartburn that states1     With gravity's help, a muscular valve called the lower esophageal sphincter, or LES, keeps stomach acid in the stomach. The LES is located where the esophagus meets the stomach -- below the rib cage and slightly left of center. Normally it opens to allow food into the stomach or to permit belching, then closes again. But if the LES opens too often or does not close tight enough, stomach acid can reflux, or seep, into the esophagus and cause the burning sensation.   This would seem to be something of a union of both theories of heartburn. I was slightly doubtful - the article doesn't cite a particular source - but I was able to do a bit of digging on my own and found a few papers and other reliable sources that support this.   Boeckxstaens (2005) states (abstract only)     The two typical examples of dysfunction of the LOS are achalasia and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD). . . . GORD results from failure of the antireflux barrier, with increased exposure of the oesophagus to gastric acid. This leads to symptoms such as heartburn and regurgitation, and in more severe cases to oesophagitis, Barrett's oesophagus and even carcinoma.  The Keck School of Medicine states     The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx in the throat to the stomach. There are two sphincters at each end, an upper esophageal sphincter and a lower esophageal sphincter. With normal swallowing there is an incredible coordination of neurologic and muscular events for the food or liquid to efficiently pass from the mouth and into the stomach. Any dysfunction in this process can manifest as difficulty swallowing solids and liquids, regurgitation of undigested food, chest pain, and even heartburn.  Spechler et a. (1995) writes     Heartburn, the main symptom of gastrooesophageal reflux disease (GORD), might be expected to occur infrequently in achalasia, a disorder characterised by a hypertensive lower oesophageal sphincter (LOS) that fails to relax.    It appears the dysfunction of the LES/LOS is considered to be a cause of heartburn, specifically causing GORD, which then leads to heartburn.  I'd like to emphasize that heartburn generally isn't a standalone illness, but a symptom of something else, just like a sore throat may be a symptom of, say, strep throat. This isn't always the case, but it generally is the case for instances of persistent heartburn.    1 The Mayo Clinic also has a rather accessible article for anyone who doesn't want to trudge through scientific papers.",
        "id": 273,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's up with migraine auras? Why do they occur sometimes with migraines, but not always? What are they even?",
        "body": "Migraine auras are in a way similar to epileptic seizures; the most-accepted theory is they're caused by a depression of cortical neurons that spreads throughout the cortex during the attack.  Cortical Spreading Depression  Migraine Aura Pathophysology",
        "id": 1563,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \u201cserum\u201d precisely mean?",
        "body": "From what I can find, intravenous serum therapy is a less common synonym for intravenous fluid therapy (Fahimi et al. 2011).  The difference, to my comprehension, is that the term intravenous serum therapy refers to the fact that therapy is done to the serum (the watery portion of animal / human blood), whereas intravenous fluid therapy refers to the fact that the therapy is done with fluids. (Okada et al. 2003)    Sources:   Fahimi D, Tavakolizadeh R, Sadeghi M. 2011. Usefulness of Serum Electrolyte Determination in Patients with Dehydration. Pediatric Research 70: p. 762. Okada Y, Shinohara M, Kobayashi T, Kobayashi T, Inoue Y, Tomomasa T, Gunma Kawasaki Disease Study Group. 2003. Effect of corticosteroids in addition to intravenous gamma globulin therapy on serum cytokine levels in the acute phase of kawasaki disease in children. J of Ped. 143(3): 363-367. ",
        "id": 2400,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Flickering/flashing in corner of eye and nausea when exposed to certain patterns",
        "body": "If someone feels unwell or headachy after looking at particular patterns, it's likely to be migraine.     We investigated stripe-induced visual discomfort and its relation to migraine. Some people find viewing striped patterns aversive. Prior work has suggested that migraineurs, in particular, are bothered by stripes. Subjects were selected by opportunity sampling. They were shown striped patterns and asked questions about their general health and their headache history, if any. Of the 102 subjects, 38 were diagnosed as having migraine headaches, 22 had nonmigraine headaches, and 42 were considered to be nonheadache subjects; 82% of those with migraines were stripe sensitive while only 6.2% without migraines were stripe sensitive. We conclude that stripe aversiveness is related to migraine headaches and can assist differentiation of migraine and nonmigraine headaches.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2803073",
        "id": 2127,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Filtered water vs boiled water",
        "body": "The hazards from drinking water in Mumbai in 2012-2013 were identified as      Officials said the contaminants found in Mumbai's water were sand particles, sewage water, E.coli, other bacterial content besides other foreign particles. Among the deadliest of these, E.coli can cause severe abdominal cramps, bloody diarrhoea and vomiting, said doctors.   Boiling for one minute will kill/inactivate E Coli and other water borne pathogens     Boiling water kills or inactivates viruses, bacteria, protozoa and other pathogens by using heat to damage structural components and disrupt essential life processes (e.g. denature proteins). Boiling is not sterilization and is more accurately characterized as pasteurization. Sterilization kills all the organisms present, while pasteurization kills those organisms that can cause harm to humans. Cooking food is also a form of pasteurization. For pasteurization to be effective, water or food must be heated to at least the pasteurization temperature for the organisms of concern and held at that temperature for a prescribed interval.   However, you're going to need some type of filter to remove sand particles or chemicals that might be in your water.  Some people believe that it's better to filter out chlorine ( though a lack of effective chlorination is Mumbai's problem ) as it might affect the intestinal biome and contribute to disease, but this is speculation at present. However, water left to stand for some hours will allow chlorine to dissipate.",
        "id": 1988,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do only men have Adam's Apples? What is it? What function does it serve?",
        "body": "The Adam's apple, in conjunction with the thyroid cartilage which forms it, helps to protect the walls and the frontal part of the larynx, including the vocal cords (which are located directly behind it). It is found in both women and men. ... Consequently, the laryngeal prominence grows in size mainly in men.  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%27s_apple  For more information on the origin of the Adams apple, visit: http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2010/07/why-the-adams-apple-is-called-the-adams-apple/",
        "id": 1337,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is vitamin D a very passive xenogenic factor to major depressive disorder?",
        "body": "As someone who has been diagnosed with severe vitamin D deficiency, I can tell you from my personal experience that low vitamin D levels almost always makes you feel sad and depressed (we are talking about the chronic type). And since the levels take a lot of months to rise to normal, this lower mood levels start to become a part of your life.  The vitamin D receptors are linked to the areas of the brain associated with depression.  There have been many studies to prove this is true. A quick google search will point you to many more studies.   Anti-depressant drugs help in most cases, although the doctor should decide more on this. Almost always as the vitamin D level starts to rise, it does take care of this. ",
        "id": 1520,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When is too much running bad for your health?",
        "body": "The consensus view is given here. So, the views of James O'Keefe are not widely accepted in the medical community. Suppose, however, that the adverse effects of strenuous long endurance exercise he argues for, will be rigorously established. Even then, there is still an issue with the diet as a confounding variable.  According to O'Keefe, the U-shaped curve is supposed to go up again somewhere around 40 minutes of running at 12 km/h, But at that level of exercise, you need to eat significantly more than people who just run for a few miles at a slower pace, as he is suggesting is much healthier. A rule of thumb is that an hour of running at a pace of 12 km/h burns 1000 Kcal, but this will also depend on the weight of the person, whether you run of flat terrain etc.  Burning 1000 Kcal means that you must be eating 1000 Kcal more, which raises two issues. The first is whether you are going to eat that extra 1000 Kcal in the form of unhealthy high energy density foods. We can address this first issue by investigating the diets. Based on the results we can then correct for e.g. an average drift toward unhealthier diets by people who burn more calories.  But there exists another problem with the diet that is then not corrected for. Suppose that the diet of most people, regardless of exercise intensity, is actually a cause of cardiovascular disease. This is a real possibility, given e.g. the results of this recent study. One can find a similar conclusion also in this much older study (note that the linked article is to a recent reprint, the original author comments here about this old research). Then it's entirely natural to find a U-shaped curve if exercise by itself is beneficial well above the limits  O'Keefe is arguing for, because you'll obviously get some level of diminished returns from exercise more and more, while the adverse effects of the diet will increase with the increased calorie intake, without flattening off. ",
        "id": 2423,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "(Why) does hot water dry our skin more?",
        "body": "\"water of really any temperature does that if I'm not mistaken\"  Sorry but you are mistaken.  Water temperature is an important factor in dissolving lipids. You can ask anyone who washes dishes regularly whether they prefer hot or cold water to remove fat from pans and dishes.  Soap and heat remove fat. Butter is solid when kept in cold places and melts as you heat it.  The same thing happens to skin lipids, hot water melts them and they are removed by soap.",
        "id": 1407,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the Jendrassik's manoeuvre reinforce reflexes?",
        "body": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3502130/     Conclusion      The findings from this study support the view that the mechanism for the JM is a reduction in presynaptic inhibition of alpha motoneurons as it is influenced by physical and not mental activity. ",
        "id": 1067,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does caffeine teeth coating prevents cavities?",
        "body": "The answer to your specific question in particular, is rather indefinitive.   However, when a the bean/extract of the Coffea canephora plant is used in a strong brew of black coffee it was shown to significantly defend the teeth from bacteria upon exposure!  Cavities, are caused by bacteria!  The conclusion of this study clearly shows that the very high polyphenol content, in the bean/extract from the coffee plant caused the bacterial cells to burst or lyse. Further more, there is evidence that it may aid strengthening of the teeth as, when the bacteria lyse calcium is released into the medium.   Additionally, a study in the same agenda proves that the high caffiene content in the Robusta bean, from the Coffea canephora plant, contributes to the ability of the bean to cause an antiadhesive effect in the saliva, preventing the bacteria from initially adhering to the host i.e. the tooth, and hence preventing the receptors on your tooth surface from communicating with the bacterial cells that cause decay/cavities (Streptococcus mutans). Bacterial cells have no vision, they arrive at their destination per say, by cell signalling so, interfering with the receptor sites on your teeth means that they have a loss of direction.  When the bacteria do successfully attach to the teeth they signal other bacterial cells causing colonization on the enamel surface. From there on they synthesize sucrose and henceforth, produce acid as a waste product causing; erosion; decay; cavities.      ",
        "id": 328,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should my tongue literally be pink when I stick it out?",
        "body": "A tongue may have this appearance due to build up of dead cells on the surface.  And then it's worse after not being used as there is no friction from food removing dead cells that might be trapped between the papillae.  Some tooth brushes have another side that can be used to brush the tongue to remove these cells.",
        "id": 924,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How reversible is prediabetes?",
        "body": "From the American Diabetes Association:     \u201cPrediabetes\u201d is the term used for individuals with IFG and/or IGT and/or A1C 5.7\u20136.4% (39\u201347 mmol/mol). Prediabetes should not be viewed as a clinical entity in its own right but rather as an increased risk for diabetes (Table 2.3) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Prediabetes is associated with obesity (especially abdominal or visceral obesity), dyslipidemia with high triglycerides and/or low HDL cholesterol, and hypertension.      Source: American Diabetes Association: Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2017 Jan;40(Supplement 1) S11-S24.   https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-S005   Prediabetes means that you have higher risk of developing diabetes and is not a disease in itself. Symptoms are having impaired fasting glucose (IFT) or impaired glucose tolerance, and high glucose levels (the A1C test monitors that).   Although some treatment with medication is a short term option (do discuss with your general physician), but lifestyle changes and especially weight-loss has been found the best way to lower glucose levels and prevent diabetes mellitus:     Our results have shown that a reduction in diabetes cumulative incidence by either lifestyle intervention or metformin therapy persists for at least 10 years. Further follow-up will provide crucial data for long-term clinical outcomes, including mortality. In the next phase of the DPPOS, the primary objective is to assess intervention effects on a composite microvascular-neuropathic outcome for diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, or reduced light touch sensation in the feet. Secondary outcomes include the individual components of the composite primary outcome, cardiovascular disease, further development of diabetes, measures of glycaemia, insulin secretion, insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular disease risk factors, physical activity, nutrition, body-weight, health-related quality of life, and economic assessments. These data are needed because speculation about the long-term benefits on the basis of extrapolation of the DPP and other data by different authors have led to very different conclusions. The long-term reductions in bodyweight and diabetes are encouraging, but further quantification of long-term outcomes is crucial to establish the benefits of diabetes prevention.      Source: Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lance. (Emphasis Mine) ",
        "id": 2358,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does watching tv or using computer for a long time in a row effects eyes?",
        "body": "Your dad is right. LED screen can always make damage to our eyes, especially watching it in a totally dark environment. Watching TV in a dark place for a long time may cause macula in your eye ground. So it is better to take a break every 30 minutes when you have to using TV or computer for works.",
        "id": 525,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Correlation between gallbladder disease and pancreatitis",
        "body": "Gallstones are the most frequent cause of acute pancreatitis. According to the American Gastroenterology Association (see ref below), gallstone related acute pancreatitis represent 35-40% of the cases. Interestingly, only 5% of the patients with gallstones will develop pancreatitis.  Several studies have been conducted to investigate the optimal timing for cholecystectomy in patients with biliary pancreatitis. A recent Cochrane review (which summarises and aggregates the evidence from all the studies) has concluded the folowing:     There is no evidence of increased risk of complications after early   laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Early laparoscopic cholecystectomy may   shorten the total hospital stay in people with mild acute   pancreatitis. If appropriate facilities and expertise are available,   early laparoscopic cholecystectomy appears preferable to delayed   laparoscopic cholecystectomy in those with mild acute pancreatitis.   There is currently no evidence to support or refute early laparoscopic   cholecystectomy for people with severe acute pancreatitis. Further   randomised controlled trials at low risk of bias are necessary in   people with mild acute pancreatitis and severe acute pancreatitis.   But this is not an \"upfront\" procedure. The etiology of acute pancreatitis needs to be determined first. The AGA has provided some recommendations on the steps which should be undertaken to determine the etiologies for pancreatitis (you can find them in the reference below) such as:   History taking should focus on possible risk factors for pancreatitis (previous symptoms, hypertriglyceridemia, the 4 F (female, fat, forty fertile) as RF for choleliathiasis, drug and alcool use, autoimmmune diseases) Appropriate lab and clinical examination Abdominal ultrasound (to detect possible cholelithiasis or choledocholithiasis) EUS (endoscopic ultrasound) or ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography): if cause unclear or suspicion of tumor or if high suspicion for cholelithiasis but not visualised in abdominal US   References:  Gurusamy KS. Early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute gallstone pancreatitis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Sep 2;(9):CD010326. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010326.pub2.  Forsmark. AGA Institute Technical Review on Acute Pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. May 2007Volume 132, Issue 5, Pages 2022\u20132044",
        "id": 1225,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pancreatitis and consumption of alcohol",
        "body": "In general, if the episode of acute pancreatitis was not due to alcohol consumption and has completely resolved, it would be relatively safe for an individual to resume limited alcohol consumption. The recommendations vary from country to country, but a rule of thumb is a maximal amount of 2 drinks per day for men and 1 drink per day for women.  However, there is more and more evidence that there is no \"safe\" level of alcohol intake, and that any alcohol intake increases the risk of a range of cancers [1]. Making this more complicated is that there is also data showing that people who drink a moderate amount of alcohol have lower mortality [2]. Therefore, it's unclear whether it would be \"advisable\" to resume alcohol consumption. The jury is still out on whether it's safe to drink alcohol regularly.   In the event that the pancreatitis was caused by alcohol consumption, then it would be necessary to evaluate whether the person has alcohol use disorder. If the person is diagnosed with this condition, then it would be of course unadvisable for him or her to resume any amount of alcohol consumption.  Finally, in the event that the person has developed chronic pancreatitis from the episode of acute pancreatitis, then cessation of all alcohol intake is recommended. Patients who continue to drink in this situation have increased motality [3]. ",
        "id": 969,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How is it Blood Thinners appear to stop the creation of platelets?",
        "body": "There are 2 types of blood thinners anticoagulants and antiplatelets. Simply:  Anticoagulants      Anticoagulants work by interrupting the process involved in the   formation of blood clots. They're sometimes called \"blood-thinning\"   medicines, although they don't actually make the blood thinner   NIH     Vitamin K is essential for those reactions. Warfarin (Coumadin) works   by decreasing the activity of vitamin K; lengthening the time it takes   for a clot to form.   Antiplatelets     Antiplatelet drugs, such as aspirin, prevent blood cells called   platelets from clumping together to form a clot.   A deeper understanding can be derived from looking up the individual medications: Clopidogrel (Antiplatelet) and Coumadin(Anticoagulant). I don't know which type your refering to, but they:   Dont actually thin the blood. They really just interfere with processes to stop and prevent blood clots.       Anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs work by stopping platelets from   adhering to one another and clotting proteins from binding together.    Blood thinners can cause thrombocytopenia (low platelets). However, the platelets have to be severely low beneath 100,000 to cause spontaneous and uncontrollable bleeding that may cause death usually.       Many medications can cause low platelet count by causing immunologic   reaction against platelets, called drug-induced thrombocytopenia.   So basically on this stuff it takes you longer to clot and therefore increased the time you bleed. ",
        "id": 981,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the best body position for measuring the blood pressure?",
        "body": "While trying to measure the blood pressure, the physician is most likely interested in measuring the pressure inside the left ventricle of the heart. So it is necessary that the Sphygmomanometer and the cuff should remain at the level of the heart. If it is above the level of heart, the reading is likely to be low, and if it is below the heart, the reading is likely to be high. Also, the blood pressure varies with the posture of the body in which the measurement is taken. So the blood pressure value that exists in most guidelines (for example JNC 8) is measured in the sitting position. Hence the value we are intenting to measure is the one with the patient is sitting position, back supported, legs uncrossed, and upper arm bared. The diastolic pressure is high in sitting position, and systolic pressure is high in supine position. Not supporting the back will increase diastolic pressure, while sitting cross legged increases systolic pressure. This is due to the inherent mechanisms in the human body to maintain perfusions to certain organs. The detailed biomechanics is beyond the scope of the present discussion though.  Reference : New AHA Recommendations for Blood Pressure Measurement",
        "id": 167,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Skin lesions: osteomylitis, impetigo or other?",
        "body": "No one can diagnose your particular problem over the internet, not even with the superb picture you've provided us with.     Health Stack Exchange is for educational purposes only and is not intended as a substitute for individualized diagnosis and treatment by a qualified healthcare provider.   However, discussing osteomylitis and impetigo might help you.  Impetigo  The garden-variety of impetigo is a superficial skin infection characterized by redness, broken skin, and serous fluid leakage which when allowed to dry form honey-colored crusts.       It is highly infectious, and untreated, it spreads to not only others, but to the surrounding skin, in that more lesions develop and cover a larger area of the body.  The most common offending organism is Staphylococcus aureus;  Streptococcus is next. It is so superficial that it's one of the few infections that can be treated with a topical agent (Bactroban) unless there is too much skin to cover, making a topical treatment unwieldy.  Impetigo can sometimes infect deeper into the dermis resulting in deep dermal ulcer with a raised and indurated (hardened) surrounding margin. Then, it is called ecthyma. The infection may start in skin that has been injured due to a scratch or insect bite, and for this reason, the infection often develops on the legs. These infections need oral, and sometimes intravenous antibiotics.  Osteomyelitis  Osteomyelitis is infection of the bone. It can be caused by a skin infection that reaches the bone, an open fracture (even long after the fracture and overlying skin has healed, or from spread of infection by blood into an area of bone. Posttraumatic osteomyelitis is more commonly seen in adults and typically occurs in the tibia (some part of the \"shin\" bone, which is where your skin lesion is.)   Osteomyelitis is a serious infection and more difficult to treat. S aureus is the most common pathogenic organism (Thus, if both doctors have S aureus from cultures, they can both take this as a \"confirmation\" of the diagnosis.)       Posttraumatic osteomyelitis requires a detailed history for diagnosis, including information regarding the initial injury and previous antibiotic and surgical treatment. Weight bearing and function of the involved extremity are typically painful.   The diagnosis of osteomyelitis should include imaging studies of some kind which confirm the diagnosis.  Although one can't tell which you have, the information provided here might help you to have a more informed dialogue with your doctor(s). At this stage, though, it's safe to say it's not the garden variety of impetigo.  Common Bacterial Skin Infections Ecthyma Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Skin and Soft Tissue Infections: 2014 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America Osteomyelitis  ",
        "id": 376,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are products of conception routinely re-assembled after a medical abortion?",
        "body": "I can't answer the question specific to abortions, as I do not perform abortions (for this reason).    But certainly in vaginal deliveries and C sections, the placenta is always checked carefully by the physician to ensure that no part of the placenta was retained in the uterus. The reason is that retained fetal tissue is a risk for post-partum hemorrhage and infection.   The degree of risk likely depends on what specific body part is retained in the uterus - for example, retained implanted placenta presents a higher risk of hemorrhage than a leg or lung, due to the maternal-fetal blood vessel network.  Also, retained placenta may be the first sign that there was accreta.  But beyond just which body part, the age of the fetus, the amount of the fetus retained in the uterus, and the mechanism of abortion all impact whether retention can be managed with expectant management or requires D&amp;C etc.  Even the Wikipedia article you cited on retained fetal tissue mentions these risks: \"...or causes anemia, or if there is evidence of endometritis.\"",
        "id": 2676,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any drugs that provide erection without sexual stimulation?",
        "body": "We can't give medical advice here.  But I can guide you in how to approach talking with your doctors, and add another doctor/specialist you haven't mentioned but should see.   You have already told us that you have elevated prolactin - which has a known association with erectile dysfunction. You have already told us that you have depression, which has a known association with erectile dysfunction. You have already told us that you have recently started to refrain from high porn use, which is known to sometimes have an association with erectile dysfunction. You have already told us that you used to inject yourself with testosterone and now levels are down, so you've been messing with your hormones exogenously.   So you have 4 possible reasons for erectile dysfunction: two hormonal, two neuropsychological.  None of these issues are resolved yet, so I might recommend talking with your doctors and working on those before trying to find a medication that could have additional side effects.  A pill might not exist for the purpose you're seeking.   Did you talk with your urologists about whether there are other medication options? They need to guide you as they are DOCTORS who specialize in this!  Make sure they know about all of the other factors as well, including your psych meds, depression, etc. As your psychiatrist has already said, Amisulpride is     associated with a high risk of elevating blood levels of the lactation   hormone, prolactin (thereby potentially causing the absence of the   menstrual cycle, breast enlargement, even in males, breast milk   secretion not related to breastfeeding, impaired fertility, impotence,   breast pain, etc.)   so talk with your psychiatrist about options for your depression - he already recommended considering it! BUT note that soltus is an uncommon medication for unipolar depression, so do NOT adjust your medication without your psychiatrist's careful guidance.     Lastly, and just as importantly,   I recommend you see a psyCHOLogist/counselor/therapist as soon as you can get in.  Tell him/her the whole story and they can guide you on what you can do about it.  Sexual function, especially libido, is not just a hormonal or medication thing.  There are successful treatments that involve no medication for some people.  One option is sex therapy for individuals or couples, which he might recommend.    From this psychology article:     You may believe that you will have difficulty with this forever or that is not solvable unless you take medication for the problem but a pill may not fix all of the trouble.   Here's why.... For most men, erectile problems are caused by an   anxiety issue, not a medical issue. While prescriptions such as   Viagra, Levitra and Cialis may help to solve the problem of getting   your penis hard, you may not get to the core of why your penis is   having difficulty getting hard in the first place. By then you are   committed to taking prescriptions and \"timing\" when we are sexual for   the rest of your sexual relationship. Getting to the core of the   anxiety and taking back control of your body is what we will be   discussing in this article.   You have already said you have both medical issues and psychological issues that are likely part of this picture.    There may not be a pill for your situation.",
        "id": 1863,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why would anyone choose a trivalent flu shot when there are thimerosal-free quadrivalent ones available?",
        "body": "   My understanding is that quadrivalent flu shots are designed to build immunity to 4 flu virus strains, while trivalent flu shots are designed to build immunity to 3 flu virus strains. Is this accurate?   Yes.      For years, flu vaccines were designed to protect against three different flu viruses (trivalent). This included an influenza A H1N1 virus, an influenza A H3N2 virus and one B virus. Experts had to choose one B virus, even though there are two very different lineages of B viruses that both circulate during most seasons. This meant the vaccine did not protect against the group of B viruses not included in the vaccine. Adding another B virus to the vaccine aims to give broader protection against circulating flu viruses.   The quadrivalent flu vaccine is also just as safe as the trivalent one.      Studies have shown that vaccines made to protect against four flu viruses have a safety profile similar to seasonal flu vaccines made to protect against three viruses, with similar\u2014mostly mild\u2014side effects   Source for both quotes: CDC page on quadrivalent flu vaccine  Now why would people choose the trivalent one?   For one, the quadrivalent flu vaccine is more expensive. According to the CDC the difference is more than 50 percent. This probably means there is a market for it, so it still gets produced.  Also, some patients (and some doctors) will be cautious about anything they perceive as new and \"untested\" and thus prefer the old one for a few more years. That's another reason to still produce and ship the trivalent flu vaccine.   If the quadrivalent flu vaccine is not available (for example because not enough was ordered), taking the trivalent flu vaccine is recommended over waiting:     Don\u2019t delay getting a flu vaccine if you cannot locate a quadrivalent vaccine. The important thing is to get vaccinated against influenza.\u00a0   Source: CDC",
        "id": 531,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the association between red meat and cancer caused by typically searing red meat?",
        "body": "   The IARC classified processed meat as a \u201cdefinite\u201d cause of cancer, or a Group 1 carcinogen \u2013 the same group that includes smoking and alcohol.      The agency made no specific dietary recommendations and said it did not have enough data to define how much processed meat is too dangerous. But it said the risk rises with the amount consumed \u2014 each 50-gram portion of processed meat eaten daily increases the risk of colorectal cancer by 18 percent.      Experts have long warned of the dangers of certain chemicals used to cure meat, such as nitrites and nitrates, which the body converts into cancer-causing compounds.   Processed meats are not typically seared as far as I know.  Sure, searing does cause problems in that they cause the formation of heterocyclic amines, and the risk seems to be there     What are heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and how are they formed in cooked meats?      Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals formed when muscle meat, including beef, pork, fish, or poultry, is cooked using high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame (1). In laboratory experiments, HCAs and PAHs have been found to be mutagenic\u2014that is, they cause changes in DNA that may increase the risk of cancer.      HCAs are formed when amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), sugars, and creatine (a substance found in muscle) react at high temperatures. PAHs are formed when fat and juices from meat grilled directly over an open fire drip onto the fire, causing flames. These flames contain PAHs that then adhere to the surface of the meat. PAHs can also be formed during other food preparation processes, such as smoking of meats (1).      HCAs are not found in significant amounts in foods other than meat cooked at high temperatures. PAHs can be found in other charred foods, as well as in cigarette smoke and car exhaust fumes. [2]   but it has been hard to quantify     Population studies have not established a definitive link between HCA and PAH exposure from cooked meats and cancer in humans. One difficulty with conducting such studies is that it can be difficult to determine the exact level of HCA and/or PAH exposure a person gets from cooked meats. Although dietary questionnaires can provide good estimates, they may not capture all the detail about cooking techniques that is necessary to determine HCA and PAH exposure levels. In addition, individual variation in the activity of enzymes that metabolize HCAs and PAHs may result in exposure differences, even among people who ingest (take in) the same amount of these compounds. Also, people may have been exposed to PAHs from other environmental sources, such as pollution and tobacco smoke.      Nevertheless, numerous epidemiologic studies have used detailed questionnaires to examine participants\u2019 meat consumption and meat cooking methods to estimate HCA and PAH exposures. Researchers found that high consumption of well-done, fried, or barbecued meats was associated with increased risks of colorectal (14), pancreatic (15, 16), and prostate (17, 18) cancer. [2]    https://health.clevelandclinic.org/link-red-meat-cancer-need-know/ https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet#q1 ",
        "id": 2223,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is brushing teeth without toothpaste actually harmful?",
        "body": "My short answer is : Brushing your tooth without toothpaste will not cause a greater amount of micro-scratches than if you were to use toothpaste.   To begin, tooth paste, is a product most often made of abrasive substances that increases the scrubbing power of the toothbrush bristles. Some kinds of toothpaste can also accomplish other things, such as reducing dental sensitivity (potassium nitrate, Sensodyne\u00ae) or make teeth more resistant to caries and acidity (Fluoride).  In other words it is the physical movement of the bristles of the brush that removes plaque that accumulates on and between the teeth and gums.  Therefore, it is not the tooth paste that will make the greatest impact on your teeth and gums but the way you move your toothbrush on the surfaces of your teeth and gums.  If you brush too aggressively, you will at first cause the gums to recede and then will use prematurely the enamel on your teeth.  Here is a list of things to do to brush properly:   Brush your teeth by using the modified Bass (roll-brush) method. Keep your toothbrush at a 45\u00ba angle and make small circular movements, on a set of 2-3 teeth at a time. Avoid broad, horizontal, back-and-fourth movements, since they will irritate the gums. Once a set of teeth has been brushed, make one sweep from the gum to the teeth, to remove any debris stuck in between. Don't put too much pressure, and use a soft or super-soft bristle toothbrush. If done correctly, the plaque and bio-film will be removed by the movement of the toothbrush bristles. Anything that is harder than what a soft bristle can remove is probably tarter (calcified plaque) which needs to get removed by a dentist or hygienist. If you need to remove food stuck between teeth, use floss.   A more in-depth look into mechanical plaque control could be done, but it would be somewhat outside the scope of the original question.  One of my references: http://www.aapd.org/assets/1/25/Axelsson-03-S1.pdf",
        "id": 221,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will CRISPR/CAS9 be used to replace EPOA4 with EPOA3/2 in humans in vivo in the near future?",
        "body": "CRISPR/Cas9 is the great white hope of genetic medicine with huge potential.  However, this is a field in which progress has been famously slow because of high difficulties in translating promising pre-clinical therapeutic strategies to effective treatments in humans.  In broad strokes, the answer is going to be \"when CRISPR based therapies are ready for other conditions\".  The biggest barriers to getting CRISPR based therapeutics into the clinic will be:   Safety - can we be sure that the changes we intend are made cleanly and without off-target effects? Delivery - how do we get the CRISPR construct into the cells it needs to be in to work? Efficacy - can we effect a change in sufficient cells to produce a clinical response?   As pointed out in the comments, there are still significant safety concerns about off-target effects. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-018-0050-6 reports significant toxicity with efficient recombination.   Furthermore, there is an emerging body of evidence that there are pre-existing CRISPR/Cas9 immune responses which may cause clinical   side-effects and/or limit efficiency of recombination (https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/01/05/243345.full.pdf).  Delivery of the construct may well be the most difficult aspect of therapy.  There are diseases which can be treated with exogenous cells, for example T cells cells modified with CRISPR techniques and re-infused as in:  https://www.nature.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-tested-in-a-person-for-the-first-time-1.20988 https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02793856?term=crispr  However, what if the target is present in somatic tissues such as APOE4 (which is what I assume you mean instead of APOA4) such as the liver?  How do we effectively get the CRISPR/Cas9 construct into these cells in a non-toxic, efficient and targeted manner?  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167779917303049?via%3Dihub provides a nice review of current delivery methods but concludes that one of the current outstanding questions is \"Are any of the currently available delivery methods reliable enough for therapeutic use of Cas9 genome editing in humans?\".  Finally, efficacy.  For some diseases, such as sickle cell anaemia, it is thought that as little as a 10% conversion from the disease form of HbS to wild-type HbA would be sufficient for clinical improvement.  For APOE4 however there is still a significant (~4x) risk for developing Alzheimer's disease over baseline in heterozygotes compared to a ~12x risk over baseline for homozygotes (https://bmcneurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2377-8-9).  To achieve a reduction in risk to baseline would therefore likely require significantly more than 50% recombination rate.  Furthermore, for an effect to be longstanding and, ideally, lifelong the stem cells which give rise to e.g. liver parenchyma would have to be altered.  Overall, CRISPR/Cas9 is a technology which has revolutionised biomedical science in the laboratory already.  It seems certain that some form of CRISPR/Cas9 based therapies will be used clinically within the next ten years, however there are huge technical, safety and ethical barriers before it is a widely available treatment for a range of conditions.",
        "id": 2319,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bleomycin and Oxygen",
        "body": "To begin, I should say that overall the evidence is conflicting and not good with respect to your time frame (long term, \"rest of their life\").  Studies A, B, and C reveal animal models that show damage acutely (with recent administration of bleomycin) but also no syngery after 1 month.  Of course this is an animal model.  D, E, and F suggest that after bleomycin therapy (not recent administration), there is still a risk with supplemental oxygen in humans, though this is weak evidence.  On the contrary, G and H suggest no correlation.  Regardless, because of some anecdotal evidence and animal model evidence, patients who have had prior exposure to supplemental oxygen may face providers who are more cautious with over-supplementing with O2 (they may target a lower, but safer, oxygen saturation percentage).  They may also be more conservative in the OR when giving fluids as to not flood the lungs.  The answer is that evidence is unclear but the current practice is the above.",
        "id": 620,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do I wake up so many times in the middle of the night",
        "body": "AFAIK: It's pretty normal as long that you don't have trouble getting back to sleep. Try to google 'sleep cycles' to learn more about how the brain functions. Basically we have, I recall, 4 stages of sleep. Stage 4 is what is known as REM sleep, and this is where vivid dreaming happends, stages 3 is deep sleep and so on ... The point I'm getting to, is that a complete sleep cycle will take approx. 90min, and after a complete cycle you're back at stage 1, where you'll be mildly awake again. Info is based on recollection and might not be 100% accurate.  Cheers, Tobias",
        "id": 1468,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eczema and steroids: why do endogenous cortisol and exogenous cortisone/prednisone differ?",
        "body": "Exogenous topical steroids are mainly used for maintenance. They are very effective for long term use and does not have significant systemic side effect. Meanwhile oral steroids were used to treat severe acute flares with the risk of its side effects.  Stress has several pathways to trigger eczema/dermatitis and not only cortisol (endogenous steroid, stress hormone).   upregulation of neuropeptide mediators in the brain, endocrine organs, and peripheral nervous system directly affect immune and resident cells in the skin Increased mast cells and mast cell-nerve fiber contacts sensory nerves release neuromediators that regulate inflammatory and immune responses, as well as barrier function.   In summary, several underlying mechanisms results to the effects of stress towards eczema and cortisol is released by the body to help and combat some of eczema's inflammatory response. We treat eczema with steroids to help our endogenous steroid reduce inflammation.  Source:  Psychoneuroimmunology of Psychological Stress and Atopic Dermatitis: Pathophysiologic and Therapeutic Updates Andrea L. SU\u00c1REZ, Jamison D. FERAMISCO, [...], and Martin STEINHOFF  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3704139/  P.s. Eczema is a poorly understood disease with no definite treatment, all we have for now is symptomatic relief",
        "id": 2482,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How fast is \"too fast\" for Uric stones?",
        "body": "The only weight loss method I've heard that increases the risk of kidney stones is bariatric surgery (PubMed, 2015).  Here's a recommendation to prevent gallstones (NIDDK.gov, pdf):     Depending on your starting weight, experts recommend losing about   1/2 to 2 pounds per week. ",
        "id": 1996,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you relieve the symptoms of sinusitis by creating a negative pressure using your lungs?",
        "body": "In sinusitis, there may already be a negative pressure in the sinuses (nih.gov).   One problem is that in sinusitis the openings that connect the nasal cavity and sinuses are usually clogged, so the attempt to create a pressure difference might be quite hard.  I'm not aware of any published experiments on this topic, but as suggested in one comment: the one who tries it and it works for him/her will know better than anyone. Either a negative or positive pressure (Valsalva) might work. Trying to thin the mucus by using a neti pot or inhaling hot water vapor beforehand might help.  No medical advice here. Warning: exaggerated experimenting with creating different pressure in the nasal cavity may be potentially dangerous.",
        "id": 2323,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to treat Dry-Mouth (side-effect of medication)?",
        "body": "I understand your annoyance with dry-mouth. It can cause a whole host of issues so I certainly can commiserate, especially when it comes to trying to sleep with a dry-mouth!   Well, it seems like you have done a lot of your own research since you knew to invest in and experiment with Biotene Mouthspray, but just in case... here are some other treatment options (besides drinking water, gum-chewing, sucking on candy, staying hydrated, etc):    decongestants can make your symptoms worse apparently (not sure why) so if you can, avoid them.  if you can, try to breathe more with your nose and less with your mouth (it seems counterintuitive if the cause of your mouth-breathing is congestion, but decongestants make mouths drier??) maybe try nasal strips add moisture to the air (perhaps via a humidifier)  limit your caffiene intake -- it can actually make it drier. Who knew?!   Here's more info: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dry-mouth/expert-answers/dry-mouth/faq-20058424  But the best recommendation I have and that I'm excited about because I just discovered it after talking to my dentist and oral-hygienist -- is try something that stimulates saliva. For instance, I've been using XyliMelts, and they have been working wonderfully for me. I can sleep much better because of them! You can find more products on their website here: https://www.oracoat.com/",
        "id": 1278,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dental Braces : Urgent Advise Needed",
        "body": "If the bracket is removed all the way and is not cemented you can remove it carefully. You should be fine but I have had this happen before. Just open the tiny latch on the bracket and place bracket in a safe place. If you cannot remove it mouthwash and a little floss or a Christmas tree brush will help clean behind it.",
        "id": 1609,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are the estimates of obesity prevalence in England wildly different?",
        "body": "You should not use QOF data for epidemiological measures.     Differences may occur because QOF registers do not necessarily equate to prevalence as   may be defined by epidemiologists. For example, recorded prevalence figures based on   QOF registers may differ from prevalence figures from other sources because of coding or   definitional issues   via QOF Data quality statement and frequently asked questions  I'm not super familiar with the QOF, but in reading through these FAQs I believe the issue is that they define obesity as:     patients need to be aged 18 or over, and have a body mass index greater than or equal to 30 recorded in the previous 12 months   so there may be patients in the 'denominator' who have not had a BMI recorded in the previous 12 months, therefore they are not classified as obese in the QOF even if their latest BMI was recorded >=30 if that record was not in the previous 12 months. Those denominators come from the     latest Exeter National Health Application and Infrastructure Services   (NHAIS) extract   Given that the total is ~44.7 million adults in England, this seems to be the entire (adult) population of England, and likely not all of them visited a physician during a 12 month period.  As you point out, the other measures vary but not by all that much, and there are likely smaller demographic sampling biases or definitions, different attitudes towards adjustment based on demographics, etc that explain those smaller differences.",
        "id": 2718,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating vegetables rich in nitrogen, with fish, increases cancer risk?",
        "body": "The article itself doesn't make such strong claims.     ... we conclude that the consumption of fish/vegetable meals appears to lead to only marginal increases of human cancer risk.   And that only based on a few theoretical assumptions. You can e.g. also assume that for cancer to develop you need the immune system to miss some problems which may be far less likely to happen when you introduce a very small effect. There is then an effective threshold that must be overcome. In such a scenario, the marginal increase wouldn't exist at all.  ",
        "id": 395,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any way to tighten up a loose tooth?",
        "body": "If the mobility of the tooth is due to trauma, the prognosis is incertain in permanent teeth. This paper, is very well detailed as to different levels of trauma. Mobility usually occurs after the extrusion of the tooth:     Extrusion   Definition: partial displacement of the tooth axially from   the socket; partial avulsion. The periodontal ligament usually   is torn.   Diagnosis: Clinical findings reveal that the tooth appears   elongated and is mobile. Radiographic findings reveal an increased   periodontal ligament space apically.      In permanent   mature teeth with closed apices, there is considerable risk   for pulp necrosis and pulp canal obliteration. These teeth   must be followed carefully.   In the futur, a tooth which has suffered from an extrusion might require a root canal if an infection of the apex develops, though it might remain loose even so.  If the loosening of the tooth is caused by a gum disease, such as periodontitis, it may be possible. The earlier it is detected, the better the results.   The first step is to make sure that oral hygiene at home is on point: daily flossing and brushing. A chart will be made to take measurements of the gum surrounding the tooth and determine to what extent it is affected with periodontitis. Deep cleaning of the gum and planing of the root will be made to ensure that no traces of tartar or plaque is left behind, as they contribute to the inflammation and progress of the disease.     Scaling means scraping off the tartar from above and below the gum line. Root planing gets rid of rough spots on the tooth root where the germs gather, and helps remove bacteria that contribute to the disease. In some cases a laser may be used to remove plaque and tartar. This procedure can result in less bleeding, swelling, and discomfort compared to traditional deep cleaning methods.   When these methods are inefficient, or in more advanced stages of the disease, more complex surgical treatments might be necessary, for example flap surgery or bone grafts. You can read about those more in depth here.   ",
        "id": 369,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Risks of having an unwanted child - worrying as a man",
        "body": "She had two periods afterwards so she is not pregnant.   Who are you to demand that she take a test? You pretty much called her a liar when you did that. If you can't or won't accept her at her word about being on birth control, not being pregnant, etc, then I recommend you quit sleeping with women you have such a low opinion of.",
        "id": 1057,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What constitutes an emergency doctor's appointment",
        "body": "Your own doctor knows the answer to this - different practices could have different definitions - and should have asked you questions that tested their own criteria. These might be things like \"are you bleeding?\" and \"did you lose consciousness?\" along with \"how bad is the pain?\" and \"how long have you felt this way?\" After these questions they might say \"call an Ambulance\", \"go to A&amp;E\", \"we can see you at 2:30\" or \"we can see you 6 days from now at 2:30.\"   Asking you \"is it an emergency?\" is a foolish question when you don't know their criteria. [People ask foolish questions all the time, and forget that not everyone knows what they know.] So answer by providing the information you would use to make the decision yourself: \"I think so, it has come on very suddenly and the pain is worse than I've ever experienced\" or \"not enough to call for an ambulance but I can't stop it bleeding and I really would like it looked at today\" or \"I suppose not, I just want to be sure it's not the start of something serious\". Just saying \"yes\" doesn't give them any reason to agree with you and schedule something sooner or send you to more urgent care.",
        "id": 938,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What makes mint feel painful?",
        "body": "If anyone sees this for whatever reason (I guess if you look up this question...), the pain has gone away after me forcing myself to use mint toothpaste and other mint products.",
        "id": 1715,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can an elevated TSH and normal T3 and T4 biologically cause fatigue?",
        "body": "These hormones and their interconnectedness are quite complicated in al their details. TSH is not only connected to the regulation of T3 and T4. TSH receptors are found elsewhere, not least in the brain itself.  Then TSH is released pulsatively, with circadian changes as well as seasonal, and generally increases with age, is affected by illness or other stress. That is a huge range for confounders on the measured numbers and correlated effects.  Put simply, TSH will likely not be the direct cause for fatigue or tiredness, but is in many cases an indicator of thyroid problems, signalling that only with elevated TSH the T3/T4 levels are kept in the desired range, for now. Since this is about a tight feedback loop the initial reasoning in the question seems to be incomplete in this regard.   Given the limited information available from the question, the most likely answer seems to lie in this explanation:     The pituitary TSH-producing cells are inhibited by T4, which is taken up by the cell and deiodinated intracellularly to T3. Under normal conditions, the inhibitory effect is primarily exerted by the circulating T4. This is illustrated by the fact that in primary hypothyroidism, the TSH concentration increases early and is inversely related to the falling T4 concentration.      The T3 concentration is affected to a lesser degree (often not at all) in early stages of primary hypothyroidism. Normal T3 concentrations are maintained in such situations by an increased conversion of T4 to T3 instead of reverse T3 (rT3). Low T3 concentrations are therefore only seen in more pronounced hypothyroidism. Analogous to this, a slight increase in T4 can result in reduced TSH release in spite of normal T3.      The high analytical specificity attained by the modern TSH methods (based on monoclonal antibodies) can cause problems. Circulating TSH is heterogeneous. Different TSH methods can therefore determine various immunoreactive parts of the TSH populations in patient samples, which results in different reference ranges for healthy people, depending on the TSH method used. In addition, the immunological methods can be affected by interference. The most significant interference for TSH determination is caused by heterophilic antibodies. Animal antibodies, such as human antimouse antibodies (HAMA), in patient samples can create the bridge that is normally formed by the analyte (TSH) in the analytic reaction, thereby giving a false increase in the TSH value. Heterophilic antibodies occur in low concentrations in about 50% of the population, but the effect of these are eliminated in routine diagnostics by addition of immunoglobulins from nonimmunized animals or humans. In cases where it is diffcult to interpret the results (unexpectedly high/low TSH values) the laboratory should be consulted.   (Ernst Nystr\u00f6m et al.: \"Thyroid Disease in Adults\", Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg, 2011, p 18.)   That leads to the following conclusion:     While screening patients for thyroid disease, physicians often find increased thyrotropin-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels in patients whose free thyroxine (T4) levels are not below normal. This state, termed \u201csubclinical hypothyroidism,\u201d is most commonly an early stage of hypothyroidism.[\u2026]   The likelihood that this will happen increases with greater TSH elevations and detectable antithyroid antibodies. Because patients with subclinical hypothyroidism sometimes have subtle hypothyroid symptoms and may have mild abnormalities of serum lipoproteins and cardiac function, patients with definite and persistent TSH elevation should be considered for thyroid treatment.    Subclinical Hypothyroidism: Deciding When to Treat (Victor Adlin, M.D., Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,   American Family Physician. 1998 Feb 15;57(4):776-780.) ",
        "id": 2117,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does physical stress on vagaus nerve cause depression?",
        "body": "Surely all interconnected, however, mental stress by definition is caused by signals from outside and on your psychics, so the answer logically is No, but if you define pain and any nerve disorder by itself a mental stress, than answer is definitely Yes. You should focus on What To Do Approach and find doctors who are competent to relieve your pains without harming you mentally and physically.",
        "id": 1614,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does altitude related secondary polycythemia make your blood thicker?",
        "body": "Yes, blood viscosity changes with altitude.  This is a study in rats where the control group was kept at normal altitude and the test group at simulated 5500 meters.      Besides, RBC counts, hematocrit, whole blood viscosity, erythrocyte aggregation index of hypoxia model rats were all notably higher than those of normal control rats respectively.   Changes in the rheologic properties of blood after a high altitude expedition The effects you are describing is called \"high altitude deterioration\" (HADT) and in patients with this, blood viscosity is one of the symptoms.      but other indicators including the blood viscosity, hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration and heart rate were higher in patients with HADT   The study of prevalence rate, and clinical characteristics of high altitude deterioration  This study was only in old women, but nevertheless I will include it here:     It is found that the correlation between geographical factors and the normal reference value of whole blood viscosity (230s(-1)) of old women is quite significant (F=30.137, P=0.000).   Normal reference value of whole blood viscosity (230s(-1)) of old women and geographical factors  Most relevant to your question, this was a small study on mountaineers to Mount Everest:     In blood samples collected immediately after return, alterations of some haemorheologic parameters were observed in comparison with baseline values, and namely an increase in relative blood viscosity, fibrinogen and erythrocyte filtration time along with a fall in platelet count   Changes in the rheologic properties of blood after a high altitude expedition  Making the connection to vascular problems:     Increased viscosity is associated with aging, obesity, carotid intima-media thickness, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and stroke   Increased whole blood viscosity is associated with silent cerebral infarction",
        "id": 473,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is petroleum jelly comedogenic?",
        "body": "You are right that there are conflicting viewpoints about whether or not Vaseline and other types of petroleum jelly, also known as petrolatum, are comedogenic (can cause or worsen acne). There are medical professionals who will say that petroleum jelly will cause acne, while others might argue the opposite. The same also goes for research, though most research points to petroleum jelly being non-comedogenic.   Why might petroleum jelly be comedogenic? Petroleum jelly is very greasy. This greasiness could cause petroleum jelly to be comedogenic. Research has also shown this may be the case, but there is also some more reliable research that suggests that this is false. Because people have wondered if petroleum jelly is comedogenic for a long time, most studies on this topic are a little bit older (pre-2000). Also, most studies that suggest the petroleum jelly might cause acne were done on rabbits, who are much more sensitive to cosmetics than humans are.   A 1972 article that introduced acne cosmetica,1 acne caused by cosmetic products, tested many different cosmetic creams on rabbit ear canals, and found that many of them, including petroleum jelly, were mildly comedogenic. The research also found that using petroleum jelly or other cosmetic substances can cause mild acne breakouts in some woman. This research wasn't extremely convincing that petroleum jelly is comedogenic as rabbits aren't the perfect model for seeing what the effect would be on human skin. Also, the research done on petroleum jelly's effect on actual human skin showed that it caused comedonal reactions, but only in some women.  The most reliable study testing if petroleum jelly is comedogenic is probably a 1996 study by the same man who did the previous study I mentioned.2 The results, after testing different products that use petroleum jelly on different groups of patients, were that there wasn't any comedogenic potential in petroleum jelly. Petroleum jelly also didn't worsen acne at all.  It is most likely that petroleum jelly is not comedogenic. Some studies point to it being comedogenic as a possibility, but rabbit ears are much more sensitive than human skin, so it is impossible to get definitive information from those studies. If you are worried about getting acne from using a product like Vaseline, you should be fine. Odds are, the Vaseline would be helping you more than hurting.    1: \"Acne Cosmetica\"  2: Petrolalum is not comedogenic in rabbits or humans: A critical reappraisal of the rabbit ear assay and the concept of \"acne cosmetica\" ",
        "id": 262,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calcium intake vs bioavailability",
        "body": "National Institutes of Health (NIH) Medline Plus website has the same recommendations as the FDA, broken down by age, sex, and pregnancy status. They cite the 2010 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D which is very comprehensive and can be downloaded for free.  The report says that:      mean calcium absorption (also referred to as \u201cfractional calcium absorption,\u201d which is the percentage of a given dose of calcium that is absorbed) in men and non-pregnant women\u2014across a wide age range\u2014 has been demonstrated to be approximately 25 percent of calcium intake   However, calcium absorption or bioavailability depends on many factors such as: age, sex, pregnancy, metabolic status (such as obesity), Vitamin D intake (promotes absorption), phytic acid and oxalic acid intake (inhibits absorption), amount of calcium intake itself, etc. See p. 38 of the IOM report  In addition, some things increase elimination of calcium from the body and can also reduce absorption, such as: alcohol, caffeine, and high protein consumption. See the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements page for calcium for more.  Lastly but importantly, this 2010 article in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition directly discusses your question concerning how biovailability is taken into account when establishing Dietary Reference Intakes. For calcium, it says the dietary factors considered were phytate and oxalate intake (both of which inhibit absorption). ",
        "id": 335,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to be relieved of pain with in-grown nails?",
        "body": "I've had ingrown nails for more than 15 years and complete nail removal was never on the table. Wedge resection is a much more easy procedure, which may not even require anesthesia. It will also heal much faster and will hardly interfere with your everyday life.  More on this procedure can be found at:   Advice for parents about wedge resection of toenail Ingrown Toenail Removal   EDIT: this procedure is less invasive, but recurrence is quite common.",
        "id": 1199,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are systemwide treatment statistics collected in any countries?",
        "body": "There are actually a variety of publicly available databases that include many different aspects of the types of data that you are looking for. For example, a database produced by AHRQ, known as the National Inpatient Sample (NIS), includes data on hundreds of millions of inpatient visits by patients. It includes data on length of stay, ICU admission, diagnosis, procedures completed, complications, and mortality. You can learn more about using this deidentified, HIPAA-compliant database here: http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/  Another national data system is the Medicare database, that includes similar information for the portion of the population that is covered by Medicare. Learn more here: https://www.cms.gov/research-statistics-data-and-systems/research-statistics-data-and-systems.html  The US is ahead of much of the world in collecting such advanced data on a variety of health topics. This so-called Health Services Research is actually a hot topic in medicine with many papers published in just the past ten years. Major data systems exist elsewhere, including Canada, Finland, and many others. You can do a straightforward Google search to discover more.",
        "id": 1455,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Scrotal swelling affecting a child",
        "body": "This is not the right place to ask that question, you/your sister need to talk with the medical professional who evaluated and diagnosed him.   In the USA, whoever proposes to do surgery has a legal and ethical obligation to explain it thoroughly (the reasons for the procedure with the risks, benefits, and alternatives) to the patient or legal guardian of the child BEFORE the procedure.   Informed consent.  I don't know the law in your country but there must be something similar.  On Health SE we can't diagnose or propose treatment plans.  Even for a doctor, without examining the child, it would be unethical to give treatment recommendations.  Yes there are some causes of scrotal swelling that MIGHT REQUIRE surgery (for example torsion, or often inguinal hernia), sometimes medical emergencies requiring immediate surgery. But no one online should diagnose your nephew's case.  I recommend you write down your specific questions,  print out a picture like the one I attached, and TAKE THEM BOTH to the physician (or another for a second opinion if you feel it is needed) to explain it to your sister (and you).  ",
        "id": 1808,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "what are the long and short term benefits of cold showers",
        "body": "Short-Term Benefits   Cold showers boost recovery after exercise: Athletes often take ice baths after vigorous training do reduce soreness. You don\u2019t have to take it that far, but you can obtain a similar benefit with a quick cold shower after your training sessions. Cold showers increase mood and alertness: When cold water pours over your body, your breathing deepens in response to the shock of the cold (this is your body trying to keep you warm by increasing overall oxygen intake). Your heart rate will also increase, resulting in a rush of blood through your body that will help you get energized for the day.   Long-Term Benefits   Cold showers burn fat: There are two kinds of fat in your body: white fat and brown fat. White fat is the body fat we all know and struggle to get rid of. When we consume more calories than our body needs to function and we don\u2019t burn those calories for energy, they are stored as white fat. Brown fat,\"the good fat\", is activated when we're exposed to extreme cold in order to generate energy and keep our body warm.Cold showers also speeds up your metabolic rate which helps to lose fat. Relieve depressive symptoms: \"A lifestyle that lacks certain physiological stressors that have been experienced by primates through millions of years of evolution, such as brief changes in body temperature(e.g cold swim) and this lack of \"thermal exercise\" may cause inadequate functioning of the brain. Cold showers strengthen immunity and circulation: Remember how I mentioned that cold showers speed up your metabolic rate, which helps you lose fat? The increase of this rate activates your immune system, which releases virus-fighting white blood cells that will help you get sick less frequently. Cold showers also increase your overall blood circulation, which can help you avoid hypertension and the hardening of arteries.   But still there are various temperature degrees of cold water that may harm the body while some relieves it. For more information about these temperature degrees, visit:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4049052/  For more on the long and short term benefits, visit:  http://www.medicaldaily.com/benefits-cold-showers-7-reasons-why-taking-cool-showers-good-your-health-289524  http://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifestyle/surprising-benefits-cold-showers.html",
        "id": 1371,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When should one stop CPR?",
        "body": "If the patient is breathing normally, stop CPR.    Image Source: Official Guidelines of the European Resuscitation Council, latest edition: 2015. Section 2, p.88   The part that made me personally most suspicious in the article was that the patient supposedly breathed for 4 minutes without pulse.     However, she did not take the crucial step of checking for a pulse - to determine whether the heart had restarted - and unwittingly left Sophie dying on the wet floor.      Paramedics arrived four minutes later and resumed CPR, only to be asked by one of the lifeguards: 'Why are you doing CPR? She's alive,' the hearing was told.   Normally breathing for 4 minutes without pulse is impossible.  Most likely in this case the patient was gulping (also known as undergoing agonal respiration). This is not considered normal breathing and requires CPR.   The lifeguard took it as \"normal breathing\" and discontinued CPR wrongfully.     How to detect agonal breathing  Here is a video of a real resuscitation and from 2:40 onwards it's a good example of agonal breathing.  The procedure followed in this video is outdated, but it's a great example of agonal breathing. The newest guidelines can be found here.",
        "id": 2066,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calories of McDonald's Big Mac vs. Quarter Pounder with Cheese",
        "body": "SE participant Ivo Beckers provided the key to this answer.  He pointed out that the Big Mac typically only has one piece of cheese, not two.  So the big caloric differences are that the Big Mac has an extra half of a bun and \"special sauce\", whereas the Quarter Pounder with Cheese has an extra slice of cheese, 0.8oz more beef, and ketchup.  Those differences offset each other evenly.  Why did the McDonald's employee tell me the Big Mac has two slices of cheese?  Well, either that restaurant makes it different, or the information he provided was erroneous.  In researching this question and answer, I learned some interesting facts according to the McDonald's nutrition information for the Big Mac and the Quarter Pounder with Cheese:   McDonald's \"special sauce\" contains 90 calories per 0.6oz, whereas the ketchup contains only 20 calories for the same quantity (and the mustard has zero calories). McDonald's \"special sauce\" contains high fructose corn syrup, corn syrup, and sugar. McDonald's ketchup contains high fructose corn syrup and corn syrup. McDonald's sesame seed buns contain high fructose corn syrup. Even though the Big Mac has less beef than the Quarter Pounder with Cheese (2.2oz vs 3oz), its beef has more salt (250mg vs 190mg).  However, the Quarter Pounder with Cheese has more overall salt largely due to the extra slice of cheese (1110mg of sodium vs. 970mg). Both the Big Mac and the Quarter Pounder with Cheese contain trans fat.   Note that the McDonald's health and nutrition information website is excellent and is largely a model of how to effectively and clearly provide nutrition information.  You can add and subtract each ingredient to see how it affects the nutrition information.  I did find an possible error in it, however.  When I view the nutrition information for the Quarter Pounder with Cheese and remove all ingredients except for the beef patties, their website shows they have a total of 1g of trans fat.  When I do the same for the \"Pasteurized Process American Cheese\", it says the cheese has 0g of trans fat.  Yet, when I put the two ingredients together, the trans fat jumps to 1.5g.  I'm not sure if this is a special McMath, a rounding issue, or a genuine McError.",
        "id": 567,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Melanocyte count in our skin",
        "body": "The count of melanocytes per square mm depends on the body region and 1500 seems to be the upper limit. Interestingly in different races, the number of melanocytes is THE SAME.          Quoting from:Understanding the Melanocyte Distribution in Human Epidermis: An Agent-Based Computational Model Approach         The skin color in young and healthy individuals is remarkably uniform.   A major reason for this is that the melanocytes are evenly distributed   throughout the basal layer of the epidermis. The density of   melanocytes varies with the body site from around 900 melanocytes per   square mm on the back to around 1500 melanocytes per square mm in the   genital region. ",
        "id": 816,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is saturated fat beneficial after all?",
        "body": "From my readings, we are learning in the last 10 years that saturated fat is not unhealthy as it was made out to be for the last 50 years or so. Its bad reputation was based on a very bad scientific study which everyone (including American Heart Association and various governments) took seriously.  It is not a particularly healthy form of fat except that some saturated fats handle heat better than some other types of fat we substituted them with. So for cooking it might be better to use saturated fat than some of the alternatives. Again, there is no study that I am aware of that proves conclusively that saturated fats are better for you.  Reference: May 2014 article http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303678404579533760760481486",
        "id": 317,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is an unfrequent consumption of a big quantity of cigarettes harmful for my health?",
        "body": "According to the NHS, on average, every 15 cigarettes will cause one genetic mutation.  Usually that mutation will do nothing sinister, but every one has the potential to develop into cancer.  Mutations aside, lots of nasty things happen immediately when you smoke. The filter doesn't catch much of the filth, which very rapidly enters your bloodstream. The body does many things to deal with toxins, and has an emergency last resort technique for dealing with scenarios where a large volume of toxins enters the system in one go, and can't be removed fast enough. The toxins are locked up in fat cells around the liver, to effectively take them out of circulation. If you lead a very healthy lifestyle, and maintain an ideal weight, then over time, those stored toxins will be released gradually and disposed of via natural detoxification processes. If you don't have a calorie deficit though, then your body never needs to empty its fat reserves, so that toxic fit just stays around your liver indefinitely.  All that said, I doubt that 20 cigarettes every few months will do noticeable harm, except for making you stink. Stress can cause harm, if not physically then certainly mentally. Perhaps a bigger risk though is the thought habit you are developing of justifying smoking by blaming stress. As an ex-smoker, I know this cycle too well. There is a risk that you might gradually increase the frequency of smoking, each time blaming stressful situations.  Perhaps instead of wondering how much harm your smoking is doing, perhaps it would be better to tackle the underlying stress, or find an alternative stress relief.",
        "id": 850,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The next generation of contact lenses",
        "body": "I've read that SCL (soft contact lens) industries are developing soft lenses for keratoconus.  My guess is that they would have a potential advantage in comfort, especially in the initial month or two of wear.  But, I can't imagine them having any vision advantages.    I'm an experienced 30 year contact lens wearer and a technically studied person.  I've worn first generation soft lens, and the new silicone hydrogel Continuous wear lens (one month).  And I've worn corneal gas permeable lenses, both first generation (silicon acrylate) and current generation (fluorosilicone acrylates with low silicon content), which are far better than the originals for myself.     As far as \"high-tech\" or \"sci-fi\" type lenses, there are \"zoom\" contact lenses under development, for instance with 2x magnification.  They work in conjunction with a pair of glasses which magnify the image, and may be handy for those with very high myopia or low vision, since the stronger the diopter power the smaller the focused image is on the retina.  Also, there are new improvements being made with toric lenses in the SCL market, which gas permeable lenses have had an advantage in.  On the issue of eye health, gas permeable lenses are remain the safest, reducing the chance of infection to a third of that of soft contact lenses.  This is probably because soft contact lenses absorb liquids and bacteria, while gas permeable lenses do not.  So imagine a kitchen with a sink sponge that collects bacteria and never gets replaced.  That's comparable to a soft contact lens that rarely gets replaced.  Also imagine a dinner plate in the kitchen sink.  It gets washed off very well, over and over and over, and remains clean.  This is like a gas permeable lens.    Finally, gas permeable lens are likely to remain the top lenses of choice when SCL fail to correct the vision adequately.  This is because they are perfectly shaped, and rest on the cornea (corneal lenses) and thereby the cornea is optically replaced by the perfect shape of those hard lenses, even molding it to the lens shape over time (orthokeratology is a field that corrects myopia by temporarily molding the cornea to correct the vision instead of surgery, and it's benefits, and side effects, are temporary) .    On the other hand, soft contact lenses conform to the shape of the cornea, and either add diopter power to it, subtract from it.  Any irregularity or higher order aberration in the cornea will remain after the soft contact lens conforms to the irregularity. For myself, I currently use Rigid Gas Permeable lenses (RGP) because they correct my vision better, and even though I have myopia, I couldn't read well with soft lenses.  After a couple of months of adaptation, I found them to been more comfortable than soft lenses (except during pollen season).  I think this is mainly due to their cleanliness.  They remain crystal clean every day, where as soft lens collect more and more deposits day by day until disposal. So for me, each day is like a fresh pair of lens.  However, I never did try the daily disposable soft contact lenses, which may solve the comfort problem I had.",
        "id": 2195,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Myelocytes present in CBC",
        "body": "Myelocytes are immature granulocytes (a type of white blood cells), that are usually only found in bone marrow.   In essence, raised immature granulocytes are a sign of bone marrow activity.   The reference range for adults who are not pregnant I found was usually 0, except for this paper: Age-dependent reference ranges for automated assessment of immature granulocytes and clinical significance in an outpatient setting where they looked at healthy patients and determined a reference range from that.      we recommend the following IG upper reference range limits for routine outpatient use: 0.30%/40.0 \u00b5L\u22121 (\u226410 years) and 0.90%/70.0 \u00b5L\u22121 (>10 years).   Most people had a count of 0, though. They then looked at the outliers they found in another group, and found that these people had      infections (such as respiratory infections) and drug therapy (mostly glucocorticoids and chemotherapeutics) as common etiologies   High values can be found in patients hospitalized with severe infections: Revisiting the white blood cell count: immature granulocytes count as a diagnostic marker to discriminate between SIRS and sepsis - a prospective, observational study found values of 630.5 +/\u2212 1042.5 cells/\u03bcl in patients with an infection. This could be used to differentiate between patients with and without infection.   The most worrisome cause, and why further tests are ordered if values are high is that a raised count can be a sign of acute myeloid leukemia:     Most patients with AML have too many immature white cells in their blood, and not enough red blood cells or platelets. Many of the white blood cells may be myeloblasts (often just called blasts), which are immature blood-forming cells that are not normally found in the blood.    How is acute myeloid leukemia diagnosed?  So, at the very least, we have the following possible causes for values above the reference value:   acute infection  acute inflammatory disease  steroid use  acute myeloid leukemia    The number alone is not sufficient to make a diagnosis, so further tests are needed. ",
        "id": 601,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Acupressure as a treatment for nausea or motion-sickness a legit remedy? How does it work?",
        "body": "Stimulating these points with pressure, needles, or heat triggers the release of endorphins, which are the neurochemicals that relieve pain. As a result, pain is blocked and the flow of blood and oxygen to the affected area is increased. This causes the muscles to relax and promotes healing.  Because acupressure inhibits the pain signals sent to the brain through a mild, fairly painless stimulation, it has been described as closing the \"gates\" of the pain-signaling system, preventing painful sensations from passing through the spinal cord to the brain.  Theory  Your body is composed of a network of energy channels, also called \u201cmeridians,\u201d which draw the vital life force, or \u201cqi,\u201d from food, air and your environment in general, according to Iona Teeguarden, a Jin Shin Do acupuncturist and co-author of \u201cA Complete Guide to Acupressure.\u201d When qi flows smoothly, you can easily maintain a state of health. When qi becomes blocked\u2014often due to stress, change or injury\u2014symptoms such as nausea can arise.  How It Works  When you press an acupressure point, you release physical tension in the muscles and allow blood to flow, notes Susan Lark, women\u2019s health and preventive medicine expert and author of \u201cDr. Susan Lark\u2019s The Estrogen Decision Self Help Book.\u201d On a more subtle level, Lark notes, qi begins to flow freely, allowing the body and mind to return to a state of balance. One way to think of an acupressure point is as a valve that sits on an energy line. Massaging the point opens the valve, releasing any stagnation in the line and allowing qi flow to resume.  http://www.livestrong.com/article/96033-directions-using-antinausea-wrist-bands/  http://www.acupressure.com/articles/how_acupressure_works.htm",
        "id": 1357,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How accurate is bomb calorimeter for measuring nutritional calories of food?",
        "body": "It seems deceptively simple to just assume a bomb calorimeter  is still used. Manufacturers of these things seem convinced of their utility, naturally.     The original method used to determine the number of kcals in a given food directly measured the energy it produced.The food was placed in a sealed container surrounded by water--an apparatus known as a bomb calorimeter. The food was completely burned and the resulting rise in water temperature was measured. This method is not frequently used today.   According to the National Data Lab (NDL), most of the calorie values in the USDA and industry food tables are based on an indirect calorie estimation made using the so-called Atwater system. In this system, calories are not determined directly by burning the foods. Instead, the total caloric value is calculated by adding up the calories provided by the energy-containing nutrients: protein, carbohydrate, fat and alcohol. Because carbohydrates contain some fiber that is not digested and utilized by the body, the fiber component is usually subtracted from the total carbohydrate before calculating the calories.   The Atwater system uses the average values of 4 Kcal/g for protein, 4 Kcal/g for carbohydrate, and 9 Kcal/g for fat. Alcohol is calculated at 7 Kcal/g. (These numbers were originally determined by burning and then averaging.) Thus the label on an energy bar that contains 10 g of protein, 20 g of carbohydrate and 9 g of fat would read 201 kcals or Calories. A complete discussion of this subject and the calories contained in more than 6,000 foods may be found on the National Data Lab web site at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/. At this site you can also download the food database to a handheld computer. Another online tool that allows the user to total the calorie content of several foods is the Nutrition Analysis Tool at http://www.nat.uiuc.edu.   How Do Food Manufacturers Calculate the Calorie Count of Packaged Foods?, Scientific American,  2003.   But it is not prudent to again assume this it. It varies     Calorie Calculation by Country      Calorie Calculations in the United States      In the U.S., there are six accepted methods. The two most frequently used are the 4-4-9 formula and the Atwater method.      4-4-9. In the U.S., most manufacturers use the 4-4-9 method, which assumes that each gram of protein contributes 4 Calories to the caloric total, each gram of carbohydrates contributes 4 Calories, and each gram of fat contributes 9 Calories.   Atwater. The USDA SR database, in contrast, commonly uses the Atwater method. The Atwater method uses more precise figures based on food type when assigning Calories values per gram to protein, carbohydrate, and fat. Find the Atwater table here.   4-4-9 adjusted for non-digestible carbohydrates and sugar alcohols.  (Total carbohydrates less non-digestible carbs and sugar alcohols.) For soluble non-digestible carbohydrates, a factor of 2 Calories per gram (rather than 4) is used, and sugar alcohols use specific factors listed in No. 6 below.   Specific food factors approved by the FDA.   Bomb calorimetry. This process involves burning a food item to see how much heat it releases, which is directly convertible to Calories since, as we know, one Calorie equals the amount of energy required to heat one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius. Note the adjustment for Calories from protein in the CFR.   General factors for caloric value of sugar alcohols: Isomalt = 2.0 Calories per gram, lactitol = 2.0 Calories per gram, xylitol = 2.4 Calories per gram, maltitol = 2.1 Calories per gram, sorbitol = 2.6 Calories per gram, hydrogenated starch hydrolysates = 3.0 Calories per gram, mannitol = 1.6 Calories per gram, and erythritol = 0 Calories per gram.      For more information, see the U.S. food labeling regulations here.      Calorie Calculations in the European Union      The declared values in the nutrition table are average values and must be based on:      Total value. A calculation from the known or actual average values of the ingredients used.   Known data. A calculation from generally established and accepted data.   Estimates. (The same concept as 4-4-9 and 4-4-9-7) The energy value to be declared shall be calculated using the following conversion factors:  carbohydrate (except polyols): 17 kJ/g (4 Cal/g) polyols: 10 kJ/g (2,4 Cal/g) protein: 17 kJ/g (4 Cal/g) fat: 37 kJ/g (9 Cal/g) salatrims: 25 kJ/g (6 Cal/g) alcohol (ethanol), 29 kJ/g (7 Cal/g) organic acid: 13 kJ/g (3 Cal/g) fibre: 8 kJ/g (2 Cal/g) erythritol: 0 kJ/g (0 Cal/g)       For more information, see the EU food labeling regulations here.   The overall accuracies of such measruemnts with a bomb calorimeter  is actually a frequent question:      The  calorific content is measured with a device known as the bomb calorimeter. A sample of food is placed in an airtight chamber - the 'bomb' - which is filled with pure oxygen and then placed in a tank of water. The food is ignited by an electric spark so it completely burns up. The temperature increase in the water is measured and the actual energy content of the food can then be calculated, either in old-fashioned calories or more modern joules. This method is not completely accurate, as it is rather crude when compared to the way the human body uses food. For example, proteins are completely burned up in the bomb calorimeter, whereas in the human body some of them would be used not for energy but for the production of things like skin, hair, mucus and muscle tissue. Incidentally, the subject is well covered in most biology textbooks for A-level and above, as well as in the occasional Open University programme on television.      The four sources of food energy - protein, fat, carbohydrate and alcohol - yield 4, 9, 3.75 and 7 calories per gram respectively. The calorie value of a food is usually estimated by multiplying the protein, fat, carbohydrate and alcohol content by the appropriate factors. Many food manufacturers do not carry out chemical analyses but instead estimate the calorie content using values for ingredients derived from tables published by HMSO. Such calculations are normally within 10 per cent of the actual value.   How do food companies work out the number of calories in their products?   More detail can be found in this Food energy \u2013 methods of analysis and conversion factors, FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER, 77, Report of a technical workshop Rome, 3\u20136 December 2002.  In summary, bomb calorimetry gives very precise values for caloric content. But we need for nutritional analysis calorific content.",
        "id": 2417,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much time takes it to get a diagnosis of borreliosis/lyme disease?",
        "body": "Two-step Laboratory Testing Process is recommended for Lyme decease detection. It takes several days depends on the laboratory to  make the test.   However in accordance to your post you were bitten by tick more than 30 days ago and you did not develop later signs &amp;symptoms. So it gives evidences that the probability of the development of Lyme decease is quite low.",
        "id": 2395,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is regular nightly usage of earplugs healthy?",
        "body": "High quality custom ear plugs (e.g., http://www.etymotic.com/consumer/hearing-protection/erme.html although all custom plug are essentially the same materials) are essentially identical to the molds used in some hearing aids. Hearing aid users are encouraged to use their aids all day every day. Increased build up of ear wax can be a problem, but can easily be treated at home. Cheaper foam ear plugs can deteriorate in the canal and add debris.",
        "id": 496,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Protection against Flu - in 1957?",
        "body": "Probably the flu vaccine.  The first flu vaccine was developed in 1937, it only protected against one strain of the virus (we now vaccinate against three or four), but by 1942, another strain was added. The US Army even carried out the trials to test the vaccine and used it during WW2.  Was it effective? Yep, at least in 1944.      During the 1943\u20131944 season when the epidemic started in early November, the trial was repeated and 6,263 subjects were vaccinated.[10]\u00a0This time the results showed that only 2.2% of the vaccinated subjects had clinically assessed influenza disease compared with 7.1% of those not vaccinated, an efficacy of 69%.   That's a really good number for a flu vaccine. Better than we had the Achievements and challenges in antiviral drug discovery, which varied between 10 and 60 percent - flu vaccine effectiveness varies wildly because what specific strains are vaccinated against need to be picked ahead of time and there's no guarantee that these are going to be the most widespread in the next season.   1957 saw a flu pandemic of the Asian flu.      The rapid development of avaccine\u00a0against the\u00a0H2N2 virus\u00a0and the availability of\u00a0antibiotics to treat secondary infections limited the spread and mortality of the pandemic   It contrast, antivirals (against any virus) weren't discovered until the 50s and it was only in the late 60s that one effective against influenza started to be used. They are also used for treatment, not as mass prevention.   Sources  The Evolving History of Influenza Viruses and Influenza Vaccines  Achievements and challenges in antiviral drug discovery (full text PDF available)   Asian flu pandemic of 1957",
        "id": 578,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are airplane pilots more likely to have skin cancer?",
        "body": "A recent study confirmed the increased risk of airline pilots of a certain type of skin cancer (basal cell carcinoma or \"BCC\").  Incidence of cancer among licenced commercial pilots flying North Atlantic routes  December 2017, Environmental Health 16(1):86  The risk is increased relative to the general population (who fly less frequently). Whilst there can be no proof, the authors hypothesize that \"Basal cell carcinoma of skin is radiation-related cancer, and may be attributed to cosmic radiation.\"  This seems a very reasonable conclusion from the data available.",
        "id": 1907,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are Soft Drinks dangerous for health?",
        "body": "Short and sweet (pun intended)  Soft drinks generally contain a lot of sugar.  As a general rule, there\u2019s 10.6g of sugar per 100ml of\u00a0Coca-Cola\u00a0Classic. So the health effects of drinking soft drinks are the same as eating sugar.  Not so short and sweet  As a general rule, there\u2019s 10.6g of sugar per 100ml of\u00a0Coca-Cola\u00a0Classic. There are 4g of sugar per teaspoon so this equates to just over 2.5 teaspoons of sugar for every 100ml.  Standard can sizes are different around the world.  Here in the UK the standard can size is 330ml and that equates to 35g of sugar equalling just over 8.5 teaspoons of sugar.  In the US the standard can size is 12\u00a0US\u00a0fl\u00a0oz or 355ml.  This equates to 37.6g of sugar equalling just short of 9.5 teaspoons of sugar.  This can contains 150 calories which is practically all from sugar.   Sources include: USDA  So the health effects of drinking soft drinks are the same as eating sugar. Those which are of the 'diet' variety often contain aspartame which is covered by the question on here Are artificial sweeteners safe?.",
        "id": 2247,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to make goat milk safe for consumption?",
        "body": "You can find directions for pasteurizing goat milk  many places online, and that should render it safe from pathogens. However, it will do nothing to protect you from heavy metals, pesticides, and other toxins that goat might be ingesting. Considering that it's eating from garbage piles, I would consider it very likely the milk contains at least some toxins. I would not drink it. If you do drink it, I would suggest not giving it to children and pregnant women.",
        "id": 789,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it OK to snack on salted nuts for a high-fibre diet?",
        "body": "Like most foods, salt should be consumed in moderation. Your body needs salt, but a good idea would be to try and cut down salt from some other parts of your diet. For example, get unsalted fries or no ketchup. Check the daily recommended value for an estimate of how much salt you're intaking. Furthermore (thanks to Carey Gregory for pointing this out), drinking water may NOT be the best idea to offset the sodium intake. According to dietitian Monica Reinagel(from LiveStrong link),      \"drinking some extra water after a high-sodium meal may help flush   some of the sodium from your body and may also help get rid of some   retained water to reduce bloating...      Just drinking more water, however, is not a solution for a long-term   high-sodium diet, says Reinagel. The increased blood volume that   results from your body holding onto the excess water is what raises   your blood pressure.   So depending on the rest of your diet, you could better judge for yourself whether salted nuts are ok, or maybe unsalted would be better.  If you happen to have a high-sodium diet and don't like the taste of unsalted nuts, it would be a good time to look into alternative sources of fiber.  http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/salt-and-your-health  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygroscopy  http://jap.physiology.org/content/65/1/332.short  http://www.livestrong.com/article/529042-does-drinking-water-flush-out-sodium-in-the-body/  Interesting Read if you want to know more about sodium removal from body-   ncbi.nlm.nih.gov: Sweat rate and sodium loss during work in the heat",
        "id": 54,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it right to say that any syncope is a result of low perfusion to brain?",
        "body": "Yes.  The definition of syncope is exactly that, hypo-perfusion in the brain. This is usually caused by a sudden drop in blood pressure such as in a vaso-vagal syncope where a strong vagal response triggers sudden dilation of arteries (vasodilation) and decreases the heart rate. The same goes for heart conditions called arrhythmias cause an abnormal heartbeat (sometimes very slow or very fast) that leads to a drop in blood pressure.  The response to this hypo-perfusion is a sudden loss of consciousness and muscle tone. This leads to collapse leaving the head/brain at the same level as the heart. This makes the return of venous blood from the lower body easier as it no longer travels against gravity and blood must no longer travel against gravity to the brain. This in turn makes the hearts job of perfusing the brain easier leading to a rapid recovery of consciousness. That's at least the rough concept.  Here is an article about syncope, it's clinical symptoms, and physiology: https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/132/10/2630/329792/Symptoms-and-signs-of-syncope-a-review-of-the-link",
        "id": 1435,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Patient safety culture",
        "body": "A full college library should have what you need. They typically have most major research journals. Some large municipal libraries will too. Smaller libraries may have material on the subject, but they probably won't have access to research journals.  And of course many research papers are available free online. Abstracts for almost all research is available for free, but full text may be behind pay walls. But the abstracts alone will often be all you need, and if you need the full article it at least gives you the exact publication you need to find.",
        "id": 1535,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the implications of having weak A or B blood?",
        "body": "The article The importance of weak ABO subgroups has a section on this, in addition to general information on what weak subgroups are. All quotes in this answer areas from that study.   Weak blood types  Weak blood types can be caused by a person having a mutation that leads to not expressing the type A or B antibodies as much, or by mutations in the genes coding for these that mean the antibodies they do produce react less when brought into contact with type A and B antigens for testing.      These weak phenotypes, in majority of the   cases result from the expression of an alternate weak allele present at the ABO loci.   Weak type A and B are different, and there are also different weak subtypes for each. For example, here is a case study of a patient with weak type A blood (much of the research is on that, as it is more common than weak type B): A weak blood group A phenotype caused by a translation-initiator mutation in the ABO gene.  Blood donors  Basically, weak type A or B blood donors's blood may be mistyped as being type O. If it is given to recipients with blood type O, these patients may experience blood agglutination which can be dangerous.      Identification of these subgroups is important because these donors may be mistyped as group O individuals. Wrongly grouped as O, weak subgroups of A or B red cells (if transfused to O group individuals) can show decreased survival.    This does not concern your case, as it is about weak type A, but I'm including this for completeness sake: One of the weak type A groups, Ax is special, in that people with this blood type should not donate for people with type A blood, as they actually have antibodies against the dominant type A antigen.      Similarly since Ax individuals almost always have anti-A1 antibodies in their serum. If clinically significant, they can lead to fatal transfusion reactions on transfusing their whole blood or plasma to group A individuals.    Blood recipients  None of the sources I could find went into much detail what this meant for receiving blood transfusions. None mentioned not being able to receive type A or B blood if the patient is a weak type A or B.   Being mistyped as O when receiving blood is not going to lead to any major problems - however, it means the person will only receive type O blood and not type A or B blood. In situations with a donor blood shortage this might be a disadvantage.   The researchers of the study told the donors, so they would know that their blood could not be given to a type O patient.      All the donors were personally informed about their group and were given a special blood group card clarifying their donor as well as recipient status.    You might want to give your child something similar to carry around with them. Maybe the doctor/lab that identified the weak blood type has something suiting. ",
        "id": 808,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Whatever happened to Tonsillitis?",
        "body": "There is an excellent wikipedia page about the the procedure called tonsillectomy: \"Although tonsillectomy is performed less frequently than in the 1950s, it remains one of the most common surgical procedures in children in the United States and many other western countries.\"  That WP page is amply sourced with research papers, the following box is just  a shortened excerpt.     Complications      A recent study states that tonsillectomies in young children (0 to 7   years) are correlated with weight gain in the years following surgery.      The morbidity rate associated with tonsillectomy is 2% to 4% due to   post-operative bleeding; the mortality rate is 1 in 15,000, due to   bleeding, airway obstruction, or anesthesia complications.      Impact on immune system      It remains controversial whether tonsillectomy may negatively affect   the immune system. However, multiple studies have confirmed   correlation between a previous history of tonsillectomy and a wide   range of diseases, such as:      Hodgkin's disease,  Non-hodgkin's lymphoma, Laryngeal cancer,   Esophageal cancer, Thyroid cancer, Breast cancer, Prostate cancer,   Base of tongue cancer, Leukemia, Asthma, Hay fever, Irritable bowel   syndrome, Crohn's disease, Appendicitis, Heart attack, Sarcoidosis,   Rheumatoid arthritis, Multiple sclerosis, Deep neck infection,   Poliomyelitis, Recurrent cellulitis, Primary biliary cholangitis,   Chronic rhinosinusitis, Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric   disorders associated with streptococcal infections.      Moreover, other studies have found that tonsillectomy may lead to:         a decrease in levels of serum immunoglobulin   a decrease in levels of secretory Immunoglobulin A   an increased risk of autoimmune disease   an increase in mortality between the age of 18 and 44   an increased risk of chronic disease   an increase in overall cancer risk      Mark's comment is basically right:     \"The simplified version is that alternative short-term treatments got   better, and long-term studies showed that the long-term benefits   mostly didn't exist. Still looking for sources.\"   But this is also actually a very prominent example of very widespread bad practice that once was the standard. One study shedding some light on this can be found in the historian David Wootton's \"Bad Medicine: Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates\":     Moreover Lister\u2019s innovations made possible new types of bad medicine.   For the first time it was possible to operate on the abdomen, and some   surgeons proceeded to happily chop out bits and pieces (an appendix   here, a colon there) not because they were infected, but because they   might one day become infected\u2013\u2013the historian Ann Dally has called this   \u2018fantasy surgery\u2019. These operations never became the norm, but   tonsillectomies did, and we now know they did more harm than good.   Worse still, the decision as to whose tonsils should be removed was   not remotely rational. Of 1,000 11-year-old children in New York in   1934, 61 per cent had had tonsillectomies.            The remaining 39 percent     were subjected to examination by a group of physicians, who selected     45 percent of these for tonsillectomy and rejected the rest. The     rejected children were re-examined by another group of physicians, who     recommended tonsillectomy for 46 per cent of those remaining after the     first examination. When the rejected children were examined a third     time, a similar percentage was selected for tonsillectomy so that     after three examinations only sixty-five children remained who had not     been recommended for tonsillectomy. These subjects were not further     examined because the supply of examining physicians ran out.         Clearly   the decision as to who should have a tonsillectomy was entirely   arbitrary. This was bad medicine alive and well in the 1930s.   First: do no harm. Since tonsillitis is still a common problem, the actual illness may be differently classified or diagnosed today. There may be other treatments available. But just cutting it out was of questionable effectiveness in the first place, could and did lead to a number of side effects and unwanted complications or long term effects. Together with the observation that most of the time not even the official guidelines were able to ensure a good practice, and many doctors were apparently unable to follow them, it is a good thing that this tonsillectomy fad is further falling out of fashion. ",
        "id": 1827,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How important is the amount of active ingredient in an ointment?",
        "body": "Before I answer your question: 40 years is a very long time. Your ointment should have an expiration date. You should not use it past that date. Not just that microbiological quality can't be guaranteed after that much time (not even with phenol which might have preserved it to a point, but not for 40 years), but also the chemical composition might have changed - both the active substances and the excipients might have underwent various chemical reactions - and no one can say with any certainty what you've got in there now.    Now, onto your question: How important is the amount of active ingredient in an ointment?   It depends on the ingredient. The concentration is important because both safety and efficacy/effectiveness depend on it. Some ingredients have a very wide range of concentrations in which they are proven to be both safe and effective; others have a very narrow range of concentrations in which they should/(are recommended to) be used; some are somewhere in between. You are asking about an ointment with lesser concentrations of active substance than the one you previously used, so the efficacy of the 'new' ointment is what you are concerned with.   Phenol  Phenol is used as an antiseptic in your ointments. The efficacy of antiseptics depends on many factors including:   concentration acidity (pH value) of the solution/medium/preparation duration of exposure the type(s) and number of microorganisms present presence of organic matter (especially in forming a biofilm)   So, the concentration is important, but there are other factors to be taken into account.   According to Martindale, The Complete Drug Reference (34th edition), the Phenol monograph:     Aqueous solutions up to 1% are bacteriostatic while stronger solutions are bactericidal.    Both ointments you used contain phenol in bacteriostatic (inhibits growth of bacteria) and not bacteriocidal (kills bacteria) concentrations.   There is various research on a MIC (minimal inhibitory concentration) of phenol:  According to Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance G. McDonnell, A. D. Russell     Pulvertaft and Lumb (386) demonstrated that low concentrations of phenols (0.032%, 320 \u03bcg/ml) and other (nonphenolic) agents lysed rapidly growing cultures of E. coli, staphylococci, and streptococci   From the same source (based on references 226 and 440 provided in that research paper):     the MIC of phenol against S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa is 2,000 \u03bcg/ml (which is 0.2%)   In Protection of bacteria against toxicity of phenol by immobilization in calcium alginate  Heribert Keweloh, Hermann-Josef Heipieper, Hans-J\u00fcrgen Rehm have used solutions of phenol in both 1 g/l (0.1%) and 2 g/l (0.2%) concentrations and got inhibition of growth of some bacteria (although they were testing something else, and I can't access the whole article).  Conclusion: concentration of phenol in your ointment is close to or over the ones I found in these references, and should be sufficient to exibit bacteriostatic activity if other conditions (such as pH, lipophilicity/hydrophilicity of the preparation etc) are favourable.   ZnO     Zinc oxide is mildly astringent and is used topically as a soothing and protective application in eczema and slight excoriations, in wounds, and for haemorrhoids (Martindale).   It is used in concetrations of up to 50% (Deutscher Arzneimittel Codex \u2013 DAC), but technical literature doesn't specify a minimal concentration at which it should be used.       Perhaps I could just use more each time?   You could, but you shouldn't. Follow the instructions included in the patient information leaflet. (Using more most likely wouldn't enhance the efficacy anyway).    In the end if a product is marketed as a medicine/drug in your country, it has to be submitted to rigorous procedures before it is approved, i.e. authorised for sale.      Before drug products are authorized for sale in Canada, Health Canada reviews them to assess their safety, efficacy and quality. Drug products include prescription and non-prescription pharmaceuticals, disinfectants and sanitizers with disinfectant claims.      Prior to being given market authorization, a manufacturer must present substantive scientific evidence of a product's safety, efficacy and quality as required by the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations.   From: Health Canada webpage.  They have a database of products, but I suppose that you can always contact them if you have questions or concerns regarding a particular product on Canadian market.     Please note that it is very difficult (if not impossible) to directly compare concentrations in in an ointment (especially a lipid-based one) and in water or aqueous medium. The ultimate burden of testing the efficacy is on the manufacturer; the ultimate burden of ensuring that such tests have been conducted and gave sufficient results in on the regulatory agency responsible for a certain market.    References:   Sweetman SC (Ed), Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. London: Pharmaceutical Press. Electronic version, (34th Edition [2005]).  Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance Gerald McDonnell, A. Denver Russell, Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999 Jan; 12(1): 147\u2013179. Protection of bacteria against toxicity of phenol by immobilization in calcium alginate  Heribert Keweloh, Hermann-Josef Heipieper, Hans-J\u00fcrgen Rehm, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology September II 1989, Volume 31, Issue 4, pp 383-389 Health Canada official website ",
        "id": 241,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this a trick question about a fracture?",
        "body": "I also don't see any fracture in the scaphoid, but \"fractures of the scaphoid are not visible in about 16% of cases on initial radiographs\" (Clinical scaphoid fracture, PubMed, 2011).  When symptoms suggest scaphoid fracture, but no fracture is seen on a radiograph, the current approach is to consider it as a \"clinical scaphoid fracture,\" immobilize the wrist and take another radiograph after 14 days. The article linked above criticizes this approach and recommends performing an early CT, MRI or scintigraphy to rule out other causes, such as distal radius fracture and tendon strain (see also aafp.org, Table 1).",
        "id": 2695,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the main causes of myopia?",
        "body": "Nature ran an article The myopia boom last month, focusing in the explosive increases in cases of myopia in many countries (with some Asian countries going from ~20% in 1940 to ~80% in 2010).  The precise cause is not determined with certainty, but there is a very good correlation between developing myopia and spending time indoors:     Researchers have consistently documented a strong association between measures of education and the prevalence of myopia.      [...]       one in five of the children had developed myopia, and the only environmental factor that was strongly associated with risk was time spent outdoors      children who spent more time outside were not necessarily spending less time with books, screens and close work. \u201cWe had these children who were doing both activities at very high levels and they didn't become myopic,\u201d   The proposed mechanism for this is the lack of light:     Retinal dopamine is normally produced on a diurnal cycle \u2014 ramping up during the day \u2014 and it tells the eye to switch from rod-based, nighttime vision to cone-based, daytime vision. Researchers now suspect that under dim (typically indoor) lighting, the cycle is disrupted, with consequences for eye growth. \u201cIf our system does not get a strong enough diurnal rhythm, things go out of control,\u201d says Ashby, who is now at the University of Canberra. \u201cThe system starts to get a bit noisy and noisy means that it just grows in its own irregular fashion.\u201d   But this is the subject of on-going research, and not everyone agrees. Other factors may also play a part:     Some researchers think that the data to support the link need to be more robust.       [..]      He says that the greater viewing distances outside could affect myopia progression, too. \u201cLight is not the only factor, and making it the explanation is a gross over-simplification of a complex process ",
        "id": 131,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "About contraception pills efficacy",
        "body": "The point of the sugar pills is to induce a withdrawal bleed, but that may not be necessary. Efficiency is not affected.     Do I have to bleed every month?      There is no evidence that shows women need monthly withdrawal bleeding, and no health problems are linked to skipping or eliminating bleeding. Studies have found that using the pill continuously for two or more cycles before having withdrawal bleeding is as safe and effective at preventing pregnancy as a traditional regimen.4   http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Patient-Resources/fact-sheets/Understanding-Menstrual",
        "id": 2001,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could drug abuse possibly make eyes smaller?",
        "body": "Yes  What you are taking is somewhat 25-times the recommended amount for medication. You are probably experiencing a fairly strong addiction to the drug. Yes, addiction can do many things to your body, including screwing up your amount of sleep and thus changing appearance of your eyes.   Effects of the drug include   dizziness  dilated pupils drowsiness changes in sleeping pattern   This can all contribute to the eyes perceived smaller.  Important Warning  Dextromethorphan is known for several lethal combinations with regular medication (Link to a German source from the government\u2019s Health Agency). This is why you should never take \u201cDMX\u201d as a drug, you can never know how good the quality is and anything mixed in this (going even to normal cold medication) can be lethal in combination.  Furthermore, opioids and opioid-derivatives are highly addictive (up to 50 times more compared to heroin) and have dangerous side effects. I would strongly advise against taking these drugs (and especially advise against injection, many lethal diseases are transmitted that way). If one really wants to consume drugs for whatever reasons, healthier options of drug consumption do exist.  You can find help for your drug addiction here: 1-877-941-2814",
        "id": 1982,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to safely prescribe steroids in Aphthous ulcers?",
        "body": "This is an excellent question!  It is indeed important to differentiate Aphthous ulcers (Canker sores) and Herpetic ulcers, due to the difference in therapeutic approach.  The Aphthous ulcers have the following characteristics:   Generally located on mobile muquosa (also called non-keratinised tissus), rarely on immobile muquosa and never on the lips. Presence of a red halo around the aphte. Presence of one or a few ulcers (up to 10) can be minor (3-10 mm in diameter) or major (>10 mm diameter) If many aphtes are present (>10), it is called an aphthous stomatitis Pain is felt upon contact Treatment: Can heal on its own, or can be treated topically with corticosteroids   The Herpetic ulcers have the following characteristics:   Almost always located on immobile muquosa (also called keratinised tissus), namely the gingiva, the palate and often on the lips. Sore throat and/or fever before appearance of vesicular lesions, Appearance of vesicular lesions before appearance of ulcers (see image below) Treatment: antiviral drugs to decrease pain and and length of symptoms.     Sources (other than formal training):   http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/218580-clinical https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000606.htm http://www.skinsight.com/adult/aphthousUlcerCankerSore.htm?Imiw9cApl   N.B.: Aphthous ulcers can look in rare cases like Herpetic Ulcers. They are smaller than 3mm, often bundled in clusters, and therefore bare the name \"Herpetiform Aphtae\".",
        "id": 878,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can aluminum in pots with aluminum encapsulated base leak into food?",
        "body": "No, \"aluminum encapsulated\" means the pan has a layer of aluminum bonded on to the exterior of the pan. The inner surface is stainless steel and perfectly safe because the aluminum never touches food.  This is just a less expensive version of copper-bottomed cookware. The copper is added for the same reason (heat distribution), but it's entirely on the exterior so never touches food.",
        "id": 1114,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much music listening is harmless using earphones?",
        "body": "You should not listen to music at 85 decibels for more than 8 hours. And if it's at 88 decibels limit your time to 4 hours.   To judge this you have to use decibels:  Livescience.com      A person exposed to noise levels at 85 decibels or higher for a   prolonged period of time is at risk for hearing loss     You shouldn't listen to music , or be exposed to any noise, at 85   decibels for more than 8 hours at a time, said Gordon Hughes, program   officer of clinical trials at the National Institute on Deafness and   Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). If you've got the volume   cranked to 88 decibels, then cut your listening time down to 4 hours.     At its loudest, an MP3 player pumps out 105 decibels that's100 times   more intense than 85 decibels     \"One way you can tell if your music is too loud is if you're talking   to a friend and you have to raise your voice to be heard,\" Hughes   said. Normal conversation is around 60 decibels    Articles that agree with the above:   Personal music players and hearing loss: Are we deaf to the risks? Ear Infection and Hearing Loss Amongst Headphone Users   You can find how may decibels your listening at by going online or looking at your manual for your device. This is more acurate as all devices are different. If that doesnt tell you there are apps and other devices. ",
        "id": 990,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can applying a simple 3m plaster splint on a non-displaced elbow fracture be billed as surgery in NY?",
        "body": "From what I've been able to gather, it appears that treatment of a broken bone is in the same group of codes as surgery because of the after care. The coding is supposed to include follow up care for 90 days if the info I found was correct.  It appears it should only be applying a splint if the splint is a one off without after care. ",
        "id": 1294,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should one avoid consuming durians when drinking alcohol?",
        "body": "The answer is very probably yes, these findings were confirmed and one should avoid consuming durian fruit and alcohol. But interestingly, anyone tempted to try probably will avoid it anyway.   The fruit contains \"components\" that interfere with alcholo metabolism, leading to increased toxicity and a quick learning experience.      A combination of consuming durian fruit and alcohol drinks is reported to lead adverse effects in humans (Maninang, Lizada, &amp; Gemma, 2009). Earlier, Croft (1981) reported on patients consuming durian and drinking alcohol simultaneously, which included deaths as well as cardiac arrest episodes. The symptoms included clinical manifestations such as: palpitation, vomiting, facial flushing, nausea, and drowsiness. In addition, physiological effects of drinking alcohol might also have major contribution on health effects. According to Kitson and Weiner (1996), component derived from ethanol is oxidised in liver by the action of aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzyme. Disulfiram can retard ALDH activity resulting in the accumulation of alcohol-derived acetaldehyde. According to some researchers (Brien &amp; Loomis, 1985), acetaldehyde contributes to the adverse reactions known as the disulfiram-ethanol reaction (DER). The inhibitory activities of sulphur-containing compounds obtained from natural resources on ALDH are well known (Kitson &amp; Weiner, 1996). Several studies have shown durian to be abundant in sulphur compounds (Baldry et al., 1972; Moser et al., 1980; Voon et al., 2007b; Weenen et al., 1996; Wong &amp; Tie, 1995).      Sub-chronic and acute toxicity examinations (through oral feeding) in rats and mice fed diets containing polysaccharide gel isolated from durian rind showed no toxic effects (Pongsamart, Sukrong, &amp; Tawatsin, 2001; Pongsamart, Tawatsin, &amp; Sukrong, 2002). Maninang et al. (2009) evaluated the effects of durian fruit extract on the inhibition of ALDH. The enzymatic assay demonstrated that yeast aldehyde dehydrogenase (yALDH) significantly lost enzymatic activity in the presence of durian fruit extract at all the tested concentrations (0.03, 0.07, 0.16, 0.33, 0.65, and 1.63 ppm). The intensity of inhibition increased with increase in the fruit extract concentration and was up to a maximum of 70% at 0.33 ppm extract. However, the inhibitory effect was observed to be low at the highest concentration (1.63 ppm) of the tested fruit extract. The non-polar organic constituents of the durian fruit extract gave positive results in the sulphur-test elicited significant inhibitory effects on yALDH. In addition, several studies reported that the diethyl disulphide to be the most abundant sulphur com- pound which contains a disulphide bridge in durian (Laohakunjit, Kerdchoechuen, Matta, Silva, &amp; Holmes, 2007; Voon et al., 2007a). As the sulphur content of durian is reported to have inhibitory characteristic on ALDH activity and can be mortal in person who consume durian and drink alcohol simultaneously, further in vivo studies are warranted to provide more scientific evidence for better understanding to the consumers.      Lee-Hoon Ho &amp; Rajeev Bhat: \"Exploring the potential nutraceutical values of durian (Durio zibethinus L.) \u2013 An exotic tropical fruit\", Food Chemistry 168 (2015) 80\u201389. (DOI)   The learning in vivo:     We hereby present empirical proof that concurrent administra- tion of ethanol and durian elicits DER-like interactions in vivo. Although work is currently undertaken to identify the bioactive component(s) in durian causing the ill interaction with ethanol, the clinical manifestations appear to be similar to those observed in rats given cabbage, a known source of the ALDH-inhibiting PEI- TC. Consistently, blood acetaldehyde levels were elevated in rats that exhibited CTA and hypothermia, which further supports the role of acetaldehyde, rather than ethanol, in the severity of the DER.   Ethanol is the most available psychoactive drug in many parts of the world. With advocacies on increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and moderate alcohol drinking, the likelihood of unsafe food-alcohol interactions observed in the present study is not remote. These findings provide a basis for a caveat on the choice of food items that precede ethanol.      John S. Maninang et al.: \"The influence of durian (Durio zibethinus Murray cv. Monthong) on conditioned taste aversion to ethanol\", Food Chemistry   Volume 131, Issue 2, 15 March 2012, Pages 705-712. (DOI) ",
        "id": 2552,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to diagnose myopia in a 2-year old?",
        "body": "Refractive errors can be detected by using an ophthalmoscope. To get an accurate measurement you can do streak retinoscopy.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16020274",
        "id": 2245,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do all neurodegenerative diseases show up on an MRI scan?",
        "body": "Neurodegenerative diseases are diagnosed on the basis of clinical symptoms (memory impairment for Alzheimer Disease/ bradykinesia, tremor and rigor for Parkinson Disease) +/- neuropsychological tests.   The current role of neuroimaging in the diagnosis of neurogenerative diseases such as Parkinson Disease or Alzheimer Disease is mainly supportive, it can be used   to confirm a high suspicion for the disease (due to typical clinical presentation for example) to exclude possible other diseases when the clinical diagnosis is unclear   None of the current dignostic criteria for AD or PD rely solely on neuroimaging studies.  There are some signs on MRI scan which may indicate the presence of AD or PD but patients with advanced stages of the disease may show limited signs of the diseases on MRI.  In AD, patients typically present hippocampal atropy (craked walnut sign, see image below) or medio temporal atrophy. However, as hippocampal atrophy is also present with age, some age-specific criteria are needed to differentiate between a age-related hippocampal atrophy and an AD-related hippocampal atrophy. Other signs may be present such as white matter anomalies. But these signs do not correlate necessarily with the severity of the disease.    In PD, the role of MRI is very limited and is mainly used to help when a differential diagnosis for the symptoms is present. It can also help diagnosing between an idiopathic PD or a vascular PD for example (if signs of cerebrovascular diseases are present on the MRI).  Recently, advanced techniques of neuroimaging (non exhaustive list: functional brain imaging with [18F] FDG-PET, functional MRI (fMRI), perfusion MRI, SPECT, amyloid PET tracers (F18-florbetapir, F18-flutemetamol, F18-florbetaben) in AD and MR spectroscopy (MRS), magnetization transfer imaging, diffusion-weighted MRI, diffusion tensor MRI, and high-resolution imaging (eg, MRI at 7 Tesla) for PD) have been suggested to help in the diagnosis of AD and PD. However, most of the studies rely on a small number of patients so further studies including a larger sample size are needed to confirm the encouraging results.  Sources:  Wolk D et al. Clinical features and diagnosis of Alzheimer disease. UpToDate. October 2016. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-features-and-diagnosis-of-alzheimer-disease?source=machineLearning&amp;search=alzheimer&amp;selectedTitle=1~150&amp;sectionRank=3&amp;anchor=H406199175#H406199175  Chou K et al. Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Parkinson disease. UpToDate. October 2016. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis-of-parkinson-disease?source=see_link#H17  for the picture: Ho M. and Eisenberg R. Neuroradiology signs. Alzheimer Disease, p19.",
        "id": 1269,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the effects of routine and daily meditation and physical exercise on pregnancy?",
        "body": "I wasn't able to find a study that looked at both meditation and exercise - besides ones about yoga - but I was able to find many that looked at each separately and seemed to indicate that combining the two is simple and effective.  Exercise   One of the best sources was a thesis by Nikelle Holbrook Hunsaker entitled \"The Benefits of Exercise During Pregnancy\" (pdf here). It is a meta-analysis of other studies in the literature. Some do not fit your criteria (e.g. some looked at exercise three times a week but not daily), but given that most recommendations do not include physical activity seven days a week, I've mentioned some here.   Boinpally &amp; Jovanovic (2009) wrote that 30 minutes of physical activity (aerobic or anaerobic) five a days a week before and during pregnancy greatly reduces the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). GDM directly affects the mother, but can easily lead to side effects in the child. Preventing GDM can reduce the risk of such conditions as macrosomia and congenital diseases. This conclusion agrees with the results of Liu et al. (2008). A similar exercise program can reduce the risk of type II diabetes, according to Kim et al. (2010). This makes sense, because of the similarities between GDM and type II diabetes. In general, exercise can decrease the risk of preeclampsia, which can cause the death of the mother and of the fetus. Sorensen et al. (2008) found that regular recreational exercise reduced the risk of preeclampsia. The greater the intensity of the exercise, the lower the chances of preeclampsia.   The thesis discussed and/or cited other studies, but most did not match your criteria. Some involved one-time physical activity. Sternfield et al. (1995) divided a group of 388 women up into four levels depending on the amount of exercise they got on a weekly basis (the highest group involved aerobic activity for at least 3 20-minutes+ sessions per week). They found no difference in the effect of exercise on the children, but did notice that the mothers experienced reduced pain and discomfort. May et al. (2015) noted that regular exercise during pregnancy lowered heart rate and reduced symptoms from related disorders. However, they recommended that more research be done on the relation between exercise and certain other conditions. A page from the Hospital for Special Surgery gives a variety of recommendations regarding exercise during pregnancy:   Athletes can continue to exercise during the first trimester, with no adverse effects. Aquatic aerobics reduce joint stress and fluid retention. Multiple activities should be used to reduce stress if the mother exercises more than four days per week (this might explain why most studies don't cover daily exercise).    Meditation   Babbar et al. (2012) is a meta-analysis of studies from the PubMed database from 1970 to 2011. The results were not entirely conclusive, but the studies found two results:   Women who regularly (frequencies varied) performed yoga during pregnancy enjoyed reduced pain/discomfort throughout pregnancy. Babies of women who regularly preformed yoga during pregnancy had a slightly higher birth weight - nothing serious or significant, though.  Davis et al. (2015) found that an eight-week yoga intervention greatly reduced depression and anxiety in women with depression, supporting the idea that yoga and meditation reduce anxiety. Oakley &amp; Evans (2014) state that breathing exercises and meditation increase maternal relaxation.     Yoga is perhaps the most studied of all the meditation regimens out there. Indeed, a considerable number of the studies I looked at focused on the meditative component of yoga. This type of exercise should also be compatible with aerobic/anaerobic exercise, even for pregnant women. However, it is clear that during a pregnancy, women should be careful when it comes to exercise.  To summarize the main findings:   Exercise can reduce the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus, type II diabetes, and preeclampsia, as well as general pain and discomfort from the pregnancy. Meditation/yoga can reduce pain, discomfort, and stress levels. ",
        "id": 635,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Using corticosteroids during pregnancy",
        "body": "The steroid given to help mature a baby's lungs is either dexamethasone or bethamethasone. These are given by injection and readily cross the placenta.  The steroids to treat asthma are usually things like beclomethasone which are usually given via inhalation or orally, are taken at different doses, and are metabolized by the placenta differently.  As a result, they have different physiologic effects on the developing fetus and of the mother carrying the fetus. There are risks both to the mother and the developing fetus of taking the medications, but also of not taking the medications. The specifics depend on the particular setting, so for a more detailed/nuanced discussion, you should speak to your doctor. ",
        "id": 629,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What blood tests are worth doing for a healthy 30-year-old male?",
        "body": "Let's consider common diseases that a healthy 30 year old can have without noticing any symptoms. E.g. it is known that many people have undiagnosed diabetes, many people have undiagnosed hypothyroidism. Also kidney function can be impaired quite a bit (e.g. due to diabetes) without that leading to symptoms. If we focus on these issues then you could choose to the following test: Glucose and HbA1c to see if the person has diabetes, TSH and T4 to detect hypothyroidism, and creatinine, urea, sodium, potassium to detect problems with the kidneys. Also, measuring HDL and LDL cholesterol can be useful as quite a few young people have too high cholesterol levels.  Now, to make the question better defined, one can ask how to choose some given number of blood tests such that some chosen health criterion, say, the survival probability after ten years is optimized. This can in principle be calculated from the known statistics. To see how to set up this calculation, consider doing just one blood test for disease X.  The patient is in this case selected from a pool of people who do not have any significant symptoms of disease X. So, if X represents diabetes, the patient is currently not complaining about excessive thirsts, feeling tired etc. If X represents kidney disease then the patient is not at the stage where the kidney function is so low that it causes symptoms. This means that the probability that the patient will be found to be suffering from X should be derived from the appropriate conditional probability that conditions on the patient not having any significant symptoms (the symptoms are mild enough for it to be compatible to having no complaints).  For any chosen X you can then calculate the health criterion (e.g. survival after ten years) in the event of a positive test compared to not doing the test. So, this depends on the known effects of early treatment, the probability for detecting X will then yield the expected improvement for this health outcome.",
        "id": 820,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do humans have a loud sound avoidance reflex?",
        "body": "What you are describing sounds like a startle response. The startle response, along with the vestibular-occular reflex and acoustic reflex, and are often thought of as reflexes, despite not involving a reflex arc where a sensory neuron synapses with the spinal cord allowing for motor responses to occur without the signal reaching the brain. The startle response involves a number of brain structures and therefore, even though it is an unconscious response, in the strictest sense, it is not a reflex.",
        "id": 1645,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the injury classification system work?",
        "body": "Shock is a specific condition with a number of different causes.  However the rest, when used in the general parlance are subjective descriptions of the severity of a person's condition, and they generally don't have a specific definition.  For some, it describes the severity of the diagnosis (eg how bad the injuries are or how far along a disease has progressed), for others, it may mean prognosis (how likely a person is to recover).  This information is for the press, and can vary.  The American Hospital Association has some guidelines, but they are very general. Most hospitals will also have some internal documentation on what to tell the press and what it means.    Some of the terms you list can also be used in in-house (that is, within a hospital) assessments, or part of a formal assessment system.  For instance, the Injury Severity Score uses these terms as an assessment tool.  Some hospitals may also use labels like this among the staff to determine resource allocation to nursing floors.  Those vary from place to place.",
        "id": 1081,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the hazards from smoking or drinking and then donating blood?",
        "body": "Smoking and drinking both put the recipient of the blood donation at risk or possible risk.  Smoking causes nicotine to enter your bloodstream and usually breaks down into cotinine. Both of these are connected with increasing plasma Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) levels, which may be involved in the progression of both vascular disease and cancer. The researchers note:      \"These findings may give a clue as to the mechanisms by which nicotine   and cotinine from cigarette smoking increase vascular disease   progression and tumor growth and metastasis.\"   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1850669/  Alcohol will immediately be absorbed through the lining of your stomach and small intestine into the bloodstream, meaning it will also be in the blood that you try to donate! {2} If your recipient happen to be a child, that alcohol can damage the developing brain and liver. {3}",
        "id": 113,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating fruits for Breakfast and Lunch",
        "body": "Almost everyone is facing gastric problem these days. There is not any permanent solution for this type of stomach problem when you take medicine you get relief for a day or two but i recommend you to use aloe vera juice daily empty stomach regularly for 3 months then you will see the difference. The regular use of aloe vera juice removes constipation and all other stomach problems permanently from root.",
        "id": 1480,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Structure of the Lips and potential Dermatillomania",
        "body": "Greetings !                I'm also biting and pulling away with fine tweezers, a tubular structure which, when one centres - positions the teeth in the best position to enable crunching thru' the tubular structures.   There is an intitial bleed from the mucous skin layer, but this rapidly stops, leaving the 'crunching ' sensation, which produces not too much pain. And this is one of the key pointers in my approach... simply put, if the pain level is tolerable, then it's NOT a part of me !  With this in mind, might I suggest considering that the 'Tubes' are in fact 'Morgellon', derived transport means. My logic for this, is that: 1. The Saliva ' strands' one can see in the mouth, when looked at with a microscope, are in fact Morgellon ( Electro-Piezo or Electro-Chemical structured )   I force, ( here the pain, is evident ) behind the Tubular structure ( I call it Worm, for simplicity ! ) a needle ot fine tweezers, and work this up to a copper electrical house wire ( 2.5 mm ), for this provokes the 'Worm', to defend itself, by releasing a 'Silicon-type fluid, which binds the injury closed, and in the case of the cornewr of the mouth, restricts ability to widely open the mouth... [ As an aside, could there be a link, here , I wonder , to the reportedly minicsule 'mouth', said to be a characteristic of 'Grey' Aliens ? ?  Please don't laugh, ANYTHING , in this 'Brave New Worls 'is a possibility ! !   Hope some of this might give food for thought  !",
        "id": 626,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In which order to put on a mask, a gown and to disinfect when visiting a hospital patient?",
        "body": "In most isolation cases, the actual order isn't going to matter, since the typical isolation area that you would be allowed to enter isn't for the patient's benefit, but other people, so that they don't catch what the patient has. In this case, it doesn't matter which order you put it on. (Especially since they are being stored in an area where anyone walking by can contaminate them).  You will also most likely be asked to remove jackets/backpacks and other items and leave them either outside, or in the intermediate dressing area if provided.  If the patient is immuno compromised to the point where they are worried about what you might be bringing in, then there will be a very different set of isolation precautions, and you either won't be allowed in, or they will walk you through the washing/garb donning procedures and assist you.",
        "id": 59,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I bypass the most expensive drug in the world which goes on sale and get cured?",
        "body": "Nusinersen is a very new drug approved just a few days ago by FDA.  First of all you have to find a center were these injections can be performed (I guess there are just a few centers worldwide were these studies have been made).  Try having a look at FDA website at this page to find out key doctors who ran experimental studies. Then try sending them an email or getting in contact with them. Surely there will be other trials running or planned (and they will be the ones who will run them).  Then you have to solve the insurance part with their help.",
        "id": 1515,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tomato - from a dietary perspective, is it a fruit or vegitable",
        "body": "The recommended balance between 5 servings of vegetables and 2 servings of fruit is only one of different recommendations, for example, Dietary Guidelines for Americans by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture recommend 2.5 cups of vegetables and 1 cup of fruits per day in a 2,000 Calorie diet. On that same page, you can see they've put tomatoes into a vegetable group.  From the nutrition viewpoint, the main difference between vegetables and fruits is in their sugar content. A 100 g tomato contains only ~2.6 g of sugars, while an apple contains ~10 g. There seems to be no exact sugar amount determined that would put a certain plant into a fruit category, though.    There is no essential nutrient that vegetables, as a group, would have and fruits wouldn't. A certain vegetable and a certain fruit can contain more similar amounts of a certain nutrient, for example, potassium than 2 fruits or 2 vegetables (PubMed, Table 3).   All this suggests that one doesn't need to be too worried about what counts as a vegetable or a fruit and how many servings of each to eat but think which foods to eat to get all the essential nutrients. ",
        "id": 2719,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does nose-breathing filter out pollutants?",
        "body": "I don't have any empirical data, but my thought is \"not much\".  The natural way for breathing at rest is to have the mouth closed and breathe through the nose.  I've seen no information at all to suggest that people who might be breathing through their mouths (while exercising) are warned against an increased risk of pollution. If there was any significant risk of open-mouth breathing leading to pollution-related illnesses, I'm sure we would have heard about it by now.  The nose does contain sticky mucous and hairs, but not enough to screen every particle coming in (and smoke particles are small).  This hasn't stopped various manufacturers from inventing \"nose filters\" to cash in on people's paranoia though. ",
        "id": 1378,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How common is the side-effect of \"outbursts of words/sounds\" for one taking Dexedrine for ADD?",
        "body": "First: it says on the WebMD link you posted that you should consult your doctor immediately if you experience the side effect of \"outbursts of words/sounds.\" Please be sure you do so.  The word for the involuntary behaviors you're experiencing is tics. They are \"verbal tics\" if you are saying words, or \"vocal tics\" if you are making non-word sounds with your voice. Some people group both these into \"phonic tics,\" since you use your vocal cords to make sounds with both.  You also ask about Tourette Syndrome. Verbal and vocal tics are a characteristic of this syndrome. Having the tics does not mean you have Tourette Syndrome. Consult your physician about this as well.",
        "id": 1272,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease",
        "body": "Diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease is something only a medical professional can do. However, the symptoms are often first observed by friends and family, and here is what the physician will look for:     Significant memory problems\u00a0in immediate recall, short-term, or long-term memory.      Significant thinking deficits\u00a0in at least one of four areas: expressing or comprehending language; identifying familiar objects through the senses; poor coordination, gait, or muscle function; and the executive functions of planning, ordering, and making judgments.      Decline severe enough\u00a0to interfere with relationships and/or work performance.      Symptoms that appear gradually\u00a0and become steadily worse over time.   source: helpguide.org, which has a questionnaire and more information on symptoms   Alzheimer's disease is categorized into 5 stages : preclinical Alzheimer's disease, mild cognitive impairment, mild dementia due to Alzheimer's, moderate dementia due to Alzheimer's and severe dementia due to Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's is usually not diagnosed until the third or fourth stage, when it can be differentiated from mild cognitive impairment that is common in old age.   To aid with diagnosis, it is very helpful if friends/family/caregivers document the type and frequency of symptoms, so the severity and progression can be seen. occasionally forgetting where your keys are is normal - suddenly forgetting that you have been putting your keys next to the door for the last twenty years can be a symptom of Alzheimer's disease. ",
        "id": 275,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the daily recommended Dietary Reference Intake be satisfied over a longer timespan?",
        "body": "At least for calcium, the answer is a definite yes.  99% of the calcium in the body is stored in the bones and teeth, and the body treats that calcium like you would treat money at an ATM. If you don't have enough calcium intake, then the body starts taking it from the stored sources. If you have an excess, then it \"deposits\" more in the bones/teeth.  Here is another quick read on calcium and phosphorus in the body.  As far as other nutrients, that is going to be kind of specific and differs by nutrient, the best angle is to research each nutrient separately and see how it is utilized/stored/excreted by the body to determine safe levels. As a general rule of thumb, though, one or two daily shortages won't be critical.",
        "id": 506,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possible side effects of deer antler velvet",
        "body": "There are several on-line resources to begin a survey of deer antler velvet. Most are adverts which appear to only offer a glowing picture of its properties, for example Antler Farms claim:     Modern scientific research indicates that deer antler velvet may have beneficial effects related to:         improvement in general health   increase in blood supply and circulation   reduction of blood pressure   increase in energy levels and endurance   increase in muscular development and strength   improvement in flexibility and joint mobility   increase in muscle recovery   prevention and reduction of inflammation   improvement in sexual health   development of the skeletal system   stimulation of the immune system function   improvement in mental health   anti aging effects      and all for $199/month!.  Antler Farms lists the ingredients of DAV, and a more commercialized version:     Our product contains the full growth factor matrix:         Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) I   Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) II   Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-A)   Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-B)   Epidermal growth factor (EGF)   Erythropoietin (EPO)   Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)   Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)   Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF9)   Interleukins   Nerve growth factor (NGF) and other neurotrophins   Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)   Vascular endothelial growth factor      and possible side effects as:     Caution:   Symptoms of deer antler velvet overdose include bloody nose, dizziness, headache or red eyes. Some people report upset stomach. In these cases, reduce the dosage or discontinue use. Information regarding safety and efficacy during pregnancy and lactation is lacking, so please avoid use during these times. Xylitol, a natural sweetener contained in our deer antler velvet extract, is toxic to dogs. Do not give deer antler velvet extract to pets.   For scientific studies, the product is not recognised by the US FDA.  The Deer Industry of New Zealand has guidelines for the DAV production processes, and the New Zealand Medical Journal has an article which disputes some of the claimed properties.",
        "id": 2111,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there objective criteria to define if a diet is \"healthy\"?",
        "body": "I will answer your last question:     What are (if there are any) the requirements for a diet to be defined   \"healthy\"?   Quality of existing diets is expressed by the so-called \"index values\" which are calculated by checking if a given diet conform to a special set of guidelines (hopefully, scientifically validated). Different countries have different guildelines and therefore different indexes, eg. in USA there is the Healthy Eating Index and in the Netherlands there is the Dutch Healthy Diet index. I do not know what is being used in Italy. Now, all these diets may have their strengths and weaknesses but their overall index-score can be high which could lead to labelling such diet as \"healthy\" despite some deficiencies.  Now, for example, in this article (it's in Polish, sorry, but this is only for example, you can try to find other articles in English or Italian using Google) three diets for children are compared: vegetarian, vegan and traditional. The Healthy Eating Index is used as a measure and the scores are: vegetarian 57,7 points; vegan 90,2 points; traditional 24,9 points. The Vegan diet seems to be clearly superior in comparison with the traditional one.   Now, I do not say that I agree with this method and its results, but I think that this is possible reason for someone to call vegan diet as \"proven healthy\".  If you want to further pursue this subject, I would recommend to read more about those different indexes.",
        "id": 1150,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do dietary potassium and sodium interact with eachother?",
        "body": "Dietary sodium stimulates the excretion of potassium into the urine and potassium stimulates the excretion of sodium, but when consumed in usual amounts, this does not result in abnormal blood potassium or sodium levels (Harvard.edu, Bpac NZ).  In salt-sensitive people, high sodium intake can result in high blood pressure. In these (and possibly other) people, high potassium and low sodium intake can contribute to a decrease in high blood pressure (Health.gov).",
        "id": 1011,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it ok to not wash a contact lens?",
        "body": "Much like you probably won't catch a cold every time someone sneezes on you, you also most likely won't get an eye infection every time you neglect contact lens hygiene. We all did it at some point, I'm sure.  However... just because you can't see the wildlife on your contacts and hands, doesn't mean it's not there. It is. Little buggers like this one https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4330640/  Bottom line: you'll probably be fine. Probably, not certainly.",
        "id": 1352,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hangover starting too soon?",
        "body": "This is probably not a hangover, as it is too soon for what most people refer to as a hangover. It is more likely due to the direct effects of alcohol itself, or perhaps something else in the drink. As is often the way with the human body, there can be several factors interacting together (these include the drink, hydration, liver function, environmental conditions, food etc).  This information is taken from The National Headache Foundation in the US:     Alcohol, which is consumed in beverages such as liquor, wine and beer, is a chemical called ethanol. Ethanol may cause headaches by several means. First, it is a direct vasodilator; in some individuals vasodilation may cause a headache. Second, ethanol is a natural diuretic; this leads to excretion of salt, vitamins and minerals from the body through the kidneys. Excess consumption of ethanol may produce dehydration and chemical imbalances in the body. Except in \u201cmoonshine,\u201d we consume ethanol in beverages that contain other chemicals. These chemicals are called congeners. Congeners impart the specific tastes and flavors that make each beverage unique. These congeners also have a variety of effects that can cause headaches.   So the three ways alcohol can cause a headache are:   Direct vasodilation effect (dilates blood vessels) Diuretic effect The effect of other components on the drink   If your whisky was about 40% alcohol, 200ml would be about 8 units of ethanol, which is definitely enough to have an effect.",
        "id": 2405,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stop bewilder when go up",
        "body": "This sounds like orthostatic hypotension. There may be underlying causes, so you should ask a doctor about it, but you can help alleviate symptoms immediately by increasingly salt and water intake or wearing compression stockings.",
        "id": 1450,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Accelerated tumor growth after stopping prednisolone?",
        "body": "I am not a veterinary so I can't answer your question in particular. Though, maybe following points on the mechanisms of action of prednisolone might perhaps bring some clarifications:  Prednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid. The effects of prednisolones are multiple and the antitumor effect of glucocorticoid has been investigated in many studies (most of them were actually conducted in mice or rats). Possible mechanisms of action have been described among which inhibition of glucose transport, phosphorylation, or induction of cell death in immature lymphocytes.  Actually Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine, which is a well know reference book in oncology has an entire chapter on the role of corticosteroids in the treatment of neoplasms. Here an extract of the introduction:     Pharmacologic doses of steroid inhibited growth of various tumor   systems. Tissue culture studies confirmed that lymphoid cells were the   most sensitive to glucocorticoids, and responded to treatment with   decreases in DNA, ribonucleic acid (RNA), and protein synthesis.   Studies of proliferating human leukemic lymphoblasts supported the   hypothesis that glucocorticoids have preferential lymphocytolytic   effects. The mechanism of action was initially thought to be caused by   impaired energy use via decreased glucose transport and/or   phosphorylation; it was later discovered that glucocorticoids induce   apoptosis, or programmed cell death, in certain lymphoid cell   populations.   Here their conclusion, which gives a good summary:     Despite an incomplete understanding of the mechanism of action of   glucocorticoids, it is clear they are of great clinical value in the   treatment of lymphoid neoplasms. They are also sometimes used in   therapeutic regimens for other endocrine-responsive cancers, are   efficacious in the treatment of several frequently occurring side   effects of malignancies, and are widely used for general palliative   therapy.   So, yes, prednisolone has an antitumor effect. However, this effect is tumor type dependent and achieved with specific dosing (in humans 10 mg daily to 100 mg/m2/day (depending on indication)). Only a veterinary will be able to provide you with a more accurate and case specific response.  EDIT (after additional clarification was provided by OP)  I found one study which might help in providing some \"time\" reference points in rats. This study looked at rat mammary tumor cells and reported      After dexamethasone (a type of glucocorticoid) withdrawal, c-myc and cyclin D1 expression (both involved in cell cycle progression)   transiently peak at 2 and 4 h   So this could possibly explain the event you have described although bear in mind these results apply for a particular tumor type and a particular dosage used.  Sources:  Prednison. Drug Information. Uptodate. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/prednisone-drug-information?source=search_result&amp;search=prednisone&amp;selectedTitle=1~150#F213063  McKay et al. Corticosteroids in the Treatment of Neoplasms in Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine. 6th edition http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK13383/",
        "id": 1238,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Confused by blood pressure terms",
        "body": "According to this book (freely available on NCBI bookshelf: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK268/) Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Chapter 16: Blood Pressure by Walter A. Brzezinski.  Systolic blood (SBP) pressure corresponds to the maximum blood pressure during contraction of the ventricles  Diastolic pressure (DBP) is the minimum pressure recorded just prior to the next contraction.  The mean arterial pressure (MAP) is calculated by the formula: MAP = (2DBP+SBP)/3  The mean arterial pressure is used to calculate overall blood flow and provides a good indication of the delivery of nutrients to the various organs.  It is also a good indicator of perfusion pressure (\u0394P).  Oscillometric methods are used in automated BP monitors to calculate BP 1      Oscillometry is perhaps the most popular, non-invasive and automatic   blood pressure (BP) measurement method. This method employs   an inflatable arm cuff with a pressure sensor inside it. The measured   cuff pressure not only rises and falls with cuff inflation and   deflation but also shows tiny oscillations indicating the pulsatile   blood volume (BV) in the artery. The amplitude of these oscillations   varies with the applied cuff pressure, as the arterial stiffness is   nonlinear. BP values are then estimated from the oscillometric cuff   pressure waveform using population-based methods such as fixed-ratios.   So those \"empirical statistical oscillometric parameters\" are probably population-based parameters which are used to calculate and interpret the oscillations arrising during the measuring of the BP.  Sources:   Liu J, Cheng H, Chen C-H, Sung S-H, Hahn J-O, Mukkamala R. Model-Based Oscillometric Blood Pressure Measurement: Preliminary Validation in Humans. Conference proceedings\u202f: Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Annual Conference. 2014;2014:1961-1964. doi:10.1109/EMBC.2014.6943997. ",
        "id": 1151,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why I am lossing memory if I work hard?",
        "body": "Sleep deprivation and stress alone can cause this, but it's not the only possible cause... depression and/or anxiety also are correlated (and not unlikely given the length of exposure to chronic stress you mention)... so do see a doctor.  On the effects of sleep deprivation:     First and foremost, total SD impairs attention and working memory, but it also affects other functions, such as long-term memory and decision-making   \"Burnout\" while not accepted in the psychiatric bible (DSM) is also a resonable explanation, and can have the same effect(s):     A systematic review provided by Deligkaris et al. (2014) distinctly showed that burnout is associated with a decline in three main cognitive functions: executive functions, attention and memory (assessed objectively using psychometric tests instead of self-reports).    Also     While burnout does not appear in the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [(DSM-5)], it has been established as a legitimate justification for sick leave in several countries, for instance Sweden.   I hope you live there.  Also, I suggest you read Mayo clinic's advice for possible other causes and on dealing with memory loss. The causes I mentioned above are reversible, the neurological ones are less so.    And if you think I'm prioritizing the above wrong, NHS has this     Common causes of memory loss      GPs often find that people who see them about memory loss are most likely to have:         anxiety   stress   depression         Their memory loss is a result of poor concentration and not noticing things in the first place because of a lack of interest. Sleeping problems often make the memory loss worse.      [...]      Other common causes of memory loss are:         a head injury \u2013 for example, after a car accident   a stroke \u2013 this cuts off some of the blood supply to the brain and causes brain tissue to die      followed by a longer/separate list of less common causes.",
        "id": 2054,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could hairline fractures be obscured by x-ray images",
        "body": "It is difficult to judge, as we don\u2019t know whether your fracture resulted from an acute direct trauma or whether it is a so called \u201cstress fracture\u201d (due either to an abrupt increase in activity or to chronic overload).   While most of the acute fractures (in particular shaft fractures) are visible on lateral view Rx (+/- oblique or modified lateral views Rx),  stress fractures are frequently not detected with conventional Rx. It\u2019s only about 10-14 days  after the onset of symptoms (some studies even report from 2 weeks to 6 weeks after the onset of symptoms), that repeated Rx show a radiolucent resorption gap around the fracture that helps to confirm the diagnosis.  Finally, as suggested in the comment, in some cases, the sensitivity (= the capacity of a test to correctly identify the cases) of conventional radiography to detect metarsal fractures is not sufficient enough and further studies (CT or MRI) are needed when the clinical suspicion for a fracture is high.  Sources:   Metatarsal fractures. Rammelt, Stefan et al. Injury, Volume 35, Issue 2, 77-86 Hatch RL et al, Diagnosis and Management of Metatarsal Fractures, Am Fam Physician. 2007 Sep 15;76(6):817-826. Stress fractures in the lower extremity. The importance of increasing awareness amongst radiologists. Berger, FH, de Jonge, MC and Maas, M. European Journal of Radiology 62 (2007), 16-26.* ",
        "id": 1056,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it unhealthy to steam my eyes in order to cure Blepharitis?",
        "body": "No one can answer your question whether you are \"damaging your eye by steaming it\" because it depends on your methods whether it's harming the eyeball.  Your eye does need moisture, which is the purpose of the oil glands.  If your blepharitis involves clogged oil glands, then they're not putting out the oil that they should.  Therefore using warm compresses to help clear those glands should do the opposite of stopping the oil - it should allow it to come out normally.  But again, regarding STEAM, I cannot say whether your particular method is safe. Make sure you only use a method from a reputable source, and replicate it accurately!  There is more to blepharitis than just oil glands.  Ask your doctor their recommended treatment plan.",
        "id": 1951,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the differences between the professions and requirement of pathologist and biotechnologist?",
        "body": "To preface this, I do not know the laws pertinent to the state of New York.  This answer discusses the difference between the professions and licensing in general.  State licensing boards may publish state-specific laws.  The term pathologist is usually used to refer to a physician specialist (MD or DO) who goes through medical school and does a pathology residency (after-graduation training that nearly all physicians do).  There are different divisions within pathology that some pathologists can specialize in.  Pathologists in general are specialists in the analysis of anatomical structures and histology (tissues and cells) and all the things that could go wrong with them - diseases, disorders, injuries, and other destructive processes.  A pathologist in a hospital may, for example, receive biopsies to check for cancer, blood smears to look for abnormalities, autopsies, forensics, etc.  They have a broad base of skills and knowledge that can be valuable in many applications.    Like any other kind of physician, they can choose to do things other than practice in clinical settings - they may do research or product design or advising or policy...etc.   Wikipedia defines biotechnology as:     \"any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use\"... Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) fields of bioengineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc.   The possible types of endeavors in biotechnology are very diverse, but overall differ from pathology in most forms of practice, although their paths may cross. A pathologist might be able to engage in biotechnology, whereas a biotechnologist could not practice as a medical pathologist without going to medical school.  But an MD/DO is not the only route into the field of pathology - there are pathology technicians that assist pathologists, there are PhDs in pathology that do research similar to the research pathologists might do, and other related professions.  It seems that the general field of biotechnology can be entered in different paths, but there are actual Bio Technology Programs (e.g. Northwestern that are PhD level training.",
        "id": 1674,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can chronic prostate be a risk factor of prostate cancer for patients?",
        "body": "Since inflammation has been shown to be linked to cancer this had been investigated.     RESULTS:\u00a0The relative odds of prostate cancer were elevated in men with history of any type of prostatitis (odds ratio [OR] = 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.1-2.6) or acute prostatitis (2.5; 1.3-4.7). The mean time from most recent episode of acute prostatitis to the diagnosis of prostate cancer was 12.2 years. After exclusion of men with acute prostatitis 2 years before the index date, the relationship was somewhat reduced (1.9; 0.9-3.8). Chronic bacterial prostatitis was more weakly associated with prostate cancer (1.6; 0.8-3.1), whereas chronic pelvic pain syndrome was not associated at all (0.9; 0.4-1.8).      CONCLUSIONS:\u00a0Infection in the form of acute or chronic bacterial prostatitis may be associated with prostate cancer. However, our data do not provide compelling evidence to support this. As a result of the limitations of current methods of assessing chronic prostatitis, biochemical or tissue markers of infection or inflammation of the prostate may help clarify their role in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/14712152/  The known associations are linked here",
        "id": 2206,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does it hurt to accidentally gulp air while drinking water?",
        "body": "Occasional severe pain in the throat and chest after swallowing that radiates into the arms and feels like a heart attack (as mentioned in the question and one comment) fits the description of esophageal spasm (WebMD).  The pain may last only for few seconds or minutes to hours (OESO Knowledge).  The causes and risk factors are not well understood; they can include acid reflux, unusal anatomy, problems with intrinsic esophageal innervation, etc. (Emedicine). The pain can be triggered by hot or cold beverages or stress, for example.  One possible explanation: Swallowing air results in a different onset of the esophageal peristaltic wave than usually. In combination with an underlying muscle/nerve abnormality, this can trigger a muscle spasm.  Diagnostic procedures include an X-ray with barrium swallow, esophageal manometry, etc.  Various endoscopic or surgical procedures can help...    Related terms: diffuse esophageal spasm, nutcracker or jackhammer esophageus, odynophagia. ",
        "id": 803,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Source for gluten content in foods",
        "body": "On an elementary level, only very few grains of grasses do contain the protein complexes of the gluten group: Gliadin in Wheat, Hordein in Barley, Secalin in Rye, Avenin in Oats. On a 'processed' level gluten can be in a lot of products.     If experiencing gluten intolerance symptoms, the products on this page should be avoided.  Instead, concentrate on gluten free, brain healthy foods.  Many are listed here. This is sure to help maintain or improve brain health and function.      The following grains and starches contain gluten:   Wheat, Wheat germ, Rye, Barley, Bulgur, Couscous, Farina, Graham flour, Kamut, Matzo, Semolina, Spelt, Triticale      The following foods often contain gluten:   malt/malt flavoring, soups, commercial bullion and broths, cold cuts, French fries (often dusted with flour before freezing), processed cheese (e.g., Velveeta), mayonnaise, ketchup, malt vinegar, soy sauce and teriyaki sauces, salad dressings, imitation crab meat, bacon, etc, egg substitute, tabbouleh, sausage, non-dairy creamer, fried vegetables/tempura, gravy, marinades, canned baked beans, cereals, commercially prepared chocolate milk, breaded foods, fruit fillings and puddings, hot dogs, ice cream, root beer, energy bars, trail mix, syrups, seitan, wheatgrass, instant hot drinks, flavored coffees and teas blue cheeses, vodka, wine coolers, meatballs, meatloaf communion wafers, veggie burgers, roasted nuts, beer, oats (unless certified GF), oat bran (unless certified GF),      The following are miscellaneous sources of gluten:   shampoos, cosmetics, lipsticks, lip balm, Play-Doh, medications, non self-adhesive stamps and envelopes, vitamins and supplements (check label),      The following ingredients are often code for gluten:   Avena sativa Cyclodextrin, Dextrin, Fermented grain extract, Hordeum distichon, Hordeum vulgare, Hydrolysate, Hydrolyzed malt extract, Hydrolyzed vegetable protein, Maltodextrin, Phytosphingosine extract, Samino peptide complex, Secale cereale, Triticum aestivum, Triticum vulgare, Tocopherol/vitamin E, Yeast extract, Natural flavoring, Brown rice syrup, Modified food starch, Hydrolyzed soy protein, Caramel color (frequently made from barley)   David Perlmutter: \"Gluten Containing Products\"   That is a long list to observe. And fortunately, that is only really necessary to observe strictly for celiac disease and allergies. For other reasons of observing gluten reduction we have to observe contradictory findings:     In conclusion, our results indicate that for GF foods no predominant health benefits are indicated; in fact, some critical nutrients must be considered when being on a GF diet. For individuals with celiac disease, the GF database provides a helpful tool to identify the food composition of their medical diet. For healthy consumers, replacing gluten-containing products with GF foods is aligned with substantial cost differences but GF foods do not provide additional health benefits from a nutritional perspective.   Benjamin Missbach et al.: \"Gluten-free food database: the nutritional quality and cost of packaged gluten-free foods\", PeerJv.3; 2015, PMC4627916, DOI   On the other hand, practitioners seem to find \u2013 just like laypersons, trying it out \u2013 surprising improvements not by elimination of gluten, but by reducing gluten consumption. It's theorised that it's in this case not about the gluten, but accompanying substances called amylase-trypsin-inhibitors. These are quite understudied at the moment.  Diagnostically, a differential between celiac (blood: anti-TG2, anti-DGP-antibodies), wheat allergy (blood: IgE-Ak), ATI-sensivity (no blood markers yet, but decline of chronic conditions), and FODMAP-intolerance has to be made.       Detlef Schuppan &amp; Kristin Gisbert-Schuppan: \"T\u00e4gliches Brot: Krank durch Weizen, Gluten und ATI\", Springer: Berlin, 2018. (DOI)   If the aim of this inquiry is this 'reduction' in typical diets, than it is not really necessary to avoid gluten entirely in the long term. Nevertheless, the interest in these diets makes exact sources less important for non-celiac, non-allergy applications. And more important: they can vary a lot. Gluten in bread wheat is also much higher than in durum wheat for pasta.     Edurne Sim\u00f3n et al.: \"Nutritional and Analytical Approaches of Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease\", SpringerBriefs in Food, Health, and Nutrition, Springer: Cham, 2017.        Dependence of specific bread volume on the content of glutenin macropolymer (GMP) in flours from various wheat cultivars (modified from Thanhaeuser SM, Wieser H, Koehler P (2014) Correlation of quality parameters with the baking performance of wheat flours. Cereal Chem 91: 333\u2013341) statistical test procedure: Pearson correlation   GMP = glutenin macropolymer, p = significance, r = correlation coefficient   Katharina Anne Scherf &amp; Peter K\u00f6hler: \"Wheat and gluten: Technological and health aspects\",  Ernahrungs Umschau 63(08): 166\u2013175, 2016. DOI: 10.4455/eu.2016.035. (PDF)   For a better overview of gluten problems and possible associated problems:  Hetty C van den Broeck et al.: \"Wheat and Gluten Intolerance. An overview of the latest scientific insights and possible solutions for the bakery sector\", ICC, March 2016. (PDF)  The want to get more precise numbers is understandable, but probably will be misleading for actual application on the individual level. Due to the level of variation, if not given on a label of a concrete product, it will be giving the illusion of precision in an area of probably low importance where jst rough guides would suffice.   To illustrate this, actual measurements from beer:   Malt type               Gluten (g kg^\u20131)a,c Caraaroma (barley)       42.0 \u00b1 0.2          Melanoid (barley)        20.4 \u00b1 0.2 Cararred (barley)        20.6 \u00b1 0.2 Carafa (barley)          45.0 \u00b1 0.2 Pilsner (barley)         18.8 \u00b1 0.6  Smoked (barley)          20.8 \u00b1 1.0 Munich (barley)          20.2 \u00b1 0.2 Wheat chocolate (Wheat)b 44.0 \u00b1 1.6 Wheat pale (Wheat)b      68.0 \u00b1 4.0 Spelt chocolate (Spelt)  21.2 \u00b1 0.4 Rye chocolate (Rye)      41.6 \u00b1 1.4       a Mean \u00b1 standard deviation (n=3). b Sample analysed by Gliadin ELISA kit. c All samples, except wheat, were analysed by RIDASCREEN\u00d5 Gliadin kit.  Gluten balance during brewing process Product          Gluten (mg/kg^-1)    (%) Malt             18780                100 Sweet wort          49.4                1.75 Wort                48                  1.70 Beer                 6.0                0.21 Stabilised beer     &lt;3.0               &lt;0.11       Gluten content in malt represents 100%. bAll samples were analysed by RIDASCREEN\u00d5 Gliadin kit.             P. Dost\u00e1lek , I. Hochel , E. M\u00e9ndez , A. Hernando  &amp; D. Gabrovsk\u00e1:  \"Immunochemical determination of gluten in malts and beers\", Food Additives &amp; Contaminants, Volume 23, 2006 - Issue 11, p1074-1078. DOI      While it may be the better approach for 'reducing gluten' to just choose certified gluten-free for y number of foods in x situations, one my be serious about this and compare The gluten composition of more than 8,500 wheat varieties is provided in two new databases.",
        "id": 2710,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Asthma: using bronchodilator vs waiting?",
        "body": "Yes. It's been shown through studies, using a peak-flow meter can determine whether you're in serious trouble or not and essentially \"wait it out\". The numbers vary from doctor to doctor, however though a seasoned asthmatic generally knows when it's time to either visit the hospital or use their inhaler.   That pretty much sums it up. They also cite the doctor's name so you can look more up on his studies.  Basically to put it bluntly, there are a million variables that come into play with something as delicate as asthma. That link below cites the doctor that conducted a study similar to what you're asking and also wrote some of the material.  This may not be considered an answer, but it's pretty close to what you're looking for. Most pulmonologists will tell you the same thing as well.   The \"Should I tough it out, or should I get help\" question is a huge debate.  http://bottomlineinc.com/how-to-survive-an-asthma-attack-without-an-inhaler/",
        "id": 1227,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How safe are contact lenses?",
        "body": "Not all contacts are made the same even in the same pack. I have no idea what the acceptable level of failure is for contact manufacturers though.   Let's assume that you abide by all the usage instructions; that is, if they are monthly, weekly, or daily, you change them at that correct interval. Also, note that some contact lenses will have a longer life span with certain contact lens solutions. Off the top of my head, Air Optix is one of these brands. With this brand, you should be using Pure Moist I believe. Just following the boxes cleaning regiment will not suffice if you are using the wrong solution with the lenses.   Now, let's suppose you are doing everything correctly. Unfortunately, some lenses will not be up to par (such is engineering and in life not everything is perfect). Therefore, this set of lenses will become less breathable in a shorter amount of time. If you are the unlucky soul who perpetually gets the dud box, there can be negative side effects. One side effect is from ischemia which was mentioned in the comments. When the eye is starved of oxygen, blood vessels will begin to grow on the eye in order to get oxygen rich blood to the tissue and over time will cause Corneal Neovascularization.  The scenario I described is a long shot but it cold theoretically happen although it is very unlikely.  Other side effects could be that you get some kind of dirt or grim in your eye that gets under the contact lenses. This foreign body could end up scratching the cornea.  However, if you are diligent in following your eye care instructions, use the correct contact lenses solutions, and use common sense, more than likely, you will not have any problems from wearing contact lenses.   Contact Lenses cause Corneal Neovascularization Corneal Abrasion ",
        "id": 75,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How accurate is nutrition information on supplement tablets in the the UK?",
        "body": "   It is recognised that it is not always possible for foods to contain the exact amount of nutrients labelled, owing to natural variations and variations arising from production and length of storage. However, it is important that the actual nutrient content of foods should not deviate substantially from labelled amounts, as the consumer could otherwise be misled.      As a result, the European Commission has drawn up, in collaboration with EU Member States, guidance on the setting of tolerances for nutrient values. The document sets tolerances for:         the nutrition declaration under EU FIC;   compliance with the levels of nutrients and other substances specified in Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims;   controlling the levels of vitamins and minerals specified under Regulation (EC) No. 1925/2006 on the addition of vitamins and minerals; and   vitamins and minerals in food supplements.      (Source: Technical guidance on nutrition labelling - UK Department of Health, Page 20: Free PDF)  The following tables are from the EU     GUIDANCE DOCUMENT FOR COMPETENT AUTHORITIES FOR THE CONTROL OF COMPLIANCE WITH EU LEGISLATION ON:      Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004      and      Council Directive 90/496/EEC of 24 September 1990 on nutrition labelling of foodstuffs      and      Directive 2002/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 June 2002 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to food supplements      with regard to the setting of tolerances for nutrient values declared on a label   (Source PDF)      How this will be affected with Brexit when the UK leaves the EU is anyone's guess, although to start with, EU laws will be integrated into UK law to start with until the decisions are made by parliament on which laws to remove. (Source)",
        "id": 2188,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "is 1.319 IU/ML Helicobacter Pylori IGG normal?",
        "body": "Those test results indicate a positive result for traces of Helicobacter pylori in the sample given.   No-one on here will give you any more medical advice. Go see your doctor with those results.",
        "id": 1235,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do big people age faster?",
        "body": "What you mean by \"big people\"? Obese? Very tall but not obese (BMI in proper range)?  My answer for obese: probably they do age faster, but this is not so easy to prove as we lack measurement tools to measure aging intself. Quote from Obesity accelerates epigenetic aging of human liver (2014):     Because obese people are at an increased risk of many age-related   diseases, it is a plausible hypothesis that obesity increases the   biological age of some tissues and cell types. However, it has been   difficult to detect such an accelerated aging effect because it is   unclear how to measure tissue age. Here we use a recently developed   biomarker of aging (known as \u201cepigenetic clock\u201d) to study the   relationship between epigenetic age and obesity in several human   tissues. We report an unexpectedly strong correlation between high   body mass index and the epigenetic age of liver tissue. This finding   may explain why obese people suffer from the early onset of many   age-related pathologies, including liver cancer.   Also:     Assessing tissue age poses a significant methodological challenge   because it is not clear which biomarkers of aging are appropriate.   There is a considerable debate in the literature as to what extent   markers/causes of cellular senescence, such as telomere length,   capture all aspects of tissue aging (8\u201310).   If you accept such biomarkers as telomere length:     Leukocyte telomere length, which is a widely used biomarker of aging,   has been found to be negatively correlated with body mass index (BMI)   (3\u20137). Although the observed correlation between BMI and telomere   length is relatively weak (r = 0.12) (4), it is remarkable that these   studies demonstrated that BMI is associated with an age acceleration   effect in blood.   Quote from 'Adipaging': ageing and obesity share biological hallmarks related to a dysfunctional adipose tissue (2016):      Accordingly, understanding the interplay between accelerated ageing   related to obesity and adipose tissue dysfunction is critical to gain   insight into the ageing process in general as well as into the   pathophysiology of obesity and other related conditions. Here we   postulate the concept of 'adipaging' to illustrate the common links   between ageing and obesity and the fact that, to a great extent, obese   adults are prematurely aged individuals. ",
        "id": 1188,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Petechiae vs purpura vs teleangiectasia",
        "body": "Purpura and petechiae are both the results of extravasated blood under the skin - essentially bleeding causing a small pool of blood.  The distinction between purpura and petechiae is arbitrary at &lt;3mm = petechiae and >3mm = purpura.  Large (>10 mm) bleeding is called an ecchymosis.  A bruise is simply an ecchymosis resulting from trauma.   Purpura is not necessarily palpable or elevated.  When it is this is a different clinical entity with a different list of causes, predominantly vasculitic.  Telangiectasia is a different pathology.  These are malformed, typically widened, capillaries and small venules which are visually prominent due to their proximity to the skin surface and relative engorgement with blood.  They are neither petechiae, purpura or ecchymoses.",
        "id": 2302,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term effects of chewing on cheek?",
        "body": "The greatest risk of this is sore formation, thickening of skin due to callus and infection. As infection,  callus and sores can be disfiguring and debilitating this is a formidable problem. However, most issues come from the deeper skin being broken.   Morsicatio buccarum et labiorum      In some individuals habitual cheek and lip biting becomes a fixed   neurosis. Pieces of oral mucosa are actually torn free from the   surface, producing a distinctive clinical appearance termed morsicatio   buccarum et labiorum.   This disorder though probably not what your looking for us what extreme cases can turn into.   Oral Frictional Hyperkeratosis     Most patients with frictional keratosis are free of symptoms, with the   exception of those with aggressive cheek and lip biting habits. In   some individuals who repeatedly traumatize the tissues, tenderness,   swelling, and a burning sensation may be presenting symptoms. Patients   with persistent cheek and lip biting habits tend to have increased   stress and psychologic disorders. A patient may notice a thickening or   roughness of the involved mucosal site, or frictional keratosis may be   discovered as an incidental finding during a routine oral examination.   The risk of cancer from this seems low, but consulting a doctor or dentist would be the best course of action.   Goodtherapy.com  Sharecare.com",
        "id": 998,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much are Acute Radiation Syndrome and cancer correlated?",
        "body": "From your link:     According to the linear no-threshold model, any exposure to ionizing radiation, even at doses too low to produce any symptoms of radiation sickness, can induce cancer due to cellular and genetic damage. Under this assumption survivors of acute radiation syndrome face an increased risk developing cancer later in life. The probability of developing cancer is a linear function with respect to the effective radiation dose   Again, according to the linear no-threshold model, which is used for US and much international legislation.  It is not possible to accurately know effective doses from only the ARS symptoms. The rough values are also mentioned in your link.",
        "id": 624,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Helicobacter pylori affect the body outside of the digestive system?",
        "body": "   A doctor mentioned Helicobacter pylori as a possible culprit for both of those symptoms.   H.pylori infection is a latent infection in the human stomach mucous layer (1)(2). This infection is basically asymptomatic. This infection, however, may cause chronic gastritis. Chronic gastritis is also asymptomatic in most people. Heart burn is not a typical sign of chronic gastritis. In addition to chronic gastritis, H.pylori is able to harm the protective layer in the stomach lining. Since the surroundings in stomach are very acidic (pH~2), any damage done to the protective layer predisposes to stomach ulcer since the gastric acid damages the deeper layers of the stomach lining. These ulcers are usually symptomatic and can cause heartburn and pain in the upper abdomen. NSAIDs can harm the protective layer of stomach in the same way as H.pylori and there they predispose to ulcers also.  However, I find it very difficult to believe that helicobacter would cause migraine. There is at least one meta-analysis and a review article on this subject. Both are published in a quite questionable Open Access journal. The studies included in the meta-analysis are all quite low quality studies. Another study conducted on Iran seems quite dubious also. This study has caused some concerns, as can be seen in PubMed.   The causal relationship between H.pylori eradication and migraine can be studied quite easily and safely in large populations. As so, I am suspicious with regard to these studies since there are no randomized controlled trials published in high quality medical journals on this matter.      Are there any efficient tests to determine if one is in fact \"infected\" with the bacteria?   A quite recent review article in the New England Journal of Medicine outlines the current non-endoscopic diagnostic modalities:   Serologic test (=a blood sample to assess for h.pylori antigens) is widely available and cheap. Remains positive even after an eradication Urea breath test has high positive and negative predictive values. Results are affected by the use of proton pump inhibitors and antibiotics. Fecal antigen test has also positive and negative predictive values. No the most convenient test for patients (not surprised).      Are treatments required when there's no presence of stomach ulcers?   There is absolutely no indication to eradicate H.pylori in patients who are totally asymptomatic. The prevalence of H.pylori infection is so high that half of the world total population should be on antibiotics. Moreover, if the eradication of H.pylori is successful, you will receive almost surely within the next weeks. If one is diagnosed with an ulcer, a reflux disease or h.pylori is seen tissue samples obtained during gastroscopy or the reason of dyspepsia is suspected to be H.pylori infection, the eradication is reasonable.",
        "id": 370,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating chewing gum after lunch everyday",
        "body": "1. Very very slightly - you produce more saliva which you swallow (more on this in 2), but I'm not sure if that really contributes on a meaningful scale.  2. I'm only talking about the important and/or long-term effects:  -Vastly better dental health (depending on what your gum contains, xylitol and polytol are good components to have)  -Chewing gum might exacerbate a problem for a person with some sort of Temporomandibular Joint Disorder (TMD, TMJ)  -I assume the gum you're talking about is Wrigley's Doublemint - like many gums, it contains Aspartame, which is a controversial artificial sweetener. Many industry funded studies show this substance is safe, but over 90% independent studies show adverse health effects. There are some other sweeteners too, but for the most part they don't have adverse effects, especially in chewing gum doses. Some gums just use plain sugar.  -Along with the production of saliva, having something in your mouth triggers the cephalic phase - gastric, pancreatic and biliary fluids being released in your body in preparation for digestion. There's a minority of people claiming this can upset their stomach (changing the acidity), but I can't find any studies backing this statement up, and it seems like this happens to a very small amount of people anyway. If you eat the gum after lunch, I imagine this can only help with digestion though.  3. The reason we get drowsy after a lunch is because the body draws blood away from the brain to help the digestion process.  -Eating food that is easy / quick to digest will reduce this drowsiness. This also applies to amount of food eaten. In my personal experience eating light food (I buy chicken salad or an italian wrap!), and eating enough so you are just below the feeling of being 'full' helps tremendously. Try playing around with this and see if it works for you too.  -A 5 minute very light exercise session that will get your blood running. I use a local pull-up bar for a set or two when I have the time. This is just to 'warm up' and shouldn't be actual exercise.  -Splash cold water on your face for temporary mental sharpness.  -Stay hydrated, drink a lot of water. There are almost infinite reasons to stay as well hydrated as possible continuously. One of the first signs of dehydration is fatigue.  Hope this helps you!  Sources and detailed info:  Polyol containing chewing gum helps prevent dental caries: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19047666  Xylitol containing chewing gum grants various boosts to dental health: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7607747  Aspartame toxicity: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC548217/  Contents of Wrigley's chewing gum (look up the ingredients for your gum of choice): http://www.wrigley.com/global/about-us/ingredients.aspx",
        "id": 894,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I obtain \"activated oxygen bleach\"? I hear that it can help people to disinfect their laundry.\u200b",
        "body": "Summary  OxiClean products don't contain a bleach activator, so they aren't very good at disinfecting laundry.  Here are a few popular products which include activated oxygen bleach:  In the US, you can use Tide Mountain Spring powder, or probably any other Tide powder. No pre-soaking is necessary. Do not use Tide liquid or Tide gel packs.  In the UK, you can use Persil Biological powder or Fairy Non-Bio powder. You must set your machine to 30&nbsp;\u00b0C or higher. Most power products in Europe contain TAED. No liquid detergents or gel packs contain an activator in Europe or North America.  Details follow.  I think you must buy powder  You can buy a powder, a tablet, or a self-dissolving film-coated pack which contains a solid portion. But you can't buy a liquid detergent.  This source says:     \"Powders have more bleaching technology than liquids, and can go after particulate soils better,\" says Elaine Cella, principal researcher for Tide. \"In powder we can put in non-chlorine bleach, which you can\u2019t put into a liquid, because it deteriorates too quickly.\"   (But, the source seems to imply, liquid detergents are best at dealing with food, body oils, and other greasy soils.)  In the US and Canada  NOBS  NOBS is the best bleach activator commonly available in North America. It produces the active chemical pernonanoic acid in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. But most laundry products don't use it. Originally, the product was made exclusively for Tide's manufacturer, Procter and Gamble, but even though this is no longer the case it has not been introduced into formulas by other manufacturers.. It works fine in both warm and hot water.  I visited the P&amp;G ingredients site. It looks like many (maybe all) Tide powders include a bleach activator. For example: Tide Mountain Spring powder includes the activator NOBS. (The liquid does not; don't use it.)  I checked the ingredients list for a few Gain powdered detergents. Ultra Gain with Oxy powder (Icy Fresh Fizz) includes NOBS. All other Gain powders, including \"Ultra Gain\" and \"Ultra Gain with Febreze\", lack an activator; don't buy them.  TAED  TAED isn't as soluble as NOBS but in the washing machine in the presence of hydrogen peroxide released from sodium percarbonate in the detergent, it dissolves quickly to produce the active bleaching and disinfecting chemical peracetic acid.  Everyone agrees that TAED works fine in hot water and it is now claimed that   good performance is achieved in water as low as 15&nbsp;\u00b0C.  In warm water? This source says that TAED works at 40&nbsp;\u00b0C and above. In the worst-case scenario, if your cold-water supply can fall to 0&nbsp;\u00b0C, your washing machine's \"warm\" water setting can produce water as cold as 25&nbsp;\u00b0C. So I don't know whether or not TAED is always a good choice for warm-water clothes washing. This source gives me doubts about TAED's solubility. But, since the \"warm\" setting is usually significantly warmer than 25&nbsp;\u00b0C, and since this source implies that it dissolves fully in 25 minutes even at 20&nbsp;\u00b0C, therefore it may be fine to use TAED in warm water if you do the following:  Start your top-loading washing machine's \"wash\" cycle and let it agitate for a few minutes, then pause the machine and let it soak for ten minutes before continuing.  Or, of course, you can just set your machine to 40&nbsp;\u00b0C. (Source.)  Clorox 2 Stain Remover &amp; Color Booster powder contains TAED.  Clorox 2 Stain Remover &amp; Color Booster packs are self-dissolving film-coated packs which are made up of a liquid portion and a dry portion. These packs contain TAED. But Clorox 2 Oxi Max powder lacks TAED; do not buy it. In Canada, Clorox 2 Stain Fighter powder contains TAED.  Resolve in-wash stain-remover powder (only available in Canada) also contains TAED.  Henkel introduced Persil Proclean into the US market in 2015.  The powder variants contain TAED.  Do not buy  OxiClean powder isn't a detergent; it's a color-safe bleach. I visited the Church &amp; Dwight ingredients page. I checked the ingredients list for regular OxiClean powder; it doesn't contain any activator.  I checked the ingredients table for Walmart's store-brand Great Value Oxi stain remover powder. It doesn't include any activator either.  I checked an ingredients list for \"Ultra Purex Powder Detergent with Renuzit\"; I found it on the Environmental Working Group website. It doesn't appear to contain any activator.  It looks like the US Sun powders don't contain any activators. I'm sure that the Canadian Sunlight powders don't contain any: I checked all of them.    In the UK  Most powder detergents in Europe contain TAED.  I didn't do that much UK-related research, since I don't live in the UK. But I did check the ingredients list for Persil Biological Powder. It contains the activator TAED. Bold 2-in-1 washing powder granules vary. For example, \"Lavender &amp; Camomile Advanced Performance\" includes TAED, but regular \"Lavender &amp; Camomile\" lacks it. All Fairy Non-Bio washing powder granules include TAED, whether \"Advanced Performance\" or not.  Notes  Activated oxygen bleach will gradually fade many colored garments over time. (Source.)  If you're using cold water, use a Japanese detergent which contains LOBS or DOBA instead. (Source.).  These detergents are primarily designed to clean oily stains like collar stains.  Finding other options  If you want to find other options: It may be helpful to do a Google search, using your country's Google search engine, for the strange-looking query [&nbsp;laundry detergent with bleach activator ingredients&nbsp;]. This was helpful for me.  A request  Please do edit this post, improve it, and add more information to it.",
        "id": 1680,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Map of ragweed infested countries",
        "body": "https://www.polleninfo.org/fileadmin/template/img/chartimages/currency/resized/POAC_06_1.gif   According to the little number on the lower left, this is from 2012. The situation is worse than I expected in Europe. Also, there is a map from the states:  http://www.allamericanallergy.com/images/Ragweed%20Pollen%20Map%2008-25-2014.jpg  It will be so cool to find a map from the whole globe though.",
        "id": 1110,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Testing intestinal flora in transverse colon",
        "body": "While I consider this hypothesis unlikely, but possible, there are things that could be done to investigate this idea directly (most likely at consuming a significant amount of personal funds if you are willing to find anyone to do them).  First, yes bloating or excessive intestinal gas disorders/diseases exists.  While not a great journal, and one that uses industry standards that differ from more established guidelines, here is a review that should be more approachable to the public.  The first and most obvious would be to look for excessive intestinal gasses.  This would be noted by increased flatulence, or if in an extreme case, a local build-up would be noticeable in a CT or X-ray.  The fact that it is not moving around, but staying in your upper right abdomen, would mean that a local build up would be more likely, and thus more likely to be found in radiology.  The fact that these tests were done, but did not yield results is evidence against the idea.  If you really want to test the output metabolome of your intestinal flora, you're probably better suited to test the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in your flatulence.  A group in the Netherlands, who own the design to a particular electronic nose called eNose, published the idea of using feacal volatiles to \"considerably improve screening, diagnosis and disease monitoring for gastro-intestinal diseases.\"  This is certainly not an FDA approved method, and again it was published in the same low-impact journal that caters to companies publishing about their own tech.  The idea has merit, however a large database of samples correlated with successful diagnoses via other means would need to be established before this was of any practical use.  Finally, biopsies and swabs of the colon could be taken during an endoscopy, and the microbes present could be tested for.  This could be compared to some growing databases of individual microbiomes from NIH's Human Microbiome Project.  I do not think that trying to starve your gut flora via lower sugar diet is likely to have any noticeable effects.  Your GI specialist would have recommended any diagnostic diets to try if there was a likely test that could have been done (all liquid for example).  Testing feacal volatiles or comparing your microbiome would be human medical research/experiments at best (beyond the care you would be able to get in most countries outside of a medical study like this one).  Under the assumption that you are asking this here, that you are not interested in other diagnoses, and your other questions regarding polyps and GERD, I'm going to assume that this a theory that your GI specialist didn't put forward or one they didn't agree with.  They should be able to screen for the causes of your pain if it arises from an issue with your GI tract.  On the idea that they haven't (and therefore this specific hypothesis), I would highly suggest you seek treatment from a pain specialist, to test for things neuropathic pain.",
        "id": 560,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sleeping position with Hepatitis A",
        "body": "I might hazard a guess that \"don't put pressure on your liver\" means don't take medications that might tax the liver, or drink alcohol, etc. I don't think they meant \"don't squeeze the liver.\"  However, if they did mean that, it would be my recommendation that she sleep in the left lateral decubitus position.    Since the liver is on the right side, lying on her left side with the head of the bed slightly elevated will exert the least amount of pressure on the liver. Probably the next best thing would be on her back with the head of the bed slighty elevated.  I did find one paper addressing the position of the body in the treatment of various illnesses, calling the role of position in treatment \"postural medicine\". Much of this is common sense (that is, experience has taught us as much) but some of it is new to me.   The role of body position and gravity in the symptoms and treatment of various medical diseases. ",
        "id": 173,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any scientific evidence that consumption of the placenta is nutrious for a new mother? Does it prevent postpartum depression?",
        "body": "I'm sure its been well-known among females that eating the placenta has lots of health benefits, but recent studies has shown that it doesn't.   Meredith Carlson Daly studied this and commented saying;  \"Researchers at Northwestern University School of Medicine reviewed 10 published research studies on the practice of placentophagy.  They found no data to support the common claims that eating the placenta either raw, cooked, or encapsulated offers protection against postpartum depression, reduces post-delivery pain, boosts energy, helps with lactation, promotes skin elasticity, enhances maternal bonding, or replenishes iron in the body.  The researchers also noted that there have been no studies conducted on whether eating the placenta has any potential risks.\"  While no scientific study has proven any benefits, a survey was conducted by American Medical anthropologists at the University of South Florida and University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Among the respondents, about 3/4 claimed to have positive experiences from eating their own placenta, citing \"improved mood\", \"increased energy\", and \"improved lactation\"",
        "id": 1363,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference between having severe social anxiety and Social Anxiety Disorder",
        "body": "The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), also known as the DSM, is the guide for any psychological disorders, and the DSM-5 which is the current version (APA, 2013) describes Social Anxiety Disorder as follows:     A. A persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way (or show anxiety\u00a0symptoms) that will be embarrassing and humiliating.      B. \u00a0Exposure to the feared situation almost invariably provokes anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or situationally pre-disposed Panic Attack.      C. \u00a0The person recognizes that this fear is unreasonable or excessive.      D. \u00a0The feared situations are avoided or else are endured with intense anxiety and distress.      E. \u00a0The avoidance, anxious anticipation, or distress in the feared social or performance situation(s) interferes significantly with the person's normal routine, occupational (academic) functioning, or social activities or relationships, or there is marked distress about having the phobia.   A key point the DSM also points out is that in Social Anxiety Disorder, the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is:   persistent typically lasting 6 or more months causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning not due to direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., drugs, medications) not due to a general medical condition not better accounted for by another mental disorder.   References  APA (2013).\u00a0Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5\u00ae). American Psychiatric Publishing.",
        "id": 2570,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tiredness. Needs opinions about the gym",
        "body": "I also suffer from similar symptoms.  For about 3 years, I have been going to the (fighting) gym every other day and training for hours. At home, I would do my own exercises as well. By the end of 2-3 years, I had lots of energy throughout the day and had no real issues with sleep. (Before the 3 years is a WHOLE other story of mostly unhealthiness).  About a year ago, I stopped going to the gym, mostly due to financial reasons. I knew once I stopped for a while, it would be incredibly hard to get back into it (especially the self-motivation part). I continued to slack off and now I do not exercise nearly as much as I used to, my cardio is completely non-existent, and my energy levels are at an extreme low. I come home from work, and I do NOTHING for a few hours, get more tired, and fall asleep. This is not helpful at all because I end up waking up in the middle of the night, trying to find something to eat, and then am too tired to do anything and doze in and out of sleep until work in the morning. Rinse &amp; Repeat.  My digestive system has NEVER been good my whole life, but recently has been acting up a LOT more than usual. I too have been eating VERY LITTLE each day and feeling relatively okay about it.  I too am a programmer.    NOW  I have not gone to see a doctor yet (this time), but I am knowledgeable in many areas of human psychology, exercise physiology, anatomy, neuroscience, cog science, etc. and I am usually able to identify signs and symptoms and self-diagnose very well. I can tell you, I definitely have the signs of depression without the overwhelming sadness (like you described) but am yet reserved on outright calling it depression just yet.  First of all, just because the doctor mentions something about \"pills to treat depression\", doesn't mean you HAVE TO take them or go that route. You can visit the doctors and have all your discussions without things leading to pills, and it will still help you by providing you loads of insight, especially from a medical perspective. I personally am very against taking medicine for anything and only do so if absolutely required. Taking medicine to fix your problems tends to only treat your symptoms and not the REAL UNDERLYING ISSUES. This means, you will cover up your symptoms, but old and new problems can continue to arise. Sometimes, we have no other choices, but when and if I do, I make the choice to stay away from relying on external means of balancing myself. Like any drug, your mind AND body can become addicted or dependent, whether physically or not.  Exercise is extremely important for mental health and overall human health. There is just too much material on this to explain it fully, but regular exercise and regular sleeping patterns are so crucial to all the neurochemicals and cycles going on in your body that this would be the first thing I focus on.  Take vitamin supplements if you do not eat well enough to get all of your nutrients. I'm not too sure on the Iron and how it could affect you in your current situation, but I am a huge fan of red meat and I do not feel lack of iron contributes to my situation.  I suggest you hit the gym and exercise regularly. Draining your energy will only make your body realize it needs more energy. Unless you have any other health conditions that would limit your exercise habits, there should be no cause for concern. Dont go TOO HARD all at once, start slow and work your way up in a safe and controlled manner. If you get EXTREMELY tired, then stop and rest.  Maybe get checked for diabetes. (my dad has it so I need to be on the lookout too).  Hope it gives you something to compare to. My plans are to get back into the gym and fight it out until I feel better. If this does not feel like its working, I would probably take a visit to the doctors for some medical insight and continue doing what I do on my own.",
        "id": 353,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "After a skin biopsy, is it preferable to use vaseline, polysporin, or neosporin?",
        "body": "A skin biopsy is considered a clean surgical wound, unlike a cut sustained outside.   See this from the American Academy of Dermatology  and this Medscape article with information on wound healing.   Studies are mixed whether antibiotic ointments (like neosporin) work any better than petroleum jelly (like vaseline) on wounds. For clean wounds, it seems minimal to no difference. There is a little more evidence for neosporin benefit in wounds acquired in dirty circumstances, and in partial thickness burns. That article, as well as all dermatologists I work with, recommend sterile petroleum jelly (or antibiotic ointment) to REDUCE SCARRUNG - for which vaseline is superior to using nothing, and it may also heal faster.  I apply sterile petroleum jelly on patients after I perform biopsies. Since it has medication in it, antibiotic ointment can have more side effects (like allergic reactions); although those are rare, it's not without risk. Petroleum jelly has no active ingredients and is unlikely to cause any reaction at all. Always keep it covered with a clean bandaid for the first 24-48 hrs. ",
        "id": 1274,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does coffee affect blood sugar levels?",
        "body": "As a type 1 diabetic I have noticed even black coffee can have an effect on blood sugar. Coffee( the caffeine really) increases your blood epinephrine (adrenaline) levels. Adrenaline has the same effect as glucagon .They stimulate the breakdown of glycogen into glucose",
        "id": 1672,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there scientific evidence that low-carb diets enhance athletic and mental performance?",
        "body": "The question is a quite broad since you don't state whether you mean a ketogenic diet, levels of protein and fats, or what you mean by \"athletic and mental performance\" so I will answer quite generally.  There is some anecdotal limited evidence that shows unhindered athletic performance on a Low Carb diet, such as observations made on Innuit people prior to dramatic changes in their diets. However the bulk of the literature shows impaired athletic performance, particularly in anaerobic events (eg sprints, lifting, field athletics), and no change in endurance events. Most studies also reported a 1-2 week diet adaptation time, during which most performance indicators suffered:   Burke, Louise M. \"Re-examining high-fat diets for sports performance: did we call the \u2018nail in the coffin\u2019too soon?.\" Sports Medicine 45.1 (2015): 33-49.  Hawley, John A., and Jill J. Leckey. \"Carbohydrate dependence during prolonged, intense endurance exercise.\" Sports Medicine 45.1 (2015): 5-12.  As for brain function, a recent review article by Koppel (2017) looked at over 50 studies and found that people suffering from neurological conditions such as epilepsy, and more recently, Alzheimer\u2019s benefited from Low Carb, high fat diets (in particular improved cognition). Care should be taken if  extrapolating these results to otherwise healthy individuals and/or athletes.   Koppel, Scott J., and Russell H. Swerdlow. \"Neuroketotherapeutics: A modern review of a century-old therapy.\" Neurochemistry international (2017).",
        "id": 1917,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What software are there to use on laptop for blood analysis and diagnosis?",
        "body": "No there isn\u2019t. Your computer is lacking the hardware diagnostic tools, so a software won\u2019t be able to help.  An actual blood test is a compilation of multiple tests done by experts in a lab, and even the simplest and faster forms (an ABG, as an example takes &lt;5 minutes) use machines which cost more than 300 dollars for sure.  Where would you inject a blood sample into the computer to start with...?",
        "id": 2439,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Being drunk, how does vomiting help become responsive?",
        "body": "Vomiting does not restore alertness. It might rouse them from their stupor because of the physical activity it involves, but it does nothing specific to increase their level of consciousness. If vomiting accomplishes this temporary feat, vigorous efforts to rouse them would probably accomplish the same. Trust me, people can and do choke to death on their own vomit while unconscious due to alcohol. By no means is vomiting guaranteed to wake them.  What vomiting does do is remove alcohol still in the stomach, which means it reduces the intoxication level that is yet to come. If someone is drunk enough to be unconscious and has a stomach full of alcohol that hasn't been absorbed yet, vomiting might very well save their life. What most people who drink to the level of stupor don't understand is just how close to death they are at that stage. Respiratory depression and death are the next stages.  General info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication",
        "id": 1897,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does metformin do to treat polycystic ovarian syndrome?",
        "body": "PCOS can make your body resistant to insulin. When your body's cells become too resistant to insulin, that's called type 2 diabetes. Metformin makes your body more sensitive to insulin, so it can help prevent type 2 diabetes in PCOS patients who do not yet have it.  Metformin doesn't treat PCOS itself, and it's not approved by the FDA to treat PCOS. Its use is appropriate when the patient shows early signs of insulin resistance, a condition called prediabetes.  This page has some good info: http://youngwomenshealth.org/2014/02/25/metformin/.  Incidentally, some physicians &amp; scientists believe that metformin can be used to treat other symptoms of PCOS. If you're interested in a critical review of those claims, see this paper. Here's a key paragraph from the conclusion:     The use of metformin in PCOS has received a lot of attention for   obvious reasons. Once thought of as a wonder drug, the accumulating   evidence on the efficacy of metformin has been disappointing. The lack   of an emphatic or overwhelming efficacy is largely due to the   patients' variability in phenotypes and their metabolic parameters.   Some studies have tried to identify the patients that are most likely   to benefit from metformin, yet again the results have not been   forthcoming. Consequently the burden falls back on the clinician who   should be familiar with the gist of the available evidence to be able   to identify the right patient for the treatment in hand. Obtaining an   evidence of IR [insulin resistance] is a good starting point prior to recommending its use.   Please keep in mind PCOS is a very heterogenous disorder, meaning that any two women can have PCOS with totally different clinical manifestations and also metabolic consequences. Not everyone will need metformin, because not everyone has the same metabolic consequences of PCOS.",
        "id": 475,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is our use of cooking oils responsible for the insufficient conversion of Omega-3 to EPA and DHA?",
        "body": "Reasoning with \"evolution\" and 'natural' settings is a good starting point in terms of human nutrition. But there are caveats in this:    it tends to be armchair reasoning without archaeological or paleontological evidence   evolution can be very quick, even for slowly reproducing and mutating humans: before the neolithic revolution humans did not eat so much starches or fats from grassy corns (that we transformed considerably by breeding in a very short time) and lactose tolerance in adults spread very quickly from anatolian cattle keepers to the north and west (mainly) evolution is still ongoing and not a finished process we have to live with. Epigenetics alone indicate that genetic adaptability is intergenerationally high humans are true omnivores and can and did survive in good health and into old age on a very broad spectrum of foods. And they did so in the past. This is not to be read as everyone in our supposedly golden past got quite old. Insects, game, fish, mollusks, birds, tubers, roots, grass seeds, nuts, vegetables and fruit, all on the menu but in very different ratios at differernt times.   For the vast majority of our history the main concern with food was always: getting more in order to ensure to get enough. More than enough food eaten  was only a problem for a minute 'elite' of the past and starvation or malnutrition is still a big problem in some parts of this world. Starving to death is much quicker than eating to death.  It is very funny to read old recipes for \"war-bread\" in World War I Germany: when the (now so called) bad carbohydrates from grains were in short supply and bran, beets and potatoes were added to stretch out what was there. What today is sold as \"health-food\" was once one of the very sparse reasons for ordinary Germans to riot and rebel and make a revolution!  The conversion rate for EPA and DHA is usually low but not necessarily too low  If fed much omega-3 the conversion rate in rats can exceed the brain's uptake limit. And in humans this is quite similar.     The conversion efficiency of ALA to EPA varies between 0.2% and 21%, and that of ALA to DHA varies between 0% and 9% (Andrew et al. 2006; Williams and Burdge 2006). The conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is affected by multiple factors such as sex and competitive inhibition of \u03946-desaturase by LA and ALA. [\u2026]   Besides the amount of PUFA, the ratio of \u03c96/\u03c93 is known to be of nutritional importance as it is the key index for balanced synthesis of eicosanoids in the body (Steffens 1997). For optimal infant nutrition, the ratio of n-6/n-3 must be not higher than 10 (Gerster 1998). In Coastal states where mothers consumed high amounts of fish rich in n-3 PUFA, n-6/n-3 ratios were significantly lower than that of other countries (6.5 and 8.5, respectively) (Kneebone et al. 1985; Boersma et al. 1991). High consumption of plant oils rich in n-6 PUFA and consumption of relatively low marine foods (as source of n-3 PUFA) increases the n-6/n-3 ratio. When one has a diet rich in ALA and lower LA consumption levels, EPA and DHA in muscle tissue increased due to reduced competition for \u03946 desaturase. In most Indian consumers, the n-6/n-3 intake ratio is equal to 1/30-70, but the ideal ratio is 1/5-10 to protect human health. Japanese are the only people who take an ideal ratio of 1/2-4 and this is due to their consumption of seafood (Aleksandra et al. 2009). In communities in the west, consumption of \u03c96 is much higher than that of \u03c93; such that in the United States, consumption of \u03c96 is 10\u201330 times more than that of \u03c93. Nutritional scientists suggest the 2:1 to 4:1 n-6/n-3 ratio, which indicates a high consumption of seafood (Aleksandra et al. 2009).   From: Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid sources and evaluation of their nutritional and functional properties   This is partially illustrated here:   As you can see, both pathways use the same enzymes, making them the limiting factor:     More specifically, most studies in humans have shown that whereas a certain, though restricted, conversion of high doses of ALA to EPA occurs, conversion to DHA is severely restricted. The use of ALA labelled with radioisotopes suggested that with a background diet high in saturated fat conversion to long-chain metabolites is approximately 6% for EPA and 3.8% for DHA. With a diet rich in n-6 PUFA, conversion is reduced by 40 to 50%. It is thus reasonable to observe an n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio not exceeding 4-6. From: Can adults adequately convert alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)?      Omega-3: ALA intakes enough for EPA/DPA levels for non-fish eaters?   The conversion of the plant-based omega-3 ALA to the long-chain EPA and DHA may be increased in vegans and vegetarians who do not eat fish, suggest results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC).   So while it is true that artificial transfats are really bad, and otherwise industrially damaged fats should be avoided at all cost it is not true that saturated fats have a bad influence on eicosanoid status.  Total consumption of plant based alpha-linoleic acid (ALA) is one key, over abundance of omega-6 acids like arachidonic acid (AA) and linoleic acid (LA) is another. That is quite ironic because a vegetarian or vegan diet that is not well planned tends to increase this unhealthy ratio of fatty acids.   While the view that the ratio of all fatty acids to one another has come under attack, the rate of conversion is still dependent on dietary ALA in this view:     Conversion of \u03b1-linolenic acid in humans is influenced by the absolute amounts of \u03b1-linolenic acid and linoleic acid in the diet and not by their ratio   Too much PUFAs of the wrong kind is detrimental.  Beef from cows that are grass fed tends to be a much richer source of omega-3 acids than those fed soy and maize to fatten them and us up.   If you look at these sources of essential fatty acids:    Apart from leaving out sources of good fat, like the nutritious monkey brain that's full of DHA because that ape ate all the good stuff away from us: You see an important ingredient in our diet suspiciously absent from that picture. The same article, however, does list it partially elsewhere:  Food Sources of Linoleic Acid (18:2n-6) (157) Food                         Serving         Linoleic Acid (g) Safflower oil                1 tablespoon    10.1 Sunflower seeds, oil roasted 1 oz            9.7 Pine nuts                    1 oz            9.4 Sunflower oil                1 tablespoon    8.9 Corn oil                     1 tablespoon    7.3 Soybean oil                  1 tablespoon    6.9 Pecans, oil roasted          1 oz            6.4 Brazil nuts                  1 oz            5.8 Sesame oil                   1 tablespoon    5.6   Sunflower-fat and oils from grains are a major contributor of PUFAs in a suboptimal ratio, providing too much AA and LA. And this is one part of refining fat: feeding animals the wrong kind of fodder that then ends up damaging us. Only eating the plants with this ratio directly might be even more damaging. A vegan cooking his gluten-rich seitan-steak in sunflower oil is very likely on the wrong track.  That means from an evolutionary view it is perfectly reasonable to assume that humans evolved to eat what was/is found in the African savannah far from the coast. Only after the neolithic revolution when our western diet slowly came into the abysmal shape it is today did we decrease our ability to synthesise EPA and DHA so much that adding external i.e. marine sources for them is now almost mandatory. If one wants to keep the high amount of omega6 in the diet.  Parts of the reasoning in the question are perfectly valid. But the unqualified call for poly-unsaturated essential fatty acids is the culprit. Mono-unsaturated acids and saturated fats might raise concerns because of their energy density, not because of their effect on DHA/EPA conversion. While omega-6 acids are necessary, they have been present in western diets in much to high ratios. It is therefore unwise to call for an increase in all PUFAs across the board. It is not the use of cooking oil per se that brought us into this situation. It is industrialised agriculture and food preparation that favoured the very lopsided narrowing of our meal plans into the unhealthy category for way too many people.        Limit total fat intake, avoid trans fatty acids, and reduce saturated fats.   Make monounsaturated fatty acids the primary dietary fat   Include good sources of ALA (omega-3 fatty acids from plants) daily.   Reduce intake of omega-6 fatty acids, if excessive.   Consider a direct source of EPA and DHA.   [from: Vegetarian\u2019s Challenge \u2014 Optimizing Essential Fatty Acid Status]    ",
        "id": 1879,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many people, on average, floss on a regular basis?",
        "body": "According to this page, http://sunvalleypediatricdentistry.com/statistics-brushing-flossing-oral-health/ 50% of Americans floss daily, 31% floss less regularly, and 18% do not floss at all.",
        "id": 1325,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would a stomach/bladder port allow for infinite and safe eating of junk food?",
        "body": "   Can you lick and chew junk food and spit it out without consuming the material?      On top of this, can you vomit it up?   Yes.     Further, is it \"possible\" to have a created hole in your stomach/bladder to remove the junk food like a sneaky intelligent magician?   No.  Bulimia nervosa Unnecessary surgery.",
        "id": 708,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Vibrator side effects",
        "body": "The literature regarding the use of sex toys in women is sparse. I have found two studies, which describe potential side effects related to the use of sex toys in women:   Transmission of sexual transmitted disease due to the use of uncleaned and shared penetrative sex toys Higher prevalence of bacterial vaginosis Vaginal irritation and trauma in forceful insertion or when lubricants are not used Allergies of the vaginal mucosa to the sex toy (depending on the sex toy's type of material)   Above mentionned side effects can be prevented by thorough cleaning of sex toys (or use of condoms), use of lubricants and selection of the sex toy's material.  References:  Lee R. Health care problems of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender patients. Western Journal of Medicine. 2000;172(6):403-408.  Marrazzo JM, Coffey P, Bingham A. Sexual Practices, Risk Perception and Knowledge Of Sexually Transmitted Disease Risk Among Lesbian and Bisexual Women. Perspectives on sexual and reproductive health. 2005;37(1):6-12. doi:10.1363/psrh.37.006.05.",
        "id": 1245,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it not healthy way to boil water in plastic electric kettle?",
        "body": "This depends, unfortunately. And it does depend a bit on budget as well.  Electric kettles used for boiling water can leach certain substances.  For plastic the main concern currently is BPA leaching.     What is BPA and Why Should Your Electric Kettle be Plastic Free?      Do the plastic in kettles leach the toxin BPA?      Why Electric Kettles Should Be Plastic Free   Ideally, a good electrical kettle should not contain any plastic because it is loaded with BPA chemical which quickly leaks out when the temperature rises and may cause healthy concerns. BPA is found in polycarbonate, one of the raw material for manufacturing plastics. When consumed, BPA can cause some problems such as disrupting the development of the unborn child or may lead to obesity. Countries such as Japan and Canada, have banned baby bottles and sip cans which containing BPA because of the adverse effects it causes to the users.  Also, taking water or tea that tastes plastics is thought to be harmful and could cause serious health problems such as breast cancer, learning disability, and impaired learning.  BPA may also cause asthma, prostate cancer, and cardiovascular issues.   But going all metal may be bad as well:     Electric kettles may damage your health, scientists warn   The government is to launch research into whether using boiled water from old-style electric kettles is worsening skin allergies through nickel leaching off exposed elements.      Those who filter their water first might be exposing themselves to the greatest risk. The resulting liquid seems to be more acidic, resulting in greater concentrations of nickel dissolving into the water, although further work is being commissioned on this issue.   On the one hand you have to insist on guarantees from the manufacturer that those problematic substances are not in the product from the beginning. (\"BPA-free\" or something like that). But in short: you cannot trust any industry that wants to sell something, as usual in a capitalist society. You have to find a trustworthy independent reviewer that checks for a multitude of possibly dangerous substances in those products in your market. Results can get surprising. Then choose that which best fits the paradigm of least toxic and most affordable to you.",
        "id": 2442,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Replacing bedding and underwear for hygienic reasons",
        "body": "I agree with the comments in that article.  It's rubbish.  Does the NHS toss their bedding every few years??  To get rid of dust mites     Wash bedding weekly. Wash all sheets, blankets, pillowcases and bedcovers in hot water that is at least 130 F (54.4 C) to kill dust mites and remove allergens. If bedding can't be washed hot, put the items in the dryer for at least 15 minutes at a temperature above 130 F (54.4 C) to kill the mites. Then wash and dry the bedding to remove allergens. Freezing nonwashable items for 24 hours also can kill dust mites, but this won't remove the allergens.   https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dust-mites/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352178  The sun newspaper is not a reliable source of health information.  ",
        "id": 2221,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is amyl nitrite used for sex?",
        "body": "Amyl Nitrite     Treats and prevents chest pain (angina pectoris).   And more pertinent for the question:     On the street, this medicine and others like it are sometimes called   \"poppers.\" They have been used by some people to cause a \"high\" or to   improve sex. Use in this way is not recommended. Amyl nitrite can   cause serious harmful effects if too much is inhaled.   Poppers are a name for inhaled nitrites which Amyl Nitrite is one of the most common. They can be lethal if used recreationally and cause vasodilation.      Poppers are rapid-onset, short-acting potent vasodilators that produce   a rush characterized by warm sensations and feelings of dizziness.   Poppers sometimes are used to facilitate anal intercourse because of   their actions on the anal sphincter.   I have read reports about them being similar to Viagra and having a psychedelic effect. I have also included the Wikipedia link. ",
        "id": 1074,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many puffs of Salbutamol can be dangerous?",
        "body": "   In a sudden asthma attack you can take more salbutamol, up to 10 puffs, but you should wait 30 seconds and always shake the inhaler between doses. You can repeat this dose 10 minutes later.      NHS.org.uk   This would warrant even up to 40 puffs in an hour. The dose of salbutamol administered in severe emergencies can be up to 5mg, and even more as long as the patient doesn't develop tachycardia (too quick of a heart rate). You can check with the inhaler, but usually a puff is 100 microgram, which would warrant 50 puffs and more.   Bottom Line: An emergency situation differs from the daily recommendations on the package.  ",
        "id": 2448,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the risk of HIV infection via insertive fellatio?",
        "body": "One problem with this approach of seeking knowledge is the theoretical nature of the question itself:     Unprotected fellatio, which has been practiced by all civilizations since mists of time, is now becoming a cause of concern due to the AIDS epidemic. Most of the sexually transmitted infectious diseases are concerned by fellatio and only few medical studies deal with this topic. This paper is therefore a non exhaustive review of risks brought upon by unprotected fellatio. It is almost impossible to assess the exact risk for a given infection because of the complexity of sexual intercourse, which is rarely exclusively oro-genital.   Therefore: if the following quotes contain numbers, please read them as illustrative and explaining, not as an apology or absolution. Two such articles that nevertheless do put a number on it in the way you are looking for are:     Assessing the risk of HIV infection after an isolated exposure incident:   The higher the plasma viral load of an HIV-infected person, the greater the risk that their blood, sperm and vaginal secretions are infectious. The risk of infection from splashes onto non-intact skin or a mucous membrane is virtually non-existent if the exposed area is washed within 15 minutes. There is almost no risk of HIV transmission from nasal secretions, saliva, urine and vomit, unless they contain visible blood. The risk associated with sexual exposure to HIV varies enormously, depending on the type of sexual activity: almost non-existent for insertive fellatio; estimated at 1.5% for passive (receptive) anal intercourse with ejaculation inside the rectum. The risk of HIV transmission following injury from a sharp object contaminated with blood has been estimated at about 0.3%.      Risk of HIV infection attributable to oral sex among men who have sex with men and in the population of men who have sex with men.   We examined HIV infection and estimated the population-attributable risk percentage (PAR%) for HIV associated fellatio among men who have sex with other men (MSM). Among 239 MSM who practised exclusively fellatio in the past 6 months, 50% had three partners, 98% unprotected; and 28% had an HIV-positive partner; no HIV was detected. PAR%, based on the number of fellatio partners, ranges from 0.10% for one partner to 0.31% for three partners. The risk of HIV attributable to fellatio is extremely low.   But these numbers might be quite misleading. These are statistical statements! They are calculated for the whole population and do not correspond to what a single individual will do or receive (that is \"get\").  Instead of finding a number to put the mind at ease a more comprehensive risk reduction strategy might be a much better choice:     Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use:   Background:   Sexual acquisition of HIV is influenced by choice of partner, sex act, and condom use. However, current risk-reduction strategies focus mainly on condom use.   Goal: To estimate the contribution of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use on the per-act relative and absolute risks for HIV infection.   Study Design: Per-act relative risk for HIV infection was calculated with use of estimates of HIV prevalence, risk of condom failure, HIV test accuracy, and per-act risk of HIV transmission for different sex acts. Absolute risks were calculated on the basis of these relative risk estimates.   Results: Choosing a partner who tested negative instead of an untested partner reduced the relative risk of HIV infection 47-fold; using condoms, 20-fold; and choosing insertive fellatio rather than insertive anal sex, 13-fold. Choosing one risk-reduction behavior substantially reduces absolute risk of HIV infection for heterosexuals but not for men who have sex with men.   Conclusion: Clarifying the magnitude of risk associated with different choices may help people make effective and sustainable changes in behavior.   Even a small risk is still a risk and in case of nuclear power plants these numbers are big enough to demand that these plants be abolished.   To put that into absolute numbers:     Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review    Sexual exposure risks ranged from low for oral sex to 138 infections per 10 000 exposures.    Further if we are talking risk assessment in the field asked in the question, let us not forget that HIV may be the only concern expressed here, but it is by far not the only illness that should be of concern! Some examples of the \"let's not forget\" category are:     Oral sex and the transmission of viral STIs:    To review the literature on the role of oral sex in the transmission of viral sexually transmitted infections (STIs).    Conclusions: Oral sex is a common sexual practice among both heterosexual and homosexual couples. The evidence suggests that HIV transmission can take place through oro-genital sex from penis to mouth and vagina to mouth. Case reports describe apparent transmission from mouth to penis although this appears less likely. The risk of oro-genital transmission of HIV is substantially less than from vaginal and anal intercourse. Receptive oro-genital sex carries a small risk of human papillomavirus infection and possibly hepatitis C, while insertive oro-genital contact is an important risk factor for acquisition of HSV 1. Oro-anal transmission can occur with hepatitis A and B. The transmission of other viruses may occur but is unproved. The relative importance of oral sex as a route for the transmission of viruses is likely to increase as other, higher risk sexual practices are avoided for fear of acquiring HIV infection.   Please re-read the last line in bold a few times, to get a feeling of how to better interpret the numbers given above.",
        "id": 2060,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is Tradozone prescribed to aid with insomnia?",
        "body": "Pharmacology: Inhibits reuptake of serotonin, causes adrenoreceptor subsensitivity, acts as a 5HT2a receptor antagonist and induces significant changes in 5-HT presynaptic receptor adrenoreceptors. Trazodone also significantly blocks histamine (H1) and alpha1-adrenergic receptors.  Insomnia (off-label use): Oral: Immediate release: Usual dose: 50 mg to 100 mg at bedtime (Kaynak 2004; Roth 2011; Walsh 1998). Doses up to 600 mg have been evaluated in patients with insomnia associated with depression (typical ranges of 50 to 300 mg); however, the quality of the evidence precludes definitive conclusions of efficacy (Mendelson 2005; Sateia 2017). Additional data may be necessary to further define the role of trazodone in this condition.  Simple Summary: Mechanism of Action--> Trazodone blocks H1 receptors. By blocking those receptors the effect is (usually) drowsiness.   References  Kaynak H, Kaynak D, G\u00f6z\u00fckirmizi E, Guilleminault C. The effects of trazodone on sleep in patients treated with stimulant antidepressants. Sleep Med. 2004;5(1):15-20.[PubMed 14725822]  Roth AJ, Mc Call WV, Liguori A. Cognitive, psychomotor and polysomnographic effects of trazodone in primary insomniacs. J Sleep Res. 2011;20(4):552-558.[PubMed 21623982]  Walsh JK, Erman M, Erwin CW, et al. Subjective hypnotic efficacy of trazodone and zolpidem in DSMIII-R primary insomnia. Human Psychopharmacology. 1998:13;191-198.  Mendelson WH. A review of the evidence for the efficacy and safety of trazodone in insomnia. J Clin Psych. 2005;66(4):469-476.[PubMed 15816789]",
        "id": 2333,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to properly clean a mouthguard (e.g., a nightguard)?",
        "body": "Make a habit of deep cleansing your night guard as least once weekly. This may be done several ways. The first is by using an over-the-counter pipes cleaner. Simply put your night guard in a bowl or glass with water and allow the cleaner to dissolve entirely into the water.  The second way to deep clean your night guard is by using a mixture of vinegar and hydrogen peroxide. Soak the night guard in white vinegar for a minimum of 30 minutes. After soaking, rinse the night guard and the bowl with water. Then soak the night guard in hydrogen peroxide for at least 30 more minutes. Once completed, rinse with water and permit the nighttime guard to dry completely.  The last way that you can deep clean your night guard would be to use a combination of mouthwash and water. Pour a capful of toothpaste right to a bowl or glass and then dilute with water until the night guard is submerged in the solution. Let your night guard soak for approximately 30 minutes and then rinse the nighttime guard and permit it to dry completely on a clean flat surface.  Pro Suggestion: Do not ever leave your nighttime protector soaking in anything for more than one hour. Lengthy time in liquid may harm the material your nighttime guard is made out of.",
        "id": 2121,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which suitable eye drop to choose for computer vision syndrome?",
        "body": "  Bausch &amp; Lomb Computer Eye Drops provide moisture for dry and irritated eyes. The fast-acting soothing effect eliminates eye discomfort. Bausch &amp; Lomb Computer Eye Drops provide relief from exposure to prolong computer use that can irritate eyes.  Directions \u2022instill 1 or 2 drops in the affected eye(s) as needed  Warnings  Do not use if solution changes color or becomes cloudy  When using this product: \u2022do not touch tip of container to any surface to avoid contamination \u2022remove contact lenses before using \u2022replace cap after use  Stop using and ask a doctor if: \u2022you experience eye pain, changes in vision, continued redness or irritation of the eye condition worsens or persists for more then 72 hours  For more information on other ways of eliminating computer eye strain other than using eye drops, visit:  http://visionsource.com/blog/tips-for-eliminating-computer-eye-strain/",
        "id": 1383,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the meaning of T2 Nx Mx in HPE?",
        "body": "It is impossible to answer these personal situations. In general, yes it is possible that no lymph nodes were removed during surgery. Whether that might be the case with your father, I simply cannot tell.  Nx means \"cancer in nearby lymph nodes cannot (or has not (yet)) be measured\". Some lymph nodes might have been removed during surgery, but either for some reason they could not be tested, or they were not (yet) tested for traces of cancer. Or no lymph nodes were removed, and therefore the HPE can say nothing about lymph node status. Similarly, Mx means that \"metastatis cannot (or has not (yet)) been measured\".  Again, we do not know your father's exact situation. It might be that the doctors think there is no reason to test for lymph nodes or metastasis (e.g. because the cancer was found in a very early stage), or HPE was simply insufficient and more testing is necessary in a later stage. If you're in doubt about this, please (advice your dad to) ask his doctors about it!  Edit: I forgot to give this reference.",
        "id": 1794,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can \"Waterproof Swim Cap\" be good for people with ear infections?",
        "body": "It sounds like you're talking about otitis externa, an infection of the ear canal, a condition where you really should avoid getting any water in your ear.  You've already identified that the cap in question is not really waterproof.   The best way (and really the only way) to keep water out of your ear is to stay out of the water until your ear has had time to clear the infection.  To bathe, you can make a cheap waterproof ear plug by working a generous amount of petroleum jelly into a cotton ball, and using that as an earplug. You can also buy a special soft wax at most pharmacies. People roll a ball of the soft wax in their hands and press it into the outer ear.   Once the infection is healed, if you're not prone to such infections, you can use home-made or pharmacy bought ear drops after occasional swimming which will help maintain the proper environment to minimize infection in the ear. Use of a hair dryer on low to dry your ear is also useful.  High-grade silicone ear plugs can be used once the ear is healed, however, ear plugs can aggravate or cause the condition, so swimmers (or people occupationally required or recommended to wear ear plugs) usually consult with ear specialists to work out the best plug to use which will not cause damage to the ear canal, something critical for prevention.  Otitis Externa: A Practical Guide to Treatment and Prevention",
        "id": 255,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is saliva smelly?",
        "body": "The bacteria that produce these foul smelling odors are anaerobic bacteria that live in the oxygen depleted film left on our teeth, tongue, and roof of our mouth if we don't brush.   These bacteria can produce chemicals that cause malodor including:   volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs), mainly methyl mercaptan, hydrogen sulphide, and dimethyl sulphide diamines (putrescine and cadaverine) and short chain fatty acids (butyric, valeric and propionic).   It smells more outside because these smelly chemicals are normally diluted by saliva in your mouth but become concentrated when the saliva evaporates.  Imagine your saliva as ocean water. Imagine the salt in the water is the smelly waste of bacteria, and your hand is like a dry shore. When the saliva evaporates on the hand, it leaves only the smelly salt (bacterial waste) behind.  References:  Book Chapter by Suzuki et al., 2012  Review by Scully and Felix, 2005",
        "id": 667,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What foods count towards 5 a day?",
        "body": "Have you had a read through the \"What counts as your 5 A Day\" link, at the top of the NHS page you linked to?  http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/5ADAY/Pages/Whatcounts.aspx  It seems to answer most of the questions you've raised. Keep in mind that the point of these programs is to increase the variety of fresh fruit and veg - not to give you a list of foods you should eat, but to push towards better eating habits involving a wider variety of fresh foods (which, as the site says, are known to be healthier than processed foods).  According to that NHS page, potatoes don't seem to count because they're already consumed ubiquitously and often unhealthily. Wine wouldn't count because a) it's not fresh, and b) there are other health concerns involved.",
        "id": 331,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does decaffeinated coffee inhibit iron intake as much as normal coffee does?",
        "body": "Does coffee inhibit the absorption of iron? The answer appears to be yes (see links and references below). So does tea. Note that this does not have to do with caffeine, but rather polyphenols, phytates found in them. So, my answer would be that both regular coffee and decaf coffee inhibit iron, but I don't know whether one does so more than the other. Also, if you add milk to your coffee, that may also have some effect, because calcium inhibits iron absorption.   It also depends on whether it's heme iron (mostly from animals) or non-heme iron (from plant sources, iron fortified foods). This matters if you eat primarily a vegetarian diet, because the recommended intake for non-heme iron is 1.8 times, compared to those who eat meat . NIH's Iron Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet  compiled a great literature review on iron intake.  See also CDC.  References   Hurrell RF, Reddy M, Cook JD. Inhibition of non-haem iron absorption in man by polyphenolic-containing beverages. Br J Nutr. 1999;81:289\u201395.  Layrisse M1, Garc\u00eda-Casal MN, Solano L, Bar\u00f3n MA, Arguello F, Llovera D, Ram\u00edrez J, Leets I, Tropper E. Iron bioavailability in humans from breakfasts enriched with iron bis-glycine chelate, phytates and polyphenols. J Nutr. 2000 Sep;130(9):2195-9.  Zijp IM1, Korver O, Tijburg LB. Effect of tea and other dietary factors on iron absorption. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2000 Sep;40(5):371-98.",
        "id": 46,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Overfull ERs across the globe",
        "body": "This doesn't look like a Germany only problem to me.  The UK has this problem, the US\u2026  This is a classical textbook resource allocation problem. Our ideologues have a theriac like cure-all for this. Their religion calls this supreme being \"the market\".     Patients with a regular source of care used the emergency department more appropriately than did patients without a regular source of care. [\u2026] Conclusions: Public emergency departments could refer large numbers of patients to appointments at primary care facilities. This alternative would be viable only if the availability and coordination of primary care services were enhanced for low-income populations. [From: Primary care and public emergency department overcrowding.]   Lack of coordination, lack of (not only monetary) resources, increase of demand and run-for-profit cost-cutting and funding-slashing \u2013 all working nicely together.     Frequent Overcrowding in U.S. Emergency Departments: Abstract. Objective: To describe the definition, extent, and factors associated with overcrowding in emergency departments (EDs) in the United States as perceived by ED directors.[\u2026] Conclusions: Episodic, but frequent, overcrowding is a significant problem in academic, county, and private hospital EDs in urban and rural settings. Its causes are complex and multifactorial.    Unfortunately, this is a systemic and structural problem of those politics we chose to endure and tolerate.     Overcrowding in the nation\u2019s emergency departments: Complex causes and disturbing effects: Ten years ago, serious overcrowding in emergency departments became a national issue. Although temporary improvement of the problem occurred, the issue of ED overcrowding has now resurfaced and threatens to become worse. Overcrowding is caused by a complex web of interrelated issues described in this article. ED overcrowding has multiple effects, including placing the patient at risk for poor outcome, prolonged pain and suffering of some patients, long patient waits, patient dissatisfaction, ambulance diversions in some cities, decreased physician productivity, increased frustration among medical staff, and violence. Solving the problem of overcrowding will not only require a major financial commitment from the federal government and local hospitals, but will also require a cooperation from managed care. Unless the problem is solved in the near future, the general public may no longer be able to rely on EDs for quality and timely emergency care, placing the people of this country at risk.    Among the reasons listed, there are quite a few redundant words used:    Increased complexity and acuity of patients presenting to the ED Overall increase in patient volume Managed care problems. Lack of beds for patients admitted to the hospital. Avoiding inpatient hospital admission by \u201cintensive therapy\u201d in the ED. Delays in service provided by radiology, laboratory, and ancillary services. Shortage of nursing staff Shortage of administrative/clerical support staff Shortage of on-call specialty consultants or lack of availability. Shortage of physical plant space within the ED Problems with language and cultural barriers. Shortage of house staff who rotate through teaching hospital EDs Increased medical record documentation requirements. Difficulty in arranging follow-up care.   Notice there are factors indicating increased quality of health care: overall numbers increase is partially the result of better quality leading to an ageing population. Then there is this stupid taylorised over documentation for quality controlling (McKinseyed to death), thought of as good idea, terrible outcome in current practice.  But most indicative in this analysis:  Shortages everywhere! Sounds like socialism is back? Or is  this driven by greed?",
        "id": 2026,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does eyesight significantly vary from day-to-day?",
        "body": "There are a lot of factors involved. I'm no authoritative expert, but here are my personal observations about visual acuity fluctuations and optical knowledge, since getting LASEK (PRK) 6 years ago.   inflammation - My right eye is more likely to get inflammed, which will cause loss of acuity. Sleeping in an awkward position could cause this. DO NOT RUB YOUR EYES no matter how much they itch - it will reshape your cornea. Eye strain - if you work on a computer > 8 hours a day like me, your focus can get stuck at a certain distance, but this is only temporary. Letting your ciliary muscle relax by staying 3 feet away helps a lot. Blinking and taking breaks also help. Loss of contrast sensitivity instead of focus - I once was accidently blinded by a laser projector like they use in night clubs. It's like looking at the sun, but worse. It took a few hours to recover completely. I think the same can happen if your monitor is too bright. Also good to reduce the blue light level. Are you confusing night vision with daylight vision? - In the dark with your pupil wide open, acuity will be poorer due to a larger part of the cornea being used, which exposes more imperfections, and causes more distortion. Tired or haven't excercised? - Your brain has to do a lot of signal processing to see, so if you're fatigued, then it will be dulled. Same as with hearing.   ",
        "id": 1405,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does exercise increase memory?",
        "body": "Yes, with a caveat.  There are many studies showing beneficial effects of aerobic exercise on cognition, including memory and response tasks. This also includes preventing decline in older adults by preserving hippocampus and temporal lobe size. These can be seen by the following studies involving both humans and rats:  Older adult study  Rats in mazes performance  Memory in preadolescents  However, one thing that was new to me is the effect of resistance exercise, rather than aerobic exercise on cognition. While there isn't much out there examining this mode of exercise, this study on resistance exercise and memory, as well as a couple of cited studies in the same paper, suggest that resistance exercise either does not confer the same cognitive benefits, or that it benefits in other unknown ways.  So in short, yes, aerobic exercise does improve memory and cognition, while resistance exercise may not have the same effect.",
        "id": 1487,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How frequently should non-alcoholic mouthwashes be used?",
        "body": "You don't need at all to use any mouthwash. A healthy mouth is full of bacteria, almost all of them beneficial for our health, and    There is no evidence so far of any long term preventive effect of any kind of mouthwash, only trials with transient effects (&lt; one year) or 6 months in surrogate clinical endpoints as number of bacteria and gingivitis. The only one with some evidence are fluoridated-based mouthwashes, but you get the same effect if you don't spit after brushing with fluoridated toothpaste;  If you still decide to use, the only risk is the staining and metallic taste from chlorhexidine-based mouthwashes. There is no evidence so far of risk of oral cancer associated with the use of essential oil\u2013containing mouthrinses.   Instead, you may invest your money in cheese for your oral health.   Lastly, if you are interested in joining a study to increase our limited knowledge about mouthrinses for oral health, there are some trials recruiting.  So, in brief: daily use of fluoridated toothpaste without spitting after using it is enough if you already are eating enough fruits and vegetables and limiting the consumption of sugar.",
        "id": 67,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why can I hear my heart beat louder after rigorous exercise",
        "body": "Stroke volume increases during exercise. So, your heart is actually larger wen you are exercising compared to when you are at rest. When you stop exercising, your heart will need some time to shrink to its normal size, so stroke volume will still be a bit larger than usual. ",
        "id": 733,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does blindness stop the production of melatonin?",
        "body": "Before answering your question, let\u2019s first go through some essential concepts:  What are the structures involved in the circadian system? The organ that controls the 24-hour rhythm responsible for sleep-wake cycles, alertness and performance patterns, fluctuation in body temperature and production of hormones (e.g melatonin and cortisol) is the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SNC) of the anterior hypothalamus. The major environmental factor that resets our internal clock to 24 hours is the light and dark cycle generated by the earth\u2019s axial rotation.  The neuroanatomy of the circadian system is following: light information is transduced from specialised retinal photoreceptors to the SCN by the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). SNC projects to the pineal gland via the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and the superior cervical ganglion (SCG). Under normal light-dark conditions, the pineal melatonin rhythm peaks at night during the dark phase. However, light exposure during the night inhibits melatonin production.  Your question     [Melatonin] has no use in blind people, so do they slowly stop secreting it?   Interestingly, several studies have tried to monitor the level of cortisol and melatonin in blind people and the results were very different. Overall, there is a heterogeneous distribution of melatonin rhythm types. According to one of the longitudinal study conducted among 20 blind subjects:     Three subjects had normally phased melatonin rhythms, three were   abnormally entrained, and 11 had free-running melatonin rhythms with   periods ranging from 23.86 to 25.08 h. The remaining three subjects   appeared to be arrhythmic.   Why is the case? Probably because not all disorders of the visual system cause a disruption of the circadian effects of light. Several studies have shown that the majority of legally blind individuals retain some degree of light perception even with very little usable vision.  Why do individuals with absent or attenuated rod and cone function still retain circadian responses to light (20% of the nonperception of light patients according to some studies)? Some recent advances have identified a new non-cone photoreceptor system (based on a novel molecule called melanopsin) that is involved in circadian rhythm regulation.  Sources   Lockley SW, Skene DJ, Arendt J, Tabandeh H, Bird AC, Defrance R. Relationship between melatonin rhythms and visual loss in the blind. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 Nov; 82(11):3763-70. Skene DJ, Lockley SW, Thapan K, Arendt J. Effects of light on human circadian rhythms. Reprod Nutr Dev. 1999 May-Jun; 39(3):295-304. Ruberg FL, Skene DJ, Hanifin JP, Rollag MD, English J, Arendt J, Brainard GC. Melatonin regulation in humans with color vision deficiencies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Aug; 81(8):2980-5. Lockley SW, Arendt J, Skene DJ. Visual impairment and circadian rhythm disorders. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience.2007;9(3):301-314. ",
        "id": 1069,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Naps are extremely effective for me. Any explaintion?",
        "body": "Normally people do not fall asleep for only a few seconds to a few minutes. It takes most people around 20 minutes to fall asleep. If a patient has multiple short episodes of sleep throughout the day, this sounds like the patient may have the sleep disorder narcolepsy. Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder that includes episodes of intense tiredness or falling asleep during the day, which last for seconds to minutes and can occur anytime (these sounds like the \"naps\" you are referring to). The episodes can occur several times per day, and may be accompanied by muscle weakness, inability to move, or dreams. They can be very difficult to resist and typically result in feeling refreshed afterwards. If a person finds themselves falling asleep throughout the day in short intervals, that person should seriously consider seeing a neurologist, because they might have narcolepsy. Wikipedia has a pretty detailed article about narcolepsy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcolepsy) but there is no substitute for seeing a trained physician who knows the right questions to ask and what tests to perform. If the person cannot get an appointment with a neurologist, I would at least recommend that the person talk to their family physician, because the family physician will be able to help understand the true cause of these short naps. If necessary the family physician can refer the patient to a neurologist who would be able to determine whether or not they have narcolepsy.",
        "id": 1977,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dietary Interactions that cause Constipation",
        "body": "The major dietary causes are not enough water and not enough fibre. (See the Risk Factors section of this Mayo Clinic article, which focuses on medical causes of constipation.) There's nothing complicated about mystery little factors in your food that combine to create a problem. If you eat only white rice and meat for a meal, with no vegetables, then you are eating a lot less fibre than someone who added vegetables to that meal or who ate beans instead of meat.  First thing to do if you're suffering constipation is to drink a lot more water. Second thing to do is add vegetables and legumes to your meals. There are things you can do beyond that, but they are not dietary and should probably be suggested by someone more familiar with your personal situation. More water and more fibre are generally a safe approach, so if you're sure your situation is caused by what you eat and drink, fix that.  A note that if you are ill or are taking any medication, it's a whole different story and you shouldn't do anything (not even eating extra fibre) without discussing it with your doctor. ",
        "id": 1909,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Who decides the \"normal\" values for blood count?",
        "body": "Generally these decisions are \"made\" by work groups of specialists in the field. Your question is very general. There are so many measurements that can be done from blood samples that there is no way I can provide you with information on exactly who decides what the reference value is.  (\"Who decides\" makes it sound like it is arbritrary - it is not.  Decisions are usually based on statistics - 2 standard deviations from the population mean, for example, are taken as a reference standard. This means that the reference range can be defined as: \"what is most prevalent in a reference group taken from the general population?\" Be aware: Values outside a reference range are not necessarily pathologic, and they are not necessarily abnormal in any sense other than statistically. On the other hand, values within the reference range can be pathologic even though they are \"normal\". This is why reference range is actually a better term than \"normal\" range. Sometimes, however, the reference value is based on what values have an optimal health effect. A problem with optimal health range is a lack of a standard method of estimating the ranges.)",
        "id": 1598,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Nutrition Facts and Fatty acides",
        "body": "You cannot determine the amount of trans fats because the information is not there. Trans fatty acids are a particular type of unsaturated fatty acids.  More specifically, \"unsaturated fatty acids that have at least one double bond in the trans configuration\". So the amount of trans fats can be anywhere between 0 and the amount of unsaturated fats, which you can obtain by subtracting the amount of saturated fats from the total fats. Hopefully closer to 0.  A way to go if you are concerned about trans fats would be to look at the list of ingredients, and avoid partially hydrogenated fats and oils. Rather high amounts of trans fats are also found in dairy and beef fat (3-6% of total fatty acids) 1. Some are also formed when frying oils at high temperatures.",
        "id": 1671,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Folic acid dose before conception",
        "body": "Contact your physician and find out for sure from them. The ranges vary and are different for every women. Below is some answers, but you can't take important medical advice from the internet. Please contact your physician.   How much folic acid should you take?     14 years and up - 400 micrograms/day      Pregnant women - 600 micrograms/day      Breastfeeding women - 500 micrograms/day   How much folic acid should I take while trying to get pregnant?     The recommended daily intake of folic acid for all women of   childbearing age is at least 400 micrograms (mcg), or 0.4 milligrams   (mg).      During pregnancy, the recommended dose jumps to 600 to 800 mcg, or 0.6   to 0.8 mg.   How much folic acid do women need?     Pregnant women need 400 to 800 mcg of folic acid in the very early   stages of pregnancy often before they know that they are pregnant.   Examples of foods that have a large amount of folic acid are:     grains such as whole-wheat bread. dark green vegetables such as   spinach and broccoli. meat such as liver. beans such as lentils and   kidney beans. ",
        "id": 728,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possibilities after stage IV melanoma diagnosis",
        "body": "If you're searching for treatments that are not currently main stream, you need to look on https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=melanoma+and+spain&amp;Search=Search to see if there's a trial in your city or any other local to you.  However, most oncologists will be aware of these trials.  If you're prepared to travel, and can afford treatment in the USA or other countries, then you can look worldwide for experimental treatments.",
        "id": 2437,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how long can H.Pylori last if not cured?",
        "body": "Yes, of course.  Helycobacter Pylorii is a gram- bacteria which live is acid envronment, like stomach or duodenum.  Common thoughts are that since stomach is acid, HP should die during time. This is not true, because this bacteria has different \"weapons\" to survive:  -urease: this enzyme uses urea in the stomach to produce ammonia and HCO3-(bicarbonate), that neutralize the acid of the stomach;  -motility: this bacteria can move: this prevent acid to attack it;  -specific proteins (adhesins): which allows the bacteria to attach to the side of the mucous membrane.  Then, making other enzymes, like \"vacA\" and \"cagA\", can damage your stomach/duodenum wall and enter, causing the well known ulcers.  This bacteria is also important in the genesis of gastric cancer, if it is not treat.  Diagnosis is really simple:  -invasive methods: with an endoscopy, doctor take a \"bite\" of the mucous wall and make both histological research, culture or test with urea (if needed, I can explain better later)  -not invasive: urea breath test, feces test, serology IgG anti HP  Therapy is simple as well:  -proton pump inhibitors(PPI) + clarithromycin + metronidazole or amoxicillin for 2weeks  -if clarithromycin resistance: PPI + tetracycline + bismuth + metronidazole   This is called \"sequential therapy\"; there is also the triple therapy, but researches prove that sequential is effective.    Ref.   Chapter 151 of the Harrison's principles of Internal Medicine Treatment of H. pylori infection: the reality. ",
        "id": 1625,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there variations in blood cholesterol by age?",
        "body": "Levels generally increase until the ages of 50-60, then fall.  In children, levels of LDL and HDL generally either rise or fall monotonically (i.e. continuously) over childhood; see Dai et al. (2009). LDL-C was found to decrease in both genders, while HDL-C was found to increase in girls and fluctuate in boys.  The NIH says of adults     Blood cholesterol begins to rise around age 20 and continues to go up until about age 60 or 65. Before age 50, men\u2019s total cholesterol levels tend to be higher than those of women of the same age\u2014after age 50, the opposite happens.   That\u2019s because with menopause, women\u2019s LDL levels often rise.   After about the age of 50, both men and women generally experience a fall in blood cholesterol levels (see Ferrara et al. (1997)).  Additionally, levels in all age groups may fluctuate according to the seasons (see Ockene et al. (2004) and cited studies therein). However, the reason for this is unknown.",
        "id": 207,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does robb(balm) relieve pain?",
        "body": "I found the following list of ingredients for Robb balm on-line (if the product you are using is different please correct me):     CAMPHOR 11.0%      MENTHOL 5.5%      OL EUCALYP 1.0%      OLPINIPUMIL 0.5%      METHYLSAL 4.0%      ONITMENT BASS ad 100%   Except for the ointment base, all of the ingredients contribute to the analgesic effect.  Camphor is used externally as a rubefacient and anlagesic.  Menthol has analgesic properties. More about the mode of action of menthol can be found in this answer: Does menthol have therapeutic effect on sore or inflamed muscles and tendons?  Eucalyptus oil (Oleum Eucalypti) is used topically as a rubefacient.  Methyl Salicylate is a topical non-steroid anti-inflammatory medicine (NSAID) that has analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.  (I'm not sure what Ol Pinipumil... is, the ingredients are strangely abbreviated in the source I found).    Ref.: Martindale: The complete drug reference, 34th edition (2005).",
        "id": 1389,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is prostatitis a STD or Contagious disease?",
        "body": "Prostatitis isn't an STD, or a contagious disease, or even a disease at all.  The term \"prostatitis\" simply refers to inflammation of the prostate gland.  The underlying condition causing the inflammation could be any of a number of things, which, yes, include contagious and sexually-transmitted diseases.",
        "id": 2208,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can flying while an eardrum perforation due to barotrauma is healing cause further damage?",
        "body": "According to the NHS, it is safe to fly with a perforated eardrum. They say that it may even cause less discomfort because air can pass more easily through the hole that has formed in your eardrum. You did mention that the hole has appeared to have scabbed over, but that still shouldn't put you at a risk of furthering the damage to your ear. It might cause a bit more discomfort, but more damage won't occur and the healing process won't slow down.    NHS: Is it safe to fly with a perforated eardrum?",
        "id": 435,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are beauty soaps effective against germs?",
        "body": "There may be some benefit in using anti-bacterial soaps in more clinical settings where people already have compromised immune systems, but most of the research points to there being no real benefits to using anti bacterial soaps.  Soap works by reducing the surface tension of the oils and dirt on skin, allowing them to be washed away with water. All soaps achieve this. Anti bacterial soaps add agents such as triclosan to kill surface bacteria. While it does achieve these aims, it also kills beneficial bacteria that reside on the skin, and has not been proven in studies to reduce infection rates. The US based FDA has also raised questions about it increasing bacterial resistance, as well as higher exposure levels than actually reported.  So while there may be beneficial uses in clinical settings, in general for the home, using warm/hot soap and water, combined with a good technique for handwashing should be sufficient.",
        "id": 403,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If alcohol and coffee are both diuretics -- why do so many intoxicated ppl drink coffee to sober up? Dehydration concern.",
        "body": "No, nothing will \"sober up\" a drunk; only time does that. What coffee does is provide caffeine, a stimulant. The stimulant effects will increase alertness, but they will do nothing for perception, coordination, balance or judgement. So, as mentioned in comments, all coffee gives you is an alert drunk.  And sure, alcohol plus coffee is two diuretics, so it's bound to dehydrate you faster if you don't compensate. ",
        "id": 1517,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How effective/accurate are pill cameras for diagnosing Crohn's disease?",
        "body": "They're successful about two thirds of the time, which is better than other techniques.  In general, success rates of diagnosis using wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) range from ~61%-71%, but hover around ~66%. Triester et al. (2006) wrote a meta study comparing detection rates using WCE with rates from other methods, including   barium radiography ileoscopy computer tomography enterography/enteroclysis small bowel MRI   In all cases, WCE proved superior to other technologies, often by a significant amount.  Hara et al. (2006) also compared techniques, finding a 71% success rate for WCE, a 65% success rate for ileoscopy, a 53% success rate for CT enterography, and a 24% success rate for small bowel follow through methods. In this case, the margin of difference of success rate was much smaller.  Voderholzer et al. (2003) did a general study on several related diseases and found a pathological lesion detection rate of 59%. However, the threshold for the number and type of lesions to qualify as Crohn's disease is often subjective, and this is not necessarily indicative of diagnosis rates.  The bottom line, though, is that WCE is pretty effective, especially compared to other methods.",
        "id": 742,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In medieval times, how were twins detected?",
        "body": "Without ultrasound you\u2019d discover by palpation - feeling the abdomen.   Each baby has two poles - the head and the bottom. If you can feel three clearly separate poles there must be at least two babies in there.   It\u2019s difficult to feel 5 poles which would be needed to confirm triplets.   Alternatively, sometimes you can clearly identify poles which are heads - in which case the number of heads you can feel puts a lower bound on the number of babies.   This isn\u2019t a particularly reliable approach - it\u2019s easy to underestimate the number of babies. So multiple babies are often still a surprise if there is no access to imaging. ",
        "id": 2064,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I stop mouth breathing while I sleep?",
        "body": "Yes, you can get a full face mask and then it wont matter if you are breathing through your mouth or not. I would contact your medical equipment provider again and see what they have in options for full face masks. Personally I use Quattro full face mask and have no issues with it.  You can look here for an idea of what masks are out there to chose from.  You can also check here for more information and a group that will be able to answer questions about a wide variety of masks and they might have a solution to help you with your current problem without having to switch mask styles. ",
        "id": 68,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Root canal therapy for diabetes patient?",
        "body": "   Is there any risk for a diabetes patient to undergo this procedure?   Yes, root canals carry some risks for everyone, and the degree of risk depends on your health status.  Surgical risks for diabetics are generally related to how well their blood sugar is controlled and their other comorbidities.  This is a simple MedLine article on surgery for diabetics. In general, for a dental procedure, the major potential complications that are directly related to diabetes include infection and slow healing, but others are possible.  There are several risk stratification assessments that are used to determine the level of risk someone has going into different types of procedures.  So it is impossible for anyone online to counsel you on your own risks and benefits.  You should go ASAP for evaluation of what it is.  It could be a cavity that may or may not require a root canal, or it could be an abscess developing.  Consider going to the ER if you can't get into the dentist right away - especially if you develop a fever or anything like that.",
        "id": 1695,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do some General Practioners not consider Fibromyalgia as a genuine, real auto-immune disorder?",
        "body": "Medicine, more than almost any other discipline, requires continuing education through the entire career. It changes rapidly, and whatever a doctor was taught 20 years ago in med school, or even 10 years ago at a conference, may not be true today. So if they're not keeping up, they're going to be ignorant on some issues. I've seen that myself more than once with my own doctors.  In some ways it's easier for specialists. They can focus their continuing ed on their one narrow specialty. If you walk into a cardiologist's office and ask about your rash, he'll just wave you off down the hall to the dermatologist. But a GP can't do that. They have to remain abreast of the whole spectrum. They have to be able to recognize and diagnose -- or at least suspect and refer to a specialist -- pretty much every disease, disorder, allergy, rash, psych issue, pregnancy issue, STD, sex problem, weird bump on my tongue, and of course whiny made-up complaints.  So it should come as no surprise when patients like you, who suffer from a certain disease and therefore know more about it than most doctors, encounter one whose knowledge is outdated and no longer correct. Your knowledge of the subject is ahead of theirs, so I would recommend smiling, saying good day, and finding another doctor.",
        "id": 1304,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hashimoto thyroiditis leading to severe psychological problems and behavior changes?",
        "body": "A literature search (as well as my education) reveal the following:  Hashimoto thyroiditis causes inflammation of the thyroid hormone producing cells in the thyroid gland.  This can lead to hypothyroidism as the associated symptoms.  In the initial phase though, the inflammation may cause a sudden \"leaching\" out or release of the already formed thyroid hormone causing a hyperthyroid state known as Hashimoto thyroxicosis which can produce hyperthyroidism related symptoms.  Please see sources above but speaking from my knowledge in addition to the above:  Essentially Hashimoto thyroiditis can cause an initial hyperthyroid state.  Hyperthyroidism can cause nervousness, tremor, and other neuropsychiatric symptoms.  If a patient then later develops clinical hypothyroidism, they can also suffer the neuropsychiatric consequences of hypothroidism which include depression, though can be very severe including coma.  Thyroid hormone acts on many tissues and can essentially affect any organ system.  The symptoms therefore can be very broad and nonspecific.  The symptoms may also be severe.  The psychiatric symptoms are well known.  Therefore, the answer to your question is, yes.",
        "id": 647,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Postpartum haemorrhages due to partial placenta detachment or tear",
        "body": "To find the answer to this I had to find out the prevention measures and management of Postpartum Haemorrhage (PPH).  Oxytocin is typically used right after the delivery of the baby to prevent PPH (Weeks, 2015).  Misoprostol may be used in areas where oxytocin is not available.  Nipple stimulation and breastfeeding triggers the release of natural oxytocin in the body, therefore it is thought that encouraging the baby to suckle soon after birth may reduce the risk of PPH for the mother (Abedi, et al. 2016). The review by Abedi et al. (2016) looking into this did not find enough good research to say whether or not nipple stimulation did reduce PPH. More research is needed to answer this question.  So with this in mind, it seems that Oxytocin is a big clue.  The physiological effects of Oxytocin include uterine contraction. This is important for cervical dilation before birth, and oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages of labour. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum.  The answer to my question is that contraction of the uterine muscles during labour compresses the blood vessels and reduces flow, thereby increasing the likelihood of coagulation and preventing haemorrhage (Carroll, 2007).     At parturition, only 0.5 L [just over 1 US Pint or 0.88 UK Pints] of maternal blood is lost, with the remaining excess volume lost gradually (Carroll, 2007).   If the placenta (or part of it) is still attached or detached but still in the womb, there is no way the uterus can contract enough to compress the blood vessels.  A lack of uterine muscle contraction or uterine atony (a loss of tone in the uterine musculature), however, can also lead to an acute haemorrhage, as the uterine blood vessels are not sufficiently compressed.  This is where the management of PPH comes in.  Uterine massage is a simple first line treatment as it helps the uterus to contract to reduce bleeding (Hofmeyr, et al. 2008). Although the evidence around the effectiveness of uterine massage is inconclusive, it is common practice after the delivery of the placenta.  The WHO recommendations (WHO, 2012) include intravenous oxytocin. Ergotamine may also be used (Weeks, 2015).  References  Abedi, P., Jahanfar, S., Namvar, F., &amp; Lee, J. (2016). Breastfeeding or nipple stimulation for reducing postpartum haemorrhage in the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1). doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010845.pub2. PMID: 26816300  Carroll, R. G. (2007). Elsevier's Integrated Physiology Chapter 16 - Life Span, Philadelphia, pp 197-208. PA: Mosby doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-04318-2.50022-4  Hofmeyr, G. J., Abdel\u2010Aleem, H., &amp; Abdel\u2010Aleem, M. A. (2008). Uterine massage for preventing postpartum haemorrhage. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3). doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006431.pub2 PMID: 18646154  Weeks, A. (2015). The prevention and treatment of postpartum haemorrhage: what do we know, and where do we go to next?. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics &amp; Gynaecology, 122(2), 202-210. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.13098  WHO (2012). WHO recommendations for the prevention and treatment of postpartum haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization.Available in 5 languages via http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/maternal_perinatal_health/9789241548502/en",
        "id": 2479,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Causes of polypoid foveolar hyperplasia",
        "body": "Even if the CLO test comes up negative on the biopsy, you could have your blood tested to see if you are sera positive for H. pylori.  This would show if you've ever been exposed rather than have an ongoing infection in the polyp. This may not be medically significant, however, because it would not show active infection and a need for antibiotics.  Hyperplastic polyps are common, benign, and often asymptomatic.  They can arise from any insult (injury) to the epithelium in the intestine.  Your question then becomes what can cause insults the epithelium?  The most obvious is abdominal trauma (car accidents, stabbings, gun shot wounds, etc), but in the West that is not the most common cause.  As you mentioned, H. pylori and auto-immune disorders are often screened against first, because they are more medically significant and common causes.  But plenty of things can damage your intestinal epithelium.  Viruses and bacteria are common causes.  One of my favorite studies took the biopsies from 15 different patents and conducted deep sequencing of of the genetic material contained in the polyps to look for viral and bacterial genetic markers.  As you can see there are plenty of viruses:   And plenty of bacteria:   Ulcers can be another cause, which could further implicate stress as a cause.",
        "id": 561,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I get screened for (ovarian) cancer?",
        "body": "Tests that can help detect ovarian cancer are pelvic exams, transvaginal ultrasounds, and some blood tests. 1 At least the first two are generally handled by gynecologist, and they are the specialists that know mist about ovarian cancer, so if possible, your wife should probably talk to one. If your wife doesn't have a gynecologist, a general practitioner (I assume that's what \"family doctor\" means) can at least refer her to one.  Please note that:     There is no standard or routine screening test for ovarian, fallopian tube, and primary peritoneal cancer.   So these tests might not even detect it if it's there.      Screening for\u00a0ovarian cancer\u00a0has not been proven to decrease the death rate from the disease.   Even if it's detected, it might not help.   Because you mention fertility problems, your wife might want to see a gynecologist anyway, though, who would perform a pelvic exam and a transvaginal ultrasound to check for a cause of the infertility anyway. ",
        "id": 526,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What interval of time does A1C give blood sugar information about?",
        "body": "This question cannot be answered. It is individual and based on, among many other things, red blood cell survival. To understand why this is so, you need to understand than A1C is more accurately called Hemoglobin A1c or glycated hemoglobin. It's a form of hemoglobin that is formed due to hemoglobin's exposure to plasma glucose. It has been found that red blood cell (the cells that contain hemoglobin) survival has considerable variation, even in hematologically normal people.   Ultimately, however, it is more important to realize that HbA1c is a measure for glucose control over a few months, than to know how long exactly it \"has been measuring for\"",
        "id": 1775,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Natural treatment of chronic prostatitis - Does herbal medicines have side affects?\u200f",
        "body": "Herbal medicines do have side effects  The answer to any \"does this have side-effects?\" question is  invariably yes.   Some drugs/medications/herbal remedies will have fewer side effects, some will have more. Additionally (or alternatively), the side effects may vary by strength, or by how common they are, or any a number of other ways.  I could not find any listing of ingredients or side effects for the example herbal medicine you mentioned.  What about this diuretic and anti-inflammatory pill  I looked for your \"one diuretic and anti-inflammatory pill\", and found just that: a bunch of results about something literally named Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill.  It claims to have at least three different effects*; frankly, it is hard to know what, if anything, it does without knowing what the ingredients are.  There is a small Reddit discussion of the pill, which may be of interest.  Why might not antibiotics 'cure' prostatitis?  Acute prostatitis is often caused by E. coli, but chronic prostatitis is a bit different. Chronic prostatitis can follow acute prostatitis, but often it is abacterial- as such, antibotics won't be effective.  (That would be Category III prostatitis, in NIH categorisation, which overlaps with Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome (CPPS)).  References   Acute prostatitis - Summary Chronic prostatitis: results of an Internet survey Chronic prostatitis - Healthline  Natural Herbal Prostatitis Treatment: Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill (No endorsement implied by linking to this) Diuretic and anti-inflammatory pill?? (Reddit) NIH consensus definition and classification of prostatitis.      *: You can read the claims yourself, I don't wish to lend them any implied credence by reproducing them here.",
        "id": 2164,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there scientific studies that support the daily usage of xylitol to prevent oral problems?",
        "body": "Original Answer  This comes from my high-school chemistry book (in German):      Hexanhexol (sorbitol) is common in apples, cherries and other fruits. The sweet taste comes from the OH-Groups within the molecule. [\u2026]   Sorbitol is half as sweet as sugar (glucose), but does not cause carries.   Furthermore, foods containing sorbitol feel cool in the mouth, as   sorbitol is drawing energy from its surroundings in order to dissolve.   Pentanpentol (xylitol) has very similar properties [i.e. not causing carries], but is as sweet as glucose.     I think, if school books teach that xylitol prevents caries, this argument must be pretty solid. (School books are usually very conservative and only teach bullet-proof things, at least in Germany).  I can't tell you exactly why xylitol and sorbitol prevent caries. It probably has something to do with the fact that neither we nor bacteria are able to process any source of energy other than carbohydrates, and so the cariogenic bacteria do not have enough \"food\".     Following from this, your diet must consist of glucose (or polysaccharides which will be broken down into glucose), otherwise you would have starved to death! Therefore, if you do not brush your teeth regularly there will be enough \"food\" for caries because of polysaccharides in other foods that we eat. If you brush your teeth regularly and have a good oral health, there will be almost no gains (apart from the diet/weight bit) by using a sugar substitute!    Edit  Some sources and studies about xylitol and dental health:       This Nature Article discusses the benefit of xylitol compared to other polyols.       Chewing xylitol gum is certainly effective at preventing caries   development compared with chewing sugared gum or not chewing any gum.   Xylitol gum appears to be more effective than sorbitol gum or   combinations of xylitol and sorbitol.    This Study from the Japanese Microscopy Society claims that xylitol remineralises tooth enamel. However, as @JohnP pointed out in the comments, there is a potential conflict of interest as the sponsor of the study is a manufacturing company which also produced products that include xylitol.      We morphologically determined the effects of xylitol on the   remineralization of artificially demineralized enamel. [\u2026] The MIP   evaluation indicated that remineralization was more prominent in   layers at depths of 50\u201360 \u00b5m in the xylitol samples than in the   non\u2010xylitol samples.    As Mat\u00edas Fiedemraizer pointed out in the comments, the AASP recommends Xylitol for patients with high risk of caries:      The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) recognizes the   benefits of caries preventive strategies involving sugar substitutes,   particularly xylitol, on the oral health of infants, children,   adolescents, and persons with special health care needs. [\u2026]   Dosing frequency should be a minimum of two times a day, not to   exceed eight grams per day.    This  article shows that the risk of AOM is reduced for kids with xylitol intake.      There is fair evidence that the prophylactic Administration of xylitol   among healthy children attending day care centres reduces the   occurrence of AOM by 25%. This meta-analysis is limited since the data   arise from a small number of studies, mainly from the same research   group.    This is a review assessing whether xylitol can in fact prevent tooth decay. This is their conclusion:      We found some low quality evidence to suggest that fluoride toothpaste   containing xylitol may be more effective than fluoride-only toothpaste   for preventing caries in the permanent teeth of children, and that   there are no associated adverse-effects from such toothpastes. The   effect estimate should be interpreted with caution due to high risk of   bias and the fact that it results from two studies that were carried   out by the same authors in the same population. The remaining evidence   we found is of low to very low quality and is insufficient to   determine whether any other xylitol-containing products can prevent   caries in infants, older children, or adults.   The abstracts and findings of all articles are available online, one has to purchase the whole article though to be able to read everything.  My conclusion  Judging from all the studies, I would just have a normal diet and brush my teeth regularly. For me, it is too much effort to change my eating habits, try to eat foods that only contain alcohol sugar when the benefits are not even clear. It is important to note however that xylitol does prevent caries if used consequently as a sugar substitute and no other polysaccharides are consumed. This is not recommended (1). But fluoride tooth paste prevents caries it at least to a very similar extend. Lastly, one has to consume xylitol at least twice a day to get a positive effect [AADP article], but only a maximum of 8g, as osmotic diarrhoea is a major possible side effect.     (1): This was an understatement. Under no circumstances try to only consume xylitol and no other carbohydrates! ",
        "id": 1592,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "APTT in the blood is completely missing",
        "body": "The Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time is a test measuring clotting factors, not a level of clotting factors in your blood. It is most often used to monitor the effects of heparin therapy (an anticoagulant.)  Because different labs use different tests, the \"normal\" results may vary. The results are reported in seconds; for example the Mayo Clinic reports      the therapeutic APTT range to be approximately 70 to 120 seconds.    There is a limit for how long the reaction will be observed (if the blood doesn't clot in a reasonable amount of time, people need to report that as \"negative at (upper threshold in seconds for institution.)\"  You might want to review the lab report.   Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (APTT), Plasma Recommendations for appropriate activated partial thromboplastin time reagent selection and utilization.",
        "id": 826,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What user error can lead to a too-low blood pressure measurement?",
        "body": "The easiest way to find out what might be wrong is to take the apparatus to a healthcare practitioner's office with you, and have your BP measured by someone trained to do so correctly, then use the cuff, and see how closely they match. Then adjust the looseness/tightness of the cuff, the position, etc., until you get matching BP's consistently.  Accurate BP measurements depend on a number of things, but one that is really important is the rate at which the cuff deflates. If it deflates too quickly, it will give you falsely low BP's, in addition to BP's \"all over the place\" (some accurate, some not, some with a normal systolic pressure, but an abnormal diastolic pressure, etc.  If you can't find out what's wrong by correlating with manual BP readings, the apparatus is unreliable, therefore worthless.",
        "id": 246,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do the antimicrobial properties of honey counteract the probiotic properties of yogurt?",
        "body": "   Do the antimicrobial properties of honey counteract the probiotic properties of yogurt?   It appears not to. Studies using 5% (w/w) clover honey had no effect on Steptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrukeii subsp bulgaricus and probiotics Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium bifidum.  You are correct that honey has been found to have antimicrobial properties against a wide range of pathogens. However, these studies are done for the scenario of using undiluted honey as a wound dressing. For example, from a recent study:     For at least 2700 years, honey has been used by humans to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, but only recently have the antiseptic and antimicrobial properties of honey been discovered. ...Clinical studies have demonstrated that application of honey to severely infected cutaneous wounds rapidly clears infection from the wound and improves tissue healing.    The broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties of honey are confirmed but the exact mechanism is unclear; it could be due to the acidity, honey's osmotic effect, presence of bacteriostatic and bactericidal factors (hydrogen peroxide, antioxidants, lysozyme, polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, methylglyoxal, and bee peptides), etc.   From a review atricle,     A bacterial level greater than 105 organisms per gram of wound tissue has been found to have a deleterious effect on wound healing in surgical and chronic wounds. [This article discusses] the inherent complexities of the clinical use of medical-grade honey... and to select clinical entities in patients who may benefit from treatment with medical-grade honey, using the evidence indicators such as the Cochrane reviews.   Studies have demonstrated that the antibacterial properties of honey are more complex than just high sugar content alone (which decreases tissue fluid to which it is applied, inhibiting bacterial growth.) As referred to above, honey contains an enzyme that converts glucose to hydrogen peroxide, an antibacterial agent. Also, as you mentioned, the antibacterial properties of honey appear to vary depending on the floral source.      Honey derived from Leptospermum trees (manuka) or Echium vulgare bush (viper's bugloss) showed antibacterial properties independent of hydrogen peroxide. It is believed that another, yet undiscovered, component of honey is responsible for the antibacterial properties.   As mentioned above, phenols are significant:     Antioxidant potential was dependent of honey extract concentration and the results showed that dark honey phenolic compounds had higher activity than the obtained from clear honey.   There have been interesting studies of susceptibility of food-borne pathogen to honey, or potential for treatment of stomach ulcers with honey, but these are in vitro      Assessment of the minimum inhibitory concentration by inclusion of manuka honey in the agar showed that all seven isolates tested had visible growth over the incubation period of 72 h prevented completely by the presence of 5% (v/v) honey.    Even in vitro, significant minimum inhibitory concentration started at about 9%, and against some organisms, 25%.  One paper isolating methylglyoxal (MGO) (and other agents) found Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) honey had very high amounts of MGO, up to 100-fold higher compared to conventional honeys.      Whereas most of the honey samples investigated showed no inhibition in dilutions of 80% (v/v with water) or below, the samples of Manuka honey exhibited antibacterial activity when diluted to 15\u201330%, which corresponded to MGO concentrations of 1.1\u20131.8 mM. This clearly demonstrates that the pronounced antibacterial activity of New Zealand Manuka honey directly originates from MGO.   All this is to say concentration (as well as the source of the honey) matters. If one of the most consistently antibacterial honeys (manuka)has to be present in concentrations of at least 15% to be significantly antibacterial in vitro, unless you're chugging manuka honey, I don't think it will have a deleterious effect on your intestinal flora.  Growth and Acid Production by Lactic Acid Bacteria and Bifidobacteria Grown in Skim Milk Containing Honey Antimicrobial Properties of Honey Use of Honey in Wound Care: An Update Antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of phenolic compounds extracts of Northeast Portugal honey Susceptibility of Helicobacter Pylori to the Antibacterial Activity of Manuka Honey The antibacterial properties of Malaysian tualang honey against wound and enteric microorganisms in comparison to manuka honey Identification and quantification of methylglyoxal as the dominant antibacterial constituent of Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) honeys from New Zealand  ",
        "id": 446,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this a comminuted fracture?",
        "body": "I was going to say no because I was under the impression there was also a component of the fragment sizes in the definition (I'm not a specialist), but in doing a bit of research I appear to be wrong.  I was going to say originally it's a seemingly-open leg fracture (both bones), but according to http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00522 it is conminuted, i.e.      Comminuted fracture: This type of fracture is very unstable. The bone shatters into three or more pieces.  ",
        "id": 1541,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do tampons cause menstrual pain?",
        "body": "I'll assume by \"stomach\", you mean abdominal pain, probably lower abdominal pain. And yes, tampons can cause lower abdominal pain in the presence of endometriosis (ectopic endometrial tissue). The symptoms of endometriosis can include pain on micturition, defecation, tampon or diaphragm insertion, increased pain with menses, intercourse, etc.  Use of tampons in healthy females is generally well-tolerated.  Edited to address OP's edit:  Tampons are generally well tolerated by healthy, normal females. However, there are groups of females that do find tampon use uncomfortable, chief among them adolescents. For this reason, physicians often speak with adolescents at menarche about tampon use.     With regard to comfort, girls often choose tampons of too high absorbency. Highly absorbent tampons may cause discomfort in young girls because of their larger size or because of a drying effect during wear and upon withdrawal. Advise your patient to choose the lowest tampon absorbency for her needs by experimenting with a pad or pantiliner for backup protection. Less absorbent products can be used on lighter days. This guidance is also consistent with the Food and Drug Administration\u2019s current recommendations for reducing the risk of menstrual toxic shock syndrome.   In other words, young girls should use smaller tampons. Pain with tampon use in this age group is more likely and in some cases can lead to problems with pain later on.  Relation between pain symptoms and the anatomic location of deep infiltrating endometriosis Prevalence and predictors of chronic lower genital tract discomfort Small self-reported study Menstruation in young girls: a clinical perspective, Obstetrics &amp; Gynecology, Vol 4., 2002 ",
        "id": 705,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the pros and cons of personalized medicine?",
        "body": "Pros are   better treatment (e.g., IL-5 inhibitor will not help if you do not have a subtype of asthma that is eosinofilic) (by knowing your type the therapy will be more targeted at your subtype of disease)   Cons are   more complex diagnostic workup to arrive at personalized care (e.g., must get sequencing results to recommend best action for Lynch syndrome) ",
        "id": 552,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many people are naturally immune to the chicken pox virus?",
        "body": "If a newborn baby\u2019s mother has had chickenpox, some of her antibodies to the varicella virus (which causes chickenpox) will pass to the baby.  However, this is only passive immunity, as the baby is getting antibodies without having made its own. This only lasts a few weeks or months, after which time the infant will be vulnerable again. Source: NHS site on chickenpox.    Another example of this passive immunity is when we use varicella zoster immunoglobulin to prevent chickenpox in vulnerable people (e.g. immunosuppression or during pregnancy) if they have been exposed to chickenpox but are know to not be immune themselves (immunity can be determined from a blood test looking for varicella IgG antibodies). In this situation, standard vaccination (which stimulates the immune system to produce its own antibodies (and, importantly, to remember this longer term) would not act quickly enough.    I cannot find any data about people who carry immunity from birth into adult life, and it is likely that this is not possible in general. Some people may have avoided significant exposure to chickenpox for their entire life, but it is more likely that they have been exposed and developed immunity but without any symptoms (known as subclinical infection).    Additional sources:  NHS Green Book - Varicella  Humoral and cellular immunity to varicella zoster virus: an overview",
        "id": 2585,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to decide which painkiller to take?",
        "body": "1. NSAIDs can increase the chance of heart attack or stroke. This risk may be greater if you have heart disease or risk factors (for example, smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes) for heart disease. However, the risk may also be increased in people who do not have heart disease or those risk factors.  Heart problems caused by NSAIDs can happen within the first weeks of use, and may happen more frequently with higher doses or with long-term use.  NSAIDs should not be used right before or after heart bypass surgery.  NSAIDs may increase the chance of serious stomach and bowel side effects like ulcers and bleeding. This risk may be greater in older individuals. These side effects can occur without warning signs.  http://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs_devices_supplements/hic_Non-Steroidal_Anti-Inflammatory_Medicines_NSAIDs  2. Acetaminophen is most suitable for relieving the symptoms of cold and flu. Acetaminophen affect the areas of your brain that control body temperature and pain. These medications can fight fevers and chills, ease headaches, and soothe sore throats and body aches. NSAIDs surpass paracetamol only when relieving the symptoms of fever.  http://www.webmd.com/allergies/sinus-nose-tool/treat-aches-pain-fever  3. Acetaminophen is the most suitable for relieving pain caused by physical injury than NSAIDs.   Acetaminophen works by inhibiting the synthesis of chemical messengers called prostaglandins, which help to transmit pain signals and induce fever. The body produces prostaglandins in response to an injury or illness. Acetaminophen reduces the pain by helping to block this signaling.  http://www.chemistryexplained.com/A-Ar/Acetaminophen.html  While NSAIDs work on a chemical level. They block the effects of special enzymes -- specifically Cox-1 and Cox-2 enzymes. These enzymes play a key role in making prostaglandins. By blocking the Cox enzymes, NSAIDs stop your body from making as many prostaglandins.   http://www.webmd.com/arthritis/features/pain-relief-how-nsaids-work#1",
        "id": 1291,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Crying often reduce body weight or become lean?",
        "body": "Yes, crying helps to reduce body weight.   Stress expert Dr Pete Sulack explained to PopSugar that your tears actually contain stress hormones, meaning that when you cry, you're reducing the levels of these hormones in the body.  This impacts weight loss because one of those stress hormones is cortisol, which is a hormone that also happens to make your stomach cling on to fat. \ue037  Now, to be clear, that doesn\u2019t mean you can replace your gym trips with a forced crying session.  As Yahoo notes, studies have shown that only tears that are caused by genuine emotions \u2013 not faked tears or those induced by onion-chopping \u2013 contain stress hormones.  Read more: http://metro.co.uk/2016/07/23/theres-another-weird-benefit-of-having-a-good-cry-6024545/#ixzz4NzVpIsxw",
        "id": 1321,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Energy drinks effect on the heart",
        "body": "Energy drinks boosts our energy, obviously, as well as, activates our sympathetic nervous system - increased heart rate is one of them. It increases the cardiac workload that may result to the expansion or overstretch of the myocardium (hypertrophy) as a compensatory mechanism to further increase its performance. Thus, resulting to enlargement of the heart. However, it can result to heart's exhaustion and lead to heart failure later on.",
        "id": 321,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can extreme tinitis and other ear problems be related to?",
        "body": "From what I can piece together, you are asking about the relationship between fluid build-up, eustachian tube or sinus dysfunction and other cranial conditions. The key thing to realize is that the eustachian tube connects the nasopharynx to the middle ear. Fluid build up is almost always a middle ear issue. Inner ear diseases are things like Meniere's disease.  The middle ear is an isolated space located in bones of the skull and not in the brain. In extreme cases middle ear infections can infect the bones separating the middle ear and inner ear and can lead to meningitis and brain abscesses: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Otitis-media/Pages/Complications.aspx",
        "id": 1707,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is typhoid contagious?",
        "body": "Yes, typhoid is most certainly contagious. Indeed, one of the major figures in the history of public health, Mary Mallon (aka Typhoid Mary) is associated with this disease.  The only known hosts for Salmonella typhi, the causal organism for typhoid fever, are humans and higher primates, so it is definitely spread from person to person. This is primarily through the \"fecal-oral route\", wherein water or food contaminated with the bacteria from an infected individual's intestinal track is then ingested, proliferates, and causes illness.  In terms of preventing its spread, because of it's fecal-oral transmission route, the major methods are personal hygiene and sanitation. Hand washing, avoiding high risk foods (those that cannot be peeled, cooked throughly, etc.) are the usual steps to avoid enteric pathogens of all sorts. There is also a vaccine available, though it is not routinely administered in the United States nor heavily pushed by the WHO except in cases of \"prolonged exposure to potentially contaminated food and water in high-risk areas\", and does not provide complete protection.",
        "id": 97,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Carbon Dioxide Poisoning in Everyday Situations",
        "body": "Interesting question.Actually there is no study specifically studied about it but even if you have less O2 and high CO2 content (depending on how thick your blanket is) you will never get CO2 poisoning! under blanket or breathing through face mask. Body will let you know when you need more O2 (it is not like CO poisoning). If you sleep under a blanket all night it means that your body does get enough O2 it needs. Probably you have slightly higher Hbg level too :-)). As long as you don't get up very tired in the morning it is OK.  In extreme conditions; some symptoms of carbon dioxide toxicity can be seen including high blood pressure, flushed skin, headache and twitching muscles. At higher levels, you could experience panic, irregular heartbeat, hallucinations, vomited and potentially unconsciousness.",
        "id": 849,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Toxicity of carbon tetrachloride exaggerated?",
        "body": "Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is very toxic. It can cause both serious acute and chronic effects. The severity of effects depends on several factors such as:   dose length of exposure frequency of exposure exposure route other toxic substances present factors related to the exposed person (age, weight, physiological susceptibility) etc.   CCl4 is toxic via all 3 routes of exposure (oral, dermal and inhalation) and can cause a range of detrimental effects, including (but not limited to):     Oral and inhalation exposure to high concentrations of carbon tetrachloride results in acute central nervous system effects including dizziness, vertigo, headache, depression, confusion, incoordination and, in severe cases, respiratory failure, coma and death. Gastrointestinal problems including nausea, abdominal pain and diarrhea, often accompany these narcotic effects. Liver and kidney damage can appear after the acute symptoms subside. All symptoms can occur following a single oral or inhalation exposure. Milder narcotic effects followed by liver and kidney damage have been reported following dermal exposure. Although an inhalation exposure of about 1000 ppm for a few minutes to hours will cause the narcotic effects in 100% of the population, large variations in sensitivity are seen. Alcohol intake greatly increases human sensitivity to carbon tetrachloride; consequently, exposure to 250 ppm for 15 minutes can be life threatening to an alcoholic.    (RAIS, emphasis mine)  It is also characterised as a group 2B carcinogen (possibly carcinogenic to humans). There have been many epidemiological studies to confirm these effects, such as this one:     Ott et al. (1985) conducted a cohort mortality study of 1919 men employed for one or more  years  between  1940  and  1969  at  a  chemical manufacturing  facility  in  the  United States. This cohort included 226 workers assigned to a unit which produced chlorinated methanes (methyl chloride (see this volume), dichloromethane (see this volume), chloro-   form (IARC, 1987b), and carbon tetrachloride) and, recently, tetrachloroethylene (IARC,1995). Exposure levels were not reported.[...]  There were 42 deaths observed among the 226 workers (standardized   mortality ratio (SMR), 0.6, based on national rates) [SMR, 0.8, based on company rates]. Nine cancers were observed [SMR, 0.8; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.4\u20131.5, based on company rates], including three pancreatic cancers [SMR, 3.3; 95% CI, 0.7\u20139.7, based on company  rates].  Two  of  the  three  workers  who  died  of  pancreatic  cancer  had  been employed for less than five years.   (from IARC, emphasis mine)  Furthermore, it takes time for liver damage to be noticed. Even more so mid- 20th century, when the solvent was mostly used. Still, the toxicity of CCl4 is such, that it has been gradually replaced in dry cleaning from 1940s and 1950s and since 1960s it is no longer in use. The use of CCl4 as a pesticide was stopped in 1986.   Finally, one can experience severe health damage without actually \"dropping dead\" . It took time (as many things in science do) to establish and prove the connection between CCl4 and its detrimental health effects, but once this was done the old ways from the old days were abandoned.     References:   Condensed Toxicity Summary for CARBON TETRACHLORIDE - RAIS, The Risk Assessment Information System Public Health Statement for Carbon Tetrachloride, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), CDC International Hazard Datasheets on Occupation. Dry cleaners, ILO Malaguarnera G, Cataudella E, Giordano M, Nunnari G, Chisari G, Malaguarnera M. Toxic hepatitis in occupational exposure to solvents. World J Gastroenterol.2012; 18(22):2756\u20132766 Control of Health and Safety Hazards in Commercial Drycleaners: Chemical Exposures, Fire Hazards, and Ergonomic Risk Factors Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Carbon tetrachloride IARC Monographs, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) ",
        "id": 1388,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "CT Scans and Cancer Risk",
        "body": "Every procedure has to be weighed for potential costs and benefits. Cancer is a risk already present and might shorten a life, CT scans on the other hand are done to prolong a life. The exact risks (costs) for CT scans is unknown, especially the exact risks for you, since we only have statistical data to estimate that.  Prior data forms the basis for this statistical risk assessment. For example: Radiation exposure from CT scans in childhood and subsequent risk of leukaemia and brain tumours: a retrospective cohort study:     Although CT scans are very useful clinically, potential cancer risks exist from associated ionising radiation, in particular for children who are more radiosensitive than adults. We aimed to assess the excess risk of leukaemia and brain tumours after CT scans in a cohort of children and young adults. [\u2026]   Use of CT scans in children to deliver cumulative doses of about 50 mGy might almost triple the risk of leukaemia and doses of about 60 mGy might triple the risk of brain cancer. Because these cancers are relatively rare, the cumulative absolute risks are small: in the 10 years after the first scan for patients younger than 10 years, one excess case of leukaemia and one excess case of brain tumour per 10\u2008000 head CT scans is estimated to occur. Nevertheless, although clinical benefits should outweigh the small absolute risks, radiation doses from CT scans ought to be kept as low as possible and alternative procedures, which do not involve ionising radiation, should be considered if appropriate. (emphasis added)   The technology and methods are constantly improved upon. Unnecessary scans should be avoided though. Whole-Body PET/CT Scanning: Estimation of Radiation Dose and Cancer Risk:      Whole-body PET/CT scanning is accompanied by substantial radiation dose and cancer risk. Thus, examinations should be clinically justified, and measures should be taken to reduce the dose.   But that does not mean you should deny any further scans. But make sure your doctors know about prior scans. Especially when changing doctors. Sometimes old scans are unknown to exist but just as useful.  To visualise that you can not avoid all radiation and to put the doses you receive from scans in perspective, this looks very useful:    Do not take this chart as a reliable guide or definitive advice. But do a mathematical comparison of two figures: \"Chest CT scan\" and \"Maximum yearly dose permitted for US radiation workers.\" (The equivalent of 7 of these scans in one year would still be considered \"OK\" under these workplace regulations.)  In more practical terms this might translate into something like \"How Much Do CT Scans Increase the Risk of Cancer?\":     A 2009 study of medical centers in the San Francisco Bay Area also calculated an elevated risk: one extra case of cancer for every 400 to 2,000 routine chest CT exams.   For a more detailed breakdown consult information like \"Computed Tomography (CT) Scans and Cancer\" from the National Cancer Institute:     It is commonly thought that the extra risk of any one person developing a fatal cancer from a typical CT procedure is about 1 in 2,000. In contrast, the lifetime risk of dying from cancer in the U.S. population is about 1 in 5. ",
        "id": 1950,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where can I find information about foods fatty acids?",
        "body": "The USDA database does provide detailed information about fatty acids in foods. Too detailed actually: for each food, you can get the amount of fatty acids with each number of carbon atoms. So in your specific case, you would have to get this data (for instance as .csv), and sum up the respective amounts of short- and medium-chain fatty acids (until 12 carbon atoms in the aliphatic tail) and long-chain fatty acids. Basic spreadsheet software should allow you to do that.  I do not know of any website that does that.",
        "id": 1756,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can syphilis be transmitted by kissing the lips, licking the throat, touching vagina with finger?",
        "body": "Syphilis is transmitted from person to person by direct contact with a syphilitic sore, known as a chancre. Chancres can occur on or around the external genitals, in the vagina, around the anus , or in the rectum, or in or around the mouth. Transmission of syphilis can occur during vaginal, anal, or oral sex.  See more here:  https://www.cdc.gov/std/syphilis/stdfact-syphilis-detailed.htm",
        "id": 2370,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "For varicella zoster(chickenpox), when are vaccination / antiviral drugs effective?",
        "body": "According to the World Health Organization   Administering the vaccine up to 3-5 days after exposure has been shown to reduce the severity of the disease significantly, but studies vary greatly as to whether or not post-exposure vaccination can prevent the disease entirely. Post-exposure treatment with antiviral drugs is effective at reducing the severity of the disease, but due to the expense and low expected benefits, it is only recommended for immunocompromised individuals or patients at risk of severe complications.  Vaccination of adults is less effective than vaccination of children: children frequently get full protection after a single dose, while adults usually require two doses.  Additionally, vaccination of children provides protection for upwards of ten years, while immunity in vaccinated adults fades after a few years. ",
        "id": 1861,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is dry urine sterile?",
        "body": "Urine is not sterile, not while in the bladder and certainly not when it comes out.      Contrary to dogma that urine is sterile in the absence of a clinical urinary tract infection (UTI); our research team and others have recently shown the existence of a urinary microbiota in individuals with and without lower urinary tract symptoms   From \"Bacteria isolated from blood, stool and urine of typhoid patients in a developing country\" (note that while the paper itself is about people with \"Overactive Bladder syndrome\", the conclusion about urine not being sterile holds true for the control group in this study as well.   However, it is very unlikely you could get or give someone else some kind of disease through the kind of hypothetical contact you are talking about in your question. The South Australian health ministry for example lists only one disease potentially spread through urine : Cytomegalovirus [source]. But while the test for this infection can be done through analysing urine, I could not find any evidence that there has ever been an infection that resulted from exposure to urine as opposed to saliva, semen or one of the other transmission routes.  Another disease found in urine is typhoid :     Thirteen (14.1%) out of 92 urine samples were positive for bacterial growth   From [\"Bacteria isolated from blood, stool and urine of typhoid patients in a developing country\"]. Whether the level in these samples would be enough to lead to infection even if ingested is unclear to me.  No substance in your urine is actively dangerous to you just by touching it. Even drinking it is generally considered to be safe, unless done too often (it does contain products your body is trying to get rid off).      \u00a0while urine\u2019s purported healing properties have yet to be confirmed by rigorous research, drinking\u00a0small amountsof your own urine is unlikely to produce serious harm if, for some reason, you are so inclined.[source]   Drying will possible reduce the amount of bacteria in the urine, just as it does for saliva.   In summary, no, urine is not sterile, but it also doesn't seem to be a \"usual\" route of infection for many (or maybe any) diseases. Furthermore,  having a spot of it dry on your clothes and a hypothetical person then touching it is bringing the infection risk down even more.",
        "id": 515,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does exercising lower your lifespan?",
        "body": "Persons who do regular physical exercise have a lower heart rate while they are resting (or not exercising):   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22081187  Hence, their hearts will be beating same number of beats over a longer period of time.  In addition, a number of trials have shown that regular physical exercise is associated with significant health benefits and lower incidence of serious health problems, e.g.:   http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(04)17018-9/abstract",
        "id": 1020,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Weight increase after quitting smoking",
        "body": "The literature regarding smoking cessation and weight gain is abundant and probably I won\u2019t be able to go through all the points in my post.  Some years ago, a paper published in Obesity Reviews by Fizolof et al (Obes Rev. 2004 May;5(2):95-103) provided a excellent overview on the topic.  As it is not open access, here are some interesting extracts which should bring some clarifications  First, regarding the evidence for weight gain smoking cessation:     Whereas numerous studies have found evidence that smoking cessation is   associated with weight gain, there is controversy regarding the   consistency and magnitude of this weight gain. Although most   will gain less than 4.5 kg, as many as 13% of quitters may gain at   least 11 kg. African Americans, people under the age of 55 and   heavy smokers (those smoking more than 25 cigarettes per day) are at   elevated risk for major weight gain. Besides, low   socio-economic status was also associated to higher weight gain.   However, studies often showed some methodological limitations such as      the use of self-reported height and weight, failure to biochemically   validate smoking status, a tendency to report point prevalence vs.   continuous abstinence and limited follow-up periods.   What are the possible mechanisms associated with weight gain?     The mechanism of weight gain include increased energy intake,   decreased resting metabolic rate, decreased physical activ- ity, and   changes in adipose tissue-lipoprotein lipase (AT-LPL) activity and   lipolysis.   There is no clear evidence based recommendations to avoid weight gain after smoking (probably due to the lack of a clear consensus regarding weight gain and smoking cessation).  Filozof reviewed some studies which investigated either pharmacological or behavioural/diet interventions in smoking cessation:     Nicotine replacement \u2013 in particular nicotine gum \u2013 appears to be   effective in delaying post-cessation weight gain (1). However, once   nicotine gum use ceases, the quitting smoker gains an amount of weight   that is about the same as if she or he had never used gum (1).      1 mg of nicotine (contained in a chewing gum) has a pronounced   thermogenic effect that could be increased by 100% by adding 100 mg   caffeine (2).      Assali et al. reported no prevention of weight gain by transdermal   nicotine replacement patch (3)      Compared with placebo, mean body weight gain at the end of treatment   was significantly lower in patients receiving short-term bupropion   300 mg d-1 who had been continuously abstinent (4), long-term   bupropion (5) or bupropion plus nicotine patch (5)      Danielsson et al. (5) reported higher rates of success for smoking   cessation by combining the smoking cessation programme with an intervention diet.      Some studies (7,8) reported that exercise might minimize weight gain   after smoking cessation.   Sources (did not manage to format the list better...)   Gross J, Stitzer ML, Maldonado J. Nicotine replacement effects on postcessation weight gain. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989; 57: 87\u201392. Jessen AB, Toubro S, Astrup A. Effect of chewing gum con- taining nicotine and caffeine on energy expenditure and substrate utilisation in men. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77: 1442\u20131447. Assali AR, Beigel Y, Schreibman R, Shafer Z, Faineru M. Weight gain and insulin resistance during nicotine replacement therapy. Clin Cardiol 1999; 22: 357\u2013360 Hurt RD, Sachs DP, Glover ED, Offord KP, Johnston JA, Dale LC, Khayrallah MA, Schroeder DR, Glover PN, Sullivan CR, Croghan IT, Sullivan PM. A comparison of sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1195\u20131202 Hays JT, Hurt RD, Rigotti NA, Niaura R, Gonzales D, Durcan MJ, Sachs DP, Wolter TD, Buist AS, Johnston JA, White JD. Sustained-release bupropion for pharmacological relapse pre- vention after smoking cessation: a randomised controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2001; 135: 423\u2013433. Danielsson T, Rossner S, Westin A. Open randomised trial of very low energy diet together with nicotine gum for stopping smoking in women who gained weight in previous attempts to quit. BMJ 1999; 319: 490\u2013494. Kawachi I, Troisi RJ, Rotnitzky AG, Coakley EH, Colditz GA. Can physical activity minimise weight gain in women after smoking cessation? Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 999\u20131004. Marcus BH, Albrecht AE, King TK, Parisi AF, Pinto BM, Roberts M, Niaura RS, Abrams DB. The efficacy of exercise as an aid for smoking-cessation interventions in women: a randomised controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 1229\u20131236 ",
        "id": 1157,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any side effects to cracking knuckles?",
        "body": "A common medical myth is that cracking your knuckles causes arthritis, but is has been shown that cracking your knuckles, and popping your joints in general, will not raise your risk for developing arthritis.1 It has also been shown to not cause degenerative joint disease in your hand joints in old age.2  However, cracking your knuckles does have some risks. One study from 1990,3 showed that, while cracking your knuckles does not increase your risk of arthritis, it does impair your hand function. It was shown to lower grip strength and cause hand inflammation in habitual knuckle crackers. Acute injuries to ligaments in the knuckles as a result of cracking knuckles has also been recorded.4  There are no physical benefits to cracking your knuckles. It has been observed that there is a possibly perceived sense of therapeutic release when cracking your knuckles, which is most likely the reason that many people do it habitually. Though it is not incredibly dangerous, knuckle cracking is a habit that is probably best avoided.    1: Knuckle Cracking and Hand Osteoarthritis  2: The Consequences of Habitual Knuckle Cracking  3: Effect of habitual knuckle cracking on hand function.  4: Consequences of knuckle cracking: a report of two acute injuries.  Is Cracking Your Knuckles Harmful?  Johns Hopkins Arthritis Center - Knuckle Cracking Q &amp; A  Knuckles and Joints: Does Cracking Your Knuckles Cause Arthritis?",
        "id": 639,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the dangers of sitting on a public toilet seat?",
        "body": "First you have to consider how diseases are transmitted. STDs are usually skin to skin or warm body fluid to an open sore. Diseases like influenza, ebola, etc can't go through your skin. They require you to touch your eyes, mouth, or an open sore. Even getting a few drops of urine on your legs probably won't get you sick unless you move some of it to a wound, eyes, or mouth. This is why washing your hands is extremely important when using the restroom.    Assuming that the bathroom has regular maintenance and cleaning, the top of the toilet seat is likely one of the cleanest surfaces in the restroom most of the time. The cold hard surface of the toilet seat isn't ideal for any type of disease. Viral and bacterial levels decline very quickly on such surfaces. As long as it is visibly clean there is little to no chance of catching a disease from it. And a disinfecting wipe would reduce the dangers from mild to zero. I'm actually surprised wipes aren't offered in public restrooms. Stores often offer wipes for the shopping cart, but not in the bathrooms for the toilet.  Here is the fun part: In studies it is actually the handles of the bathroom stall door and sink that are the dirtiest because they are touched after you use the toilet and before you wash your hands.  Secondly many toilets have a violent enough flush to launch a spray of fine mist into the air that no one notices. There is a small chance that could give the flu to people in neighboring stalls. But the person whom uses the toilet five minutes later probably won't have any problems as long as they wash their hands.   Don't worry about STDs. They usually aren't infectious enough or won't survive on cold hard surfaces. Many require skin to skin contact that a toilet doesn't provide. It is usually the more mundane diseases such as influenza or the common cold that are transmitted everywhere that are caught in the restroom.   Truthfully you are more likely to catch something from the shopping cart that you didn't wipe down, than you are the restroom in the same store. That surface is less likely to be clean than the sink in the restroom.   Some reading for the people whom want articles:  http://www.webmd.com/balance/features/what-can-you-catch-in-restrooms#3  http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/health/a22542/germs-on-public-toilet-seats/",
        "id": 1560,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the sexual dysfunction from psychiatric medications such as SSRIs and lithium permanent or reversible?",
        "body": "Psychology is an important component of the human sexual response.  Mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety spectrum disorders can significantly change an individual's sexual response.  Sexual dysfunction such as anorgasmia (difficulty achieving orgasm), decreased libido (lower sex drive), lower arousal state, and erectile dysfunction (difficulty achieving or maintaining full erection) are a common symptom reported in individuals with depression and other mental health conditions.  Furthermore, many medications (especially those that alter neurophysiology) also have the potential to interfere with the sexual response.  Not all that take these medications have the same sexual side effects, but there are medications with higher rates of sexual side effects than others.  Most individuals who experience SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction see improvement either through switching to a different medication, or via psychotherapy (focused on sexual response) and \"retraining the response.\"  There are infrequent but existing cases of persistent SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction, such as in this study by Csoka et al, where they cite      \"mechanistic hypotheses including persistent endocrine and epigenetic   gene expression alterations.\"   This is less clear in lithium, as there are far fewer studies.  A paper in 2015 titled \"Lithium and sexual dysfunction: an under-researched area\" explored the literature and found it lacking in robust studies on the topic.  They emphasize that      \"Sexual dysfunction during lithium treatment appears significantly   associated with a lower level of overall functioning and may reduce   compliance\"   which is why this topic is certainly an important issue to address, as maintenance therapy is a critical component of supporting mental health stability - especially for those struggling with disorders that involve mania and/or psychoses.  Treatment of lithium and other medication-induced sexual dysfunction can certainly be successful, but may require effort and different modes of therapy - for which both medications and sexual psychotherapy exist.  I hesitate to get into the specifics, as it would be of greatest benefit for an individual struggling with this to discuss his/her specific situation with the prescribing physician, and also possibly a psychologist.  This is what my initial review has yielded. I will continue to update this with additional information that I find.  Please feel free to recommend additional resources.  Resources:   https://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0701/p127.html https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18173768 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25619161 https://ebmh.bmj.com/content/ebmental/18/1/1.full.pdf ",
        "id": 2518,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why might excessive drinking produce a false hypercortisolism reading in a urinary free cortisol (UFC) test?",
        "body": "Most of the cortisol entering the kidney is reabsorbed by the proximal tubule; only a small amount escapes and is eventually excreted in the urine.  When large amounts of fluid is taken, the re-absorption is less efficient, and more cortisol ends up in the urine. See following quote:     increased UFF excretion (when fluid intake is high) is mainly due to the escape of F from reabsorption/metabolism in the proximal tubule   (Fenske, 2006; here UFF/F is referring to urinary free cortisol and cortisol, respectively; words in parentheses are mine added for context)  Separately, this loss doesn't cause much of a change in systemic cortisol since passage through the urine is only a minor contributor to overall cortisol levels.  The Fenske paper referenced below talks more about this issue, and is cited by the paper referred to in the OP. Overall, I think it's important to mark carefully the author's specific words: they indicate that one might falsely diagnose hypercortisolism with heavy fluid intake, but they only caution against use of UFC if the glomerular filtration rate is very low (i.e., in patients with kidney problems). It seems that they simply mean to caution about the potential of abnormally high UFC in the case of an individual with high fluid intake, without an actual systemic increase in cortisol.    Fenske, M. (2006). Urinary free cortisol and cortisone excretion in healthy individuals: influence of water loading. Steroids, 71(11-12), 1014-1018.",
        "id": 2365,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "ADD medication (Dexadrine) safe to drink with low-caffiene (Mountain Dew)?",
        "body": "Micromedex does not list any precautions or patient educations notes for Dexedrine and caffeine. However both substances can have an effect on heart rate and blood pressure. Large amounts of caffeine like energy drinks or espresso would be ill advised, but I wouldn't think the small amount in a pop would have significant effects especially if you're decently tolerant to caffeine and a relatively normal sized adult.   Never a bad idea to ask the prescribing physician what they think though. ",
        "id": 1164,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Use of antibiotics and the night gap",
        "body": "There are very few (but there are some) medications that need to be taken at very strict time intervals; early drugs for AIDS needed to be taken even in the middle of the night.  No one expects four times a day to mean, literally, every 6 hours on the minute. The dose is calculated to cover that period of rest (sleep).  To understand this, you need to understand steady state pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.  After a certain number of doses, a drug builds up in the body to a steady state - meaning it stays more or less in the same concentration in the blood between doses, or to put it another way, the amount being taken in and the amount being eliminated by the body are about equal.  It's not guesswork; researchers study the drug before it's even released to determine such things (see the second reference.) Pharmacokinetic studies determine the dosages at which the concentration of a particular drug/antibiotic is always high enough between doses such that serum levels don't fall below effective levels.  Say a drug under investigation is given every 12 hours. Blood is drawn at frequent intervals over a number of doses for to determine peak levels (the time at which the concentration in the blood is highest) and trough levels (the time when the drug is the lowest.) If at the trough level the drug is below that needed to be effective, the dosing interval decreases: the subject must take it more frequently, say every 8 hours. This cycle continues until the ideal dosage and dose interval is established. The final recommendation takes into account how long you can go without taking the drug and still have enough drug - how to take the drug such that the steady state is maintained - if you sleep.  If a drug falls below the effective dose quickly (say it is metabolized into an ineffective product), and a satisfactory prolonged serum level can't be arrived at, the prescribing physician will alert you to the fact that you must take it to as close to how it's prescribed as possible, and will tell you what to do if you miss a dose.  When the timing of administration of life-saving drugs is critical, it's not uncommon to hospitalize a patient to assure such administration.     I have heard that the impact of medication lessens if the dosage is delayed, so how come sleep through the night without medication is okay?    That has all been calculated so that there is adequate and continuous coverage. The bacteria have no opportunity to \"develop resistance\" while you sleep.  Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Antibacterial Agents The pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and tolerability of dabigatran etexilate, a new oral direct thrombin inhibitor, in healthy male subjects &lt;- An example of how pharmacodynamics are determied.",
        "id": 575,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much sleep do adults actually need?",
        "body": "Many well-done newer studies are supporting the theory that quality trumps quantity when it comes to sleep.  This excellent article at lifehack.org lists 12 good sources, including \u201ctwo studies (which) assessed how sleep quality and quantity affected college students\u2019 health and well-being. The studies concluded that sleep quality was a better predictor for a healthy and happy life and improved well-being than sleep quantity.\u201d  For those who still want it boiled down to a number,  here are the numbers the National Sleep Foundation updated in 2015: link: https://www.sleepfoundation.org/press-release/national-sleep-foundation-recommends-new-sleep-times",
        "id": 2629,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does protein powder make you feel full?",
        "body": "In the last decades, several studies investigating the effect of protein on satiety showed that under most conditions, protein can be more satiating than isoenergetic ingestion of carbohydrate or fat.  This effect has been observed both after a single meal and over 24h. The effect of protein on satiety may be dependent on the type of protein ingested (animal protein, whey vs casein)  The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying satiety after protein intake seem to include stimulation of gastrointestinal hormones that affect gastrointestinal motility. Additionally, some studies suggest that ghrelin concentration, a hormone involved in regulation of food intake, might change in response to protein intake.  Source (which offers a good review on past studies): Paddon-Jones D1, Westman E, Mattes RD, Wolfe RR et al. Protein, weight management, and satiety. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 May;87(5):1558S-1561S",
        "id": 1035,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "GI bleeds in IV vs Oral steroids",
        "body": "There are no randomized controlled trials I am aware of.  Pubmed yields nothing. Thinking physiologically, it's likely the same risk. PPI in high risk patient regardless of steroid form.",
        "id": 1714,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lack of eating for improving memory",
        "body": "To answer your question, we will look at the physiological process of Starvation, conversion of food as energy and how the human body uses that energy.  Conversion of food/Digestion  Digestion of food starts in the mouth where our enzymes in our saliva start breaking down starch. Food is mainly digested by acid and other enzymes in the stomach to further break down food to a more absorbable form and finally absorbed in the intestines. This is with an exemption to fat which can be only absorbed with the presence of bile for fat emulsification in the duodenum (the part where bile ducts enter the 1st part of small intestine). Nutrients absorbed from food can be classified into Fat, Glucose/Sugar, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, and Electrolytes. In this context, we will focus on Fat, Sugar, and Proteins which makes up food calories we eat that are used as energy. -excerpt from The Physiology of Digestion    Physiology of Starvation  Our bodies maintain a particular level of glucose in the blood to maintain normal biological processes. That level varies from an individual but there is a normal range.      The blood-glucose level is kept at or above 80 mg/dl by three major factors: (1) the mobilization of glycogen and the release of glucose by the liver, (2) the release of fatty acids by adipose tissue, and (3) the shift in the fuel used from glucose to fatty acids by muscle and the liver. - Biochemistry, 5th edition: Jeremy M Berg, John L Tymoczko, and Lubert Stryer     Energy metabolism during Starvation     Each Organ Has a Unique Metabolic Profile      Brain. Glucose is virtually the sole fuel for the human brain, except during prolonged starvation.       Fatty acids do not serve as fuel for the brain, because they are bound to albumin in plasma and so do not traverse the blood-brain barrier. In starvation, ketone bodies generated by the liver partly replace glucose as fuel for the brain.   Prolonged starvation can cause increased amounts of ketones in the body to maintain normal brain functioning. There has been a study that giving ketones have improved brain functioning in patients with traumatic brain injuries. Another study claims that ketone bodies play a neuroprotective role during starvation.    P.S.  I have looked into the description of the book you've read (\"Unbroken is a testament to the resilience of the human mind, body, and spirit.\"). The answer seems to be \"will\" or \"spirit\". Or it could just be ketones.   Common misnomer with ketosis, starvation ketoacidosis and diabetic ketoacidosis which have very different outcomes.",
        "id": 961,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which disease is this combination of medicine is used for?",
        "body": " Rapitus Plus (syrup) consist of:   Chlorphenamine(antihistamine)-relieves itching, sneezing, watery eyes or runny nose associated with common cold or flu. Levodropropizine(antiussive)- helps coughs  Cap. Nuipenta-D- Antacids, Antireflux Agents &amp; Antiulcerants Deflazacort (MAHACORT-DZ 6)- Allergic And Inflammatory Disorders Fix-AR:       Montelukast is used to prevent and treat asthma, seasonal and year   round allergies (hay fever), and prevent exercise-induced asthma.   We can not tell you if the medication is wrong, as I am not your doctor and did not prescribe it. However, the medication seems indicated for the symptoms. Your doctor probably associated your cough with possible allergies or Asthma, excluding the Nuipenta. To better understand you can:   Ask your doctor for papers on your meds  Ask them why a medication was prescribed  How it will affect you   As a patient you are entitled to his care and most times it is given. ",
        "id": 916,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the risks LSD microdosing?",
        "body": "Here are the sources you can use:  The main issue is that due to government controls on substances like LSD, very little research ends up being conducted with/about them due to the difficulties and regulations involved. So information about substances like LSD comes from three main sources:   The few peer-reviewed academic/pharmaceutical studies which make it past Institutional Review and government regulations to be published in a journal Content written by \"experts,\" but not peer-reviewed and not processed by an Institutional Review Board and not published in a journal Community knowledge and user reports   On the first count, here's a link to a literature review article from 1984.  On the second count, you can look into the work of Aldous Huxley, George Greer, Ann Shulgin, Myron Stolaroff, Athanasios Kafkalides, and Stanislav Grof.  On the third count, you can check out community forums at reddit, erowid, and bluelight.  Here's what they generally say:  You cannot take a toxic dose of LSD, though large doses could put you in a state in which you're life is in danger (e.g. you might accidentally walk off a cliff).  Most if not all reported effects of LSD (after the substance's primary effects have waned) are psychological, ranging from the mundane (e.g. self-discovery, introspection) to the phenomenal (e.g. PTSD, complete personality change).   Some people report experiencing \"flashbacks,\" where they unexpectedly feel like their state of consciousness shifts momentarily back into a psychedelic state. While such reports are popular, they seem relatively rare and unlikely.  Ultimately, not enough users provide a large enough amount of reliable, objective data to say anything definite about long-term effects.",
        "id": 609,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cold pressed canola oil",
        "body": "There doesn't seem to be any evidence of harmful effects of canola oil.  The Mayo Clinic site states :     Health concerns about canola oil are unfounded. Canola oil, which is extracted from the seeds of the canola plant, is generally recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administration.      Misinformation about canola oil may stem from the fact that the canola   plant was developed through crossbreeding with the rapeseed plant.   Rapeseed oil contains very high levels of erucic acid, a compound that   in large amounts can be toxic to humans. Canola oil, however, contains   very low levels of erucic acid.   There seems to be, on the contrary, evidence for health benefits.  However, I haven't been able to find any article on canola oil in omega supplementation specifically (especially vs. other plant oils or vs. fish oils). There is a lot of literature about consumption of these oils in general (an example about cardiovascular risk) but relatively few about fatty acid supplementation by pills in particular.   Edit to take count of the article you cited:   According to the Mayo Clinic article cited previously, it's the reverse, rapeseed oil is dangerous while canola oil isn't. Canola oil can be hydrogenated, like all oils, but it's not always the case. Here, the pill bottle indicated 0g of trans fat, which indicates that the oil used in the pills isn't hydrogenated. But the law in the US allow companies to write 0g as long as it's under 0,5g so it might not be really trans fat-free. The term cold-pressed normally means the oil hasn't been heated, and thus isn't hydrogenated. Finally, I can't find a clear mention of whether indicating if an oil is hydrogenated is mandatory in the US or not, but the FDA (which banned trans fats in June) and the Mayo Clinic do recommend checking it to avoid trans fats, which seem to mean it's mandatory. Based on all this, I would think the canola oil in these pills isn't hydrogenated. There is no GMO labeling in the US. In 2006, 87% of the canola oil produced in the US was indeed genetically modified to be resistant to herbicides. In 2009, 90% of the canola oil produced in Canada was as well. There is no way of knowing if the canola oil in the omega pills is a GMO, but given these number it is likely.   Sources :   Mayo Clinic on trans fats FDA ",
        "id": 616,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a mental disorder that causes people to do things in their sleep?",
        "body": "you`d better find a partner to live with, it is dangerous to be lonely today, many mental disorders have sleep troubles, PTSD is common, anxiety is not a disease if controlled",
        "id": 1838,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Intense headaches while ejaculating semen",
        "body": "As described in this article, such headaches are not very rare.     What could possibly be going wrong   I'm afraid there is no definite answer for that. There is a \"good guess\" mentioned in the above article:     Very little is known about the causes of this type of pain.      But a widespread view among doctors is that it's due to the swift rise in blood pressure (BP) that occurs during sex and, more particularly, during orgasm.   As for treatment, or something to do to prevent the headache, I'm afraid there's also no such thing known to doctors so far, but there is a short term solution: (also taken from the article)     The best immediate treatment is to take ibuprofen, aspirin or paracetamol \u2013 provided that these drugs don't give you any problems.      Then just try to relax, lying flat for an hour or two.   Last but not least, if the headaches keep happening for a long time, please go to a doctor!",
        "id": 1744,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens during puberty that causes the deepening & squeaking/cracking (dysphonia) of a male's voice?",
        "body": "You are partially correct in your understanding of how/why the a male's voice deepens during puberty. Let me just clarify a few things:    Androgen is a hormone that stimulates or maintains male sex organs  and characteristics (but keep in mind it's also present in women --     just at a lesser level). During puberty, the androgen levels increase and signal for changes to take place.  One of these changes (among many during puberty) is the growth of the larynx and subsequently the vocal chords become longer and  thicker. This contributes to the deeper voice. Because the growth occurs over a process of time (in fact, the larynx is not done growing until early adulthood), the vocal-pitch is not stabilized , and may sometimes crack. This is sometimes known as falsetto or as dysphonia as you mentioned. Females during puberty also have an increase in androgen and their larynx also grows, but not nearly as substantial or noticeable as males, which is why their voices don't crack and also why they don't have adam's-apples (larynx). Also, their vocal-pitch only slightly drops by one octave or so.  ",
        "id": 1366,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can acne bacteria become resistant to Clindamycin?",
        "body": "Why do you disbelieve the instructions?      However, with erythromycin, clindamycin, and tetracyclines, the rate of resistance is associated with point mutations in rRNA (Ross et al., 2001). Mutations in the 23SrRNA component of an\u00a0E. coli\u00a0equivalent nucleotide bases give varying degrees of resistance to erythromycin and clindamycin.\u00a0   So, given prolonged use Propionibacterium acnes in Acne Vulgaris will become resistant to clindamycin. There will be a selection pressure for bacteria that develop the mutation.  https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/460620_2",
        "id": 2159,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What diet should I eat to perform optimally, maximizing my alertness?",
        "body": "Not knowing what diets you have used, or what your current diet restrictions are, its impossible to suggest a specific food. It also sounds like you are interested in self observation of results. Knowing this, you might find an excel chart I'm working on to be helpful (StapleFoodsNutrition.xlsx).  It's a work in progress, but the goal is to find a basic grouping of staple foods that check off all micro-nutritional DV's. This is useful for me so I can keep track of the foods I incorporate to my diet, check off the nutritional values I have met, observe any changes, and finally move to the next value of interest. Basically, I add a food to the list, test it the next week, adjust my serving size, observe and repeat. Sadly, you'll have to do the work to understand the file, and incorporate new foods, but its a starting point.   So far I've learned a decent amount about each vitamin and mineral on a much broader scale, and the difficulties of incorporating each without the use of supplements. My end goal is to ease a skin condition of mine. So far results wise, I have found that I wake up consistently at an earlier time without alarms, and my extremities feel warmer (Raynaud's-like symptoms). ",
        "id": 2260,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cancer development probability with age",
        "body": "The National Cancer Institute states     Advancing age is the most important risk factor for cancer overall, and for many individual cancer types. According to the most recent statistical data from NCI\u2019s Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program, the median age of a cancer diagnosis is 66 years. This means that half of cancer cases occur in people below this age and half in people above this age. One-quarter of new cancer cases are diagnosed in people aged 65 to 74.   Lung cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer all have median ages of diagnosis between 61 and 70 years. That said, the NCI does note that some cancers occur more often in younger age groups, citing bone cancers (where the most at-risk age group is adolescents under 20) and leukemias.  The NCI also provides a bar graph showing the percentage of new cancers in various age groups, broken down mostly in ten-year increments:    This would seem to indicate that your cancer risk goes down after about the age of 70. However, this is clearly misleading, because fewer and fewer people survive to reach these higher age groups. Thus, with fewer people in that group alive, there is going to be a significant drop in the percentage of cancers that occur in that group.  More accurate tables exist, which show the chance of developing cancer within a certain amount of time at a given age (data from 2010-2012). Table 2.12 in the linked document shows that the chances of developing cancer within 10, 20, or 30 years increases with age (although long-term data is not available for the higher age groups, as most people at the age of 80 do not live for 20 or 30 more years.  An interesting effect, though, is that the chance of ever developing cancer does change, increasing by small - negligible, even - amounts from the age of 0-30, and decreasing by the same small amounts from there, until there is a sharp drop-off at the age of 60. The table shows that if, for example, you're 70 years old, then you're less likely to get cancer during the rest of your life than someone 40 years old. The reason for this, of course, is more morbid: other diseases that are more common or more deadly in old age will set in at older ages. Less time to live implies less time to develop cancer.  To make this less confusing, at younger ages, your risk of developing cancer within a small amount of time - your instantaneous risk - steadily increases. At ages past 30, however, your risk of developing cancer throughout the rest of your life steadily decreases.  I would assume that your question is better answered by the first statistic, rather than the second.",
        "id": 628,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "To what degree does a Vitamin D course mitigate the effects of Primary Hyperparathyroidism?",
        "body": "If you see a low vitamin D level in conjunction with a raised PTH level, then I think you need to think secondary hyperparathyroidism (HiPTH).  But since vast numbers of most western populations  have lowish vitamin D levels seen even in my own clinic [3] where sun shine levels are high then it may be just co-incidental.  HiPTH disease should not lower the D3 levels.  And in secondary HiPTH disease the calcium and phosphate should be subnormal.  If the person is from the Indian subcontinent, then the matter changes somewhat.  These people often have defective vitamin D handling so that they develop autonomous hyperparathyroidism if not actually tertiary hyperparathyroidism.  Calcium is then high. [1]  As for the actual question of vitamin D supplementation in the case of primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT), then there's good reason to make sure the person is at least replete with vitamin D so that you don't get secondary HPTH disease in addition to the primary HPTH disease. This is likely the scenario you have posted.  As for treating vitamin D deficiency to reach supranormal levels in the presence of primary HPTH disease, I don't believe that there is role for that as found in the following study which looked at Vitamin D in PHPT disease     In summary, our findings demonstrate that low vitamin D, using a threshold of &lt;20 but not &lt;30 ng/mL, is associated with more biochemically severe PHPT, as manifested by higher PTH levels. Although vitamin D insufficiency was associated with modest cortical effects upon the skeleton, low vitamin D levels using the current thresholds were not associated with evidence of more severe disease as reflected by symptoms or meeting criteria for parathyroidectomy. As secular trends in vitamin D supplementation extend into PHPT populations, cohorts such as this one, with less vitamin D deficiency, are likely to become more common. We conclude that in this PHPT cohort with few profoundly vitamin D-deficient patients, vitamin D status did not appear to significantly impact clinical presentation or aBMD. [2]    Vitamin D metabolism is altered in Asian Indians in the southern United States: a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83(1):169. Vitamin D in Primary Hyperparathyroidism: Effects on Clinical, Biochemical, and Densitometric Presentation 2105 https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/100/9/3443/2830141 Vitamin D deficiency among patients attending a central New Zealand rheumatology outpatient clinic. Chiu, G N Z Med J. 2005 Nov 11;118(1225):U1727. ",
        "id": 2222,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is pasteurized or non-pasteurized milk healthier for an adult male in his early 40s?",
        "body": "Pasteurized milk is perfectly safe for people of all ages but raw milk may or may not be. According to the CDC:     Raw milk is milk from any animal that has not been pasteurized to kill   harmful bacteria. Raw milk can carry harmful bacteria and other germs   that can make you very sick or kill you. While it is possible to get   foodborne illnesses from many different foods, raw milk is one of the   riskiest of all.      Some people who chose raw milk thinking they would improve their   health instead found themselves (or their loved ones) sick in a   hospital for several weeks due to infections caused by germs in raw   milk. Getting sick from raw milk can mean many days of diarrhea,   stomach cramping, and vomiting. Some people who drank raw milk have   developed severe or even life-threatening diseases, including   Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome, which can cause paralysis, and hemolytic   uremic syndrome, which can result in kidney failure, stroke, and even   death.   Age is largely irrelevant unless you're very old or very young. On this subject the CDC has this to say:     The risk of getting sick from drinking contaminated raw milk is   greater for infants and young children, older adults, pregnant women,   and people with weakened immune systems, such as people with cancer,   an organ transplant, or HIV, than it is for healthy older children and   adults. But healthy people of any age can get very sick or even die if   they drink raw milk contaminated with harmful germs.   As for how much to drink, there's no right or wrong answer for that. Drink as much as you like but keep in mind that whole milk is fairly high in calories.  https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/rawmilk/raw-milk-questions-and-answers.html",
        "id": 1942,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Infant dieting habits in natural setting",
        "body": "The Study in Question: Davis: Self-Selection of Diets (1939)     Doing for themselves specifically meant permitting newly weaned infants to choose how much or how little to eat of 33 available foodstuffs. As she emphasized to her Quebec audience, no adult was allowed even to hint to the children what might be a proper choice or portion amount. \u201cThe nurses' orders were to sit quietly by, spoon in hand, and make no motion,\u201d she said.      Accordingly, Davis devised the experiment to let children do for themselves because she suspected that children's bodies instinctively \u201cknew best\u201d what the individual child should eat. Her intellectual model, a view that would later be called \u201cthe wisdom of the body,\u201d likened a child's instinctive appetite to the way various autonomic body systems effortlessly adjust themselves to compensate for external challenges \u2014 think of sweating on a hot day, and breathing faster when you start to run.      Initially, it seemed that this conceit didn't apply to Davis's test children and their food preferences. None of the eat-what-and-how-much-of-what-you-want infants had the same diet on any given day, week or month. \u201cEvery diet differed from every other diet, 15 different patterns of taste being presented, and not one diet was the predominantly cereal-and-milk diet, with smaller supplements of fruit, eggs and meat, that is commonly thought proper for this age,\u201d she told her Montr\u00e9al audience.      Yet, she and others later saw that the infants' fanatical heterodoxy turned into what appeared to be 15 uniformly well-nourished, healthy children.      How could eating drastically different diets achieve uniform health and nutritional balance? Body wisdom was the only likely explanation Davis concluded. \u201cSuch successful juggling and balancing of the more than 30 nutritional essentials that exist in mixed and different proportions in the foods from which they must be derived suggests at once the existence of some innate, automatic mechanism for its accomplishment.\u201d   However, this does not mean infants should not be taught what to eat.     The foods she offered the children were varied, but all were generally   thought to be healthy. Their intrinsic goodness meant that it would   have been difficult for her small charges to veer too far from the   nutritional straight-and-narrow.      \u201cErrors the children's appetites must have made \u2014 they are inherent in   any trial-and-error method \u2014 but the errors with such a food list were   too trivial and too easily compensated for to be of importance or even   to be detected.\u201d The key thing was to provide healthy food and let   children eat as much or as little of it as they wanted.      \u201cThe results of the experiment, then: Leave the selection of the foods   to be made available to young children in the hands of their elders,   where everyone has always known it belongs,\u201d she told her peers in   Montr\u00e9al.      While an interesting double-hinged interpretation of her results, it   was, Davis recognized, more a comforting argument than a true   demonstration of the limitations of baby body wisdom. She did not   present her little ones with a foolproof diet, just a   not-intrinsically-foolish one.   The study is lacking statistics, graphs and all that.     All that Davis did was to tell what she found. There are absolutely no graphs, no charts, no individual breakdowns of any sorts for any of the children. It's a summary paper of an Everest of data with next-to-no data in it.     All quoted text taken from the analysis:  Stephen Strauss: Clara M. Davis and the wisdom of letting children choose their own diets. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.060990 CMAJ November 7, 2006 vol. 175 no. 10 1199",
        "id": 1964,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the body develop an allergy during a lifetime?",
        "body": "From the MayoClinic, it isn't clear why adult allergies develop: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/food-allergy/expert-answers/food-allergy/faq-20058483  However, there is evidence that food sensitivities develop when someone has a compromised gut. If the gut is compromised, undigested food particles \"leak\" into the blood stream and the body creates antibodies against this undigested food.  These sensitivities can disappear if the gut is repaired. http://www.holistichelp.net/blog/why-do-food-sensitivities-develop-and-spread/",
        "id": 136,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating egg shells: advantages v.s. disadvantages?",
        "body": "Not allowed to comment, so just a partial answer from my part: Salmonella bacteria are commonly found in the excrements of birds and egg shells are usually contaminated with them, and even let them through to some extent. Therefore it is very important to boil the shell in advance. This should kill more than 99% of the Samonella bacteria found on the shell: source link.  Not sure about the cancer risk or the likelihood of small cuts. However, Paparazzi is wrong that egg shell contains a lot of fiber. The main components of egg shell are chalk, with some traces of magnesium and protein, so no fibers in there. Please don't downvote this answer, it's only meant as a comment. ",
        "id": 1481,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the food that can be eaten without much calories intake? (to combat hand-to-mouth pattern)",
        "body": "All food has calories; it is just a matter of what one's have the lowest.  Celery is high in water and low in calories, as is cabbage. For some more low calorie food ideas check out this website:  http://www.health.com/health/gallery/0,,20640804,00.html/view-all",
        "id": 1299,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is difference between loprox and antifungal cream?",
        "body": "Lets start with the concept of what is Anti-fungal medication \"Antifungal medicines are used to treat fungal infections, which are most commonly found on the skin, hair and nails.\"NHS  As you see Antifungals are medications that used to treat or prevent mycoses ( fungal infection) which divided in two major groups fungicides and fungistatics.  Loprex (ciclopirox) is a synthetic FDA approved antifungal agent used mostly for treating  superficial mycoses and yeast infections of the skin, such as athlete's foot, jock itch, and ringworm it works by stopping or killing fungus but if you If you suffer from any adverse reaction to medication report it to your doctor. 2 3 4  We have lots of different mycoses conditions like athlete's foot, ringworm, candidiasis which are less severe or more serious conditions like Cryptococcosis, meningitis etc 5 as you see we have different kind of conditions which made by different kinds of microorganisms so as a result we have wide range of medications that each is suitable for specific conditions and indications . here you can see some of the other topical Antifungal agents that are available in market.  Based on condition,indications and guidelines your doctor or professional health care chooses and prescribes the medication so you can you can not just replace it even in some cases with a generic version without consulting your doctor.  As i know yes we have few OTC Antifungals but it differs from a country to another. check here for more information.  For more information checkout medlineplus.gov and Webmd.",
        "id": 976,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is ASEA supplement useful against scars or it is a fake product?",
        "body": "I was quite skeptical to read the word describing the product in the questions title.  But there is really no weaker word allowed to describe this extraordinary scam.  Their website is full of it but does not list anything remotely coming close to a list of ingredients.  They have a sub-page called \"science-faq\". That lists probably the loophole their legal team dug out for them:     Redox signaling technology has not been evaluated by the FDA. However, ASEA manufacturing is FDA registered, NSF certified, and meets all FDA Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). NSF International\u2019s GMP Registration Program enables manufacturers to become independently registered by NSF to meet GMP requirements. The program is open to manufacturers of dietary supplements who want to demonstrate their commitment to public safety. These GMP requirements are listed in Section 8 of NSF/ANSI 173, which is the only accredited American National Standard in the dietary supplement industry developed in accordance with the FDA\u2019s 21 CFR part 111.   Health claims on the order delivered here are not evaluated, independent testing nowhere to be found.  To get closer to the truth, we have to read the label on the bottle:    And yeah. Sodium and Chloride are vital elements, they play a role in diverse \"signalling processes\"? So what now?  Their claims have to be taken with a pinch of salt. Conveniently their product delivers just that. And nothing more, dissolved in water.  Looks like everyone should buy one bottle, just to participate in a following lawsuit against the manufacturer, the marketers and every seller and market place involved in this. If indeed a real physician recommended this he should be reported to some authorities that might take some action on this multi-level marketing frauds and this accomplice.    Although one picture says more than the words needed to deride this pile of money well invested, here is nice write up:     ASEA: Another Expensive Way to Buy Water:           ASEA is made in Utah from municipal water that is highly purified using both reverse osmosis and distillation. The pure water is then combined with pure salt and allowed to cure, before undergoing a patented process that oxidizes and reduces the saline solution into the final product. During processing most of the chloride ions are integrated into redox molecules. Sodium ions are not effected [sic] and help to maintain electrical neutrality. Hydrogen and oxygen also contribute to the formation of redox molecules, but most of the water forms a matrix of clusters around the active redox molecules and ions. This micro-clustering further contributes to the stability and electrical neutrality of the product. The final product is no longer a saline solution. It is not salt and water. It is a balanced buffet of redox molecules. The raw materials have been transformed into a new product. Ingredients: Some people ask why redox Molecules are not listed as an ingredient on each bottle of ASEA. By comparison, when we look at the ingredients on a loaf of bread, we find flour, water, eggs, sugar, oil, yeast, etc. Nowhere on the list does it say \u201cbread\u201d. The raw ingredients have been blended and heated and forever transformed. You can no longer locate the eggs or oil that we know went into the process. It\u2019s the same with ASEA.         This is very creative, but it\u2019s not science. It\u2019s just an attempt to baffle you with bull****. ",
        "id": 2096,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to loose weight as a 17 year old?",
        "body": "I randomly found your question and I couldn't help but type an answer even though I am no expert (but I have dealt with that issue at times, actually at your age). I do not know what the deal is with this deserted stack exchange, but I will try my best because I found it worrying what you wrote.  You do not have time for some moderate Cardio 30 minutes three times a week? Cardio, not some walking. Forget trackers for the amount of steps, they do not work. You have to do your sport in your room? How is it a waste of time if you want to lose weight? How does one even study with that intensity? Here is my advice: Track every calorie you eat and try to end up with a deficit of 300-500 every single day. There are a couple of apps that can help or you can do it the old school way with pen and paper. You will not lose weight unless you are at a deficit.   I really wonder what you have to study so hard for. I ended up with almost perfect grades at your age and still had the time to lose more than 30 kg with sport, but I also grew up in a Western country where school is really easy. Push ups burn almost no calories, be aware of that. Just walking does a little bit, but it is all too easy to just eat what you have burned in a couple of hours. You will even see that in the long run, instead of making you tired that sport will help you study. Your life has just begun, in 20 years you will run into some serious problems if you do not run enough now.   Also, do not expect fast results. First you lose water and so on and not fat and then your weight will no longer change for a while. This will take some time - we are talking about almost a year here.  So long story short: Track everything (except your steps). This isn't rocket science. If you are a hard studier, you should have no problem with doing some simple calculations.",
        "id": 1759,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does immunosuppressant affect immune system?",
        "body": "I will discuss azathioprine here, as there are many different immunosuppressant drugs that work in different ways. The immune system is a complex thing and most will inhibit only one particular aspect of it.  Azathioprine  Azathioprine is an immunosuppressant drug. It has been around for a long time but is still widely used. Unlike certain modern drugs that inhibit various inflammatory mediators (like the TNF inhibitors), azathioprine works at the level of DNA to prevent DNA replication (by blocking the construction of DNA from purine building blocks and purine creation) and thus inhibit the proliferation and function of white blood cells (lymphocytes in particular).  Adapted from this paper:     Azathioprine is among the oldest pharmacologic immunosuppressive   agents in use today. Over the past 50 years, azathioprine has been   used in the treatment of hematologic malignancies, rheumatologic   diseases, solid organ transplantation, and inflammatory bowel disease.      The drug is a purine analog, and the accepted mechanism of action is   at the level of DNA. Ultimately, azathioprine can then become   incorporated into replicating DNA and can also block the pathway of   purine synthesis. It is this action that is thought to contribute to   its relative specificity to lymphocytes due to their lack of a salvage   pathway. However, the effects on the blockade of DNA replication have   never fully explained all of the laboratory and clinical findings of   azathioprine-induced immunosuppression.   This effect on DNA replication also accounts for some of the potential side effects, such as increased risk of certain cancers, as well as the increased susceptibility to infection shared by all immunosuppressants. That is why infections must be identified and treated quickly in people on drugs like this. Vaccinations for influenza and pneumococcus are also recommended (in the UK).  Other sources:   Azathioprine in the British National Formulary Azathioprine on Wikipedia     For anyone who is interested, here are two images showing the chemical structure of azathioprine on the left and purine (which it inhibits through molecular mimicry) on the right. The similarity is evident, though azathioprine is metabolised to 6-mercaptopurine before it has effect.      Interestingly, molecular mimicry is often a factor in development of autoimmune disease (for which azathioprine is generally used) and also a way of treating them, as is the case with azathioprine.  I have posted another answer on autoimmune disease which may be of interest.",
        "id": 1632,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My mom is experiencing strong vertigo",
        "body": "Your mother should see an ENT (ear, nose, throat specialist).  Vertigo is often recurring and treatable.  My mother also suffers from it and she was reluctant to take it seriously and kept saying her ears felt fine.  I finally got her to ask for a referral to an ENT last year and it has been life changing.    Her episodes were getting more frequent and intense and her medication wasn't helping like it used to.  She says now she wishes she had gone ages ago.  The Dr helps her with adjustments and then gives her exercises to do at home as well.  She too (my mother) has no ear sensations that she is aware of, but that makes no difference really.  After seeing the tremendous difference it was in her life to see the ENT, it would be the first place I would go if I were having those symptoms.  If it's not ear related, they can also determine that as well and suggest what she needs to look into next.    No one should just live with vertigo attacks and it can be very dangerous (think of one coming on while driving, on stairs, etc).  Even one attack a month can cripple your life if you can't even say when it's coming.  My mother was stubborn and it took her becoming desperate to seek proper help.  She was in bed often at that time and loosing weight due to nausea (she kept telling me she was \"taking a nap\").    The final straw for her was me telling her she was not permitted to babysit my children or take them anywhere.  She was so hurt and angry, but she was here visiting one day when it hit, and she passed out right in front of me and then tried to argue with me that she hadn't lost consciousness.  One trip to the ENT made such a difference, just one.  It only got better from there.  She had to be suffering more than she said because she looks amazing now.  Her color is better, she looks healthier on the whole, she has more energy.  Vertigo can be life altering.  I would always encourage all people get help and get it early on.",
        "id": 1878,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the likelihood of contracting genital HSV1 through oral sex?",
        "body": "It seems to me that you are looking for solid risk numbers, which I am afraid might not be available. This is just a summary of the basic facts that play into this likelihood.      For example, what is the likelihood when the partner is asymptomatic vs symptomatic   So-called \"asymptomatic shedding\", when the virus can be transmitted despite the carrier not showing any sores, is very common in both herpes types.   A good article on this is Asymptomatic Shedding of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2: Implications for Prevention of Transmission. It gives an overview over several studies, for example one where 144 heterosexual couples where only one partner was infected were tracked.      Transmission occurred in 14 (9.7%) of the couples, including 13 in which diaries were maintained during the period when transmission occurred. Although 4 couples (31%) reported sexual contact during the prodrome (1 case) or within hours before lesions were first noted by the symptomatic partner (3 cases), in 9 cases (69%) transmission resulted from sexual contact when the source partner reported no symptoms or lesions   PCR studies found that over 80 percent of people showed asymptomatic shedding, on around 20 percent of the days.   So the likelihood probably wouldn't dramatically decrease just because the infected partner is asymptomatic.   HSV1 in the genital region is becoming more common. It is responsible for between 20 and 40 percent of genital herpes. Part of that increase might be from oral sex, but there is no single likelihood figure that can be attributed to a single instance of unprotected oral sex, at least that I can find.      what is the likelihood if the person contracting it has already been exposed to oral HSV1 as a child?   It's possible. Again, we can't really attach a number to that risk. Even people with genital HSV-1 can be infected with another strain of HSV-1 genitally, afterwards being infected twice.      Whereas the sequential HSV-1 isolates in 11 of the 13 patients studied had the same genotypes, the sequential isolates of 2 patients showed a different genotype. The data suggest that HSV-1-induced recurrent genital herpes can be associated with genital reinfection with an exogenous HSV-1 strain.   Small sample size, but we only care that it's possible at all here.      If genital HSV1 is contracted, how long does it usually take to find out? (when would symptoms start to appear)   This varies, not just by a lot of time, but it even varies whether people ever show symptoms. The incubation period is a few days, but around one third of patients may not show symptoms at all. Even more may not recognize them as a herpes infection. HSV-1 also recurs less often after the first outbreak. This leads to a lot of people not even knowing they are infected. Combined with the asymptomatic shedding of the virus, this leads to HSV being a rather prevalent disease. And not even serological testing is over 90 percent certain to detect an infection. The CDC does recommend that patients who have probably been exposed should be tested, though.   (The part of this answer about asymptomatic shedding is taken from an answer written by me to another question What STDs can be transmitted if both parties have no open sores/cuts ) ",
        "id": 226,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Anemia equal poor circulation?",
        "body": "Anemia means decreased ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Two examples are iron deficiency anemia and pernicious anemia due to impaired vitamin B12 absorption. You can have anemia and good circulation.  Poor circulation is a decreased ability of the circulatory system (heart and arteries) to deliver blood to all parts of the body. Examples of causes are heart failure, for example after  heart attack, and hardening of arteries in the legs and arms (peripheral artery disease). You can have poor circulation without anemia.",
        "id": 1259,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are retainers preferred to fiberotomies after dental work and, if so, why?",
        "body": " Retainers prevent the teeth from reverting to their original position, and therefore progressively force the periodontal ligament (PDL) to adapt itself to the new position. Doing a Fiberotomy accelerated the process by detaching the fibers of the PDL that are still trying to hold and/or bring back the tooth in the previous position. This does not negate the need for a retainer, since there is no guarentee that all the fibers that could cause unwanted movement have been cut, or that other causes have been eliminated. In other words, your mileage might vary, depending on how much was cut and how many other factors are at play... ...Which bring me to the last point: Even if the fiberotomy was performed on the bottom teeth (of the jaw), the crowding would have happened anyways, and would have required a fixed appliance (lingual wire)  to prevent the crowding. The reason for that is the \"Late Mandibular Incisor Crowding\" caused by the remodelling of the jaws, shown on the image bellow.       Notice how near the front teeth, who are in a kind of half-circle, the reformation is inward. The diameter of the arch (half-circle) is reduced throughout life, and therefore the teeth are forced to get crowded to fit in the reduced space. This can even happen to older people who did not get an orthodontic treatment!   Sources:   (image) http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2176-94512014000300026 (image explaination) Taken from another thread: I&#39;ve always worn my clear nighttime retainers religiously. Can I get my permanent metal retainers taken out? (Explaination of Late Mandibular Incisor Crowding) http://www.braceplace.com/assets/docs/Newsletter_23.pdf ",
        "id": 807,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do all kinds of alcohol trigger the relapse response in alcoholics?",
        "body": "If you want to test for any alcohol that could theoretically make someone feel the same effects as drinking ethanol-containing drinks, this article indicates that you may need to test for alcohols of many chain lengths between 1 (methanol) and 12 (dodecanol). (It doesn't explicitly say whether or not isopropyl or even straight-chain propyl alcohol causes the effect that is being studied as possibly the main effect of liquor.)   The quote I'm looking at is     With respect to GABA_A receptors, a number of alcohols with different carbon numbers in their backbone (indicated in parenthesis), including methanol (3), butanol (4), hexanol (6), octanol (8), decanol (10) and dodecanol (12), potentiate GABA-gated current.    It's not clear whether they got the names or the numbers wrong for methanol: methanol has only 1 carbon.",
        "id": 1549,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What health risks are associated with expired condoms?",
        "body": "TL;DR: using expired condom might lead to irritation on the skin of the sex organs involved in the act, and might also lead to skin inflammation and rash.    After some self research, I found this article which while not scientific and official, is written by someone who appears to know what they're talking about.  Quoting the relevant part: (part about pregnancy isn't relevant to my case since the question is purely about health)     Here are some of the common risks linked with using expired condoms:      ...         Irritation: As mentioned earlier, a condom which has crossed its expiration date may get dried and weak. A dried and weak condom can cause irritation on the skin of your sex organ and also in the vagina. It can also lead to skin inflammation and rash.    ",
        "id": 230,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which is better in general: fresh vegetables or frozen vegetables",
        "body": "Frozen vegetables are just as good if not better than fresh vegetables at a grocery store, provided that the vegetables are frozen immediately after harvest.  There are many online articles that point to this, but here's an example from a recent NY Times article:     Nutrient level differences between fresh and frozen produce are so minor they aren\u2019t likely to impact overall health.  Vitamin content occasionally was higher in some frozen foods but researchers found no consistent differences between fresh and frozen. Frozen broccoli, for example, had more riboflavin than fresh broccoli. But frozen peas had less riboflavin than fresh peas. Frozen corn, green beans and blueberries had more vitamin C than fresh.   http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/are-frozen-fruits-and-vegetables-as-nutritious-as-fresh/?emc=eta1",
        "id": 1543,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does photographic (eidetic) memory exist or is it a medical myth?",
        "body": "Yes, both eidetic memory and hyperthemsia exist. And photographic memory has never been proven to exist. But they aren't what pop culture advertises them as.   Hyperthemsia first. It is the ability of a person to remember extremely detailed events from most of their life. But it is of limited use. It is an extremely self centered memory condition. Most people can only remember in great detail events that are important to them. Other things they they encountered along the way, they won't remember any better than the rest of us. And they are just as susceptible to false memories as the average person. Given a date they can generally give very detailed descriptions of personally important memories from that date.   http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20160125-the-blessing-and-curse-of-the-people-who-never-forget  Eidetic memory is the ability to look at an object once and remember everything about it for a short duration afterwards. A person with eidetic memory can glance at a long paragraph for a handful of seconds, then close his/her eyes, and, using the brain's ability to remember the image just seen, read it word for word back to you. Five minutes later mistakes will be made in the recall. 30 minutes later he/she will be able to give an extremely detailed summary of the paragraph. Very few can reproduce it perfectly after a few hours. About 2 to 10 percent of children below the age of 12 have this ability and it gradually fades away as they get older. Very few adults claim to have it. This is a short term memory ability. There are no proven cases of someone with a long term eidetic memory.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory  Photographic memory is defined as the ability to read text and reproduce it later without the imagery that eidetic memory has. If there are people with this ability, they aren't discussing it openly. Since there are no verifiable cases of this existing, there is no need to discuss it further.    http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2006/04/kaavya_syndrome.single.html  ",
        "id": 1605,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can removal of internal organs (such as in hysterectomy) affect the posture of the body or the stomach?",
        "body": "I would say consult a doctor to confirm the problem. Removal of the Uterus usually doesn't cause to much of a shift, but I am sure there are a very few instances when it does.      The uterus typically takes up a very small space in the abdomen or   pelvis. After a hysterectomy, the other abdominal organs shift   slightly to fill the space. During the surgery, ligaments that helped   to support the uterus are connected to the top of the vagina to   support it and help keep it in its normal position.   A pelvic exenteration would be a time when organ removal defintely would affect you a lot more.   Helpful:   After a hysterectomy, what happens to the extra space created inside the woman's body?    Basically, the Uterus is not that big so the bladder and other structures fill the void. Above link shows pics.   Uterus size:      The normal size of uterus at this time is 7.6cm x 4.5cm x 3cm   (length, width, thickness) ",
        "id": 541,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should prone horizontal abduction and prone shoulder extension exercises be done on a bed or an exercise ball?",
        "body": "Using both the floor and the bed allows for increased support for your neck and thoracic spine. Performing those exercises on a ball challenges the neck and upper thoracic spine and is therefore not appropriate for people with significant acute pain along those areas. A patient should at least be able to hold their neck in a neutral position to avoid excessive stress while performing arm abduction on a ball.   The ball also adds an element of instability to the entire body, whereas the exercises on the bed and floor do not really challenge your balance or core strength relative to the ball. The ball would not be appropriate for people who have problems with their ankles/feet as they would be required to stabilize themselves through the entire lower kinetic chain before they can do it safely.   Basically, the ball is just a progression of the exercises that should initially be done on the floor/bed. Pending the stage of the patient's recovery and overall status, they can then progress to the ball. Resistance can then be added by carrying free weights or using elastic theraband. Hope this helps! ",
        "id": 1040,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Brushing teeth before or after breakfast",
        "body": "Yes. The acid in the food can harm the enamel and brushing it to soon can remove it. So wait at least 30 minutes, brush before or avoid acidy foods. Mayo Clinic:     If you've eaten an acidic food or drink, avoid brushing your teeth for   at least 30 minutes. These acids weaken tooth enamel, and brushing too   soon can remove enamel. If you know you're going to eat or drink   something acidic, brush your teeth beforehand.   Colgate.com:   Acidy foods: oranges, lemons, and grapefruit Drinking water after you eat the acidy foods helps easy it away   Also, brushing before eating can remove a lot of bacterial buildup, before you start eating again. ",
        "id": 925,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a past psychiatrist share information with your current psychiatrist?",
        "body": "   Does this mean my previous psychiatrist can share information with my current psychiatrist?   Yes.1,2   There is an exception for 'psychotherapy notes', a term with a very specific meaning3  under HIPAA:     Psychotherapy notes means notes recorded (in any medium) by a health care provider who is a mental health professional documenting or analyzing the contents of conversation during a private counseling session or a group, joint, or family counseling session and that are separated from the rest of the individual's medical record. Psychotherapy notes excludes medication prescription and monitoring, counseling session start and stop times, the modalities and frequencies of treatment furnished, results of clinical tests, and any summary of the following items: Diagnosis, functional status, the treatment plan, symptoms, prognosis, and progress to date. (emphasis added)   If you had psychotherapy sessions with your previous psychiatrist, and he or she kept psychotherapy notes of each session, which are stored separately from other treatment records, you would need to sign a consent form to permit your previous psychiatrist to send copies of those psychotherapy notes to your new psychiatrist.   Footnotes   Uses and disclosures to carry out treatment, payment, or health care operations, C.F.R. \u00a7 164.506 (2017). Office for Civil Rights, United States Department of Health and Human Services, Does a physician need a patient's written authorization to send a copy of the patient's medical record to a specialist or other health care provider who will treat the patient?, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/faq/271/does-a-physician-need-written-authorization-to-send-medical-records-to-a-specialist/index.html, last reviewed 26 Jul 2013, accessed 14 Jul 2017. Definitions, C.F.R. \u00a7 164.501 (2017). ",
        "id": 767,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Digesting liquid food vs solid food equivalent",
        "body": "The fact of the matter is, regardless of the consumption method, a calorie is a calorie. The energy it takes to burn one liquid calorie equals exactly the same as that needed to burn one solid calorie. What throws some people off is the concept of caloric density. Foods that have high water content tend to have lower caloric density (think fruits and veggies), meaning a greater calorie to volume ratio. For example, to consume the same amount of calories you would get from one cup of raisins, you would need to eat nearly ten cups of grapes. What adds to this is that low caloric density foods tend to make you feel fuller faster because of their water content.  This does not mean that simply consuming more liquid will make you want to eat less. Liquid calories may in fact be deceiving because beverages like sodas often contain a lot of calories but do little to satiate hunger. When studies compared food intake between one group given water to drink and the other given soda, there was little difference in the amount of solid calories they ate. However, even though both groups ate roughly the same amount of food, the group who drank the soda consumed more calories overall because of the beverage that accompanied their meal.",
        "id": 1457,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is normal range of Anti TPO antiodies test?",
        "body": "There are several reasons why we can't specify the range here on Health SE, especially for anti-TPO Ab.   The test method   Antibodies are proteins, produced by our immune system. Determining the concentration of a specific protein is somewhat more difficult than determining the concentration of a smaller molecule. Still, there are various methods for this - for antibodies those are mostly immunological assays.  If you test the same sample with various methods, you could get different results.  From Lab Tests Online:     The sensitivity and specificity of thyroid antibody testing is improving but is still not as good as health practitioners would like it to be. All of the thyroid antibody tests have changed over time. This is part of the reason that the tests have historically acquired many different names. There are also many distinct methodologies and each has different reference (normal) ranges. If someone is having serial testing done for monitoring purposes, it is best to have test done by the same laboratory each time, using the same methodology.   How can you trust these tests if they give different results? Each test method has to be validated and standardised. This means that various parameters (that have been determined as important) are checked for each method against a standard or a referent method. The important thing is that one interprets the value obtained by testing a certain sample by a certain method by comparing it to the referent range for that method.   Demographics   From the same source:      Reference values are dependent on many factors, including patient age, sex, sample population, and test method, and numeric test results can have different meanings in different labs.      For these reasons, you will not find reference ranges for the majority of tests described on this web site. The lab report containing your test results should include the specific reference range for your test(s).   This is pretty straight forward. E.g. if there are variations between sexes, the lab report should come with two referent ranges (one for each sex), and specify which is which. Sample population is also important, and some referent ranges are defined for the majority population living in a certain area.   The units   If somebody told me that their body temperature is 97 degrees, I'd say that's impossible. This is because I'm used to Celsius scale, where water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. In fact, this calculator shows that 97.16 degrees Fahrenheit corresponds to 36.2 degrees Celsius, which is within normal body temperature range. Same goes for determining concentration - there are many \"types\" of concentrations (molar, mass, etc.) and each of these can be expressed in various units. Furthermore, the amount/level of the tested parameter doesn't have to be a concentration at all.   Conclusion 1: If you have your test results, they should have come with units and reference ranges (usually written in a column at the right of the report). If you don't have these, it might be a good idea to contact the test lab if possible and inquire for details.   Interpretation   If the results are not within the reference range, this can mean a number of things. It might imply that there is an underlying condition causing this. For thyroid, the values of TSH and anti-TPO Ab can point to several, very different conditions. You shouldn't try to discern these on your own - even if you have referent ranges. This is what doctors are for. You should not expect a physician to interpret these results via phone or e-mail, because laboratory tests are just one part of making a correct diagnosis. Other parts include: anamnesis, family anamnesis (medical history of your relatives), physical examination and possibly (but not necessarily) imaging methods, such as ultrasound.   What's more, even within a certain referent range, for some hormones it depends very much on your age e.g. in which part of the interval are the \"ideal\", i.e. optimal values.  Conclusion 2: Leave the interpretation and the diagnosis to your doctor.     Suggested reading: Reference Ranges and What They Mean    An aside: determining TSH values is more straightforward, but still various sources give different referent ranges: 1:  0.4 - 4.0 mIU/L and 2: 0.5-6 uU/ml.",
        "id": 291,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Walking immediately after the meal",
        "body": "There is a belief that walking just after a meal causes fatigue, stomach ache, and other types of discomfort.But researches have found that walking just after a meal is more effective for weight loss than waiting one hour after eating before walking.It can help   to prevent a lot of stomach problems, including indigestion and heartburn. lower your blood sugar,  bring down triglycerides,  Decrease cardiovascular risk by preventing high fluctuation of blood sugar just after meal.As blood sugar typically rises and then falls after eating, but large spikes and variations can raise cardiovascular risk.. speed up digestion(increase metabolism)  lower post-meal blood sugar levels in people with Type 2 diabetes help  burn calories and  aid in weight loss.     It is quite clear that walking suppresses the glucose increase after a meal. Because glucose increases to its maximum at 30\u201360 minutes after a meal, walking must be started before the glucose level reaches a maximum, because once insulin is secreted it will play a role as an obesity hormone. It can be assumed that starting walking as soon as possible seems to be optimal to control blood sugar levels.   Source    References  http://www.healthyfoodhouse.com/the-6-benefits-of-walking-right-after-a-meal/  https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-power-rest/201307/when-walk-try-after-meals  http://livehealthy.chron.com/going-walk-immediately-after-dinner-lose-weight-10111.html  http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/06/24/really-the-claim-taking-a-walk-after-a-meal-aids-digestion/?_r=0",
        "id": 1052,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Light Sensitivity as a result of Caffeine Intake",
        "body": "From \"\u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e-\u044d\u043f\u0438\u0444\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0441\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0444\u0430\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\" by Karen Ovanesov, who is co-author of one of those Russian articles on Pubmed to which you refer:     (...) the visual perception is non-stationary in time and changes during the day. The use of stimulants of mental processes, such as caffeine can not only enhance the functional activity of the retina, but also eliminate its daily fluctuations.       (...) At the higher dose (0.4), the drug caused an increase of sensitivity to the retina (13%), and significantly (by 20%) shortened the latency of the motor response to visual stimuli. This shift was more pronounced in the peripheral parts of the retina. A similar pattern is set, and in the study of color vision, and a substance markedly improves the perception of red and green colors, as compared with the blue and white stimuli and control data definitions.      (...) the use of caffeine leads to a smoothing of the daily rhythm of the sensitivity of the retina and improve light perception. This effect is more pronounced when using stimulant in the morning.   There are more russian articles about this in bibliography section.",
        "id": 736,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to find out how advanced a hospital is for a specific speciality",
        "body": "You might try the Consumer Reports online tool that allows you to select and compare hospitals, evaluated for safety and infection rates.  Another useful site is the Hospital Safety Score, a public service of a non-profit organization, that lets you see an overall score, as well as more specific ratings regarding surgery, practices, safety, and clinicians.",
        "id": 1088,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does sitting idle for one month without work lead to depression?",
        "body": "I've suffered from depression quite a few years in my life. One basic long-term cause I have found is my basic worldview - whether I see reality as fundamentally \"good\" or \"bad\". This takes a long time to improve.  But in the short term, I find my feelings strongly influenced by my ability to effectively respond to what life has brought along. If I set twenty goals and fail at all in a row, I tend to feel pretty low, whereas if I succeed then I tend to feel alright. When I advise students beginning research in chemistry, for example, I suggest that if they start to get frustrated to go \"wash the dishes\". This is helpful because washing the glassware is an activity where success is very likely, whereas chemical research can be fraught with disappointments easily beyond the ability of a novice (or even expert) chemistry student to predict.  What we are seeing here is a phenomenon called learned helplessness. Since it affects rodents it should come as no surprise that it affects us too. All it amounts to is a basic learning process that generalizes recent failure at a particular task to be a reduced ability to accomplish all tasks. Unlike rodents, though, we have the advantage of seeing through reason that the depressed feelings are unjustified, and acting out of reason in spite of how we feel. Students with difficult or impossible chemistry research assignments can still know themselves as competent chemists and worthwhile people.  It could also be burn out. How long have you been at the same computer-related occupation? I've been an application developer for the last ten years myself, but my life is full of other activities outside of work. Your desire to be outside may be your healthy need for a variety of activities. This would be a good time to go camping. It sounds like you are ready for a career change too, but you will need peace of mind and vision to lead you to the next one. That's my main advice - do what it takes to relax so you can reflect and know what to do.",
        "id": 298,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Facial hair hygiene recommendations",
        "body": "There are a few other active ingredients you could try for dandruff (seborrheic dermatitis), if that's what's causing your problem. Keep in mind that it might actually be a different problem, such as eczema or scalp psoriasis. From a quick internet search, the active ingredient in \"Dettol Anti-bacterial Soap\" is cholroxylenol, is that correct? If so, here are some others you might want to try (i.e. read the product label and look for one of the active ingredients below).  Note, these are \"over-the-counter\" options only (avaliable without a prescription). A doctor can prescribe other treatments that might not be listed below, or in a stronger formulation than what's available over-the-counter.   pyrithione zinc: usually found in dandruff shampoos like Head &amp; Shoulders; also available in a soap/cleanser form. selenium sulfide: usually found in dandruff shampoos like Selsun Blue; it's also available in topical forms, but that may require a prescription. ketoconazole: this is an antifungal ingredient found in anti-dandruff shampoos such as Nizoral shampoo (and generic store-brand equivalents) containing 2% ketoconazole. Stronger formulations are available by prescription.  coal tar: usually found in dandruff shampoos like Neutrogena T-Gel or Denorex; also available in soap form; >> NOTE: this stuff has a strong \"unique\" smell... make sure you can tolerate the smell before using it. :) salicylic acid: usually in found in certain facial cleansers (often with the term \"oil-free acne cleanser\"); it's also found in some dandruff shampoos for \"flaky scalp\" (like Neutrogena T-Sal), so it's not necessarily just for acne.   You might also consider taking a break from using the Pantene products in contact with your face, and switch to something &lt;&lt;without>> a lot of moisturizers, and not containing silicone (that's usually what the \"shine\" ingredient is).   This might sound silly, but you could also try \"baby shampoo\" (fragrance/moisturizer free) for a while, particularly if you're alternating with the medicated shampoos as directed on their label.   One \"last resort\" option in this case might be to shave your beard (omg!), and see if that helps. You may be reluctant to try that, but remember you can always grow it back later. Howecer, if you do shave the beard and the condition resolves itself, it may be time to rethink the beard. :(  If none of those work, it's probably best to see a doctor about it. They would be able to prescribe something more specific. They may end up prescribing something with one of those ingredients above, but in a higher strength. Alternatively, they might prescribe a topical steroid anti-inflammatory for you to use for a period of time, in case it's not dandruff and is actually something like eczema.  Hope that helps!!  Here's a helpful reference (from the Mayo Clinic website) on seborrheic dermatitis/dandruff. It also includes the topic of facial (beard) dandruff: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seborrheic-dermatitis/basics/definition/con-20031872  More details on \"over-the-counter\" treatments listed above are included in the section called \"home remedies\": http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seborrheic-dermatitis/basics/lifestyle-home-remedies/con-20031872",
        "id": 133,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How safe are backboards?",
        "body": "The only studies I'm aware of come from the Emergency Medicine Journal, but other should exist for sure.  Some say it has drawbacks (discomfort, pressure sore) and that alternatives such as the vacuum mattress should be preferred:   Comparison of a long spinal board and vacuum mattress for spinal immobilisation The use of the spinal board after the pre-hospital phase of trauma management   However, according to official guidelines (such as PSE1 and PSE2 that we apply here in France and that follow international guidelines), each tool has its proper use cases. For example (non-exhaustive list):   The vacuum mattress is used in case of suspected trauma of the  head spine (lying victim) pelvis femur and for multiple traumas. It is carried on a stretcher or a spinal board, once the victim installed.  while the spinal board is used for  single traumas not listed above and preventing the victime from moving  spine trauma of a sitting or standing vitim, in conjunction with other tools drawning  carrying the vacuum mattress (see above) a few more cases not listed here.  And the spinal board allows doing CPR, while the vacuum mattress doesn't.    Respecting these use cases is the best way to reduce the risk for the victim, according to the professionals who wrote these international guidelines. This may evolve in the future or not, depending on studies and feedback, but currently, this is the standard.  And finally, as the spinal board is used in a context of first-aid, the victim is not immobilized on it for a long time: just the time to provide first aid and to evacuate to the hospital. I have personnaly never seen (nor heard about) any pressure sore or anything like that appearing after a spinal board immobilization. But it is true this board is not comfortable at all (I tried).",
        "id": 15,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can sleeping too much damage the brain and heart?",
        "body": "Although this question is hard to research - you're dependent on self-reported data on sleeping hours, and there are many confounders that influence this relation (why do people sleep longer? maybe people who sleep longer are more likely to be without a job, and being without a job is also associated with higher risk of heart disease etc.).  However, the consensus seems to be that: Yes, it has been found that longer sleep (which is  usually defined as >8 hours or 9 hours or longer) is associated with a higher risk of heart disease and also of diabetes. I'm not sure about damage to the brain functions, though I'm sure you could find this out easily too. This review gives an overview of studies that have investigated the association between sleep duration and cardiovascular disease.",
        "id": 865,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Exercises to stop Muscular Atrophy",
        "body": "Muscle atrophy doesn't have to be bad. Your body tries to fit the situation by decreasing your muscle mass and thus to decrease the needed energy to maintain your body. However, in order to prevent possible muscle atrophy, there have been several methods.     Exercise has been shown to be effective in preventing glucocorticoid-induced atrophy in muscles containing high proportions of type II or fast-twitch fibers. 1   In case you shouldn't know what different muscle fibers are and how they are distributed in your body, I've got you.     Humans have basically three different types of muscle fibers. Slow- twitch (ST or Type I) fibers are identified by a slow contraction time and a high resistance to fatigue. [...] Most activities of daily living use ST fibers. Fast-twitch (FT or Type II) fibers are identified by a quick con- traction time and a low resistance to fatigue. [...] Fast-twitch fibers are further divided into fast-twitch A (FT -A or Type IIA) and fast- twitch B (FT -B or Type lIB) fibers. FT -A fibers have a moderate resistance to fatigue and represent a transition between the two extremes of the ST and FT -B fibers. [...] Fast-twitch B fibers, on the other hand, are very sensitive to fatigue and are used for short anaerobic, high force production activities, such as sprinting, hurdling, jumping, and putting the shot. [...] 2      The distribution of different fiber types varied within the muscles, as a function of depth, with a predominance of type 2b fibers at the surface and type 1 fibers in deeper regions of the muscle. 3   So it's possible to prevent muscle atrophy in type II muscle fibers by simply exercising.  If you suffer from a serious illness or are physically-challenged, you can maintain your muscle mass by using functional electrical stimulation. The idea is to stimulate your cells so that they keep their current state or to provoke hypertrophy.     [...] Previous research shows that neuromuscular or `functional' electrical stimulation (FES), particularly FES-cycle ergometry (FES-CE) can cause muscle hypertrophy in individuals with chronic SCI (&gt;1 year post-injury). However, the modest degree of hypertrophy in these already atrophied muscles has lessened earlier hopes that FES therapy would reduce secondary impairments of SCI. [...] 4   After a short search, I was able to find some experimental studies with rats to investigate muscle atrophy more deeply. It should be obvious that you shouldn't take in Clenbuterol without a consultation with your doctor and of course not solely on the results of the study.     Clenbuterol attenuated the decrease in muscle mass and single fiber cross-sectional area in both age groups. By preventing the loss of muscle mass, clenbuterol administered early in rehabilitation may benefit severely debilitated patients imposed by inactivity. [...] 5   The University of Hull did some research and found out that basic stretching for 30 minutes each day can prevent muscle atrophy in immobilized muscles.     [...] It was found that periods of stretch as short as 1/2 h daily were sufficient not only to prevent loss of sarcomeres but actually to cause an increase in the number of sarcomeres in series. [...] Such short periods of stretch were also found to prevent much of the muscle atrophy normally associated with immobilisation in the shortened position. 6   I'll end up with a study regarding the loss muscle mass in the elderly and how to promote muscle hypertrophy in them.     [...] Strength training appears to elicit effective countermeasures in elderly individuals even at a very old age (>80 years) by evoking muscle hypertrophy along with substantial changes in neuromuscular function, respectively. [...] 7   So long story short: The best way is to simply exercise to keep your muscles and yourself pumped, as @TheEnvironmentalist already said. There are indeed ways to do this by not exercising but the chemical idea as well as the functional electrical stimulation are still in progress. Nonetheless, you should read the corresponding Wikipedia article 8 to FES to inform yourself in this regard.     http://jap.physiology.org/content/69/3/1058.abstract http://www.coachr.org/fiber.htm http://www.jbiomech.com/article/S0021-9290(04)00514-7/fulltext?mobileUi=0 http://web.a.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&amp;profile=ehost&amp;scope=site&amp;authtype=crawler&amp;jrnl=13624393&amp;AN=8920398&amp;h=l1r6pnlQ8Nst%2bAM28ruDSzOOgOHEZmaVWGVO2zu20aU%2fzQSJZpl%2bbU0mD36uKOHpifwBXAGne4KeQCXtfC263w%3d%3d&amp;crl=c&amp;resultNs=AdminWebAuth&amp;resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&amp;crlhashurl=login.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26profile%3dehost%26scope%3dsite%26authtype%3dcrawler%26jrnl%3d13624393%26AN%3d8920398 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003999301377882 http://ard.bmj.com/content/49/5/316.short http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01084.x/full https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_electrical_stimulation ",
        "id": 955,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What type of edible mushrooms have been linked to curing Legionnaires Pneumonia?",
        "body": "EDIT: However the answer is accepted it is not correct. OP asked about pneumonia. And of cause mild analgetics is inadequate treatment. The answer below is pointing out about Pontiac deases which is mild version Legionellosis.   Turkey tail, oyster mushroom or other edible mushrooms having high analgesic effect can be used as a part of symptomatic treatment of lighter version of Legionnaire's decease, vis. Potiac fever. For the details please see Wang H, Liu Y, Han C. The analgesic effect of several edible mushrooms. OA Alternative Medicine 2013 Oct 01;1(3):22. However it is not recommended for treatement of severe cases of Pottiac fever or Legionnaire's decease itself, because high mortality rate untreated\\unadquate treament (> 15%).",
        "id": 2452,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to properly clean a silicone earplug?",
        "body": "This is not remedied with alcohol. It is a form of discoloration.  To make them look clean again, use bleach. Silicone can withstand quite a bit of that, but use very warm, not hot/boiling water. This combination also disinfects your gear.     After years of exposure to water and humidity, clear silicone can begin to yellow and blacken. This discoloration is caused by exposure to rust and the formation of mold. Removing the yellow from clear silicone can be accomplished at home without the need for expensive cleaning products.      Step 1         Dip a plastic scrub brush into soapy water.   Scrub the silicone with the soapy water. Dry the area with a soft towel.   Cover any areas around the clear silicone, such as flooring or a bathtub, with paper towel. This will help protect these areas from the   cleaners used to remove the yellow stains.   Fill a plastic spray bottle with bleach.   Spray the clear silicone with the bleach. Allow the bleach to sit for 15-20 minutes. This will cause a whitening of the yellowed   silicone and will kill any mold or mildew that may have formed.   Wearing rubber gloves, scrub the clear silicone with a plastic scrub brush.   Rinse the bleached area well with cool water. Wipe the area with a soft towel to help remove any residue that may have formed from the   cleaning products.      Source: How to Remove the Yellow Color From Clear Silicone",
        "id": 2125,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Diet/guidelines for fatty liver condition",
        "body": "In essence, the recommendation is to eat a low fat diet with the goal of losing weight.  In addition, avoid alcohol use, as you should with any liver issue.  There's really no magic to most dieting needs (there are some that require medical intervention, but your health professional should have gone over them).  Rather it's more an equation: [calories in] - [calories used] &lt; 0 leads to weight loss.",
        "id": 1553,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a mosquito bite transmit STD's?",
        "body": "Yes, it is true that Zika can be transmitted sexually (from the CDC). However, Zika is generally classified as a mosquito-borne disease, not an STD, as mosquitoes are by far the most common vector of passage. I am not aware of transmission of \"typical\" STDs by mosquitoes, most likely because, as you say, the amounts of pathogenic material are extremely small, and the body's immune system can pretty easily clear it without difficulties.   Many of the organisms that cause STDs (including HIV) are quite sensitive to the environment, and cannot survive for long, if at all, outside the human body, which is why you can't get AIDS from a dirty soup spoon, or even an old bloody bandage. However, mosquito-borne pathogens like Plasmodium sp. (the parasites which cause malaria) are highly adapted to living part of their life cycle within the mosquito itself, as well as in the human host. ",
        "id": 966,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Early signs of cocaine addiction",
        "body": "Some signs of addiction are enlarged pupils, increased alertness and energy, loss of interest in food and sleep, increased talkativeness, rapid mood changes, increased heart rate, nasal congestion. You can read about these and other symptoms in the articles Cocaine Addiction Signs and Symptoms and Cocaine Abuse.",
        "id": 2061,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Risk of tooth decay from uncleaned night guards?",
        "body": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23016013     PAM (protective athletic mouthguards) are contaminated by microorganisms that have the potential to produce oral and systemic diseases. They should be sanitized daily and changed when they become sharp and/or jagged.   And a commentary from the AGD on this study     \"These concerns are similar to using an infected toothbrush repeatedly or using silverware that has not been cleaned properly,\" says AGD spokesperson Bruce Burton, DMD, MAGD, ABGD. \"Although a mouthguard is recommended to prevent permanent damage to the mouth and teeth, we know it also has the potential to be a reservoir for bacteria that can cause gum infections or the bacteria that help promote tooth decay.\" ",
        "id": 2000,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In which order to disinfect/wash your hands after going to the toilet in a hospital?",
        "body": "If you must use both to maximally remove infectious organisms from the hands, it's best to wash hands with soap and water, dry, then apply hand sanitizer and allow to air-dry on the skin.   This is because dirt, food, oils, etc. on your hands can make the sanitizers less effective. If you first wash your hands to remove barriers to their effectiveness, the sanitizer will be more useful.  In a non-hospital setting, though, it's unnecessary to wash with soap and water and use a hand sanitizer. For the most part, proper hand washing is as good or better than using hand sanitizers at removing bacteria and viruses from your hands.1      Research has shown that hand sanitizers can be as effective as hand washing only in certain situations.   The major problem is that many people don't take the time to thoroughly wash their hands.  Reasons to use both include:        coming in close physical contact with persons at high risk for infection (such as newborns, the very old, the ill, or the immunosuppressed)   having direct physical contact with someone with an upper respiratory infection, skin infection or diarrhea,   working in settings where infectious diseases are commonly transmitted, such as food preparation, and/or crowded living areas (child-care centers, preschools, prisons, or chronic-care residences), or   when you're uncertain if the water you're using to wash your hands is drinking-water clean (e.g. after a flood or when you have a \"boil water\" advisory.      How to wash hands properly: 1. Wet hands with clean, running water (warm or cold), turn off the tap, and apply soap. 2. Lather your hands by rubbing them together with the soap. Be sure to lather the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails. 3. Scrub your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum the \"Happy Birthday\" song from beginning to end twice. 4. Rinse your hands well under clean, running water. 5. If you're using a tap, turn water off with a paper towel. 6. Dry your hands using a clean (new) towel or air dry them.  1 Hand Hygiene and Hand Sanitizers Wash Your Hands - CDC",
        "id": 61,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the best foods for cutting calories?",
        "body": "Anything with alot of fiber.  Fiber makes people feel full without adding many calories.Insoluble fiber does not add calories and soluble fiber adds less calories per gram than other carbohydrates. Whole grains and vegetables have good fiber, and if you are craving something sweet, fruit has better nutrition and better fiber than cookies and candies. https://fiberfacts.org/fibers-count-calories-carbohydrates/",
        "id": 1851,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is sugar in beverages worse than sugar in solid food (i.e. candy, chocolate) with respect to diabetes type 2",
        "body": "I assume by \"(added) sugar intake from solid foods\" you mean something like, \"Is higher-than-average sugar consumption from foods (separate from beverages) associated with increased risk of Type II diabetes?\" - If that is not correct, please let me know.   CONTEXT  Before listing citations to some relevant studies, some brief background information will provide important context for you and others reading this thread.  As you know, the body breaks down carbohydrates (sugars, starches, fiber) into glucose. Consequently, health professionals encourage diabetic patients to not only monitor total carbohydrate intake, but also the types of carbohydrates consumed as well.   One of the most common ways to gauge the impact of a carbohydrate on glucose levels is the glycemic index (GI), and its companion glycemic load (GL).  I mention this fact because while sweet foods, e.g., candy bars, cake, ice cream, etc., tend to have a high glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL), this is not always the case (e.g., watermelon is sweet, but has a low GL), and non-sweet foods high in starch can carry a high glycemic load.   MORE INFORMATION  Glycemic index diet: What's behind the claims on the Mayo Clinic website.  Atkinson, F. S., Foster-Powell, K., &amp; Brand-Miller, J. C. (2008). International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2008. Diabetes Care, 31(12), 2281\u20132283. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc08-1239  The University of Sydney (Australia) - http://www.GlycemicIndex.com -  \"The Glycemic Index (GI) is a relative ranking of carbohydrate in foods according to how they affect blood glucose levels. Carbohydrates with a low GI value (55 or less) are more slowly digested, absorbed and metabolised and cause a lower and slower rise in blood glucose and, therefore insulin levels.\"\ufeff  You can look up many foods' GI and GL on the University of Sydney's glycemic index search engine.  RESEARCH ARTICLES  Here are some articles published in peer-reviewed medical journals that directly address your question (the first two citations), or a related aspect of your inquiry:    CITATION: AlEssa, H. B., Bhupathiraju, S. N., Malik, V. S., Wedick, N. M., Campos, H., Rosner, B., \u2026 Hu, F. B. (2015). Carbohydrate quality and quantity and risk of type 2 diabetes in US women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 102(6), 1543\u20131553. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.116558  QUOTE: \"Diets with high starch, low fiber, and a high starch-to-cereal fiber ratio were associated with a higher risk of T2D.\"    CITATION: Tsilas, C. S., de Souza, R. J., Mejia, S. B., Mirrahimi, A., Cozma, A. I., Jayalath, V. H., \u2026 Sievenpiper, J. L. (2017). Relation of total sugars, fructose and sucrose with incident type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 189(20), E711\u2013E720. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.160706   ABSTRACT   BACKGROUND: Sugar-sweetened beverages are associated with type 2 diabetes. To assess whether this association holds for the fructose-containing sugars they contain, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.  METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library (through June 2016). We included prospective cohort studies that assessed the relation of fructose-containing sugars with incident type 2 diabetes. Two independent reviewers extracted relevant data and assessed risk of bias. We pooled risk ratios (RRs) using random effects meta-analyses. The overall quality of the evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system.  RESULTS: Fifteen prospective cohort studies (251 261 unique participants, 16 416 cases) met the eligibility criteria, comparing the highest intake (median 137, 35.2 and 78 g/d) with the lowest intake (median 65, 9.7 and 25.8 g/d) of total sugars, fructose and sucrose, respectively. Although there was no association of total sugars (RR 0.91, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.76-1.09) or fructose (RR 1.04, 95% CI 0.84-1.29) with type 2 diabetes, sucrose was associated with a decreased risk of type 2 diabetes (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.80-0.98). Our confidence in the estimates was limited by evidence of serious inconsistency between studies for total sugars and fructose, and serious imprecision in the pooled estimates for all 3 sugar categories.  INTERPRETATION: Current evidence does not allow us to conclude that fructose-containing sugars independent of food form are associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Further research is likely to affect our estimates.    CITATION: Reeds, J., Mansuri, S., Mamakeesick, M., Harris, S. B., Zinman, B., Gittelsohn, J., \u2026 Hanley, A. (2016). Dietary patterns and type 2 diabetes mellitus in a First Nations community. Canadian Journal of Diabetes, 40(4), 304\u2013310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcjd.2016.05.001  QUOTE: \"At follow up, 86 participants had developed incident type 2 diabetes. FA [factor analysis] revealed 3 prominent dietary patterns: Balanced Market Foods, Beef and Processed Foods and Traditional Foods. After adjustment for age, sex, waist circumference, interleukin-6 and adiponectin, the Beef and Processed Foods pattern was associated with increased risk for incident type 2 diabetes (OR=1.38; 95% CI 1.02, 1.86). In contrast, the Balanced Market Foods and Traditional Foods Patterns were not significantly associated with type 2 diabetes.\"    CITATION: Malik, V. S., Li, Y., Tobias, D. K., Pan, A., &amp; Hu, F. B. (2016). Dietary protein intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in US men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 183(8), 715\u2013728. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwv268  QUOTE: \"Substituting 5% of energy intake from vegetable protein for animal protein was associated with a 23% (95% CI: 16, 30) reduced risk of T2D [Type 2 Diabetes]. In conclusion, higher intake of animal protein was associated with an increased risk of T2D, while higher intake of vegetable protein was associated with a modestly reduced risk.\"",
        "id": 1780,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "ABO blood type mismatch",
        "body": "Let's assume that the person inherits their A version of their ABO gene from their father.  This means that they inherited their B version of their ABO gene from their mother.  Now mother apparently tests O, which means that she can only donate an O gene to her offspring, unless she has a non-functional H gene.  People with non-functional H genes will test as O blood type even if they're actually A or B type.    The child then gets a functional H gene from the other parent and this then exposes the A or B gene from the mother.    What actually happens is that the A or B gene code for proteins that turn the H protein into A or B, and if the H gene is defective, the A or B proteins can't be made and so the blood type appears as O. http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask413  Another possiblity is a mutation.      But you're much more likely to mutate from O to A rather than to B as the former pair only has one base difference between them.  The O type is likely a nonsense mutation from A. http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask181",
        "id": 2116,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is excess blood from blood donations used for, and do we ever run out?",
        "body": "Great question! I think it's answerable as an overview, but please know this is only the tip of the iceberg.*  Summary: Yes, we have deficits of certain blood products in certain locations at certain times that affect patient care. However, a small percentage of blood product does expire unused (because it wasn't the right product [see background] in the right place at the right time).  A little background    Donated blood is not usually transfused into a patient as whole blood. Instead, it's broken down into several components which are transfused in different clinical scenarios. The issues of storage and supply are different for each component. The components are:   Plasma, and derivatives Red Blood Cells (RBCs) Platelets Granulocytes (rarely transfused)   These different components require different storage conditions, so they are separated as soon as possible after donation.  OP's first question:     First, do we ever have a blood deficit, situations where someone who could have been saved in a hospital dies because there wasn't blood to treat them?   Yes. Well, actually your question is impossible to answer. :-) We could never know whether someone could-have-been-saved with a transfusion nor whether someone who received a transfusion would-have-died. Those are hypothetical constructs that are interesting to think about but are not compatible with research.   However, we can ask whether there is evidence that blood supply on a clinical level is limited, for instance:    doctors are requesting products that aren't available for patients;   doctors are requesting fewer products than they think would be ideal for a particular patient because of a blood bank shortage;     elective surgeries are being postponed; or  blood banks are substituting products that may have a slightly increased risk of complications due to less-than-ideal immune compatibility.   All of these are more nuanced than they seem, but to some degree all do occur.   Quoting from a paper in the journal Transfusion entitled How do I manage a blood shortage in a transfusion service?:     Although there are more than 16 million blood donations per year provided to more than 4 million recipients, blood shortages have recurred for decades [...] twice every year. Anyone with any experience at blood centers or transfusion services is quite accustomed to these expected shortages.   He further notes that this problem is likely to worsen because the requirement for transfusions (all types) is increasing at a rate of 5-7% per year while donations are not matching that increase.  The first thing that happens when there is a blood bank shortage usually involves the Transfusion Medicine specialist in the blood bank having a conversation with every doctor who orders the blood product that is limited. Together they determine whether a smaller amount of product or a deferment in transfusion might be clinically appropriate/acceptable.   The distinction between those last two words &mdash; appropriate|accetable &mdash; is the key to whether clinical care is actually being compromised. In many cases, clinicians indeed are requesting product beyond what is recommended in published guidelines, because they feel that the patient's condition warrants it due to some special circumstance. It seems likely that at least a small percentage of the time, the clinician was right, but this can never be proven.  It is also the case that elective surgeries are sometimes postponed for this reason (see chart 8-1, p 43), although it's rare.   Another question     Related, if we don't run a deficit then what happens to my excess blood?... is it used for medical research?   Although localized shortages of particular products do occur and are disruptive, it is true that a small percentage of the products expire unused. In the U.S., this was estimated at 14% of supply in 1989 and had fallen to 5.2% in 2011, per a report from the US Dept Health and Human Services, the most recent data available I've found. These are complicated and nuanced data that this format does not allow complete explanation of (and I myself am not completely familiar with), but please read the linked HHS report if interested.  As for what happens to the excess - it's probably discarded, although I can't prove that. Regarding your question about research: In addition to being sub-optimal because it's old, the blood was originally collected from human donors. Such research would be subjected to IRB requirements for protection of human subjects. This would likely require researchers to obtain permission from donors (/subjects) at the time of donation to use the product for research. This may happen in localized settings, but I know of no large-scale project.     * I limit this discussion to the U.S. While I realize the weaknesses &mdash; inadequacy, really &mdash; of that approach, this is the healthcare system where I was able to locate data, the O.P. is apparently asking about the U.S. situation (Red Cross), and I am most familiar with the clinical situation here. If another answer can offer a more global perspective, please do. ",
        "id": 257,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does consuming dairy make mucus thicker? Why?",
        "body": "According to this study, no.     We conclude that no statistically significant overall association can be detected between milk and dairy product intake and symptoms of mucus production in healthy adults, either asymptomatic or symptomatic, with rhinovirus infection.   It seems that you're already aware of this given your comment:     I've also read elsewhere that dairy doesn't impact thickness of mucus   There's a saying, \"the plural of anecdote isn't data\", which applies here. Unless you find strong evidence on the opposing side, or you see glaring problems with the study, it's best then to assume that dairy products don't increase mucus production.  That's not to say that your experiences are unimportant. If you feel otherwise (and that's not due to a nocebo effect), then do as you please and decrease your dairy consumption. However, I'll leave you with this article, which states:     Some doctors say that milk thickens saliva, which may coat the throat and give the perception of more mucus, but it does not cause the body to produce more mucus or phlegm. ",
        "id": 1682,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference between acyanotic and cyanotic",
        "body": "Cyanosis refers to a blue discolouration of the skin caused by hypoxia (inadequate oxygenation of the arterial blood supply). It is the presence or absence of this hypoxia that is actually the distinction between these two types of heart disease.  Firstly, some heart anatomy. The right side of the heart receives blood from the head and body (via the vena cava) and pumps it to the lungs to be oxygenated. The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and returns it to the body (via the aorta). The left side is at a higher pressure than the right.    There are various types of congenital heart defects. Put simply, any that cause reduced blood flow to the lungs will reduce oxygenation of the blood and cause hypoxia.   An example of this is transposition of the great arteries, which tends to cause cyanosis within the first 24 hours of life. In this condition, the aorta and pulmonary arteries are swapped. This means the circulation to the lungs and the circulation to the body are separate, running in parallel, so insufficient oxygen reaches the body tissues. The infant will only survive if there is a means of the blood mixing, such as the embryological connection between the aorta and pulmonary artery (the ductus arteriosus) remaining open. In simple terms, the ductus serves to bypass the lungs before birth as they are not needed.    Other types of congenital heart disease do not necessarily cause hypoxia. For example, a ventricular septal defect is a hole in the septum between the two ventricles. Because the pressure is greater on the left side, blood is shunted over to the right side, increasing blood flow to the lungs. However, over time this can lead to the complication of Eisenmenger's syndrome, in which the shunting reverses due to lung damage and this results in hypoxia and cyanosis.    Some examples of the types of congenital heart disease. Adapted from this source.  Acyanotic congenital heart disease  With a left to right shunt - acyanotic shunting.   Atrial septal defects Ventricular septal defects Patent ductus arteriosus   With no shunt - acyanotic obstructive.   Coarctation of the aorta Pulmonary stenosis Congenital aortic stenosis Bicuspid aortic valve Dextrocardia   Cyanotic congenital heart disease  These are due to a right to left shunt (where there is a communication between the ventricles of the heart) or reduced pulmonary (lung) circulation.   Fallot's tetralogy Pulmonary stenosis Eisenmenger's syndrome Transposition of the great arteries Total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage Tricuspid atresia Pulmonary atresia     See also this answer of mine about Eisenmenger syndrome; a complication of several heart defects that results in hypoxia and cyanosis.",
        "id": 2620,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is the M. supinator not an extensor of the Art. cubiti?",
        "body": "Point of attachment and direction of force development.  This is like trying to move a door near the handle or at the hinges. Lever forces are weak in one case and almost absent in the other case. It is a difference between small and negligible.   The M pronator teres is already very weak for flexing the elbow, as it is attached at a quite suboptimal position to exert much force in that regard. The M supinator is attached at the elbow but even lower and the direction of force development would also be just about minimally conducive for that.:            (click to enlarge)   First picture from WP, 2nd &amp; 3rd from Nigel Palastanga &amp; Roger Soames: \"Anatomy &amp; Human Movement\", Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh, London, 62011. (German edition, pp69.)       (English edition, pp74.)   To quote Palastanga &amp; Soames:     Supinator   Deep in the upper part of the forearm, supinator lies concealed by the superficial muscles as it surrounds the upper end of the radius. Its two heads arise in a continuous manner from the inferior aspect of the lateral epicondyle of the humerus, the radial collateral ligament, the annular ligament, the supinator crest and fossa of the ulna. It is often convenient, however, to think of supinator as arising by two heads, humeral and ulnar, between which passes the posterior interosseous nerve to gain access to the extensor compartment of the forearm. From this extensive origin, the muscle fibres pass downwards and laterally to wrap around the upper third of the radius. They insert into the posterior, lateral and anterior aspects of the radius, as far forwards as the anterior margin between the neck and the attachment of pronator teres.      As its name suggests, supinator supinates the forearm, in which there is an anterolateral movement of the distal end of the radius around the ulna causing the two bones to lie parallel to each other. Unless a particularly powerful supinatory action is required, supinator is probably the prime mover. However, if a powerful movement is required, biceps brachii is also recruited. It must be remembered, however, that biceps brachii cannot function as a supinator with the elbow fully extended, and consequently powerful supinatory movements are performed with the elbow flexed to about 120 .      Pronator teres   Forming the medial border of the cubital fossa at the elbow, pronator teres is the most lateral of the superficial muscles in the flexor compartment of the forearm. It arises by two heads \u2013 the humeral head and the ulnar head. The humeral head arises from the lower part of the medial supracondylar ridge and adjacent intermuscular septum, as well as from the common flexor origin on the medial epicondyle of the humerus and the covering fascia. The ulnar head arises from the pronator ridge on the ulna, which runs downwards from the medial part of the coronoid process, joining the humeral head on its deep surface. Between these two heads passes the median nerve. The muscle fibres pass downwards and laterally to attach via a flattened tendon into a roughened oval area on the middle of the lateral surface of the radius.      Pronator teres pronates the forearm by producing an anteromedial movement of the lower end of the radius across the ulna, carrying the hand with it. Pronator teres is also a weak flexor of the elbow. ",
        "id": 2517,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hepaitits B vaccination schedule for children",
        "body": "The NHS only advises Hepatitis B vaccination to young children when they are at a high risk of exposure. This means when the mother is infected and contagious, or there are close relatives with the disease.  Otherwise vaccination is optional.  The CDC recommends hepatitis B vaccination at birth, changing from the policy of vaccinating those at risk.  The WHO also recommends vaccination from birth so the different stance taken by the NHS may be political or economic..",
        "id": 913,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you thermoregulate a fever externally with e.g. an ice bath?",
        "body": "In \"A Journal of the Plague Year\", Daniel Defoe writes of a febrile patient who cures himself of the plague by swimming in a river:     I heard of one infected creature who, running out of his bed in his shirt in the anguish and agony of his swellings, of which he had three upon him, got his shoes on and went to put on his coat; but the nurse resisting, and snatching the coat from him, he threw her down, ran over her, ran downstairs and into the street, directly to the Thames in his shirt; the nurse running after him, and calling to the watch to stop him; but the watchman, frighted at the man, and afraid to touch him, let him go on; upon which he ran down to the Stillyard stairs, threw away his shirt, and plunged into the Thames, and, being a good swimmer, swam quite over the river; and the tide being coming in, as they call it (that is, running westward) he reached the land not till he came about the Falcon stairs, where landing, and finding no people there, it being in the night, he ran about the streets there, naked as he was, for a good while, when, it being by that time high water, he takes the river again, and swam back to the Stillyard, landed, ran up the streets again to his own house, knocking at the door, went up the stairs and into his bed again; and that this terrible experiment cured him of the plague, that is to say, that the violent motion of his arms and legs stretched the parts where the swellings he had upon him were, that is to say, under his arms and his groin, and caused them to ripen and break; and that the cold of the water abated the fever in his blood.   Defoe's work is fictional, but presumably it is based on real anecdotes.  I'm still trying to track down references, but I also recall reading about indigenous tribes treating cases of the 1918 \"Spanish flu\" by submerging the sufferer up to his neck in a river. The cases were described in two separate books, one discussing South African responses to the pandemic, the other, those of New Zealand. I recall that in both cases the practice was condemned by colonial medical authorities. (For a South African reference, see Howard Phillips, \"Black October\", p. 170)  Here is an account by an army doctor who was one of the first victims of the \"Hong Kong\" flu of 1968, who caught it from a returning Vietnam veteran. There is no mention of an ice bath, but he says that the staff who treated him ran out of ice and had to request more from local restaurants.  I am not an expert, but I believe that Western medicine currently teaches that fevers have an adaptive purpose and should be allowed to \"run their course\", while Traditional Chinese Medicine acknowledges this but also identifies a category of illnesses where the high temperatures are harmful to the patient and should be treated with cooling medicines. In other words, the more nuanced view is that most or all contagious diseases may involve some kind of fever as part of the body's immune response, which is usually beneficial, except in cases of \"high fever\" where it is harmful. According to this theory, using an ice bath would be beneficial in certain types of fever.    For a historical background, the \"Father of English Medicine\" Thomas Sydenham is associated with early advocacy of the use of \"cooling medicines\" such as cowslips and laudanum, as well as bleeding, in the cure of fevers. I have spoken with modern ER doctors who will administer morphine, which lowers the body temperature, in the case of a high fever; and I have spoken with other ER doctors who have never heard of this practice but will prescribe ibuprofen to lower the body temperature. The practice of Sydenham's contemporaries was to treat fevers with stimulants, which Sydenham himself condemns. He writes (p. 149):     If bleeding cannot be resorted to [...] the heat of the distemper must by no means be increased. For this reason, the patient must be as much out of bed as he would be when in health, and (weather permitting) there must be no fire in the room. [...] Sometimes a patient has, with the extraordinary cunning of persons so afflicted, escaped the charge of his nurses while in a frenzy, escaped from bed, and exposed himself to the cold air, even during the night. Sometimes he has got cold water, either clandestinely or by earnest entreaty to the nurse, and drunk it off. In either case, by a happy error, a life that had been despaired of had been saved.   Prescribing a cold bath in certain cases seems consistent with Sydenham's views, but I wasn't able to find any place where he actually advocates doing so. One should note that Sydenham also warns that interfering with the course of a fever will tend to prolong it (p. 111) (\"despumation\" means \"the act of discharging impurities from the body fluids\"):     In either case, if you allow the effervescence (especially towards the end of a fever) to run its course naturally and in due form, if you take care that it is kept up in its proper vigour, the despumation will be completed within the aforesaid space of fourteen days or 336 hours. If, however, during the same period (that is, at the decline of the fever), you put any untimely check upon this same effervescence or fermentation, either by means of refrigerants or enemata, and if you curb it (as it were) in its natural career, you must not wonder if, when the order of Nature is disturbed, the disease becomes indefinitely protracted. ",
        "id": 1488,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If I add one fruit a day - which one?",
        "body": "Why stick to only one type of fruit? One day you have an apple and a guava the next. After all, each fruit has it's own set of benefits and they are all good for your health. No fruit is considered bad to consume right? And if you are only looking to fill up your energy meter and to satiate your mid-afternoon cravings, bananas are an excellent choice as they are high in calories and are very effective in eliminating hunger.",
        "id": 684,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are consumable goods from stores safety tested?",
        "body": "No, products that comply with FDA guidelines are not tested before being offered to the public for sale.  It is impossible - literally* - to test every batch of ice cream, spinach, frozen hamburger, etc. that is shipped out to supermarkets for sale. The FDA relies on the good intentions of the manufacturer to follow its guidelines and results of evaluations. If they do not, they are held responsible for damages inflicted on the public, as well as punitive damages and fines.  In the example of ice cream, the FDA has guidelines for the facilities that produce the product based on years of studies and experience. They include cleaning recommendations, temperatures at certain stages, the amount of time the product must spend at certain temperatures, etc. The facilities are inspected routinely, and when a product ends up contaminated, the FDA does a new inspection and reviews the previous inspections for evidence that previous recommendations were ignored, or might have prevented what occurred. In other words, it's a continuous process that relies on the manufacturer to keep in compliance with FDA guidelines. Facilities that don't comply face recalls, fines, and ultimately closure.  The Blue Bell Ice Cream Listeria outbreak is a good case study in the process. The process can be examined here and by following the links within.   *The costs would be prohibitive to test for every possible pathogen and contaminant.",
        "id": 200,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the ideal amount of salt intake (daily)?",
        "body": "The recommended daily intake of salt varies, but Nutrition Australia recommends 1.15-2.00 grams per day.    When you consume more salt than this, your blood pressure increases as a result of the body's compensatory mechanism for controlling the increase in plasma sodium.  The body prefers to have higher blood pressure than to have a higher sodium concentration, as a high sodium concentration can be catastrophic and can lead to seizures and coma.  The mechanism behind the increase in blood pressure in order to control sodium concentration is as follows:   The increase in plasma osmolarity due to the increased plasma sodium causes the osmoreceptor cells located in the anterior hypothalamus near the supra-optic nuclei to shrink.  This shrinkage of the osmoreceptor cells causes them to fire, sending nerve signals to nerve cells in the supra-optic nuclei, which eventually transmit signals to the posterior pituitary. This results in increased release of the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) from the posterior pituitary.  This ADH hormone then enters the blood stream, moves to the kidneys and increases the permeability of the collecting tubules to water, resulting in increased water resorption in the kidneys, leading to urine being more concentrated. The net result is an increase in water resorption and an increase in blood volume and blood pressure.   High blood pressure is associated with many adverse health effects, particularly cardiovascular disease, including stroke and myocardial infarction.",
        "id": 112,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How humid should the air be to avoid epistaxis (i.e., nosebleed) induced by air dryness?",
        "body": "Sites vary, but most mention a median range of between 30-40% humidity.   40-50% Humidity     During extremely cold weather, your home loses humidity to the   outdoors and may drop as low as 5%. By comparison, typical humidity in   the Sahara Desert is about 25%! Generally, one does not want to have a   home humidity any lower than 30%. Optimal comfort is considered to be   achieved at 40-55% humidity. Nosebleeds also occur in hot dry climates   with low humidity, or when there is a change in the seasons.   Above 30%     Indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the   likelihood of the occupant\u2019s nasal passages drying out,[7][8]   Humans can be comfortable within a wide range of humidities depending   on the temperature\u2014from thirty to seventy percent[9]\u2014but ideally   between 50%[10] and 60%.[11] Very low humidity can create discomfort,   respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals. In   the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30   percent or above.[12] Extremely low (below 20%) relative humidities   may also cause eye irritation.[13]   WebMD     Keep the heat low [60\u00b0F (16\u00b0C) to 64\u00b0F (18\u00b0C)] in sleeping areas ",
        "id": 772,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can juices fulfill requirement of water ?",
        "body": "The problem with getting your daily requirement of water solely from juices, is that most juices have significant amounts of sugar in them. Let's say your favorite juice is orange juice. Orange juice is about 88.3% water so in order to get your recommended 64 fl. oz. (1.892 L) of water you'd have to consume 72 fl. oz. (2.129 L) of juice. Orange juice has 112 Calories in 1 cup (248 g), so you'd have to drink nine cups which would be 1,008 Calories. Add that to whatever food you eat and you'd have a whole helluva lot of calories. Unless you led a very active live style, you'd gain a lot of weight. But as far as water goes, your body really doesn't care where the H2O comes from. If you got it from juice or plain water, you'd more or less remain just as hydrated. (I say \"more or less\" because variations in sodium content of one juice to another would affect how much water your body retains.)Edit: Contents of orange juice came from this Wikipedia article.Edit 2: For those who consider Wikipedia an unreliable source: this site also has similar data.",
        "id": 1634,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why would blue food colouring turn green after \"intestinal assistance\"?",
        "body": "Normally I would vote this sort of question as seeking medical advice which we cannot provide, but I see that it is just a curiosity and not strictly looking for a medical diagnosis.  Having said that  This answer must not be seen as medical advice.  If you feel there could be a medical reason for it, I suggest you seek the advice of a doctor(See Below) Green stool (faeces or poo) is a common stool color change. It may be due to bile pigment in the stool because diarrhea moves food too quickly thorough the intestine so the intestinal chemicals and bacteria can't break down the bile pigment to its normal brown color, or the green color may be due to certain foods like green, leafy vegetables or green food coloring.  Changes in stool color\u00a0are often harmless and reflect dietary influences. The normal brown color of stool occurs due to the presence of bilirubin. Bilirubin is formed as a breakdown product of hemoglobin (from\u00a0red blood cells) in the\u00a0liver\u00a0and is secreted into the bile, which enters the\u00a0intestines. If the intestinal contents travel at a normal speed, chemical changes in bilirubin produce a stool that is light to dark brown. The stool may appear green if the intestinal contents pass through the bowel more rapid  If stool passes through the intestine too quickly, there might not be enough time for bile to be digested and broken down to provide the normal brownish stool color. It takes time for the bile to be fully changed in the intestine and become brown again, and if the transit time is short, for example, when a person has diarrhea, the stool remains green colored. Green stools\u00a0may be a normal variant. They also can be caused by a\u00a0diet\u00a0rich in green vegetables, especially spinach. Iron supplements\u00a0also may be a cause, though iron often turns stool black.  Changes in the color of stool are common and are generally not significant if the changes are noted from one stool to the next and are not persistent. However, changes in the color of stool can also be caused by a number of minor to serious medical conditions and can occur with certain medications. Changes in stool color that are persistent and do not occur in only one stool may signal the presence of a medical condition and should be evaluated.  This, and more can be found at MedicineNet",
        "id": 2351,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Brain shunt draining",
        "body": "When you lose fluid from your body and if you don't replace the constituents, you'll be deficient in those. CSF when drains into the peritoneal cavity, it gets absorbed into body circulation. But when it drains externally, it's like constantly vomiting or having constant diarrhoea. You become dehydrated, you lose the electrolytes etc. ",
        "id": 1523,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to breath better when you live in a big city?",
        "body": "   Leave open the window of my room all day is dangerous for me ?    No. There are even more particles in a confined room that there is outside.     Should I avoid walking or running along traffic queues ?   Yes indeed. Forests and parcs are recommended. Trees eat up CO2 during night, so the air is a bit healthier.     Does having indoor plants can benefit me ?   Yes, for the same reasons I mentioned previously. However, don't expect too much...     Is wearing a mask the days of high pollution really useful?   Depends on the mask, I guess. It should be able to retain at least some of the particles. But I am no expert in pollution mask. Some companies appear having developed high end technology in that.    The improvements you can get depends on how much you put efforts in this, the way of life (lot of sports ?) and the quality of your city air. However, risk isn't reduced that much.  A bit of an arbitrary example:  Risk of lung cancer (RLC) in a not so polluted city = 1%  RLC in a polluted city = 3%  RLC in a polluted city with appropriate measures = 2.5%",
        "id": 959,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does cannabidiol (CBD) help prevent or heal a tendinopathy?",
        "body": "A quick look through the medical literature leads me to the conclusion that there is no evidence that CBD promotes healing of tendinopathy.  The anti-arthritic effect in your referenced paper is based on an immune-mediated inflammatory response which is different to the mechanism of inflammation in traumatic tendinopathy.  This paper deals with a mechanical trauma and suggests that injury-related MRI signal and histological changes are reduced with injection of CBD in a mouse model.  This was the most relevant paper I could find on your particular question.     In summary our study revealed anti-degenerative effects of intradiscal microinjection of CBD 120 nmol. CBD represents one of the most promising candidates present in the Cannabis sativa plant for clinical use due to its remarkable lack of cognitive or psychotomimetic actions. It has been already approved in several countries for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Although further research is necessary to clarify the mechanisms involved in CBD effects, the present results suggest the possibility of its use for disc degeneration treatment.      Source: Silveira, J. W., Issy, A. C., Castania, V. A. et al. (2014). Protective Effects of Cannabidiol on Lesion-Induced Intervertebral Disc Degeneration. PLoS ONE, 9(12).   In short: there is no good evidence for wound healing and CBD in humans currently.  In vivo and mouse models show an anti-inflammatory effect, but this is not the same as \"promoting healing\".",
        "id": 1976,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Treatment Options of Tension Pneumothorax",
        "body": "It is treated surgically only. that disease has a high lethality. Thoracotomy may be a life-saving option if other actions fail http://www.trauma.org/archive/thoracic/CHESTtension.html",
        "id": 2007,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"Townsend quintile\" mean?",
        "body": "The \"Townsend deprivation score\" measures socio-economic status, and has five categories, hence you are being asked for your quintile. The scale is 1-5, and it incorporates the variables   car ownership house ownership unemployment overcrowding of the household   Since it needs to be standardized you can't just calculate it for yourself. 2001 Townsend scores for the UK can be found at the UK census website. It seems to be occasionally used for risk assessments like in your link.",
        "id": 698,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effect of training on air intake",
        "body": "Eventually I found something:  Andrew, George M., Carole A. Guzman, and Margaret R. Becklake. \"Effect of athletic training on exercise cardiac output.\" Journal of Applied Physiology 21.2 (1966): 603-608.  Porszasz, Janos, et al. \"Exercise training decreases ventilatory requirements and exercise-induced hyperinflation at submaximal intensities in patients with COPD.\" CHEST Journal 128.4 (2005): 2025-2034.",
        "id": 2103,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do slow juicers yield a more nutritious juice than regular juicers?",
        "body": "That is true, in principle.  A bit slower is usually at least a bit better. The same principle that differentiates olive oil grades can be applied to juices.  A proper (albeit quite small) study on this seems to confirm this.      Quality Changes of Fresh Vegetable and Fruit Juice by Various Juicers KSBB Journal,  Volume 29, Issue 3,  2014, pp.145-154, Korean Society for Biotechnology and Bioengineering   Concerning the juicers used in this study, slow juicer could be recommended to prepare the fresh juice in terms of the juice quality.   The slower juicers as well as the slower settings for multi speed devices increased the yield of the product compared with higher speeds. The assayed activity of the extracted enzymes, polyphenols etc was uniformly higher as well. But aside the small study design these differences were not earth shattering.        Fig. 4. Nitrate (NO) radical scavenging activity of grape juice by high- and low-speed juicer.   (Disclaimer: parts of my interpretation relys on very limited knowledge of Korean and the aid of machine translation.)  Luckily, the same team also published in English:     Antioxidant activities of fresh grape juices prepared using various household processing methods (Food Sci Biotechnol (2017) 26(4):861\u2013869)   The grape juices were prepared using a low-speed masticating (LSM) juicer, a high-speed centrifugal (HSC) juicer, and a blender (BLD). The total polyphenol, total flavonoid, total monomeric anthocyanin, and vitamin C contents were highest in the LSM grape juice, and decreased in the order: LSM > BLD > HSC > GF. The antioxidant activities such as DPPH radical scavenging activity, and SOD-like activity were significantly higher in the LSM juice than in other juices and grape flesh. The antioxidant activities and the quality of grape juices were significantly affected by the household juicing method used, and an LSM juicer is strongly recommended for making healthy grape juice, rich in antioxidants.      The antioxidant contents of grape juices and grape flesh. (A) Total polyphenol, (B) total flavonoid, (C) total monomeric anthocyanin, and (D) vitamin C. Grape juices were prepared using a low-speed masticating juicer (LSM), a high-speed masticating juicer (HSC), and a blender (BLD). Grape flesh (GF) was prepared by removing seeds and skins from whole grapes. TAE tannic acid equivalents; QE quercetin equivalents; and CE cyanidine-3-glucoside equivalents. The results are expressed as mean \u00b1 SD (n = 3). Different superscripts signify significant differences (p \\ 0.05) by Duncan\u2019s multiple range test. ND not detected       Our research demonstrated that the antioxidant activities, and the quality of grape juices, were significantly affected by the household juicing method used. Antioxidant activities and nutritional properties of LSM grape juice were the highest, compared to those of other grape juices. Also, the consumption of whole grape juice is more beneficial to health than that of grape flesh because we can take more antioxidants from grape skins and seeds in whole grape juice. Therefore, an LSM juicer is strongly recommended for making healthy grape juice rich in antioxidants.   Same team, same methods, same limitations and problems. Since an undisclosed conflict of interest might be involved in endorsing so clearly commercial products (even as whole classes): These findings should be taken with a grain of salt regarding the health benefits. Interpreting the results from these diagrams also has to account for different yields from the same source materials. While the concentration might be higher in a given glass, the efficiency of extraction and the total amount of deemed beneficial constituents from the sources is not to be equated with \"juicers are better than the fruits and vegs themselves.\"   If, however, another, more subjective criterion would be permitted to judge the quality, just trust your nose and tongue. The taste of slower and more carefully prepared juices is usually more enjoyable.",
        "id": 740,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any homeopathic solution for heredomacula degeneration",
        "body": "Homeopathy is a pseudosience with no proven effectiveness in treating any condition. Degenerative diseases are hard to treat, but don't lose hope that new research will discover a treatment that works in the future. In the meantime, looking for \"alternative\" cures will not only leave your eyes the same, it will also hurt your wallet.",
        "id": 1332,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What approaches can I take to find out my blood type and Rhesus factor?",
        "body": "Donate blood. Blood donation is free.  If you are a healthy individual who is eligible to donate blood, for example to the American Red Cross, they will need to test your blood for basic type (ABO and Rh), various antibodies, etc. You will not get this information immediately when you donate, but you can access it later on request, or you may be mailed a card that contains this information to expedite future donation (and they may push you a bit harder to donate if you have a particularly in-demand blood type).  Some information from the Red Cross:  Blood testing  Blood donor app  If you are not in an area where the Red Cross is a common collector of donated blood, you can look up local providers.",
        "id": 2430,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Delayed vaccination: effect on the immune system",
        "body": "The human immune system  Basically, the human (and that includes all ages) immune system has two parts:   The innate immune system is a very old part (which doesn't mean it's bad or superfluous, on the contrary) that is responsible for a nonspecific immune response when the body encounters a pathogen. This is a very quick response and includes inflammatory responses and fever. Since most bacteria grow better at a temperature of 37\u00b0C than at a slightly higher temperature, a fever is a normally beneficial response to any kind of pathogen and thus triggered often  The adaptive immune system, also called the humoral or specific immune response. Evolutionary speaking, this is newer. The main components are B-cells and T-cells and it is pretty complex, but the basics are that this is what reacts to antigens to produce antibodies to specific pathogens. After the first encounter, this makes sure that the next time the same pathogen is encountered, the immune response is quicker and shorter.     The immune response to vaccinations  The infant's immune system really is capable of handling a lot more antigens than it is exposed to in a vaccine + its live environment at any one point in time. I suggest you read the review by Paul Offit, who is cited in the article you linked to, for more information on that, Addressing parents' concern: Do multiple vaccines overwhelm or weaken the infant's immune system. Basically, the specific immune response mediated by B- and T-cells can handle a specific immune response for a large number of antigens at once.   This number is largely independent of what you are seeing in the child. The number of antigens the immune system can handle says nothing about what symptoms the immune response will cause, because the effects you can see is largely the innate immune response. Small children get a fever pretty often because most pathogens are new to them and the innate immune system responds to that with a fever. Exposure to several pathogens at once does not cause a higher fever.   With vaccines there is no actual risks of the child getting the disease. The vaccines contain attenuated or dead viruses or no pathogens at all (the tetanus one, for example, is against the toxin, not the bacterium producing it). The adaptive immune system needs days to weeks to produce the correct antibodies in sufficient quantities, but it carries no risk of them suddenly developing measles or something like that. Unfortunately, we can't really tell the immune system we only need the antibodies, not the cytokines all the other parts that may let the child appear sick when it really isn't. So the innate immune response happens and may appear to weaken the child and leads to parents to jumping to the conclusion that this is too much for such a small child. Nobody is saying a fever is fun for the infant/baby of course, but in essence, vaccination is a risk/benefits calculation.   One thing to keep in mind is that several of the vaccinations given in childhood are combination vaccines (MMR, DTP,..), and the immune response is still not in any way overwhelmed. And these are several vaccines for diseases that are actually dangerous (diphtheria, pertussis,...) given together. The resources don't get used up because different cells are doing different things and, even more, the B-cells that respond to the measles vaccines are not used for the immune response towards the rhinovirus the child is exposed to at the same time.   The number of antigens is used for that reason - it's a metric to show that the humoral immune response is really capable of doing a lot of stuff at once. It's just that many people see the fever vaccinations can cause and then conclude that a child is actually sick after a vaccination and therefore their immune system must be \"weakened\" (which, outside of actually immunocompromised people is another ill-defined concept) by the vaccine and incapable of dealing with other things at the same time. It isn't. That fever is the body unspecifically reacting to anything that warrants an immune reaction, because the specific and unspecific parts of it didn't evolve to be independent.   Also, nobody is saying anything about \"straining\" the immune system,  because \"straining the immune system\" does not have a defined meaning. What they are saying is that a child's immune system is more than equipped to deal with several things at once.   Delaying vaccinations  That delaying vaccinations for fear of overwhelming the immune system is unnecessary can be seen by what happens in  children who are already sick and receive a vaccine. The answer is \"not much out of the ordinary\". The innate immune response is launched already and the adaptive immune response can deal with everything at once.      vaccine-specific antibody responses and rates of vaccine-associated adverse reactions of children with mild or moderate illnesses are comparable to those of healthy children. For example, the presence of upper respiratory tract infections, otitis media, fever, skin infections, or diarrhea do not affect the level of protective antibodies induced by immunization   The recommendation to delay vaccines when the child has a serious illness is not based on the child's immune system not being able to \"handle\" both, but on trying not to \"mix\" symptoms and avoiding adverse vaccination reactions on top of an illness.      Vaccination should be deferred for persons with a moderate or severe acute illness. This precaution avoids causing diagnostic confusion between manifestations of the underlying illness and possible adverse effects of vaccination or superimposing adverse effects of the vaccine on the underlying illness.    General recommendations on Immunization by the CDC - also a very good read.   The actual study behind that WSJ article is On-time vaccine receipt in the first year does not adversely affect neuropsychological outcomes, though that deals only with neurological outcomes and not infections.      Timely vaccination during infancy has no adverse effect on neuropsychological outcomes 7 to 10 years later.   As a general note on delayed schedules, there has been no evidence presented so far that delaying vaccines has any benefits whatsoever, for example less or less severe infections during childhood. Of course the vaccine schedule is not evidence-based down to the weeks where everything is given - of course parts of it could be delayed by two weeks, other parts could be given two weeks earlier, etc. Nobody is going to design 200 different schedules, enroll thousands of children in a study and test all possible schedules.   But what we have is definitely not overwhelming the immune system and for most children, it ensures that by the time the body encounters the actually infectious pathogens in the wild, the specific immune response to it is already in place and parents will never even notice their child was exposed.   Additional sources and further reading  CDC - Principles of Vaccination  WHO - Vaccine immunology",
        "id": 669,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What study materials can a layperson use to gain a deeper understanding of lung cancer?",
        "body": "Cancer can be one of the most complicated concepts in medicine, not only because of the pathophysiology of cancer, but the complicated statistics involved in the epidemiology of the diseases and interpreting the results of studies on treatments.  If your previous studies have been completely outside of the biological sciences, it will be very difficult to gain the degree of understanding that you seem to want.  Even if you have some biology background, at best, you should definitely not expect to gain the expertise to confidently second-guess actual medical providers.   However, I applaud you for your desire to understand as much as possible, and you certainly may be able to learn enough to follow along in conversations about risks and benefits of different treatment options, and to have educated discussions about what is going on with your loved one.  You might FIRST START with patient education websites from the NIH or CDC on the basics of lung cancer, then fill in the gaps of details and background needed using textbooks on the underlying concepts.    For that, these are some of the more popular texts used in medical school, if you are able to get your hands on them, which have good sections on lung cancer.   Robbins and Cotran: Pathological Basis for Disease (or Robbins Basic Pathology) West: Pulmonology Physiology and also Pathophysiology Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine   Advancing your understanding of the mechanisms underlying cancer development and progression:   Pathoma (the sections on oncogenesis are fantastic)   I would also do some reading on how to interpret the statistics pertinent to cancer, such as odds ratio, relative risk, number needed to treat, sensitivity/specificity, incidence, mortality rates, 5 year survival rates, etc.  Statistics are not taught well in most schools these days and additional knowledge is important to being able to understand how decisions are made.",
        "id": 2593,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how to stop frequent nocturnal emission",
        "body": "As I pointed in https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/a/11676, since sperm are short-lived, they must constantly be replenished, so the testes produce 1,500 sperm per second. Plus sperm is produced during the whole of the male life. If the dead sperm is not released through sex or masturbation, it will automatically be released by the body.  Some males find that they are more prone to nocturnal emissions during times of less frequent sexual activity because they are not ejaculating as frequently from masturbation or sex with a partner, and in fact \u2014 as studies have confirmed \u2014 high ejaculation frequency was related to decreased risk of total prostate cancer (Leitzmann, et al., 2004).  References  Leitzmann, M.F.; Platz, E.A.; Stampfer, M.J.; Willett, W.C. and Giovannucci, E. (2004). Ejaculation Frequency and Subsequent Risk of Prostate Cancer JAMA 291(13): pp 1578-1586; DOI: 10.1001/jama.291.13.1578",
        "id": 2554,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Applying ice to tendinitis: how cold should it be?",
        "body": "Ice (cryotherapy) is a treatment for the inflammation which is secondary to the tendon injury its self. The inflammation is what usually causes the pain and can lead to additional compression injury of the surrounding tissue or chemical irritation of surrounding cells. With all of that said inflammation is a normal part of the healing process and should be controlled, not eliminated.  The way that ice treats inflammation is by numbing pain and constricting blood vessels to reduce the amount of fluid flow to the area thus decreasing the amount of swelling. There are risks to using ice as with any treatment. The risks being that of cold exposure such as frost bite, blisters, pain, etc...   To avoid this risk is not usually a matter of temperature (the goal often being a reduction of 10-15 degrees Celsius) so much as duration of exposure. It is true that the duration will vary based on the temperature, but when using ice in a clinical setting the temperature is usually 0 degrees because the ice is melting. To further reduce that risk it is often recommended that ice directly from a freezer never be placed directly on the skin, but should be wrapped because it could be colder than 0 degrees.  The general rule for cryotherapy is to apply ice until the area is numb or 20 minutes, which ever comes first. There is no definitive research out there regarding cryotherapy, and there are many different modalities and techniques used clinically. There is no target temperature that every clinic uses and measurement would not be cost effective. One target temperature goal cited was 10-15 degrees Celsius of reduced temperature.      \"...the studies reviewed were inconsistent in   describing the changes in swelling, blood flow, heart rate, blood pressure,   intraarticular temperature, rheumatoid arthritis, monosynaptic reflex, and the   muscle spindle.\"   Additional information regarding magnitude of cooling with different modalities can be found here.",
        "id": 410,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Malnutrition vs Pure Protein Shakes Diet",
        "body": "A healthy diet requires protein, fats, fibre, vitamins, minerals carbohydrates and water. The reason athletes use protein is because by exercising they damage their muscles, and protein needs to be available for a fast recovery.  If you consume just the right amount of (whey) protein - you'll be fine, it is usually high in quality and has all the amino acids necessary (that protein can provide).  But here we run into our first problem, you still need to consume enough fats, fibre, vitamins and minerals. So chances are, if you're not careful, you will overshoot your daily requirement of protein by eating other food (which also has some protein). Too much protein not only can overload your kidneys (which are desperately trying to get rid of the excess) but will also be stored in your body as fat. This is especially true because protein powders are very concentrated, and you don't need much of it when you're not working out.  So to answer your question, it's not a bad idea if you meticulously keep track of exactly what and how much you eat per day to meet your nutrient requirements and not overshoot them. You also need to have knowledge of your body type, rate of metabolism and other factors. Its just much more inconvenient to do this when you're not working out, so I wouldn't recommend it personally.   If you were thinking a protein shake can replace a meal, then absolutely not. You could make some super-shakes containing a large fraction of the nutrients you need with some crafty planning, but you won't escape eating something along with it anyway. Do yourself a favor a find some time for a nice lunch. If you're really low on time, prep the food at home and carry it with you, but when it comes to food - be nice to yourself.  Hope this helps!",
        "id": 895,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Efficiency of mercury in syphilis treatment",
        "body": "We don't have any controlled trials but the physicians of the time greatly doubted the efficacy of mercury salves and inhalation     LW Harrison, a medical officer in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War I, described the effectiveness of Salvarsan and Neosalvarsan on soldiers who contracted syphilis during the war. [18]\u00a0 Arsenic however, while being able to cure syphilis whereas mercury wasn\u2019t, had many drawbacks \u2013 administration of treatment was complex requiring many injections over a long period of time, and it also produced toxic side effects   http://jmvh.org/article/syphilis-its-early-history-and-treatment-until-penicillin-and-the-debate-on-its-origins/  And there is a lack of biological plausibility to the treatment. There's no substance in modern medicine that can be applied topically to treat a systemic spirochaete infection.",
        "id": 2212,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does tea cause gags?",
        "body": "I haven't found any studies that would directly link retching and the consumption of tea. However, this would be a rather narrow research, so the lack of it is no surprise. Your doctor told you that your acidity problems may be caused by tea and that this might be causing your gags, and they are correct.  It has been proven that consumption of tea is directly related to increased secretion of gastric acid (1):     The gastric acid response to a 200-ml cup of tea was measured [...] Tea resulted in an acid secretory response which was almost equal to that after a maximal dose (0.04 mg/kg) of histamine. The effect of tea was mainly due to its local chemical action on gastric mucosa. Tea without milk and sugar resulted in an acid response higher than that evoked by a maximal dose of histamine. The concentration of tea brew that had the greatest effect on gastric acid secretion was 15 g/200 ml, which was three times as much as that in a palatable cup of tea. Tea is a potent stimulant of gastric acid, and this can be reduced by adding milk and sugar.   This effect of tea is most likely caused by caffeine, which was proven to increase gastric secretion in animals and humans. (2, 3)  Therefore tea can have some adverse effects (4):     Green tea and green tea extracts contain caffeine. Caffeine can cause insomnia, anxiety, irritability, upset stomach, nausea, diarrhea, or frequent urination in some people.     *Some sources state that increased gastric secretion and possible irritation of gastric mucosa are caused by chlorogenic acid and tannins, which is why these effects are reduced by addition of milk. Other sources, however, state that both chlorogenic acid and tannins reduce gastric secretion.    References:   Effect of tea on gastric acid secretion Gastric acid secretion and lower-esophageal-sphincter pressure in response to coffee and caffeine Caffeine and gastric secretion Green tea ABC clinical Guide - Clinical overview: Tea, Black/Green ",
        "id": 445,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are the majority of patients with Edwards Syndrome females?",
        "body": "According to this article, the ratio of affected females/males differs when you look at liveborn or prenatal infants, which indicates a prenatal selection against males (i.e. more males are spontaneously aborted).  The article links to more references for further reading.",
        "id": 1619,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are cigars less harmful than cigarettes?",
        "body": "This is a common misconception - they're both terrible.  Harm from smoke is mostly dose-dependent, meaning the more you smoke the worse harm you are causing your body.     But if we measure equivalent quantities of smoke inhaled, cigars are usually even worse. They often don't have a filter, there's higher nicotine content, more tar... cigarettes do have more added harmful ingredients, the list is a mile long, but they're both death sticks.    People incorrectly assume cigars aren't as bad because they smoke fewer of them, but they are bigger and pack more in them.  People incorrectly assume cigars aren't as bad because \"it's all natural!\" - but so are snake venom, poison ivy, and cyanide.     Even those who don't inhale cigars still have risks of cancer and all the other fun stuff.  So when asking \"which of these two cancerous, pro-inflammatory, stroke-and-heart-attack-provoking items is worse for you?\" the answer is: both.  Reputable references abound with a quick google:   CDC: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/tobacco_industry/cigars/index.htm Cancer.gov (NIH): https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/tobacco/cigars-fact-sheet Cleveland Clinic: https://health.clevelandclinic.org/2017/03/health-risks-of-vaping-compared-to-tobacco-smoking/ Mayo Clinic: https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/quit-smoking/expert-answers/cigar-smoking/faq-20057787 Medscape: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/891732 ",
        "id": 2179,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "UTI bacteria climbing up urine stream!",
        "body": "Credit to: No Such Thing As A Fish Podcast.  On one of the latest podcasts Harkin descries that with the Mate Tea (a very fine particulate tea) you can get upstream movement of particulates. \"The tea leaves climb back into the kettle\"  This references: http://arxiv.org/abs/1105.2585 S. Bianchini, A. Lage-castellanos, E. Altshuler (Submitted on 12 May 2011)     The phenomenon was \ufb01rst observed during the preparation of the typical   Argentinian drink, mate, when hot water was poured, from a pot, on a   water surface \u201ccontaminated\u201d with \ufb02oating mate particles (each   particle is like a grass leave of an average area near 0.5mm^2 If the   column of falling water was short enough (say, under 1cm-height),   particles of mate were observed to \u201cswim up the stream\u201d, actually   reaching the originally \u201cuncontaminated\u201d water pot.   The study continues:      For distances of the order of 1 cm or less, some of the \ufb02oating   particles eventually start to \u201cclimb up the stream\u201d   Unless you were peeing 1cm away from the urinal, it's not possible for it to climb your pee stream.   (Your doctor might have been referring to \"witches kiss\" where your todger touched the ceramic of the bowl while sitting down)",
        "id": 1100,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are Lupus patients typically good candidates for total ankle replacements?",
        "body": "When you browse through Pubmed, there are two articles which provide some insights for your question:   Shah U, Mandl L, Mertelsmann-Voss C, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus is not a risk factor for poor outcomes after total hip and total knee arthroplasty. Lupus. 2015;24(9):900-908. doi:10.1177/0961203314566635. 1   They have done a case-control study comparing individuals with lupus receiving a total knee arthroplasty to individuals without the conditions also receiving this intervention.  Here are their conclusion:     While SLE patients have more comorbidities than OA, and SLE THA have   worse pre-operative pain and function compared with OA controls, SLE   was not an independent risk factor for poor short term pain or   function after either hip or knee arthroplasty.   This concerned knee arthroplasty, but obviously it shows some tendency regarding those procedures and the outcomes for patients with SLE   Mak A. Orthopedic surgery and its complication in systemic lupus erythematosus. World Journal of Orthopedics. 2014;5(1):38-44. doi:10.5312/wjo.v5.i1.38. 2   They provide a good overview of the complications associated with orthopedic surgery in general for patients with SLE.  Here is an extract:     complications as a result of surgical procedures are indeed not   uncommon. SLE per se and its various associated pharmacological   treatments may pose lupus patients to certain surgical risks if they   are not properly attended to and managed prior to, during and after   surgery. Concerted effort of management and effective communication   among orthopedic specialists and rheumatologists play an integral part   in enhancing favorable outcome and reduction in postoperative   complications for patients with SLE through thorough pre-operative   evaluation, careful peri-operative monitoring and treatment, as well   as judicious postoperative care.   Both articles are freely available so you can read them to have additional informations.  Hope this helps.",
        "id": 1141,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are these lines in teeth?",
        "body": "I believe that those lines are craze lines. \"Craze lines are merely cracks in the enamel that do not extend into the dentin.\" They occur because of stress in your teeth, ie: grinding your teeth, biting your nails, and even routine use of your teeth. What you've said also matches up with craze lines in that you don't experience any pain. Those craze lines aren't nearly as bad as some other teeth. Craze lines rarely lead to tooth breakdown, so you almost definitely won't have to get them replaced. There are some studies that say that craze lines may be spots where cavities can form, but these potential problems can be easily detected by dentists.  Most craze lines, like the ones below, are much worse than yours.      Craze Lines: Hairline Cracks In Your Front Teeth ",
        "id": 0,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Walking as a healthy habit for the aged and my doctor's thoughts on it",
        "body": "I'm a physical therapist (PT) - considering we specialize in the application of movement and exercise.  Consistency NOT time of day is the key to any exercise regimen.  A walk in the park at 6AM or 2PM would have the same effects on \"health\".  Ask him explain to explain the reasoning behind this - and - if he'd send or write down the the name of the research article(s).   I'd gladly review it for you.    UPDATE  Sorry just saw you said he has no research backing this claim.      I can tell you if you prefer to walk in the evening this is just as   beneficial as walking in the morning.  You will see the same health   benefits.   Walking is a fantastic exercise, so do it whenever it works best for you!",
        "id": 1896,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can dental abscess cause acne?",
        "body": "Acne can be caused by several things, one of which is bacteria. The bacteria involved in acne are called Propionibacterium acnes. This bacteria species usually only colonizes the skin. Its main source of energy are the products of skin glands. In people with overactive glands, they grow to large numbers, and their byproducts lead to the inflammation known as acne.   Dental abscesses are caused by a variety of anaerobic bacteria and the toxins they produce. Propionibacterium acnes would not get to the location of the dental abcess and would not outcompete the anaerobic bacteria in there because it is relatively slow growing while the bacteria causing the dental abscess are fast growing under the conditions present.   Furthermore, there is no need for this anyway. Propionibacterium acnes is present on the skin of most healthy adults.   There is, however, one case report from 1999 linking a case of dental abscess with the appearance of acne. The full case report is not accessible anymore and I can't find any paper citing it. That case report, however, also does not propose the mechanism you describe.      We believe that the presence of our patient's dental infections provoked a follicular inflammatory response resulting in his recalcitrant acne.   I interpret that as them saying that the immune response to the dental abcess might have triggered an immune response to the already present Propionibacterium acnes  Sources and further reading  Scientific American : Does 1 Type of Bacteria Cause Acne?   PROPIONIBACTERIUM ACNES\u00a0AND CHRONIC DISEASES  The microbiology of the acute dental abscess",
        "id": 381,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it bad to swallow the toothpaste after brushing?",
        "body": "Yes, and yes.  Sensodyne contains fluoride (which is a neurotoxin; such as lead, cadmium, and arsenic).&nbsp; Therefore, I would say yes, it is bad to swallow this toothpaste, leave any reside on your teeth, or even to use it at all.  Concerning other health effects; I consider that ingesting only food is a critical step toward optimum health. &nbsp;If the toothpaste were composed of things resembling food, such as hydrogen peroxide and baking soda, then toxicity would be of nil concern. &nbsp;You could also use plain hydrogen peroxide and omit the baking soda.  I use only straight 3% hydrogen peroxide. &nbsp;It seemed rather strong the first many times I brushed with it, leaving many small and mostly painless white spots on my tongue and gums, but now it seems largely comparable to plain water.",
        "id": 928,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does diffusion MRI (DWI & DTI) measure diffusion or osmosis?",
        "body": "Diffusion of water.   Osmosis is movement of water across a membrane due to solute changes. In the case of diffusion tensor MRI, the whole point is that there is more diffusion along the same axis as white matter axons are traveling (either within or outside, but not across, those membranes), compared to a perpendicular axis. There isn't any net flow, it's just that water is more mobile in one axis because of the barriers that the membranes provide. We call this \"anisotropy\" because the diffusion is not \"isotropic\" which would mean the same in all directions.  DWI is similar but we don't care about the direction, just the general ability of water to move freely in different parts of the brain.   Le Bihan, D., Mangin, J. F., Poupon, C., Clark, C. A., Pappata, S., Molko, N., &amp; Chabriat, H. (2001). Diffusion tensor imaging: concepts and applications. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging: An Official Journal of the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 13(4), 534-546.",
        "id": 2712,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How effective was the 2014-2015 influenza vaccination?",
        "body": "There have been no additional reports in the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, which was where your original article points to regarding the efficacy of the flu vaccine.  However, the most recent update on influenza activity within the United States, which was about a month later than your report, does not suggest there has been any mid-season change in the dominant circulating strains, so the early estimates are likely in the same area.  The one thing that may change this is that a larger number of last season cases of influenza are typically caused by influenza B viruses, as shown in this figure below:    The low effectiveness of the vaccine against the dominant circulating A strains does not necessarily imply a similarly low effectiveness against the later B strains, especially as B strains appear to be somewhat more stable.",
        "id": 89,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The sugar/glucose is one point too high",
        "body": "Whether you can eat potato salad or not is asking for personal medical advice, which we can't provide. You should check with your doctor to be sure. However, potato salad is almost all carbs just like rice and pasta, so your doctor will almost certainly say no.  Yes, high glucose is dangerous if it becomes chronic. Consider this:     Almost any part of your body can be harmed by too much sugar. Damaged   blood vessels cause problems such as:  Kidney disease or kidney failure, requiring dialysis Strokes Heart attacks Vision loss or blindness Weakened immune system, with a greater risk of infections Erectile dysfunction Nerve damage, also called neuropathy, that causes tingling, pain, or less sensation in your feet, legs, and hands Poor circulation to the legs and feet Slow wound-healing and the potential for amputation in rare cases    Your glucose level is barely high at this point, so that's why your doctor recommended diet modification instead of medications. If you follow their advice, you won't have high blood sugar and won't suffer the consequences listed above.  If you want your rice, pasta and potato salad in the future, the best way to get them back is by reducing your blood sugar levels, and the best way to do that is by losing weight and exercising more. It really will make a difference and probably allow you to have potato salad again in the future.",
        "id": 1424,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where would the food go if the the stomach and spleen are both taken away?",
        "body": "The food normally goes from the gullet (esophagus) through the stomach (gaster) into the bowel (intestine). After the stomach removal (gastrectomy), the surgeon connects the gullet and the bowel, so the food will then go directly from the gullet into the bowel.  The spleen is not a part of the gut (gastrointestinal tract) and is not involved in the digestion of food, so its removal should not affect the digestion.  After the stomach removal, one could experience tiredness, sleepiness or diarrhea after large meals (dumping syndrome), but less likely after small meals.",
        "id": 2276,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there permanent procedures to assist with minor Acrophobia?",
        "body": "Behavioral therapy works well. Behavioral therapists initially focus on teaching what anxiety is, helping the client to identify anxiety responses, teaching relaxation techniques, setting goals, discussing methods to achieve those goals, and helping the client to visualize phobic situations.       One behavioral therapy often used to treat phobias is systematic   (serial) desensitization, in which the therapist progressively exposes   the client to the threatening object in a safe setting until the   client\u2019s anxiety decreases. During each exposure, the complexity and   intensity of exposure gradually increase, but the client\u2019s anxiety   decreases. The reduced anxiety serves as a positive reinforcement   until the anxiety is ultimately eliminated. - Videbeck Psychiatric   Mental health Nursing 5th edition   Other behavorial therapy that can be used is Flooding (implosion therapy). It works by exposing the patient directly to their worst fears. For example, standing in a glass room in a height of 1000 feet or letting a person to be submerge in a pool for hydrophobic patients. At first the person would experience extreme panic, but later on their anxiety will subside because they have no choice but to confront their fears until they'll realize that it will do them no harm.    However, flooding is rarely used because it can be dangerous if the therapist is not careful. The patient may experience extreme panic that can further lead to seizure, paralysis, or even death.   I, too, an acrophobic and having a hard time to get over with this fear even though I am a nurse and I know how to treat it. In your case, you can use the desensitization method and expose yourself in extreme heights gradually, but I advised you to have someone or a psychologist or psychiatrist with you to assist you when something goes wrong. ",
        "id": 340,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can eating chalk cause very low level haemoglobin level?",
        "body": "Eating chalk is a type of Pica. It is characterized by an appetite for substances that are largely non-nutritive, such as paper, clay, drywall or paint, metal, chalk, soil, glass, or sand which is more common with women and children.  Low blood-hemoglobin levels, a sign of anemia, are common, because the ingestion of chalk inhibits absorption of iron from foods.Those who eat chalk at the expense of healthier foods often develop malnutrition.Source.  Due to inhibition of absorption of iron from food, it results in deficiency of iron in our body.Low blood iron levels limit our body's ability to produce hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells, which might be possible cause of causing anemia.  So, yeah your doctor is right, consumption of chalk can really cause severe low Hb level.  Pica and refractory iron deficiency anaemia: a case report",
        "id": 697,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which daily exercise are helpful to maintain health for long?",
        "body": "For Yoga, modern science says do 54 sets = 108 reps of Surya Namaskar. Of course you need to gradually build your stamina to increase reps.  My great-grandfather did 2 hours of yoga in morning, and lived to nearly 100 years. Also ate nuts, fruits, teas, water. This is according to my dad. Not modern science, just things about family members that get passed down from generation to generation :-)  According to American Health Association     AHA Recommendation      For Overall Cardiovascular Health:      At least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity at least 5   days per week for a total of 150      OR At least 25 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity at least 3 days   per week for a total of 75 minutes; or a combination of moderate- and   vigorous-intensity aerobic activity      AND Moderate- to high-intensity muscle-strengthening activity at least   2 days per week for additional health benefits.      For Lowering Blood Pressure and Cholesterol An average 40 minutes of   moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic activity 3 or 4 times per week ",
        "id": 415,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How dangerous are cracked teeth?",
        "body": "More dangerous than healthy teeth, but not impossible to live with. A cracked tooth has a higher risk of breaking, is less resistant to tooth decay, heat, cold, acid etc. The 2 most dangerous situations I can imagine:   If the weakened tooth breaks apart, its parts can be as dangerous as shards of glass in the mouth. If the injury leads to osteomyelitis, it might require a surgery.   I'm not a doctor, I'm just guessing: if your tooth is cracked, see your dentist ASAP, as each case is unique.  (The photo in the question is my cracked tooth. I had an accident almost a year ago, landed my face on concrete, visited my dentist, used 25 g Elmex gel as she recommended. I still don't use this tooth, so fortunatelly it's still in its place and is painless.)",
        "id": 1589,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I tell if a soft contact lens is inside out?",
        "body": "There are a few ways to check that, allaboutvision.com has some great information on various ways to check the orientation of a contact lens:     Method 1: The Side View      If your contact forms a perfect cup-shape with the edge perfectly   upright, the lens is correctly oriented and is ready to be placed on   your eye. If the edge has a noticeable outward bend (like a rimmed   soup bowl), the contact is inside out.      Method 2: The \"Taco Test\"      Place the contact lens between the tips of your thumb and forefinger,   grasping it near the center so the entire edge is free. Gently squeeze   the lens, as if you are about to fold it in half.      If the edge of the lens points upward (resembling a hard-shell taco),   the lens is correctly oriented. If the edge bends outward (toward your   thumb and finger), the lens is inside out.      Method 3: Check The Edge Tint      If the color of the handling tint on the lens edge looks very blue (or   green, depending on the tint), the lens is correctly oriented. If the   color looks pale or washed out, the lens probably is inside out.      Method 4: Look For Laser Markings      Some contact lenses have a laser marking to help you determine if your   contact is inside out. For example, one brand has a \"123\" laser   marking near the edge of the lens.      If the \"123\" appears normally, the lens is correctly oriented and   ready to be placed on your eye. If the \"123\" is backward, the contact   is inside out. If at first you don't see the laser marking, turn the   lens on your fingertip to make sure you check its entire surface.   Source: http://www.allaboutvision.com/contacts/faq/inside-out.htm",
        "id": 997,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does vinegar rival alcohol in terms of the safety and effectiveness of hand washing?",
        "body": "According to this study:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10656352  \"Alternative\"/\"natural\" cleaning products (vinegar and baking soda) were compared with regular disinfectants and tested against a variety of human pathogens including antibiotic-resistant bacteria.  The conclusion found that \"a variety of commercial [excluding the natural alternatives] household disinfectants were highly effective against potential bacterial pathogens.\" Additionally, the natural alternatives were found to have lower effectiveness against bacteria compared to the commercial disinfectants.   So the answer to your question appears to be a solid \"No.\"",
        "id": 2691,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I make getting an IV easier?",
        "body": "You've already hit all the main points so there's not much to add. I'm sorry to say that some people are simply a \"tough stick\" and there's not much you can do about it. For example, I have a friend who looks like he should be an easy stick. He's athletic, muscular, with very little body fat, and those types usually have pipelines for veins that you can hit from 50 feet away--  but not him. He suffered an MI recently and the paramedics ended up having to use his external jugular to get an IV. (And when paramedics can't get an IV on you, you are definitely a tough stick.)  The only thing I can think to add to your list is to get the arm lower than your body. Let it hang off the edge of the bed for a minute or two before they try. You want all those veins as engorged as possible.  Definitely keep track of which veins work and which ones don't. Sometimes veins look good but they're not, or vice versa. It helps if the patient knows from past experience.  If push comes to shove, there are other ways. They can use the external jugular like the medics did on my friend, they could place an indwelling catheter that remains in place for months, or they can even do a cutdown, but a nurse isn't going to have the authority to do any of those things so you would have to bring the issue up with the doctor. ",
        "id": 1749,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are inflammatory arthritides worse at night and in the morning?",
        "body": "Although the etiology is unknown, we have a bit of an idea of its pathophysiology     Etiology of RA is unknown. Although the impact of genetic factors is obvious, the genetic basis is not sufficient to explain the triggering of the immune insult. - pubmed - ncbi      As you have mentioned, the circadian rhythm of cytokines has something to do with the classical pattern of \"morning stiffness\".     ...inflammatory cytokines, which reach peak secretion early in the morning are major players causing the morning stiffness - PMC - ncbi   The claim of pain relief with joint movement/activity is yet to be explained but there is a study wherein exercise in patients with rheumatoid arthritis is beneficial in terms of muscle strength improvement. (Benefits of Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis -ncbi)",
        "id": 965,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where do RDI (recommended daily intake) values come from?",
        "body": "Assuming that you are asking about the US, the documents explaining the RDA (recommended dietary allowance), AI (adequate intake), and UL (tolerable upper intake level) are available on the website of the National Institutes of Health. They are written by \"The Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences\".   Going into these in detail is way too broad because these are long - for example, there is a 1000 page document on the RDI of calcium and vitamin D. Far from being \"a shot in the dark\", this details a lot of the research those values are based on.   It also says when insufficient data is available to establish these values (for example RDA for calcium for infants). Far from being only the value you might see on the label of your food, the recommendations are are actually different for different age groups, sexes, and life stages (for example pregnancy), as can be seen in the detailed recommendations for vitamin D and calcium, for example. The quality needs to be judged for each individual recommendation, there is no single definitive answer.      Where can I look at a study that proves that a human eating less than RDI will become deficient   The reasoning behind the AI should be listed in the documents I linked to. For calcium in adults, for example, the AI is based on Calcium requirements: new estimations for men and women by cross-sectional statistical analyses of calcium balance data from metabolic studies.   Be aware, though, that \"proving\" this isn't as straight forward as you might think it is. You can't just deprive people of a nutrient and look at what happens - a study like that will usually be considered unethical. Instead, researchers look at what people with existing symptoms of malnutrition are ingesting, for example. ",
        "id": 858,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do honey and cinnamon have anti-inflammatory elements in their biological makeup? What other foods do too?",
        "body": "yes you can check MEDLINE and you will find some reports on it,  roibosh tea and several leaves and barks are strong antiinf. drugs https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow_tree",
        "id": 1341,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Maximum time for symptoms of pregnancy to show up?",
        "body": "9 months / 40 weeks. Multiple stories have been printed over the years of women who discovered they were pregnant only while delivering a baby. Typically these women are overweight and have irregular periods. They don't get any morning sickness, and they interpret the baby's movements as gas. (To find stories on this in the popular press, just search for \"didn't know pregnant\" and plenty will appear.) In some cases they are not overweight and have even been pregnant before, but still do not notice. (Or perhaps they claim they don't notice: there is a lot of skepticism from people when women say they didn't know.)  There's even been a proper medical study on this. (The title takes the same position that come on, you must have known, you just denied it to yourself and others, which I find a little rude.) Roughly 1 in 500 didn't know until after 20 weeks. By 20 weeks you would expect morning sickness to be well underway, the woman to be \"showing\", and movements to be felt. Roughly 1 in 2500 didn't know until they went into labour.  Since you asked for a maximum, there it is.",
        "id": 1958,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's wrong with fish canned in oil?",
        "body": "This is most likely referring to the fact that canned fish is often packed in vegetable oils, which add fat content while not providing the omega-3 content of fish oil.",
        "id": 218,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Metolar XR after Lis ASD surgery",
        "body": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoprolol#Adverse_effects  No listed effects on cholesterol. Make sure you have a balanced, healthy diet and take your medication recommended by your doctor. If still in doubt, consult a separate independent physician.   On prescription:     Metoprolol is used for a number of conditions, including hypertension,   angina, acute myocardial infarction, supraventricular tachycardia,   ventricular tachycardia, congestive heart failure, and prevention of   migraine headaches. Treatment of heart failure Vasovagal   syncope. Adjunct in treatment of hyperthyroidism Long QT   syndrome, especially for patients with asthma, as metoprolol's \u03b21   selectivity tends to interfere less with asthma drugs, which are often   \u03b22-adrenergic receptor-agonist drugs. Prevention of   relapse into atrial fibrillation (controlled-release/extended-release   form)      Due to its selectivity in blocking the beta1 receptors in the heart,   metoprolol is also prescribed for off-label use in performance   anxiety, social anxiety disorder, and other anxiety disorders. ",
        "id": 1085,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Acid-reflux safe breath fresheners?",
        "body": "Drink plenty of water and swish cool water around in your mouth. ... Brush after every meal and floss, preferably twice a day. Replace your toothbrush every two to three months.  One more things if is it possible to avoid to eat junk food, chocolate, coffee, onion, smoking, alcohol etc. I hope it will help you.",
        "id": 1472,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it advisable to wear UV protected swimsuit that covers arms and legs for skin protection to an outdoor swimming pool?",
        "body": "As critiqued in comments, this answer possibly misrepresents the vitamin D situation, which is better described here.  Proceed with suspicion!        Summary  Because of the associated cancer risk, protecting your skin from sunlight is a good idea, also when swimming, and especially by wearing UV-absorptive clothing.  Sunscreen makes a huge difference too.  You can get enough vitamin D from even a few minutes of sunlight, and also otherwise from cheap nutritional supplements.  Exposing your skin to solar UV is pretty much only a negative.  Whether something is \"too paranoid\" is for each to judge for themselves, based on the facts.  The facts  The WHO page Are there beneficial effects of UV radiation? advises this as to benefits of UV radiation:     There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5 to 15 minutes of casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high. Closer to the equator, where UV levels are higher, even shorter periods of exposure suffice.      Hence, for most people, vitamin D deficiency is unlikely. Possible exceptions are those who have very limited sun exposure such as the housebound elderly, or those with heavily pigmented skin who live in high-latitude countries where UV levels are relatively low.   They also advise on the negatives on the page What are the effects of UV on the skin?:     There is no such thing as a healthy tan! The skin produces a dark-coloured pigment, melanin, as a shield against further damage from UV radiation. The darkening provides some protection against sunburn: a dark tan on a white skin offers a sun protection factor of between 2 and 4. However, it is no defence against long-term UV damage such as skin cancer. A suntan may be cosmetically desirable, but in fact it is nothing but a sign that your skin has been damaged and has attempted to protect itself.   According to Cancer Research UK's facts page on skin cancer,     1 in 54 people will be diagnosed with malignant melanoma during their lifetime.   According to the same page, your chances of surviving after diagnosis for 1 year are 97%, for 5 years 90%, and for 10 years 90%.  According to Skin Cancer Foundation's facts page,      The vast majority of melanomas are caused by the sun. In fact, one UK study found that about 86 percent of melanomas can be attributed to exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.   In conclusion  Swimwear is healthier the more it protects your skin from sunlight.  There are always some obstacles to always doing the healthiest thing though.  For instance\u2014   More clothing means more weight and heat, which may make going swimming less convenient for you, especially if you like to swim competitively and in warm water.  Since exercise is itself healthy, it would be unwise to discourage it by making it feel like a chore! Cultural resistance: pool maintainers in some places (e.g. France) have been known to refuse guests with swimwear that doesn't look like swimwear, out of hygiene concerns.  It might be wise to get staff permission or bring an alternative set to avoid disappointment.   I hope this helps you to decide!",
        "id": 2335,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does taking antibiotics make you immune to virus?",
        "body": "Antibiotics have no effect on viruses.     Antibiotics do not fight infections caused by viruses like colds, flu,   most sore throats, and bronchitis.   https://www.cdc.gov/features/getsmart/",
        "id": 1661,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "centric occlusion vs maximum intercuspation",
        "body": "Centric occlusion is an articular position and maximum intercuspation is a dental position.   It suppose that, in a healthy person, both are the same, and that the problems with TMJ arises when there is a discrepancy.   Hence, for a rehabilitation of a total edentulous person, you should rehabilitate with MIC = CO.  Anyway, there is no evidence linking absence of CO in MIC with pathology.   References  from the prosthodontics point of view and from orthodontics.",
        "id": 1554,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What evidence does magnesium, zinc & melatonin help you sleep?",
        "body": "Magnesium, zinc and melatonin help to manage and control the sleep problems. These three natural components have their own mechanisms in managing the sleep disorders. Firstly, talking about Melatonin:     Disturbances in the rhythm and amplitude of melatonin secretion may account for symptomatic disturbances to sleep and mood. Melatonin treatment not only improved total sleep time, but also reduced depressive symptoms,indicating a relationship between sleep disturbance and symptoms of depression. The pineal hormone melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) acts as a neuroendocrine transducer of the light\u2013dark cycle. It plays an important role in regulating human circadian rhythms and may have sleep-inducing effects in humans. Melatonin production declines with age and is lower in middle-aged and elderly adults with insomnia than in good sleepers.Source   Zinc exhibits an antidepressant-like activity, related to its action as an antagonist of the glutamate/N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor.  In the case of sleep, Magnesium is  the primary ingredient in muscle relaxation, has a neuroprotective effect that is absolutely crucial to each and every stage of sleep, assists in slowing metabolic processes and lowering brain temperature as your body attempts to repair daily damage during sleep cycles, and helps regulate key hormones responsible for not only helping you fall asleep, but keeping you asleep.  A Study published in the Journal of American Geriatrics Society was able to investigate the benefits of the combination of zinc, melatonin and magnesium in the treatment of insomnia in elderly people. The results of the study revealed that the combination of natural supplements provided the following outcomes:  \u2022 It increased the total sleep time of the participants  \u2022 There was a reduction in hangover on waking up  \u2022 The quality of the sleep was improved  \u2022 It also improved the alertness and the behavior in the morning after taking the supplements  \u2022 Going to sleep was made easier  Sources :  https://www.adamkempfitness.com/melatoninzinc/  http://www.hollywoodhomestead.com/magnesium-over-melatonin-to-induce-sleep/  http://www.ancient-minerals.com/blog-post/magnesium-sleep/",
        "id": 1492,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would a paper towel cause a specimen to be flagged as \"adulterated\"",
        "body": "A bit of paper towel won't have any effect on a urine sample.  People try a great many things to adulterate urine specimens: dilution, adding bleach, taking diuretics, adding lye, you name it, it's probably been tried.  If your friend had no illicit drug use before the drug test, there will not be a false positive result (paper doesn't contain drugs.)  False positives are a valid concern, therefore there is much attention paid to such results. Further tests are usually done on positive urine samples to insure that they're true positives, such as gas chromatography, etc.   It's false negatives that recreational drug users are interested in producing. And the guidelines in place for that are pretty uniform: the urine must be within normal ranges for temperature, pH, specific gravity, etc.  Urine Drug Screening: Practical Guide for Clinicians ",
        "id": 572,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a stomach endoscope miss a peptic ulcer",
        "body": "An EGD (esophagogastroduodenoscopy) with biopsy has a sensitivity of 95% for diagnosing Peptic Ulcers.  That means less than 5% are missed.  Remember, this is on average.  That doesn't sound amazing, but it's actually pretty good.  This article talks about clinical predictors for ulcers, which are also very important in diagnosis.   If someone has symptoms, the threshold for suspicion goes up.   A good history and physical exam will let the doctor know how much to suspect an ulcer.  That is called a pre-test probability.    NO ulcer signs/symptoms + negative EGD = likelihood of having an ulcer is extremely low.  MANY ulcer signs/symptoms + negative EGD = still low, but worth a discussion. There may be another test (like pH, urease, etc) that could increase diagnostic accuracy IN SOME CASES.  But you say it like it was done as a routine screening part of your \"general health check,\" which is strange. We generally don't just throw EGDs at every human with a stomach, we do them when there is high enough suspicion that something is wrong.  So make sure you have the conversation with your doctor so he/she can help you understand both the reason for doing the test AND the results.",
        "id": 1948,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ulcerative Colitis Disease Activity",
        "body": "N.b. My institution does not have access to this journal and the upload you made has since been deleted  There are a number of ways of scoring the severity of ulcerative colitis on endoscopy; there are at least 8 in clinical use.  They all take into account visible features such as vascular patterning, presence of ulcerations, the friability of the mucosal tissue and the presence of mucopurelent exudate.  A nice review of available activity scores in UC is available here: Elizabeth R. Paine\"Colonoscopic evaluation in ulcerative colitis\", Gastroenterology Report, Volume 2, Issue 3, 1 August 2014, Pages 161\u2013168, https://doi.org/10.1093/gastro/gou028  Unfortunately, without access to the methods section of this paper it isn't possible for me to say which score and at what threshold they defined \"active\" and \"inactive\".  The aim of UC treatment is to induce a remission state, usually through the use of high-dose steroids, then maintain this state with other drugs such as mesalazine.  However, the hallmark of UC is \"flaring\" of the disease where symptoms worsen markedly.  I couldn't find much on the frequency of flares but his paper suggests that ~50% patients self-report a flare once a month or more frequently: Susan C. Bolge et al.: \"Self-reported frequency and severity of disease flares, disease perception, and flare treatments in patients with ulcerative colitis: Results of a national internet-based survey\", Clinical Therapeutics, Volume 32, Issue 2, 238-245 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2010.02.010  As others have pointed out, the relationship between disease activity on an endoscopic level and symptom burden for the patient do not necessarily correlate well.",
        "id": 2008,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do I feel dehydrated when I wake up very early?",
        "body": "The feeling of dehydration may be due to dry mouth, for example, due to stress related to getting up early. Feeling unrefreshed due to lack of sleep may also make you feel dehydrated. But this is not dehydration.  When you are actually dehydrated, you lose body weight. It is considered that you are mildly dehydrated when you lose at least 1% of body weight, so at least 0.7 kg (1.5 lbs) in a 70 kg (154 lbs) person (Defense Technical Information Center).   So, to check if you are really dehydrated, weigh yourself and compare your weight with what is your usual weight (checked in some \"normal\" morning when you think you are well hydrated, in same clothes, after emptying your bladder and bowel and before eating anything).",
        "id": 2005,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is iron deficiency a serious threat to breastfed infants?",
        "body": "The WHO recommended duration of breastfeeding is not six months, but a minimum of six months.  The paper you link to does not say whether the breastfeeding mothers had low serum iron and ferritin or not.  Low serum iron and ferritin will certainly result in low breastmilk iron.  To answer your question: no, iron deficiency anemia \"per se\" is not a serious threat to breastfed infants. (by serious I mean a potentially lethal condition).  ",
        "id": 727,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sweating while having lemon",
        "body": "Head sweating and flushing after eating or just smelling or thinking about a certain food is called gustatory sweating.  MedicineNet:     Gustatory sweating: Sweating on the forehead, face, scalp, and neck   occurring soon after ingesting food. Some gustatory sweating is normal   after eating hot, spicy foods. Otherwise, gustatory sweating is most   commonly a result of damage to a nerve that goes to the parotid gland,   the large salivary gland in the cheek. In this setting, referred to as   Frey syndrome, the sweating is usually on one side of the head.   Gustatory sweating is also a rare complication of diabetes mellitus.   In this case sweating may occur on both sides of the head, with mild   or substantial severity.   Medical News Today has an easy to read article about Frey syndrome and other types of gustatory sweating. The main point is that the nerve that supplies the parotid gland is affected in some way: congenitally, by trauma, surgery, tumor, etc.  There are several reports about such sweating triggered by sour foods, orange juice, tomatoes, onions, candies, various snacks...(PubMed) and there are several articles about Frey syndrome.  A doctor can make a diagnosis of Frey syndrome by performing a simple iodine-starch test.  Treatment is by removal of an underlying cause, but often no cause can be identified.  Food allergy or intolerance to histamine can cause head sweating, usually associated with itching around the mouth and in the throat (Better Health Channel).",
        "id": 781,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Derivation of 175 in MDRD Equation",
        "body": "Ok I believe it might the be average male adult height in cm. That is why you multiply by 0.742 for females. ",
        "id": 1668,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term effects of an allergy pill? Loratadine",
        "body": "The most common side effect of loratadine is headache which has been reported in up to 12 percent of users. Other common side effects include drowsiness occurring in 8 percent of users, fatigue in 4 percent and dry mouth in three percent. Drinking plenty of water while your dose is in effect can help alleviate these symptoms. Some who use loratadine regularly report that these side effects get better with time. If your side effects appear to be severe, talk to your doctor or pharmacist about whether or not there is a better allergy medication for you.  Common Side Effects of Loratadine   Sleepiness Tiredness Stomach pain  Headache Dry eyes dry mouth,dry throat Diarrhea An opposite reaction in which you feel excited, jittery, or nervous, known as paradoxical CNS stimulation instead of drowsy or sleepy   Severe Side Effects of Loratadine :   Liver damage or inflammation Tightness in the chest or breathing tube Passing out or fainting Seizures Low platelet count (thrombocytopenia)   Reference :  http://www.everydayhealth.com/drugs/loratadine  http://www.md-health.com/Loratadine.html",
        "id": 1436,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Hemangioma treatable by medicine?",
        "body": "Oral beta blockers used successfully fit infantile form.  Pulsed dye laser increasingly popular, though not sure if this is an option for you.   ",
        "id": 1640,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true that I can't consume citric foods while on Warfarin?",
        "body": "First of all and above all  we cannot give medical advice which is contrary to what is recommended by your doctor.  If you have any concerns about your medication, please seek the advice of your doctor before making any changes to dosage or other recommendations  What research states     Research has shown that certain fruits, particularly grapefruit and other citrus juices, can interfere with medication efficacy. A review in the journal Pharmacy Practice sought to explore warfarin interactions involving fruits to see which fruits were most commonly associated with these interactions. Twenty-three case reports and controlled clinical trials were evaluated and the majority involved cranberry products (also the most frequently studied fruit). Pomegranate juice, avocado, grapefruit juice, mango, and papain were also suspected in the reported warfarin\u2013fruit interactions. Based on these limited findings, additional research is needed but physicians may want advise patients taking warfarin to consume cranberry products and grapefruit juice in limited amounts and to inquire regarding recent mango, pomegranate juice, and avocado consumption. (Source: MPR)   You can read the full article referenced in MPR at this web address  Adepoju &amp; Adeyemi (2010) also states that it has been found that Limes and Lime Juice (which are citrus) cause a reduction in the anticoagulant activity of warfarin.  From what I have found, it is not just the citus content which needs bearing in mind.  As @DoctorWhom stated in the comments, \"Warfarin needs to be monitored regularly by your doctor's office. As it's a Vitamin K antagonist, eating foods high in Vitamin K reduces its effect\".  Livestrong states that     Phylloquinone, or vitamin K1, is the major form of vitamin K in the diet. According to the Cleveland Clinic, foods very high in vitamin K include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, soy oil, green tea, tofu, spinach and other dark leafy greens. For those who take warfarin, it is recommended to avoid large fluctuations in vitamin K intake. Large amounts of vitamin K can cause the drug to become less effective, and consuming vitamin K in smaller amounts than is customary for a particular person may increase the effectiveness of the drug and result in bleeding. Maintaining a consistent intake of vitamin K in the diet will allow the physician to make the most therapeutic changes to the warfarin dose.   Whilst it is possible that citrus foods can be eaten, it is advisable to consult your doctor before doing so to ensure that the correct information is given for your personal situation  Whatever you do, do not go against advice given by your doctor as it can risk your life when on blood thinning medications such as Warfarin or any other (complimentary or alternative) blood thinning products",
        "id": 1881,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How common are tics as a side-effect when taking Lamotrigine?",
        "body": "Tics occur very rarely (i.e.: 1 in 10,000) with lamotrigine. (1)  I am not convinced that your symptoms meet the definition of a tic. Tics are are non-rhythmic and can be temporarily suppressed (2). From your description, the movements appear to be completely involuntary. A twitch (or myclonic jerk) may more accurately describe what you are experiencing.  When you take into consideration that twitches occur more frequently than tics (are uncommon - 0.1%-1.0% of people) in individuals undergoing lamotrigine therapy (3), it is more likely that it is this that you are suffering from.  Your cluster of symptoms is consistent with benign essential blepharospasm (a type of muscle twitch (2)), which involves (4):     increased blink rate (77%), eyelid spasms (66%), eye irritation   (55%), midfacial or lower facial spasm (59%), brow spasm (24%), and   eyelid tic (22%).   Although this is my non-medical opinion (I am not a doctor), and I urge you to visit your treating health care professional for proper diagnosis.  References   TGA PI Lamitical https://www.ebs.tga.gov.au/ebs/picmi/picmirepository.nsf/pdf?OpenAgent&amp;id=CP-2013-PI-01024-1 Tic Disorders and Twitches http://www.webmd.com/brain/tic-disorders-and_twitches#1 Lamictal Side Effects https://www.drugs.com/sfx/lamictal-side-effects.html Benign Essential Blepharospasm Clinical Presentation http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1212176-clinical ",
        "id": 1945,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "A diabetic contact of herpes zoster patient",
        "body": "According to the CDC it depends if the virus is active or not, and they define active as:      A person with active shingles can spread the virus when the rash is in the blister-phase. A person is not infectious before the blisters appear. Once the rash has developed crusts, the person is no longer contagious.   The CDC also comments on transmission risk of active shingles:      Shingles is less contagious than chickenpox and the risk of a person with shingles spreading the virus is low if the rash is covered.   Here's the CDC info that also includes recommendations for preventing transmission of shingles.  They don't mention any specific precautions (other than the general ones on their site) for diabetics.",
        "id": 1190,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does taking melatonin cause a reduction in the amount of melatonin the brain produces?",
        "body": "It might not directly answer your question, but I have read a few studies that claimed that the body does not develop a tolerance to melatonin, even after long-term usage. This means that the effect should not vanish nor diminish after some time.  The thing is, some over-the-counter melatonin supplements does not contain the claim dosage of melatonin, maybe even not contain melatonin at all (being non-prescriptions medication). I would only rely on a prescription, pharmaceutical-quality melatonin to contain the required dosage.  Also notice, that when you do not optimize the sleeping conditions, mainly not eliminate the presence of blue light from LED (mainly LCD laptop monitors and smartphones), the melatonin would not kick in, as it would be eliminated by the blue light. This is an advice from an expert on sleep disorders, I have not confirmed it in any literature.        By the way, you might also consider asking your doctor about trazodone. It is also not habbit forming, is effective and can be used long term.   UPDATE:   I'd like to discourage a bit from my trazodone advice. I still believe its not habit forming, is effective and can be used long term.   The thing is, it has some nasty side-effects even on the lowest effective dosage (which is 50mg for me). It causes a noticable dizziness in the morning, even nausea and vertigo. Definitely worth consideration if driving. Also causes nose congestion, difficulty breathing. But what's more important, it does not increase the sleep quality, provided your sleep quality is reasonable.   I'd opt for agomelatine, which is melatonin antagonist, which is why I'm mentioning it. Has all the benefits w/o any side effects. And it is not \"addictive\". Personally, I slept perfectly after abrupt withdrawal after one month use.   Still, your question, whether production of melatonin is decreased after artificial intake OR inhibition of its re-uptake remains unanswered.",
        "id": 920,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the research-proven health benefits of Coconut Oil?",
        "body": "Try searching on PubMed, Science Direct or Google Scholar. Some example findings are below. Study these and then browse through their citations, references etc.   Effects of dietary coconut oil on the biochemical and anthropometric profiles of women presenting abdominal obesity. (2009) Beneficial effects of virgin coconut oil on lipid parameters and in vitro LDL oxidation (2004) Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil Coconut oil \u2013 a nutty idea? (2016) ",
        "id": 1176,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What keeps our organs in place?",
        "body": "They\u2019re fastened together by blood vessels, nerves and most importantly, connective tissue, muscles and bones.    Image Source: anatomyorgan.com    Image Source: Britannica  The same holds true for other organs in the body, although the skin and the brain are slightly different cases.  The brain does float around, albeit in the cerebrospinal fluid, and very rapid movements (like hitting the head) can cause the brain to clash against the skull, causing a concussion.    Image Source: Wikipedia  The skin is a muscle itself, connected to other muscles and tendons and is also supported by the skeleton.",
        "id": 2056,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What increases Histamine in the body?",
        "body": "Yep. Try spoiled fish.      Histamine Poisoning (Scombroid Fish Poisoning): An Allergy-Like Intoxication      Histamine poisoning results from the consumption of foods, typically   certain types of fish and cheeses, that contain unusually high levels   of histamine. Spoiled fish of the families, Scombridae and   Scomberesocidae (e.g. tuna, mackerel, bonito), are commonly implicated   in incidents of histamine poisoning, which leads to the common usage   of the term, \u201cscombroid fish poisoning\u201d, to describe this illness.   However, certain non-scombroid fish, most notably mahi-mahi, bluefish,   and sardines, when spoiled are also commonly implicated in histamine   poisoning. Also, on rare occasions, cheeses especially Swiss cheese,   can be implicated in histamine poisoning.      The symptoms of histamine poisoning generally resemble the symptoms   encountered with IgE-mediated food allergies. The symptoms include   nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, an oral burning sensation or peppery   taste, hives, itching, red rash, and hypotension. The onset of the   symptoms usually occurs within a few minutes after ingestion of the   implicated food, and the duration of symptoms ranges from a few hours   to 24\u2009h. Antihistamines can be used effectively to treat this   intoxication.      Histamine is formed in foods by certain bacteria that are able to   decarboxylate the amino acid, histidine. However, foods containing   unusually high levels of histamine may not appear to be outwardly   spoiled. Foods with histamine concentrations exceeding 50\u2009mg per 100\u2009g   of food are generally considered to be hazardous. Histamine formation   in fish can be prevented by proper handling and refrigerated storage   while the control of histamine formation in cheese seems dependent on   insuring that histamine-producing bacteria are not present in   significant numbers in the raw milk.   Lehane, L. &amp; Olley, J. (2000). Histamine fish poisoning revisited. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 58, 1-37.",
        "id": 2148,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What supplements/diet/activities can I do to improve mental function?",
        "body": "The results of this experiment suggests that you should make sure you get enough carbs. What you should avoid is to eat a low carb, high fat diet. ",
        "id": 519,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hearing some kind of screeching sound. Is it (not) normal?",
        "body": "Assuming you do not only hear these sounds on windy days while outside, wWhat you are describing is most likely tinnitus and not simply the wind passing your ear. While tinnitus is common, it is generally a sign of an abnormality in the auditory system. In most cases you are the only one who can hear it, but in some cases the ear makes sounds. These otoacoustic emissions can sometimes be heard by you and others.",
        "id": 1419,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does being underweight have an influence on cancer risk?",
        "body": "It's unclear, but it's generally terrible for your survival odds.  The American Institute for Cancer Research states quite bluntly that     While underweight men and women have higher overall mortality rates than people of normal weight, this association is not seen in deaths resulting from cancer. In fact, rates of death from cancer among the underweight are not any higher than among people of normal weight. That said, some factors associated with being underweight can and do raise risk for certain cancers.  Current and former smokers who are underweight have a higher risk of lung cancer.  A diet lacking in basic nutrients can impair immune function and raise risk of several types of cancer.   Notice the difference here between a risk of cancer from being underweight and a risk of cancer from other factors that can cause a person to be underweight. The two are vastly different things.  Being underweight can lead to a higher mortality rate (see, for instance, Ringb\u00e4ck et al. (2008), Katzmarzyk  et al. (2001), and Visscher et al. (2000)). However, this encompasses death via a variety of diseases, not just cancer. The jury is out on this, with some studies finding no correlation (Flegal et al. (2007)) and some studies finding a possible inverse relationship between BMI and cancer at some ages (Maasland et al. (2015), studying the risk of head-neck cancer).  Regardless of the effect of low BMI on cancer risk, being underweight can drastically reduce your odds of survival if you do end up getting cancer.   Matsunaga et al. (2015): Underweight patients had a higher risk of cerebrovascular or pulmonary complications and mortality after surgery or related procedures for lung cancer while in a hospital. Often, their risk levels were twice as high as those for patients of normal weight or overweight patients. Migita et al. (2015): Underweight people undergoing surgery for gastric cancer had a five-year survival rate of 66.6%, compared to 81.3% in people with normal BMI and 79.9% in overweight people. Zogg et al. (2015): The risk-adjusted outcomes for underweight patients undergoing treatment or surgery for a variety of cancers \"consistently were worse\" than risk-adjusted outcomes for patients of normal BMI. ",
        "id": 625,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Side effects of smoking cessation",
        "body": "A recent review looked at 26 studies that examined mental state after smoking cessation.  The review found LESS depression among people who quit, not more.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3923980/  Anything is possible, but based on this, it would be best to look elsewhere for the cause(s) of your complaint.  Also remember that depression is a very treatable disorder, and the treatments are pretty safe.  You wouldn't take a depression-treating pill if it had a 50% chance of killing you, so it would be even more unwise to start using tobacco in the mistaken idea that it could help your mood (it has a 50% chance of killing you).  Also note: schizophrenics are the ones who self-treat with nicotine, not depressives.",
        "id": 306,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Kiwi low or high fructose?",
        "body": "According to NutritionData (data from US Department of Agriculture - USDA.gov), 100 g of kiwi fruit contains 4.4 g fructose and 4.1 g glucose. The wch.sa.gov.au site in the question lists kiwi as high in fructose based on their criteria (2.5-5% of fructose = high). But they also say it has a favorable fructose/glucose ratio, so it will be \"better tolerated\" by individuals with fructose malabsorption (FM).  Individuals with FM are advised to avoid fructose, but it is not really the absolute amount of fructose, but a high fructose/glucose (F/G) ratio that is problematic. F/G ratio for kiwi fruit is 1.07, which is similar to sucrose (F/G = 1), which should cause no problems, because every molecule of glucose helps to absorb one molecule of fructose. For comparison, apples, which are known to trigger bloating and diarrhea in individuals with FM, have 5.9 g of fructose/100 g, and a high F/G ratio: 2.45.  The actual F/G ratio in a certain kiwi fruit may vary due to the kiwi variety, season, ripeness, etc. On the end, you need to rely on your own experience.",
        "id": 2376,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wrong region for accumulation of fat",
        "body": "I think there is only so little you can do about the fat accumulation. These things are work of natural evolution and genetics.  From the Female body shape article in Wikipedia:     Estrogens cause higher levels of fat to be stored in a female body than in a male body. They also affect body fat distribution, causing fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women, but generally not around their waists, which will remain about the same size as they were before puberty   So the problem you are having is a matter of female hormones and associated genetic, which cannot be altered.  Due to the same facts, the issue is different in males:     Android fat distribution describes the distribution of human adipose tissue mainly around the trunk and upper body, in areas such as the abdomen, chest, shoulder and nape of neck. This pattern may lead to an \"apple-shaped\" or central obesity, and is more common in males than in females. Wikipedia   My most sincere \"answer\" to you is that you start doing some weight lifting. Focus on the whole body. With appropriate training, your buttocks and thighs will become firmer. When working on your whole upper torso (back + arms) your skeletal muscle will become also firmer which will have on huge influence on your looks. Moreover, with weight lifting and general fitness exercise your posture will become better, also affecting on your looks. Moreover, will intensive enough training you\u00b4ll lose fat from the same region it has been accumulating.",
        "id": 372,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sudden and sharp chest pains",
        "body": "The pain that is relieved by \"stretching your ribs\" does not likely arise from the heart, lungs, stomach or other internal organs, but very likely from the chest muscles or possibly from joints.  Chest muscles can become tense and painful due to anxiety, poor posture or excessive exercise. if you recognize any muscle knots that are tender to touch, you may want to think about myofascial pain syndrome.  Costochondritis causes pain along the breastbone that is aggravated by exercise.  In fibromyalgia, you would have tender points in typical symmetrical locations.  To know if you have arthritis, you would need to have blood tests and some imaging investigation, like MRI.  Heart pain from narrowed coronary arteries (angina pectoris) typically lasts less then 5 minutes and is triggered by exercise or stress and relieved by rest.  Pain due to inflammation of the lung membranes (pleurisy) is triggered by deep breathing and coughing and is not relieved by stretching.  Lung cancer rarely causes chest pain, and if it does it is not likely relived by stretching.  Shingles affect a spinal nerve and cause constant pain that is later (days/weeks) followed by an itch rash.",
        "id": 936,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could an old person get arthritis in only one knuckle?",
        "body": "Monoarticular arthritis, or inflammation of a single joint, is a not uncommon complaint. Common causes in an older patient include gout, pseudogout, trauma, and infection. Gonococcal arthritis is a particularly common cause when monoarticular arthritis is seen in a younger patient.",
        "id": 2644,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do medical laboratories determine accuracies for their blood tests?",
        "body": "NOTE: I cannot give you any references in english, since the documentation I have to backup these claims is in Portuguese.     Do medical laboratories determine accuracies for their blood tests that have numerical results?   In order for a lab to be certified (in my country at least, but I reckon this is probably true for other countries), periodic calibrations and validations of the lab equipment and methodology are required.  Different types of tests require different methods of validation but they usually fall into two (very) broad categories:   Validation against a known substance/quantity;  Example: To check if the chlorine reader is working properly, you test the machine against a sealed vial containing a known concentration of chlorine. Blind checks against the results of another certified labs.  Example: Blood cell count (automatic or manual (by a human, on a microscope)). A blood sample is divided evenly into two vials and one is sent to another certified lab. Usually several measures of the same sub sample are performed, in order to reduce sampling error.   For a lab to reach the maximum certification level, both types of tests are performed several times for each lab test.       If so, where can I find these accuracies? If not, why not?   Regarding the \"accuracy\", it depends on many factors (method of collecting samples, method of transportation of sample, the time bewteen collection and test run, etc...).   But for automatic tests, but the most important is the \"machine\" used to test it. The machine's manual usually gives you the value of the error or the confidence interval.  So, in order to get a pretty good estimate of the \"accuracy\" of the lab test, you only need to know the \"machine\" used and you can google search for the manual or brochure to find that out. example. Or, failing that, call the manufacturer and ask for that value.  If your country or state has a certification level, a quicker way might be through the certification level of the lab. Each level has a \"tolerance\" value, that is, the maximum acceptable deviation from the expected value.  Also, for tests that rely heavily on humans, the \"tolerance\" value is the only way you can estimate the \"accuracy\" of the test.    sources:  Manual for Clinical Lab standards (in portuguese)",
        "id": 2503,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My tooth hurts when I drink liquids?",
        "body": "A root canal treatment is needed here.This kind of pain indicates pulpal damage which can be relieved by root canal treatment.Consult a dentist as soon as possible. May i know do you have increased pain during night?",
        "id": 1140,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it true if you don't wear sunglasses when it is sunny out, you will get cataracts when you're old?",
        "body": "Cataracts are caused mostly by \"aging,\" which is basically the vaguest possible way of saying the effects of decades of life on a body that's not made to last forever. One notable cause though is exposure to ultraviolet radiation, found in sunlight. While you won't definitely get a cataract if you don't wear sunglasses, the statistics seem to indicate that by age 75 around half of all white Americans will get cataracts. The advice for prevention can be pretty vague though. Even the Mayo Clinic, a highly respected medical institution, recommends eating plenty of fruits and veggies to help avoid cataracts. Basically, we know very little about them, so the effect of wearing sunglasses on preventing cataracts is still largely a mystery.  Maybe they help, maybe they don't, but considering the harmful effect of extended periods of ultraviolet radiation on your eyes anyway, it really can't hurt to wear sunglasses on bright days outside. If you want to wear them everyday, that's your choice, if you don't want to wear them ever, still your choice, but in general do your research using reputable sources and you'll be fine.",
        "id": 1119,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much body fluid required to actually transmit a sexually transmitted disease (STD)?",
        "body": "To get even close to how much bacteria there are in vaginal discharge and penile discharge, we look at how are they diagnosed/detected laboratory wise.  Gonorrhea is caused by Neisseria gonorrhea a gram-negative diplococcus that is found in the discharge with pus seen in microscopy after gram staining. There are other microorganisms that are gram-negative diplococci;  Examples of gram-negative diplococci are Neisseria spp., Moraxella catarrhalis, and Acinetobacter spp. Isolation of Neisseria is required by culturing it in a Thayer martin medium or by detecting its proteins by PCR.   In short, we can't exactly count how much bacteria there are in a droplet or an mL of vaginal/penile discharge since all other bacteria in there look the same under the microscope.  Another factor would be bacterial virulence and how competent an individual's immune system is. We cannot exactly determine at what rate the bacteria are reproducing and the competence of the immune system since both of these factors vary so much.   I can't seem to find any experimental study on deliberately exposing test subjects to Neisseria and which dose can cause an infection.  Source: Jawetz, melnick, adelberg; medical microbiology 26th ed. page 73, 289  The laboratory diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae Lai-King Ng, PhD and Irene E Martin, BSc  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2095009/",
        "id": 2334,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can stem cell (msc) injections regrow damaged (articular / hyaline) cartilage if injected to joint?",
        "body": "First I should state I'm not in ortho, but have worked some on tissue engineering.  The use of allogenic stem cells (cells from another person) brings a lot of practical concerns, particularly in the need for HLA matching, but is the direction of a lot of interesting research.  As may have noticed in the review you cited, much of the work on joint repair focuses on delivering the patient's own stem cells in a \"patch\" directly to the injury site.  The main concerns in doing so are that the actual injury site gets repaired (as apposed to a ubiquitous smaller tissue growth) and that teratoma formations or other erroneous and harmful growths don't occur.  On the other hand, the advantage of just being able to inject cells (+factors) would be the simplicity of the procedure.  It has been done in one case patient and in rats, but the more common procedure is to use bone marrow cell concentrate (BMCC).    BMCC's do not have the concentrations of stem cells that cultures specifically sorted/selected then expanded do.  It is still exceedingly costly and difficult to culture a patient's mesenchymal stem cells (MSC's).  You look at MSC's wrong and they differentiate.  It is however, to the point where it can be reliably done.  So why use bone marrow concentrate instead?  It can be produced much faster and with equipment/techniques most hospitals already have on hand.  And if we're going to move to an injection over surgical placement of a patch, then we have to make it significantly easier to justify not treating the damage directly.",
        "id": 472,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there ever a time when an appendicitis is not an emergency? Could it explain chronic pain in lower abdomen/pelvis?",
        "body": "Chronic appendicitis is possible but rare (PubMed Central).  Crohn's disease and ovarian cyst are more common cause of the right lower abdominal pain.  Constipation and IBS are even more common.",
        "id": 1502,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the 2011 Tsunami in Japan poses any health risks to Americans?",
        "body": "The WHO put out a statement in February 2013 addressing the health risks. Certain groups of people got fairly high doses of radiation:     Apart from emergency workers, the most affected people were those who   remained in some highly contaminated towns and villages to the   northwest of the power station for up to four months before   evacuation.   These people will experience health risks, including increased risks of thyroid cancer:     The WHO estimated that there was a 70 percent higher risk of females   exposed as infants developing thyroid cancer over their lifetime...   The radiation exposure means about 1.25 out of every 100 girls in the   area could develop thyroid cancer over their lifetime, instead of the   natural rate of about 0.75 percent.   And other cancers:     In the most contaminated area there was a 7 percent higher risk of   leukemia in males exposed as infants, and a 6 percent higher risk of   breast cancer in females exposed as infants. Overall, girls had a 4   percent increased risk of developing solid cancers.   However, outside of those high-risk groups of people, risk is minimal:     There was no discernible increase in health risks expected outside   Japan, the WHO said in a 200-page report which was based on an   assessment by international experts.      \u201cIn the rest of Fukushima prefecture and in particular neighboring   countries and the rest of the world, the estimated increased cancer   risk is negligible. It\u2019s within the variation of normal background   rates,\u201d said Angelika Tritscher, acting director of WHO\u2019s department   of food safety. ",
        "id": 2143,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a woman 48 year old get pregnant",
        "body": "Conception (pregnancy) can occur from menarche (the onset of ovulation / menstrual period) to menopause (cessation of the menstrual period). The CDC lists the average age of menarche as about 13 years (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4137967/) and menopause as 51 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2922699/).  A 48 year old woman, if still having an active menstrual cycle, can get pregnant. However, there are risks of having a pregnancy at that age. Remember that all of the eggs that a woman has are present at birth. This means that a 48 year old woman has kept all of those eggs for her entire life, and that they have been exposed to all of the various stresses that people have over a lifetime. This can include the effects of medications, radiation exposure (which accumulates over time), and other considerations. As a result, the risk of birth defects increases with age of the woman. I strongly recommend consultation with a physician, including special consultation with a fertilization expert. Genetic counseling may also be of particular benefit to help you with family planning.  Finally, I would also espouse getting a triple screen done should a successful pregnancy happen. This will help you to identify some potentially devastating genetic defects well before birth, thus giving you options for family planning.",
        "id": 1458,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does eating/chewing honey help prevent gingivitis, periodontal disease and dental caries?",
        "body": "Analysing the papers already cited in the question and further looking for evidence there seems to be some promising research going on.  Honey has bactericidal properties, Manuka honey even more so. Sounds quite logical then to use this honey in helping with oral troubles as a result of bacterial activity?   Honey contains so much sugar(s) that it's tempting to write that honey is sugar. Sugar also has bactericidal properties but is very strongly connected with the development of dental problems, caries being the first on that list.  While other oral problems might have their causative agents in a variety of bacteria. Tooth decay in the form of caries is most prominently the result of Strepptococcus mutans metabolising saccharides into acid.  This application of honey to the teeth to prevent biofilms, plaque and inflammation or gingivitis seems almost promising.   Effect of Manuka honey, chlorhexidine gluconate and xylitol on the clinical levels of dental plaque:     Manuka honey and chlorhexidine mouthwash reduced plaque formation significantly better than xylitol chewing gum.   The overall cost benefit relationship looks not so good for caries: Streptococcus mutans is not very affected by Manuka honey:      \u25ba  Both honeys were bacteriostatic against all microorganisms tested. MH (Manuka honey) was more effective than clover honey (CH).   \u25ba Both honeys were bactericidal against all microorganisms tested except S. mutans.   \u25ba Most microorganisms were more sensitive to MH than CH except S. gordonii and F. nucleatum ATCC 44256.      \u25ba MH was more effective than clover honey against three of the tested plaque-associated species.   \u25ba Subgingival application of manuka honey as an adjunct to periodontal treatment merits further investigation. However, since S. mutans was relatively resistant and pH of honey is below 5.5 this may predispose root surfaces to caries and erosion.   Not all Manuka honeys are created equal: Evaluation of the effects of manuka honey on salivary levels of mutans streptococci in children: A pilot study(DOI: 10.4103/0970-4388.135827):     However, what has not been taken into account is that honey varies markedly in the potency of its antibacterial activity. Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) honey from New Zealand has been found to have substantial levels of non-peroxide antibacterial activity associated with an unidentified phytochemical component, denoted as Unique Manuka Factor (UMF). [\u2026] Results: Children using manuka honey showed statistically significant reductions in salivary S. mutans after 10 and 21 days. Conclusion: Manuka honey with UMF 19.5 may be considered as an effective adjunctive oral hygiene measure for reducing colony counts in children.   What is this UMF? Some claim to have identified the (main) substance.     Identification and quantification of methylglyoxal as the dominant antibacterial constituent of Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) honeys from New Zealand: \"This clearly demonstrates that the pronounced antibacterial activity of New Zealand Manuka honey directly originates from MGO.\"   This chemical is found in Manuka honey in measurable amounts and seems to be quite effective. How methylglyoxal kills bacteria: An ultrastructural study.  However these concentrations vary, are hardly to judge for the consumer; and concentration seems to matters:     Antibacterial Properties of Nonwoven Wound Dressings Coated with Manuka Honey or Methylglyoxal. studied the antibacterial activity of both MH and MGO (at equivalent MGO concentrations) when applied as a physical coating to a nonwoven fabric wound dressing. [\u2026] Other than the case of MGO-containing fabrics, solutions with much higher MGO concentrations (128 mg L-1-1024 mg L-1) were required to provide either a bacteriostatic or bactericidal effect.   Some Manuka honey may lead the way to find something that helps against a range of problems. Applying it directly to teeth seems currently not advisable. As the lack of definitive research indicates, this answer can not provide a clear statement at this point.",
        "id": 2010,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the correct first aid procedure for treating abdominal gunshot wounds?",
        "body": "What is shown continuously on television and movies is that they either die fairly quickly, or, if you apply pressure, then get the bullet out, the patient will recover.  That's not the case.  The single best way to treat a gunshot wound to the abdomen is to get the person to a hospital as soon as possible.  Even if you have IV fluids at your disposal, there is debate among trauma surgeons about giving fluids to a patient with abdominal trauma showing signs of blood loss. Some say raising a low blood pressure promotes bleeding from injury sites; others argue that hypotension compromises adequate perfusion.   In olden days, Military Anit-Shock Trousers were applied. They fell out of favor some decades ago.     Since its first use in frontline emergency care, the Military Anti-Shock Trousers (MAST) has become one of the most widely studied and debated medical devices in pre hospital care. It has enjoyed both widespread support as well as harsh criticisms. Few medical devices have engendered such divergent opinion.   If you're on the street, call 911. If you're an EMT, follow your guidelines. If you're a doctor, do the usual trauma assessment and treat as you go. If you're a trauma surgeon, you kind of know what to do.  Abdominal Trauma Evaluation of Penetrating Abdominal Trauma Penetrating Abdominal Trauma Initial Evaluation of the Trauma Patient Military anti-shock garment: Historical relic or a device with unrealized potential?",
        "id": 581,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical relevance of tetanus vaccination",
        "body": "Clostridium tetani is the causative organism in tetanus. It requires an anaerobic environment to grow so is found in soil and in the gut of animals. Person to person transmission is not possible. Vaccination state is irrelevant for both parties.  http://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/index.html",
        "id": 900,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should people with tachycardia avoid caffeine?",
        "body": "A regular caffeine consumer will likely develop a partial or complete tolerance to many caffeine effects and side effects, including increased heart rate. Tolerance develops within few days of regular caffeine consumption and disappears within few days of caffeine discontinuation.  Tolerance to the Humoral and Hemodynamic Effects of Caffeine in Man (PubMed Central, 1981)     Acute caffeine in subjects who do not normally ingest methylxanthines   leads to increases in blood pressure, heart rate, plasma epinephrine,   plasma norepinephrine, plasma renin activity, and urinary   catecholamines. Using a double-blind design, the effects of chronic   caffeine administration on these same variables were assessed. Near   complete tolerance, in terms of both humoral and hemodynamic   variables, developed over the first 1-4 days of caffeine. No   longterm effects of caffeine on blood pressure, heart rate, plasma   renin activity, plasma catecholamines, or urinary catecholamines could   be demonstrated.   A single caffeine dose may increase blood pressure but not necessary heart rate in individuals with supraventricular tachicardia.  A prospective placebo controlled randomized study of caffeine in patients with supraventricular tachycardia undergoing electrophysiologic testing (Wiley Online Library, 2015)     Caffeine, at moderate intake (5 mg/kg), was associated with   significant increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressures, but   had no evidence of a significant effect on cardiac conduction and   refractoriness. Furthermore, no effect of caffeine on SVT induction or   more rapid rates of induced tachycardias was found.      the resting heart rate was not significantly different between both   groups [caffeine vs placebo].   Caffeine and Cardiac Arrhythmias: A Review of the Evidence (The American Journal of Medicine, 2011)     Overall, the data suggest that in most patients, even those with known   or suspected arrhythmia, caffeine in moderate doses is well   tolerated and there is therefore no reason to restrict ingestion of   caffeine. Care should be taken to avoid caffeine in situations in   which catecholamines are thought to drive the arrhythmia, as well as   in patients who note sensitivity to caffeine.    Now, I personally cannot claim if caffeine consumption is or is not dangerous for individuals with tachycardia, but most doctors, for example, from American Heart Association) still advise them to cut it down.",
        "id": 2168,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why doctor wont put stethoscope stationary at one point?",
        "body": "Probably the doctor isn't using the stethoscope to determine your heart beat rate. Mine seem to use it to listen to my lungs as I breathe, and I've seen them used to listen for valve sounds or other oddnesses in a baby's heartbeat. The actual rate can be determined other ways: the stethoscope is more for observing the sounds in your chest. They may move on quickly from a spot because they can't hear anything useful at all, or because they can hear that everything sounds fine.  Anecdotally, I can tell you that when I had growths in my lungs that caused an almost constant cough, doctors held their stethoscopes in place for quite a while at a time, and now that those growths are all gone, they listen for a shorter time in each place and then say \"your lungs sound completely clear.\" As an adult, I've never been told anything about my heart after a stethoscope has been used.",
        "id": 1581,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Has a guideline been set for the optimal pH level in the mouth?",
        "body": "The normal pH range of saliva is 6.2-7.6 (PubMed, 2013). The enamel starts to dissolve when the pH of the saliva or the fluid beneath the plaque falls under about 5.5, which is known as \"critical pH\" (Journal of Canadian Dental Association, 2003).  The pH of saliva falls, for example, when you drink acidic beverages, such as cola with pH 2.5-3.4 (PubMed, 2010).  The pH of the fluid beneath a dental plaque falls when the bacteria normally present in mouth convert certain nutrients, mainly sugars sucrose, glucose and fructose into acids (jisppd.com). Major sources of these sugars are table sugar, sweets, soft drinks, fruit juices and honey.  In one small study, oral rinse with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) increased the pH of saliva, which could, theoretically, help to prevent tooth decay (PubMed, 2017).  I haven't found any human trials in which toothpaste would be used to increase salivary pH.  Salivary characteristics and dental caries: Evidence from general dental practices (PubMed, 2013)     Our study findings show that salivary characteristics were associated   weakly with recent dental caries experience, but we did not find   consistent trends among the three age groups. Thus, one should   interpret with caution an assessment of salivary consistency, salivary   pH or salivary flow rate to determine the caries risk of all patients.   In conclusion, one may not need to focus on salivary pH, but try to avoid known risk factors for caries, mainly sugary foods and bad teeth hygiene (Mayo Clinic).",
        "id": 2680,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this study stating red algae reduces cold virus by 92% believable?",
        "body": "Looking at this from the perspective of an infectious disease epidemiologist, the kind of person who often reads (and occasionally runs) studies of this type, I'm skeptical. A number of reasons why:   The only results are a synopsis. More details and data are apparently available, but there is no manuscript, and their \"Transparency Policy\" has a lot of caveats in it. It's not a peer reviewed study. Their treatment protocol is oddly variable - 4 mandatory days plus a possible additional six days based on...? Again, since they're not providing tables, this gets a little frustrating to try to consider, but their treatment arm is fairly heavily skewed toward women - they claim it's similar in the control arm, but they won't show you how similar. They fail at their primary endpoint, being the mean number of symptoms reported between the treatment and control. The mean number of symptoms are about half-a-symptom less between the treatment and control arms, but the result isn't statistically significant, they do some statistical adjustment I'm a little skeptical of - because they don't describe it - and they end up using somewhat...loose...language like \"was a strong trend in favour of Bisolviral\u00ae.\" This is all based on patient self-report of symptoms, and interestingly, there's absolutely not an effect for self-reported assessment of efficacy between the treatment and control arms. Further, looking at viral load assays, there's also no biological evidence that anything is happening.   I can't find the specific language about the 92% claim you cite in your question, but my assessment of the overall evidence that this compound works would be \"Faint and preliminary, at best\".",
        "id": 139,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Weakness in a finger (pianist)",
        "body": "Go see an orthopedic surgeon; it's not exactly the most classical story but you might have some form of carpal tunnel syndrome. In most cases in can be effectively treated with rest, painkillers and stretching/exercise (so you don't get unnecessarily scared about the \"surgeon\" part); either way, considering it's your profession, I definitely think it is justified to be evaluated by a professional.  http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=a00005",
        "id": 1567,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a link between fibromyalgia and sugar intake?",
        "body": "The following is what I have found, which shows promise on your hypothesis.  Yanmaz, at al. (2012) found     an increased prevalence rate of [Fibromyalgia Syndrome] in patients with [diabetes mellitus] type 2 and [rheumatoid arthritis]. There was no correlation between the prevalence rate of [Fibromyalgia Syndrome] and good [diabetes mellitus] disease control.   A pilot study by Mengshoel, et al. (1995) followed a 10-week multi-disciplinary approach which involved exercise and cognitive approaches.  For the cognitive approach, they looked at patient knowledge of fibromyalgia and instructed on diet.     According to the food records, the dietician informed about good food habits and suggested dietary improvements such as: intake of four regular meals a day, increased intake of fruits and vegetables, increased intake of fluid and reduced intake of sweets and sugar.   All patients (n=16)     showed improvements for all variables after ten weeks.   They also said that controlled studies are needed in the future.  References  Mengshoel, A. M., Forseth, K. \u00d8., Haugen, M., Walle-Hansen, R., &amp; F\u00f8rre, \u00d8. (1995). Multidisciplinary approach to fibromyalgia A pilot study.\u00a0Clinical rheumatology,\u00a014(2), 165-170. doi: 10.1007/BF02214937  Yanmaz, M. N., Mert, M., &amp; Korkmaz, M. (2012). The prevalence of fibromyalgia syndrome in a group of patients with diabetes mellitus.\u00a0Rheumatology international,\u00a032(4), 871-874. doi: 10.1007/s00296-010-1618-8",
        "id": 2465,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Postconcussion symptoms: how long? Are they reversible? Treatment options?",
        "body": "Postconcussion syndrome is common following a traumatic brain injury (independent on the severity of the TBI). According to some studies, 30%-80% of patients with mild to moderate brain injury will suffer from some symptoms of postconcussion syndrome (PCS).  The symptoms, severity, risk factors and timing vary greatly between individuals.  Risk factors of PCS:   female and older age are at increased risk of developing PCS brain injuries following a motor vehicle accident, fall or assault are at higher risk of leading to PCS compared to brain injuries following sport trauma individual susceptibility (psychological, premorbid dispositions) are associated with increased risk of developing PCS   Symptoms of PCS: The most frequently reported symptoms in patients with PCS are headaches, vertigo (dizziness), fatigue, psychological impairments (irritability, anxiety, insomnia, loss of concentration and memory, and noise sensitivity)  Treatment of PCS: The current recommended approach for PCS treatment is mainly symptomatic and should be tailored to the patient needs. There is no \"gold standard\" treatment for all PCS patients.  Prognosis of PCS: Several studies have investigated the short and long term outcome of PCS. Most of the patients report an improvement of symptoms and disability within the first 7 to 10 days while after one to three months, the vast majority of patients report complete resolution of symptoms.  Sources: Evan RW. Postconcussion syndrome. UpToDate. Sept 2016. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/postconcussion-syndrome?source=search_result&amp;search=post%20concussion&amp;selectedTitle=1~12",
        "id": 1266,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term medication and increased risk for CLL?",
        "body": "According to the literature, risk factors for chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) are:   gender: CLL is more frequent in men than in women  age: CLL is considered to be mainly a disease of older adults, with a median age at diagnosis of 70 years. Although younger individuals (in their 30s-40s) can develop CLL, the incidence rises dramatically with age ethnicity: studies have shown that the incidence of CLL varies by race and geographic location: it is higher in caucasians and lower in African Americans or Asian Pacific Islanders. genetic/positive family history: the cytogenetic and molecular genetic characteristics of CLL appear to be similar throughout the world suggesting a common genetic alteration. Also, CLL  occur with higher frequency among first-degree family members of patients with CLL.   Finally, no clear discernible occupational or environmental risk factors that predispose to CLL have been identified yet. Also, no long term medication has been associated with the development of CLL.  Sources: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-presentation-pathologic-features-diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis-of-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",
        "id": 1155,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In the UK, what's the difference between Nurse Assistants and Healthcare Assistants?",
        "body": "According to the NHS website (Health Careers) The job titles, Nursing Assistants and Health Care Assistants seem to be interchangeable with each other and other job titles such as Nursing Auxiliaries and Auxiliary Nurses.  Healthcare assistants (HCAs) work in hospital or community settings, such as\u00a0GP surgeries, under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, usually a\u00a0nurse.     Sometimes staff working in HCA roles are known as nursing assistants, nursing auxiliaries or auxiliary nurses. (Source: NHS Health Careers)   There are no set entry requirements to become a Healthcare Assistant, although employers expect good literacy and numeracy and may ask for GCSEs (or equivalent) in English and maths. They may even ask for a healthcare qualification, such as BTEC or NVQ.  In comparison, academic entry requirements for adult nursing degrees are set by the individual universities but typically you will usually need a minimum of five GCSEs at grade C or above plus two A-levels or equivalent qualifications at level 3. Some universities may ask for three A-levels or equivalent.  To be a General Practice Nurse, you must be a qualified and registered adult, child, mental health or learning disability nurse to work in general practice. You\u2019ll also either need to undertake further training and education or be willing to after being appointed. Some employers may ask for knowledge or experience in specific areas e.g. health promotion or working with patients with long-term conditions.  You can compare NHS job roles and qualification requirements by going to https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/compare-roles  One point of note from comments is that according to @NeMo, there seems to be a lack of consistency between trusts as some trusts have both Nursing Assistants and Healthcare Assistants",
        "id": 2336,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Evidence of magnesium supplements for chronic fatigue?",
        "body": "There is at least one study on this, published in The Lancet:  Red blood cell magnesium and chronic fatigue syndrome     Patients treated with magnesium claimed to have improved energy levels, better emotional state, and less pain, as judged by changes in the Nottingham health profile.    This was a trial on only 20 patients with CSF and 20 control patients. That size of course isn't large enough to draw any reliable conclusions.   I also found a study comparing magnesium levels in patients with CSF with healthy controls that found no difference in magnesium levels.   The University of Maryland Medical Center summarizes:     Magnesium (300 to 1,000 mg per day) may help reduce fatigue. But studies show mixed results.  ",
        "id": 646,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can pectus excavatum increase the risk of cardio vascular disease?",
        "body": "This is a very interesting question. Thank you.  Just as a small background on pectus excavatum (PE) (also known as \"funnel chest\"). It is characterised by depression of the sternum that begins over the midportion of the manubrium and progressing inward through the xiphoid process:    (from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pectus-excavatum/multimedia/pectus-excavatum/img-20007723)  According to this study conducted in 947 patients, the most frequent symptoms of PE are:   Exercise intolerance Chest pain Poot endurance Shortness of breath   Now to your question:     could this repositioning put additional pressure on the heart over   time leading to an increased risk of cardio vascular disease or other   circulatory related problems   Yes. Several studies based on echocardiography have shown that, most of the patients with PE have cardiac displacement to the left side and hence right ventricular dysfunction (which explains the shortness of breath, exercise intolerance, etc...). Patients often show right ventricular outflow obstruction and reduced right ventricular systolic function (particularly in patients with severe PE). The cardiac displacement and compression may lead to conduction abnormalities, such as bundle branch block.  Noteworthy, surgical treatment is associated with an improvement of these cardiac abnormalities and hence symptoms.  Sources: Brochhausen C, Turial S, M\u00fcller FKP, et al. Pectus excavatum: history, hypotheses and treatment options. Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. 2012;14(6):801-806. doi:10.1093/icvts/ivs045.",
        "id": 1270,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What has hot shower to do with low blood pressure?",
        "body": "When the body is exposed to hot temperatures, the normal response of the body is  dilation of the peripheral blood vessels so that the heat energy in the blood can be released into the external environment, increasing the rate at which the body cools down.  This dilatation also leads to decreased peripheral vascular resistance (blood pooling in the extremities, for instance), and thus a decrease in blood pressure.  Thus if one already suffers from low blood pressure, exposure to hot environments may temporarily exacerbate the problem.  http://www.colorado.edu/eeb/courses/1230jbasey/abstracts%202007/17.htm",
        "id": 148,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is tuberculosis without expectoration contagious?",
        "body": "No, it's not true according to the CDC.     The TB bacteria are put into the air when a person with active TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings.   When you speak you force air out your lungs, and presumably some bacteria can be carried out in this fashion.  https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/basics/exposed.htm",
        "id": 1566,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can very tight glasses restrict blood flow to the brain?",
        "body": "Not towards the brain.  Look at the two diagrams.  The temporal artery is a branch of the external carotid artery that stays outside the skull.  The internal carotid artery goes inside the skull.      You couldn't compress the skull with sunglasses if you tried.     MANY headaches are related to muscular/tendinous pain in the head and neck, not the brain. Putting pressure on the temporal regions can cause pain in the muscles, and sustained pressure can cause spasms.  Restricting the flow through the arteries of your face could in theory reduce flow to muscles of your scalp, causing pain and ischemia.  It is less likely to be the cause of pain from sunglasses pressure, as there is lots of collateral blood flow, but not impossible.  Note that transmitting any force through the actual skull via compression, which is a pretty solid bone, would take a great deal of pressure (orders of magnitude above what sunglasses are capable of) and would involve fracturing bone. Then you'd be looking at potential stroke/TBI symptoms.  That is not happening to you.  I am not going to discuss your symptoms of confusion, that starts down the path of individual medical advice.  If you are concerned about any of your symptoms, see a doctor.  Get some better sunglasses or fix the hinges.",
        "id": 1835,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a man's ejaculation of semen decrease in volume, with age?",
        "body": "First off, not sure if this question is serious or not, but here goes.  According to this study (n=97, age 22-80):     After adjusting for covariates, semen volume decreased by 0.03 ml per   year of age   I have no idea how much volume is in a handful of semen, but     The median semen volume was 2.7 ml   The average age in the population was 46.  Therefore, we can expect that on average, if the average volume of ejaculate in a 46 year old is 2.7 mL, the average volume of a 20 year old would be 3.46 mL, and the average volume of an 85 year old would be 1.53 mL. This gives a net ejaculation volume loss between ages 20 and 85 of 1.93 mL, or 55%.  HUGE caveat(s):   This was a relatively small study using a convenience sample None of the participants were as young as 20 or as old as 85 There is no data to say whether the decline is an absolute or relative, ie does everyone lose 0.03 a year, or is it a fixed percentage. Peter North is a clear outlier and so it's impossible to say how this data applies to him \"Handful\" is not an accepted unit of measurement for semen volume The study did not address the question of elderly ejaculate feeling like sand ",
        "id": 2154,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Best type of flu shot",
        "body": "The 2015 Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) does not express a preference for use of any particular product over another for persons for whom more than one type of vaccine is appropriate and available.  The major recommendations concern age, state of health, allergies (some vaccines are specifically recommended for people allergic to eggs or to previous vaccines, pregnancy, etc.), fear of needles (there are multiple ways now to receive influenza vaccines including microneedle intradermal doses, intramuscular jet, and nasal, along with the routine IM injection), timing of the vaccine (especially in the elderly and young).  A previous severe allergic reaction to influenza vaccine, regardless of the component suspected of being responsible for the reaction, is a contraindication to future receipt of the vaccine.  Basically, if the vaccine (in the US) is FDA approved, it should be fine.     What type of vaccine would be good for healthy lady in mid-30s[?]   Assuming that you're not pregnant, in the absence of data (recent studies including the 2014 flu season) demonstrating consistent greater relative effectiveness of the current quadrivalent formulation of Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine (LAIV), preference for LAIV over Inactivated Influenza Vaccine (IIV) is no longer recommended.   In your age range and state of health, you should avoid the LAIV if        you've experienced severe allergic reactions to the vaccine or any of its components, or to a previous dose of any influenza vaccine   you have a history of egg allergy   you've taken influenza antiviral medications within the previous 48 hours   you care for severely immunosuppressed persons who require a protective environment       If you live with someone with bad asthma, you might want to consult your doctor about which vaccine is better for you.     What type of vaccine would be good for elderly who are somewhat active, doing stuff around the house, but suffer the regular aches and pains, who are early 70s?   Well, they should avoid the LAIV. In addition, they should consult their doctor if they have any medical conditions, and for information about the timing of the vaccine (the optimal timing for those over 65 varies from continent to continent and even country to country.)   Given all the above, I have only ever been asked, \"Are you allergic to eggs?\" before getting a flu shot!  Prevention and Control of Influenza with Vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2015\u201316 Influenza Season",
        "id": 462,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take to convert food into fat?",
        "body": "There would be a lot of factors involved in this question; The rate of digestion, the rate absorption of GI tract, the rate of transfer from splanchnic circulation to the liver and other organs and the rate of metabolism of an individual in including different rates of different enzymes. But since OP is asking for \"calorie to fat\" we will limit it from glucose(since calorie is already a unit of energy)to fatty acids and Triglycerides.     During well-fed state or post-absorptive state, the body starts to   either convert glucose into ATP/energy via glycolysis and citric acid   cycle, into glycogen in liver or muscle or into fatty acids in the liver,   kidney, adipose tissue etc.-excerpt from (NCBI)Food Intake and Starvation Induce Metabolic Changes     Let's start with the steps of conversion from glucose to fatty acids    The first step is Glycolysis - red circle. The second step is the Citric acid cycle or Kreb's cycle - green circle. The third step is Lipogenesis - blue circle.  Glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cell cytosol1. Pyruvate is converted to several substrates including citrate which is essential in lipogenesis in the cell mitochondria2. Lipogenesis is the process by which acetyl-CoA is converted to triglycerides, lipogenesis encompasses both the process of fatty acid synthesis and triglyceride synthesis, where fatty acids are esterified to glycerol3.    Rates of conversion     ...ratios and rates varies widely depending on the nutritional status...      -Citrate and the conversion of carbohydrate into fat. A comparison of citrate and acetate incorporation into fatty acids   &nbsp;     ...high fat diet abolishes lipogenesis...   The rate of lipogenesis from available carbohydrates seems to be regulated not only by the carbohydrate content of the diet; glucose utilization increases as the carbohydrate   content increases or the fat content decreases.      -DIETARY EFFECTS ON LIPOGENESIS IN ADIPOSE TISSUE   &nbsp;     When the glycogen stores are saturated, massive intakes of carbohydrate are disposed of by high carbohydrate-oxidation rates and substantial de novo lipid synthesis (150 g lipid/day using approximately 475 g carbs/day) without postabsorptive hyperglycemia.      Glycogen storage capacity in man is approximately 15 g/kg body weight and can accommodate a gain of approximately 500 g before net lipid synthesis contributes to increasing body fat mass.       -Glycogen storage capacity and de novo lipogenesis during massive carbohydrate overfeeding in man     Summary  It depends on several variables, nutrition, rate of metabolism of an individual, lifestyle and activity etc, but mainly the short term storage' glycogen stores' saturation. So as long as the glycogen stores are saturated, the body will start lipogenesis.  150 grams of fat per day from 475 grams of glucose/carbs  or 3.17 grams of glucose/carbs to produce 1 gram of fat  *when glycogen stores are saturated  more details on -Glycogen storage capacity and de novo lipogenesis during massive carbohydrate overfeeding in man    P.S.  *Some biochemistry textbooks say that 1 molecule of glucose yields between 36-38 ATPs. However, the amount of energy as ATP revolves around these numbers. According to Guyton, 1 ATP has ~12,000 calories (12 kcals). Thus 38 ATPs would have 456,000 calories or 456 kcals.  *de novo synthesis, meaning \"new\", from glucose to fat.",
        "id": 743,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the functions of these parts of the brain (MRI)?",
        "body": "Three spots in the brain do not automatically mean three different symptoms. Even if those spots are abnormal, they do not necessary cause any damage.  A doctor in the \"2. MRI report\" says there are:     ...few bilateral parietal subcortical tiny white matter   foci...warrant further evaluation to exclude possibility of early   onset MS.   So, there are 3 tiny spots in the white matter of the parietal lobes of the brain.  Parietal Lobes (Brainmadesimple.com):     Function: Processes sensory information that had to do with taste,   temperature, and touch   Brain Lesions (MedicineNet):     Parietal lobes are where sensation is processed and interpreted. Aside   from touch, pressure and pain, there is also the concept of spatial   cognition, where the brain recognizes where the body is in   relationship to the area around it.   What is the function of the parietal lobe? (Reference.com):     Patients with damage to the parietal lobe can suffer from language or   memory loss and might also be unable to hold a gaze. Thus, the   parietal lobe helps people recall words when speaking.      The visual processing within the parietal lobe facilitates writing and   mathematical calculations. The parietal lobe is also responsible for   perception and language processing.   Memory Dysfunction in Multiple Sclerosis...(American Journal of Neuroradiology):     Lesions of the deep white matter in the left parietal lobe have been   found to be associated with impaired performance on the paired   associates test, a test of learning and memory.   I'm not saying you should or will suffer from any of these symptoms. A neurologist, who can perform an exact neurological examination might detect some signs you are not aware of.",
        "id": 1501,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the best hours to sleep?",
        "body": "There are many evidences that a good night's sleep is the hallmark to have good health. Ideally you should go to bed between 10 pm and midnight and wake up when you feel like getting up in the morning. By following this habit you can complete your sleep and wake up fresh.  It's some Facts of Sleeping:   Sleep is vital to your well-being, as important as the air you breathe, the water you drink and the food you eat. It can even help you to eat better and manage the stress of being a teen. Biological sleep patterns shift toward later times for both sleeping and waking during adolescence -- meaning it is natural to not be able to fall asleep before 11:00 pm. Teens need about 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night to function best. Most teens do not get enough sleep \u2014 one study found that only 15% reported sleeping 8 1/2 hours on school nights. Teens tend to have irregular sleep patterns across the week \u2014 they typically stay up late and sleep in late on the weekends, which can affect their biological clocks and hurt the quality of their sleep.  ",
        "id": 1124,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Manual External Defibrillators \"restart\" a heart?",
        "body": "Your technical understanding is correct and television is fiction. In fact, watching shows involving CPR and defibrillation is a source of both amusement and frustration for most medical professionals because it is almost always portrayed wildly inaccurately.  Defibrillation is effective against only ventricular fibrillation (VF or V-Fib, which is when the heart is beating too irregularly for effective blood circulation to occur) and pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT or V-Tach, which is when the heart is beating too fast for effective circulation). Automated defibrillators simply will not shock other rhythms, including asystole (\"flat line\"). No one trained to use a manual defibrillator would do so either.  Yes, a defibrillator can definitely stop a beating heart. However, if that heart started out healthy and hasn't been injured, then it's quite likely it will restart on its own due to the autorhythmicity of cardiac cells. This is why cardioversion can be used to treat arrhythmias with relative safety. A cardioversion is simply a defibrillation of the heart timed to coincide precisely with a safe point in the heart rhythm.   Interestingly, there was even one case of an unsuccessful suicide attempt using a defibrillator. Had the nurse followed his training and applied the paddles to his chest instead of his head, he might have succeeded.  Although the \"it can't hurt\" logic is tempting, the fact is that inappropriate defibrillation can hurt. Defibrillation works by depolarizing the entire heart, which interrupts the arrhythmia and provides an opportunity for autorhythmicity to restart a normal rhythm. If the patient is in asystole the heart is already depolarized, so defibrillation will accomplish nothing except perhaps depolarizing cells that were in the process of repolarizing, thereby eliminating the already very small chance of restoring a heartbeat.   Defibrillation is also ineffective against pulseless electrical activity (PEA). In PEA, the heart's conduction system is functioning normally but some other cause is preventing it from pumping blood. Hypovolemia and hypoxemia are the most common causes of PEA. The only effective treatment for PEA is to find and correct the cause.  If the patient is in some rhythm other than VF or VT, defibrillation may stop their heart, or put them into VF or VT. It simply isn't done no matter what you might see on television.",
        "id": 971,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What medications (whether prescription or OTC) or home-remedies are used for stool-softeners or laxatives (to counteract constipation)?",
        "body": "This is not a medical recommendation, you should speak to your doctor.  Generally speaking, paraffin oil, lactulose syrup and dietary fiber supplements are common OTC medications for constipation. It is important to drink plenty of water (specifically with added fiber). For individual advice, talk to your doctor.",
        "id": 1331,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is herpes simplex/cold sore on the thigh considered a sexually transmitted disease?",
        "body": "It is not possible to tell what actions led to the thigh infection, because there are multiple possible actions that could.  Explanation: Close bodily contact of any kind can transmit herpes.  That is, the virus jumps from an infected person to another person by close bodily contact (i.e. rubbing of some type).    If someone was engaged in a sexual act with you and rubbed an infected part of their skin on your thigh, then, yes, your infection would be considered a sexually transmitted infection.    If your lesion is reasonably far from the genital area, however, it's more likely to be an instance of herpes gladiotorum, which is a sports disease, not a sexual disease.  Wrestlers, rugby players (in a scrum), and so on, engage in very close physical contact, and this can lead to spread of herpes from one person to another through a non-sexual route.  As a child, you may not have been playing rugby, but you might have been wrestling with an infected friend, or the friend may have bit you on the thigh, or who knows what.  Where your friend got infected, or how, is of lesser importance.  If it has not come back since the original appearance, I would not worry about it.  Could you as a child really tell a herpes vesicle from a bug bite?  Could you as an adult?",
        "id": 285,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is acid reflux (allegedly) often confused with chest pain?",
        "body": "The average person has never felt chest pain of cardiac origin so has no idea what it \"should\" feel like, and therefore they have no way of knowing how to distinguish it from other sources of chest pain.  Yes, reflux causes actual chest pain in some people. Just because you can easily recognize it as reflux doesn't mean everyone can. What if you've felt reflux before, but the pain seems a bit different this time? Do you just wave it off and hope you're right?  Esophageal spasms can be intensely painful, and if it's the first time you've felt it how would you know what it was?   But perhaps most importantly, the very notion of what cardiac chest pain \"should\" feel like is a dangerous generalization created by Hollywood and urban legend. Cardiac chest pain comes in a wide range of varieties, many of which can be mimicked by reflux, esophageal spasm, muscle strains, spinal problems, pleurisy, and a dozen other conditions. It can be sharp or dull; it can be more like a pressure than actual pain; it can radiate to one or more arms, the jaw, shoulders, or back. In fact, it might be felt somewhere other than the chest entirely, or there may be no pain at all. So-called silent heart attacks are not unusual, especially in diabetics, women and the elderly.   So, no, distinguishing cardiac chest pain from other sources is neither easy nor obvious. Walk into any ER (A&amp;E) the world over complaining of chest pain, and they will work you up under the assumption that it is of cardiac origin until that possibility has been ruled out. Nobody ever died from misdiagnosed reflux, but they most certainly have died of misdiagnosed chest pain.  https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/heartattack/signs",
        "id": 1739,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can scopolamine really be given through the ear?",
        "body": "Scopolamine products to prevent motion sickness are to be placed behind the ear to. One brand name for this product is Transderm-Scop.  I will write below why it is placed behind the ear, but in terms of the Facebook post, it's probably not accurate. In fact, Snopes.com did a 'Fact-Check' article on a similar subject.  Scopolamine is an antimuscarinic medication with strong anticholinergic effects. Anticholinergics are used for a variety of purposes, from motion sickness to pupil dilation (if you ever had your doctor dilate your pupils, it most likely was from an anticholinergic drug such as atropine or tropicamide).  Many drugs have 'anticholinergic' side effects as well. These side effects include:   Sedation Dry mouth Urinary retention Dry eyes (blurred vision)   Benadryl, perhaps the most commonly used over the counter antihistamine, has relatively strong anticholinergic effects, which is why it makes you tired. Dramamine also has strong anticholinergic effects, which is why it is marketed specifically for motion sickness.  The anticholinergic effects of drugs are dose dependent, meaning high doses yield greater effects. Very high doses can cause:   Hyperthermia Confusion Cardiac abnormalities Loss of muscle control Coma   Oral anticholinergic drugs are notorious for their sometimes severe side effects and overdose, either accidental or deliberate, can be extremely serious.  Going back to scopolamine...the anticholinergic effects of the drug are quite effective for preventing motion sickness. The patches go behind the ear not because it is close in proximity to the vestibular system of the inner ear (important for our sense of balance), but because it is one of the more permeable, and consistent trans-dermal absorption areas on our body.  Very small amounts of scopolamine are in the Transderm-Scop patch. It is designed to deliver a total of 1mg over a 72 hours period at a constant rate. With such a small dose, it is important to not have significant deviations in drug absorption.  Overall, the patch was designed to a provide predictable delivery of scopolamine, resulting in in precise plasma concentrations.  In terms of skin permeability, the postauricular area (behind the ear) is the most permeable of any site on the body. This allows very small doses to be used, and reduces the risk of adverse reactions.  Even though the area behind the ear generally provides more predictable drug delivery, there is still significant variation among individuals.   Due to this, the patches have a rate-limiting membrane. This membrane produces a permeation rate that is slower than the skin can absorb (this is based on studies of different human skin types). So the system (and not individual variability of the skin), controls systemic scopolamine delivery.  To summarize, the patches are put behind the ear because:   Small doses of scopolamine can be used The skin behind the ear is the most permeable for trans-dermal absorption and provides the most consistent blood levels of the drug. ",
        "id": 2411,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health effects of drinking 1 beer a day?",
        "body": "Drinking one bear is actually not bad. It is called moderate drinking and in a nutshell, it is defined as consuming one drink a day for women and two for men. However, if you don\u2019t drink now, you should not start drinking for health.  A healthy lifestyle, including good nutrition and exercise, offers more benefits than moderate drinking. Another important point is that if, as a man, you choose to have two beers a day, it does not mean it\u2019s okay to guzzle one after the other. Drinking just two beers -- or any alcoholic drink -- in one hour impairs judgment and doubles your chances of having a traffic or household accident.  There are several long and short-term effects of alcoholic consumption but they are determined by the number of drinks taken per day.",
        "id": 1395,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does wearing a bra affect the firmness of breasts?",
        "body": "Bras can negatively impact your breast.  Medical News Today   Based on:      Jean-Denis Rouillon, a sports science expert from the University of   Besan\u00e7on, France, reported after a 15-year study.       women who never wore bras had nipples on average seven millimeters   higher in relation to their shoulders each year  Do nothing for back pain and weaken muscles  Make breast saggier due to muscle weakening and some say affect breathing   Bras can immobolize breast stopping them from moving and can be to tight and hold them in unnatural positions this causing negative effects.  But varying on your weight, cup, age and other factors no bra may not be for you.   Poor Bra Choice Could Be Damaging Breasts Of Some Women",
        "id": 687,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does the package leaflet of Ferrograd C advise not to use in the first 13 weeks of Pregenancy",
        "body": "There has been some concern that iron supplementation early in pregnancy might increase the risk for infections, and hypertension.    However, the current Cochrane review of iron and folic acid supplementation does not find this     We included 61 randomised trials in the review with 44 trials involving 43,274 pregnant women contributing to the analyses. The use of iron or iron and folic acid supplements was associated with a reduced risk of anaemia and iron deficiency during pregnancy. There was some indication that maternal iron supplements during pregnancy could improve outcomes for babies (birthweight and preterm birth) but the evidence for this was not of high quality.There is no evidence that iron supplementation increases placental malaria.   http://www.cochrane.org/CD004736/PREG_effects-and-safety-preventive-oral-iron-or-iron-folic-acid-supplementation-women-during-pregnancy  And if we look at the method of supplementation with intermittent vs daily iron supplementation concludes     Overall, for women receiving any intermittent iron regimen (with or without other vitamins and minerals) compared with a daily regimen there was no clear evidence of differences between groups for any infant primary outcomes: low birthweight (average risk ratio (RR) 0.82; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.55 to 1.22; participants = 1898; studies = eight; low quality evidence), infant birthweight (mean difference (MD) 5.13 g; 95% CI -29.46 to 39.72; participants = 1939; studies = nine; low quality evidence), premature birth (average RR 1.03; 95% CI 0.76 to 1.39; participants = 1177; studies = five; low quality evidence), or neonatal death (average RR 0.49; 95% CI 0.04 to 5.42; participants = 795; studies = one; very low quality). None of the studies reported congenital anomalies.      For maternal outcomes, there was no clear evidence of differences between groups for anaemia at term (average RR 1.22; 95% CI 0.84 to 1.80; participants = 676; studies = four; I\u00b2 = 10%; very low quality). Women receiving intermittent supplementation had fewer side effects (average RR 0.56; 95% CI 0.37 to 0.84; participants = 1777; studies = 11; I\u00b2 = 87%; very low quality) and were at lower risk of having high haemoglobin (Hb) concentrations (greater than 130 g/L) during the second or third trimester of pregnancy (average RR 0.53; 95% CI 0.38 to 0.74; participants = 2616; studies = 15; I\u00b2 = 52%; (this was not a primary outcome)) compared with women receiving daily supplements. There were no significant differences in iron-deficiency anaemia at term between women receiving intermittent or daily iron + folic acid supplementation (average RR 0.71; 95% CI 0.08 to 6.63; participants = 156; studies = one). There were no maternal deaths (six studies) or women with severe anaemia in pregnancy (six studies). None of the studies reported on iron deficiency at term or infections during pregnancy.   http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009997.pub2/full",
        "id": 1203,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Comorbidity of autoimmune diseases",
        "body": "Yes, there is statistically significant comorbidity with autoimmune diseases.   The study Recent Insights in the Epidemiology of Autoimmune Diseases: Improved Prevalence Estimates and Understanding of Clustering of Diseases analysed other studies on the subject. It puts the comorbidity of 29 autoimmune diseases - including, for example, Crohn's, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis - at around 7 to 9 percent.   Earlier studies put the comorbidity number lower, at around 4 to 6 percent, this appears to depend mainly on what diseases are considered and the quality of the records being reviewed for the large population-based studies.   They found that certain diseases \"cluster\" in patients, for example type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and thyroiditis. The reverse is true as well, several of the analysed studies  report that rheumatoid arthritis in combination with multiple sclerosis occur together less frequently than expected.   Two other main meta analyses on the subject are   Are Individuals With an Autoimmune Disease at Higher Risk of a Second Autoimmune Disorder? in the American Journal of Epidemiology Autoimmune diseases co-occurring within individuals and within families: a systematic review in the journal Epidemiology   The conclusion that a significant comorbidity exists and that it's more prevalent between certain diseases is drawn by all these studies the studies, which is also discussed in the first paper I linked. ",
        "id": 517,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is constant street noise damaging health?",
        "body": "Chronic noise exposure of >58db has been associated with the development of diabetes in mice.   You can review the latest studies in the medical literature on chronic noise exposure through a search here with these keywords.   Chronic exposure to traffic noise itself is considered a stressor that has been associated with multiple medical conditions including hypertension, heart attacks, and strokes. One thought of the cause is that the variety in sounds triggers a low-level alarm, like a \"fight or flight\" response which increases the level of adrenaline circulating and contraction of the blood vessels. It is unclear if there are studies showing that white noise would stop this risk. Additionally, it is unclear how much these studies corrected for the risk of air quality itself. (In one epidemiological study of children growing up near expressways, they found that their average height was lower. The study suggests that children breathing the small &lt;25 PPM particles that penetrate homes and go deep into the lung actually impacted their growth and development. This has implications for the health of adults as well.)  The NIH states that ear damage occurs with sounds above 85db.    The takeaway from this is that traffic noise has a definite risk, as does high levels of noise. White noise currently appears to be an unquantified risk - and may possibly be safer.",
        "id": 2269,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "what is really working solution for armpit sweat",
        "body": "Solutions to managing armpit sweat and odor: 1) Shave your armpits once every few months to periodically clear out that persistent bacteria.  2) Sprits or dampen armpits with diluted alcohol solution to kill the bacteria (don\u2019t do this immediately after shaving). 3) Apply adhesive armpit pads to your favorite shirts, so as to prevent bacteria and deodorant buildup in them.  4) Consult with your doctor before doing any of these, except #3. ",
        "id": 1956,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Almost every joint pops in my body",
        "body": "Some people simply have \"looser\" joints throughout their body due to less elastic connective tissue (and other causes), a condition called benign joint hypermobility. It sometimes manifests itself as a pervasive vague joint discomfort or dull soreness which may be temporarily relieved by popping or stretching the joint. The joints may also pop spontaneously such as when turning your neck or twisting your torso. In and of itself, this does not necessarily mean there is anything wrong with you as long as you're not having frequent pain, spasms, swelling, or instability of the joints. Sometimes people get so used to popping their joints to relieve that discomfort that they almost get \"addicted\" to it, doing it multiple times a day, which can actually start to cause inflammation in the joints. Once they limit how often they are popping their joints the worsening discomfort usually subsides, possibly aided by a short course of over-the-counter anti-inflammatory medicine (e.g., naproxen or ibuprofen.) If you are having worse symptoms than that, it may be a different condition that does warrant being checked out by a physician.   If you do decide to get it checked out, you should probably start by seeing your primary care provider (typically a family practice or internal medicine physician, if you don't have an established medical provider.) They can evaluate your full medical history and decide if any testing, treatment, or referrals are needed. Ultimately, the medical specialist you may need to see is a rheumatologist. They diagnose and treat conditions which tend to affect multiple joints and connective tissues throughout the body, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.  Regarding the joint hypermobility, this link contained some useful information: http://www.healthline.com/health/hypermobile-joints#Overview1  One further thought about joint hypermobility is that strengthening the muscles around the bothersome joints can make up for the joint capsule and ligament laxity and stabilize the joints, thereby lessening the symptoms.",
        "id": 941,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any reason lean meats are easier to digest besides them having low fat?",
        "body": "Lean meats have less fat than fatty meats, so, yes, they are easier to digest; I'm not aware of any other thing that would make lean meat easier to digest. But this alone does not tell anything about health benefits of lean meat. For example, foods high in complex carbohydrates, which also contain dietary fiber (undigestible carbohydrates) are harder to digest than simple carbohydrates, like sugar, but are considered more beneficial for health (kumc.edu).  \"Fiber\" in meat is different than fiber in plant foods and refers to connective tissue, which is made mainly of collagen, which is a protein, which is harder to digest than the protein from muscle (PubMed). But it is not collagen fiber that makes meat lean; collagen fiber can be present in both lean and fatty meats.",
        "id": 2590,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the right time to eat fruits?",
        "body": "In the Morning on an Empty Stomach/Between Meals - Fruits are recommended to be eaten on an empty stomach or in between meals because at this time digestion happens fairly quick and also different types of enzymes are used by the body to digest the fruit. Fruits contain simple sugars, which need time to be completely absorbed by the body. When fruits are eaten in between meals or on empty stomach, all the nutrients, the fiber and simple sugars are processed well in the body.  Pre/Post Workout - The sugars of fruits will be used by the body for getting immediate energy before workout and helps in refilling the emptied energy stores in the body after workout.  Source : http://www.md-health.com/Best-Time-to-Eat-Fruits.html",
        "id": 852,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the tailbone (coccyx) serve a present function? A few people have been born with tail appendages, right?",
        "body": "1. You are right, the coccyx is the remnant of a vestigial tail, but still not entirely useless.  According to eMedicine, it is an important attachment for various muscles, tendons and ligaments\u2014which makes it necessary for physicians and patients to pay special attention to these attachments when considering surgical removal of the coccyx. Additionally, it is also a part of the weight-bearing tripod structure which acts as a support for a sitting person. When a person sits leaning forward, the ischial tuberosities and inferior rami of the ischium take most of the weight, but as the sitting person leans backward, more weight is transferred to the coccyx.  2. It's not actually accurate for a child to be born with a tailbone appendage. The dorsal cutaneous appendage, or so-called human tail is a rare congenital anomaly with a prominent lesion from the lumbosacrococcygeal region. It is also often considered to be a cutaneous marker of underlying occult dysraphism. You are right again, there has been a report of a 9 - month old healthy male infant brought for consultation for a \u201ctail like\u201d structure in the lumbosacral area since birth.   3. No, it isn't. Spina bifida is a condition where the spine does not develop properly, leaving a gap in the spine. The spine consists of the spinal column, which is a solid structure made up of bones (called vertebral bodies) separated by discs of fibrous tissue.  Behind this is an enclosed space called the spinal canal, which contains the spinal cord. The spinal cord connects all the nerves in the body to the brain. The canal is surrounded by arches of bone attached to the backs of the vertebral bodies.   In cases of spina bifida, something goes wrong and the arches of bone do not fully close. Sometimes there is only a gap in the bony arch, but at other times the spinal cord is also involved and does not form properly either. The skin over the arch can also either be intact or have a gap as well.  For more info on spina bifida, visit this site.",
        "id": 1534,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do testosterone / anabolic steroid injection increase the risk of tendon rupture?",
        "body": "I found a 2017 article pointing specifically to a case of AAS usage associated with a Bilateral Patellar Tendon Rupture, which mentions:     we suppose that combined AAS and exercise    can  increase  tendon  stiffness,  predisposing  to  the  rupture   Additionally, one of this paper's sources references a 2016 study in which they point out that:     Bilateral patellar tendon ruptures are rare. The majority of case   reports describing bilateral patellar tendon ruptures have occurred in   patients with predisposing factors to tendinopathy...      ...careful history   taking and physical examination is integral in ensuring a diagnosis is   achieved for early primary repair.   So it seems that there is still not enough information and research done to fully determine why, but this is the theory developing as scientists examine more cases. A caveat is that both of the studies were case-studies of single individual men (ages 44 and 45 respectively), so there may be other factors that were not analyzed, considered, or observed.",
        "id": 2138,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health risks of acrylic mouth guards",
        "body": "Conclusion  As your source points out, there are Health concerns with some acrylic mouthguards, if they contain BPA. However, the concerns are, according to the FDA, negligible and propose no danger to you.   Ask your dentist whether the mouthguard in question does contain BPA and act accordingly.**     As required, the Schein MSDS for \u201cEasy Flow Acrylic Powder\u201d listed three hazardous ingredients: Dialkyl Phthalate (CAS# 84-66-2), Titanium Dioxide (CAS# 13453-67-7), and Mineral Pigments (CAS# 57453-37-5), but made no mention of BPA, the chemical of concern to the consumer.   So what is BPA?     Bisphenol A (C15H16O2), commonly abbreviated as BPA, is an organic compound with two phenol functional groups. It is a difunctional building block of several important plastics and plastic additives. With an annual production of 2\u20133 million metric tonnes, it is an important monomer in the production of polycarbonate.   Source: PubChem.gov   BPA affects postnatal development of embryos, and has many negative health effects on mice.   As always, sola dosis facit venenum (the dose makes the poison) and      the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has said that BPA is safe at the very low levels that occur in some foods. This assessment is based on review of hundreds of studies.   Source: MayoClinic ",
        "id": 1901,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stuttering problems",
        "body": "As a speech-language pathologist, I will say you should still see an SLP. While there is no \"cure\" for stuttering, an SLP can work on specific strategies tailored to you. Go to the American Speech-Language Hearing Association's (ASHA) website to find a professional near you. Many universities also have speech and hearing clinics where their graduate students work under the supervision of licensed professionals at low or no cost to people who go to the clinic.  Regarding medication: there are no medications approved to \"treat stuttering.\" Many people who stutter also have co-existing anxiety disorders and could benefit from consultation with their physician on these matters. Beware, though, of any physician who prescribes a medication to help with stuttering.",
        "id": 1068,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can overdoses occur from ingesting nicotine from cigarettes?",
        "body": "Just crunching the numbers, it at least seems unlikely.   The lethal dose of nicotine is often stated to be around 50 to 60 milligrams, though it might be higher, with more recent data putting it closer to 500.   While a cigarette contains about 6 to 10 milligrams, only about 1 milligram of that is absorbed. The average half-life of nicotine is about two hours, meaning half is eliminated after two hours.   Smoking a cigarette takes several minutes, let's say 3. The lowest lethal dose estimates I could find were 30 milligrams; smoking 30 cigarettes, for ingesting 30 milligrams of nicotine, would then take 90 minutes, at which point the body has already gotten rid of some of the nicotine.   Even at the very conservative estimate of 30 milligrams as a lethal, or at least toxic, dose, smoking likely won't get you there, unless doing it competitively for hours. Even for smoking cigarettes at the same time as using nicotine patches (OCT NRT) the FDA states      There are no significant safety concerns associated with using more than one OTC NRT at the same time, or using an OTC NRT at the same time as another nicotine-containing product\u2014including a cigarette.    Eating cigarettes or drinking e-cigarette liquid  are different stories, though. That's usually the scenarios in which nicotine overdoses occur.   As always, this is not medical advice. Please don't try to smoke 60 cigarettes an hour. It's not healthy either way. ",
        "id": 228,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does your head get enough blood and your feet don't when lifted above your body?",
        "body": "This is a very good question. The answer: because your head was meant to be above your body!  Your body has very specific mechanisms for maintaining a constant blood flow in the cerebral circulation despite shifts in blood pressure, either due to changing blood pressure in the rest of the circulation or due to a different 'local' pressure because of position . This is termed autoregulation.  The blood pressure that the brain 'sees' is called 'cerebral perfusion pressure' (CPP). Technically CPP is the difference between intra-arterial pressure and the pressure in the veins, but venous pressure is very low (2-5 mm Hg), so we can estimate it as the arterial blood pressure (here, a weighted average of systolic and diastolic pressures). In a normal person accustomed to normal blood pressures, the body can maintain a constant blood flow of ~50 mL per 100 g of brain tissue per minute with a CPP range of ~60 to 160 mmHg. That\u2019s a big range!  The mechanisms of autoregulation are incompletely understood. Most likely reductions in CPP stimulate the release of substances that cause vasodilation (candidates include H+, K+, O2, adenosine), thereby increasing flow. On the other side, high pressures stimulate constriction of the myocites in cerebral vessels, reducing flow.   The end result is that your brain \u2018sees\u2019 a relatively constant pressure regardless of what position you\u2019re in or other factors that may change blood pressure. That having been said, if blood pressure fluctuates outside the range for which auto regulation can accommodate, position does indeed matter for blood pressure. If a patient is markedly hypotensive, for instance, it is traditional to tilt the bed so that their head is below their body.1 At the extremes, this manipulation can indeed affect blood flow to the brain.       1. This is termed the Trendelenberg position, although recent evidence indicates that this is not a good idea for hypotensive shock due to more complex cardiovascular considerations.       All of this material is summarized nicely in this publicly available textbook: Cipolla MJ. The Cerebral Circulation. San Rafael (CA): Morgan &amp; Claypool Life Sciences; 2009. Chapter 5, Control of Cerebral Blood Flow.   ",
        "id": 184,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sanity checking airplane advice re DVT: walk every hour, 2-3 hours? OK to sleep?",
        "body": "Unless you have risk factors, don't worry too much     Dr Gordon Guyatt, chair of the panel, said: \"There has been a significant push in health care to administer DVT prevention for every patient, regardless of risk.   \"As a result, many patients are receiving unnecessary therapies that provide little benefit and could have adverse effects.\"      Stephen Adams: DVT risk raised by sitting in the window seat. Telegraph.co.uk. 7. February 2012   Wearing GCS (graduated compression stockings) is actually discouraged for patients without risk factors.      The panel noted that the absolute risk of developing a DVT or a resultant PE due to a long flight - collectively known as venous thromboembolism (VTE) - was \"very small\".   One person in 4,600 experiences a symptomatic VTE in a month following a flight of four hours or longer, and only a minority of those are serious.      ibid   Basically, stay well hydrated, this will make you visit the toilet twice in 12 hours and you have the necessary movement.     Get up and walk from time to time, flex your heels, however small the space you can always raise and lower your feet and exercise your calves. Stay well hydrated.      Telegraph.co.uk.   Note: The title is misleading: The article basically concludes that for patients without risk factors, flight socks and aspirin won't further decrease risk of the DVT. (Prof Gradwell added that people most at risk from developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) were those who have a predisposition to blood clots because of existing medical conditions.   In these cases, individuals should consult their GPs, and might benefit from specially fitted compression stockings, or be told to take an extra dose of aspirin, he said.)   If you do have risk factors, wear graduated compression stockings and do exercise your feat, and also consult your doctor     Fifty of 2637 participants with follow-up data available in the trials of wearing compression stockings on both legs had a symptomless DVT; three wore stockings, 47 did not (odds ratio (OR) 0.10, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.04 to 0.25, P &lt; 0.001; high-quality evidence). There were no symptomless DVTs in three trials. Sixteen of 1804 people developed superficial vein thrombosis, four wore stockings, 12 did not (OR 0.45, 95% CI 0.18 to 1.13, P = 0.09; moderate-quality evidence).       There is high-quality evidence that airline passengers similar to those in this review can expect a substantial reduction in the incidence of symptomless DVT and low-quality evidence that leg oedema is reduced if they wear compression stockings. Quality was limited by the way that oedema was measured. There is moderate-quality evidence that superficial vein thrombosis may be reduced if passengers wear compression stockings. We cannot assess the effect of wearing stockings on death, pulmonary embolism or symptomatic DVT because no such events occurred in these trials. Randomised trials to assess these outcomes would need to include a very large number of people.      Clarke, Mike J; Broderick, Cathryn; Hopewell, Sally; Juszczak, Ed; Eisinga, Anne: Compression stockings for preventing deep vein thrombosis in airline passengers. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016,9. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd CD004002 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004002.pub3   If one has risk factors of DVT, wearing GCS stockings is encouraged.     For travelers on flights of 6 hours or more who have an increased risk for DVT/PE, the ACCP recommends frequent ambulation, calf muscle stretching, sitting in an aisle seat if possible, or the use of below-knee graduated compression stockings (GCS). For long-distance travelers who are not at increased risk for DVT/PE, the guidelines suggest against the use of GCS. In addition, the guidelines suggest against the use of aspirin or anticoagulant therapy to prevent DVT/PE in long-distance travelers. For travelers who are considered to be at particularly high risk for DVT/PE, the use of antithrombotic agents should be considered on an individual basis because the adverse effects may outweigh the benefits.      \u201cSymptomatic DVT/PE is rare in passengers who have returned from long flights; however the association between air travel and DVT/PE is strongest for flights longer than 8 to 10 hours,\u201d said Dr. Crowther. \u201cMost passengers who do develop a DVT/PE after long-distance travel have one or more risk factors.\u201d       American College of Chest Physicians New DVT Guidelines: No Evidence to Support Economy Class Syndrome. Oral Contraceptives, Sitting in a Window Seat, Advanced Age, and Pregnancy Increase DVT Risk in Long-distance Travelers. February 7, 2012    Furthermore, check with your doctor whether anticoagulants are an option.  TL;DR / Conclusion  Although I gave my best efforts, I have not found studies giving absolute numbers how much risk you are at without walking, with walking, without GCS, with GCS and so on.  But: DVT can get nasty in a worst-case-scenario. Getting up every four hours is not such bad an alternative to a bad case of DVT (however unlikely that is) and it\u2019s not like one would enjoy a deep and healthy sleep in a small plane seat anyway.   As for driving: Be the driver. This way, your feet get great exercise (if you\u2019re not driving an automatic). Or play We Will Rock You every hour or so and stomp along. ",
        "id": 2016,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do ~80% of children with autism appear to improve when they have a fever?",
        "body": "I could find one letter to the editor from 2011 that posits a few mechanisms by which increased blood flow caused by the fever might make   autism symptoms better: Does fever relieve autistic behavior by improving brain blood flow?. It also mentions a workshop on the topic that happened in 2010.  Here is the workshop report.      One clear conclusion from the meeting is that much more research is needed to investigate the relationship between fever and autism, in particular whether the fever-related responses are a result of the temperature changes, or of a neuro-immune response related to infection. Clinical tests can examine the role of temperature by monitoring the effect of safely raising temperatures (such as in a water bath) on symptoms   There is a reply to the letter to the editor with some more thoughts related to causes.  I could find nothing newer, but this year, a grant of 900,000 USD grant was awarded to Indiana University to research that link: NIH awards Indiana University $900,000 to study link between body temperature and autism     \"Like many research topics, the phenomenon isn't totally unknown, but exact mechanisms linking body temperature and autism haven't yet been organized as a principle and unpacked to see how it could work,\" said Alberts.      The IU study will be conducted in mice. Alberts and Harshaw will investigate the association between\u00a0physiological\u00a0deficits\u00a0in the ability to regulate body temperature and social behaviors associated with autism\u00a0using mouse models for both conditions. ",
        "id": 488,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it impossible to impregnate a woman during her period, and in the few days after?",
        "body": "Here is basic information on how the menstrual cycle &amp; ovulation occur. http://womhealth.org.au/conditions-and-treatments/understanding-your-menstrual-cycle-fact-sheet  With that said, I charted my cycles for years &amp; was well aware of how my body worked overall.  I have actually taken education on the use of charting to avoid pregnancy.  It worked very well for me for a decade &amp; then one time I ovulated on day 4 (which for most women would be during menstruation) and that is how I got pregnant with one of my children.    So there is no time in a cycle you can have unprotected sex and be absolutely certain you will not ovulate, even if you have always ovulated on a predictable schedule.  I did know this.  It was okay with me overall to have that unplanned pregnancy, hence why I was comfortable taking that risk as a married person who had children already.  If you do not want a child, wear a condom, every time.  It really is what you need to do.  You cannot know for sure what a body will ever do because it is impacted by stress, sleep, foods, etc and hormones - things you cannot always account for. Even when a woman takes hormonal birth control, there is a failure rate.  None of the birth control options other than sterilization have close to a 0% chance &amp; anyone telling you that is not being factual.",
        "id": 1831,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does wrapping hot towel in neck to get rid of sore throat and cold?",
        "body": "It will not get rid of it but it will help with the pain.   If you have a fever or there are stuff (exudates) on your tonsils. I would have it checked out to rule out strep.   But mostly likely it is viral and you will need supportive care like tylenol for pain. ",
        "id": 1955,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dealing with heat strokes",
        "body": "For starters, make sure you or someone close by is calling for an ambulance, because you need that more advanced help started in your direction ASAP.   Get the person out of the heat, into air conditioning or at least out of the sun. If there are no air conditioned areas close by then shade is next best. Get them undressed if possible, soak them with cold water. If you're alone, you may not want to just place them in a cold bath, covering them with sheets soaked in cold water would be helpful. If they are still conscious and able to tolerate it, you may place them in a cool bath or shower. If they are still conscious and able to safely swallow, you may give them cold water to sip (not gulp, you don't want them vomiting).   Let's discuss what heat stroke is... Signs and symptoms of heatstroke as presented by the Mayo Clinic include a rectal temperature of 104 degrees Fahrenheit or higher, altered mental status, nausea, decreased sweating and rapid heart rate.   For a complete list of signs and symptoms, see this link from The Mayo Clinic.  For diagnosis and treatment information for heatstroke, visit this link from The Mayo Clinic.  If you would like an in-depth read on the history of heatstroke, risk factors, causes, in-hospital treatment of it and a variety of additional information on it, see this link from Lippincott Nursing Center. The link goes to a continuing education article on heat stroke for nurses. In my personal opinion, this is the most informational article of the three I shared. However, it is wordy and a rather lengthy read.   Hope this helps! ",
        "id": 2320,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why was 'strabismus' chosen to mean 'any misalignment of the eyes'?",
        "body": "The word \"squint\" has multiple meanings-- the ophthalmic definition being:      A condition of the eye consisting in noncoincidence of   the optic axes; strabismus.   \"Strabismus\" does mean \"squint\", but squint doesn't necessarily mean \"to look at something with your eyes partially closed\".  In fact, in one of the historical examples on dictionary.com, the related word \"asquint\" is used in the following sentence from the 17th century:     But I know that Providence looketh not asquint, but looketh straight   out, and through all men's darkness.   This usage seems to imply that strabismus (or at least not looking \"straight out\") has a long association with the word squint.",
        "id": 2150,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do medical professionals tap syringes before injecting somebody?",
        "body": "It's so that the correct dosage of medication to be administered can be drawn in the syringe and to get rid of any air bubbles incidentally drawn.  The syringe has milliliter (and fractions thereof) markers on the barrel. In order to get the right volume of medication from the vial/ampule, one has to get rid of any air bubbles incidentally drawn in. By holding the syringe vertically and tapping it, you encourage bubbles to float to the top of syringe, then pushing the plunger expels any air bubbles and extra medication that might be in the syringe.  A tiny bit of air injected into a vein will not usually do any harm to a normal person. It merely gets dissolved in the blood or tissue it is injected into.   If you are interested in knowing more about it, you can read this Medscape article, which states:     ...it has been estimated that more than 5 mL/kg of air displaced into the intravenous space is required for significant injury (shock or cardiac arrest) to occur. However, complications have been reported with as little as 20 mL of air.   Drawing medicine out of a vial",
        "id": 706,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Survival Cannibalism: extreme starvation lead to pica disorder then to cannibalism? What is \"edible\"?",
        "body": " Nails, hair, teeth and bones in general are not edible.   The ears and the larynx are difficult to digest.   Muscles are easy to remove and are also nutritious.   The liver is rich in nutrients and vitamins, easy to chew and swallow and, provided you haven't missed your anatomy classes, not very hard to remove.  The same applies  to blood clots and the spleen.   The bowels are usually avoided because they are rich in bacteria and viruses, in addition to their most repugnant content.     If I ever had to do it to survive, I'd go for the muscles which are just like raw beef.  ",
        "id": 1615,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which deteriorates hearing faster; treble or bass?",
        "body": "There are a number of issues wrapped up in this question. The first, which deteriorates faster treble or bass, is that Presbycusis, age related hearing loss, is a high frequency (i.e., treble) phenomenon. While hearing loss can occur due to damage of the tympanic membrane (i.e., ear drum), this is a conductive hearing loss that can be generally be well treated with hearing aids. Presbycusis and noise induced hearing loss are generally sensorinerual in nature.  Given how the inner ear works, noise induced hearing loss generally occurs at the frequency of the noise. As the sound waves travel through the cochlea they undergo frequency dispersion. This means that a low frequency sound (bass) only \"travels\" the whole length of the cochlea all the way to the apex while high frequency sounds are transmitted only to the base. This means that low frequency sounds are slightly more \"dangerous\" to the inner ear than high frequency sounds.  The final piece to realize is that not all frequencies have the same importance. For speech the articulation index, and the more recent speech intelligibility index, give more weight to frequencies in the 1-3 kHz range.  In summary, you should turn everything down and not just one particular region. If you can only turn down one region, you should attempt to preserve your hearing in the 1-3 kHz range so that you will be able to understand speech.",
        "id": 1387,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Side Effect of Lyrica medication",
        "body": "Side effects of drugs such as Lyrica (pregabalin) are collected by the manufacturer in clinical trials as well as post marketing surveillance, case reports and by regulatory agencies.  Drugs.com has a page describing side effects for this drug, and oedema, weight change are included, and maybe even the others you haven't mentioned.  However, because you've noticed a particular symptom, it may not be related to the drug and sometimes you have to stop and restart to see if the effect is reproducible and therefore more likely to be caused by the drug.",
        "id": 896,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rehydrate & avoiding dehydration without excessive urination?",
        "body": "When hydrating, it is important not only to consume enough fluids, but also to ensure that you are replenishing electrolytes and minerals in your body. This will help you to hydrate yourself more quickly and sustainable than simply drinking lots of water. Here are my suggestions:   Sports drinks like Gatorade contain electrolytes and will hydrate you more efficiently that plain water. If you prefer a less sugary option, coconut water also contains high levels of electrolytes. You can also make an oral re-hydration solution (ORS) at home: simply mix 4 cups water with 6 small spoonfuls of sugar, and a half a small spoonful of salt and mix to dissolve. This will restore lost fluids and minerals more quickly than plain water. You can also eat watery fruits and vegetables to re-hydrate yourself more quickly, as these not only have high water content but will replenish lost minerals -watermelon, cantaloupe, grapefruit, oranges, strawberries, cucumber, grapes, papaya, celery, lettuce, spinach, zucchini and tomatoes are some good examples. If you don't like to eat these foods plain, consider blending into a smoothie. Dehydration causes loss of minerals like potassium - eat 1-2 bananas a day to replenish your potassium.   Following these suggestions should help to prevent dehydration (and rehydrate you if you do become dehydrated) better than simply drinking water.",
        "id": 1701,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Natural ways to quit smoking",
        "body": "Natural Ways to quit Smoking   Candy and Gum. Sucking candy or chewing gum can occupy your mouth and time much the same as cigarettes. Even lollipops can help.       The flavor of the gum keeps the mouth fresh, making smoking less   attractive. The act of chewing relieves the desire for oral   stimulation and keeps the mouth busy.      The cool, tingly feeling of menthol or mint makes a smoker's mouth   feel fresh and clean, which tricks the brain into feeling less desire   for that hot intake of smoke.    Avoid triggers. Things you did while smoking or stress and other behaviors that encourage smoking. They vary per person. They can even be drinks such as coffee, alcohol or tea.  Deep Breathing. Some smokers while smoking inhaled deeply which promotes relaxation. Proper deep breathing as your stomach protrude on inhalation which allows the lungs to expand more and hold more air. Other breathing exercises.  Exercise. 30 minutes a day can prove helpful.       Decreases appetite, Eases nicotine withdrawal symptoms when you first   quit smoking, Distracts you from thoughts of smoking, Improves your mood,   Helps you cope with stress and feel more energetic    Others: Adequate Hydration, appropriate diet, adequate rest, etc.      Additional Info:   The First 30 Days: Quit Smoking! Quitting Smoking: Help for Cravings and Tough Situations ",
        "id": 186,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do doctors use tendon instead of ligament in key-hole surgery?",
        "body": "Graham Chiu put it very well: \"Where would you get a ligament from that isn't going to make you worse off?\"  We rely on our ligaments for the structural stability of our skeleton. This supersedes the integrity of our muscular attachments, although there are a few exceptions. Since they're attached to muscles, tendons are going to be more superficial (easier to access) and more abundant.  Some circumstances can necessitate the transfer (not a complete removal as in tendon harvest, but the redirection of one end) of a ligament. This happens when one skeletal structure's stability is secondary to the stability of a neighboring bony union, so a ligament is appropriately reprioritized:     \"Acromioclavicular joint reconstruction with coracoacromial    ligament transfer using the docking technique.\" Millett et al. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2009.       Symptomatic Acromioclavicular (AC) dislocations have historically been surgically   treated with Coracoclavicular (CC) ligament reconstruction with transfer of the Coracoacromial (CA) ligament. The distal clavicle was resected and stabilized with CC ligament reconstruction using the CA ligament. The CA ligament was passed into the medullary canal and tensioned, using a modified 'docking' technique. The docking procedure  allows  for  tensioning  of  the  transferred  CA  ligament and healing of the ligament in an intramedullary bone tunnel. Excellent clinical results were achieved,   decreasing the risk of recurrent distal clavicle instability.       ",
        "id": 982,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does FPIES ever present with widespread non-specific intolerance?",
        "body": "My nephew had FPIES, he is also IgA deficient &amp; has general food sensitivities &amp; my looking into seems to indicate that these things are linked simply meaning that having FPIES does have some influence on an increase in having other food sensitivities (as well as being IgA deficient).  You may want to have your child tested for IgA deficiency if that hasn't been done yet as it's also linked to other potential issues.  None of it is terribly scary things, but things you want to be aware of nonetheless.  IgA deficiency is actually relatively common, effecting about 1 in 500 people.  I do not recall her mentioning him reacting to medication, but he could have &amp; I just wasn't told or don't recall her saying it.  I can also tell you there are FPIES groups on facebook that are there for support &amp; to bounce questions specifically off those living with it or who have lived with it.    This link here about halfway down pretty much says you can have a FPIES reaction to anything, depending on the severity of the case &amp; the potential for trace amounts of irritants in the ingested food.  I am sure medication could fall under that as fillers and binders can contain a number of ingredients &amp; they aren't even always spelled out of they are considered no allergenic &amp; GRAS.  http://www.kidswithfoodallergies.org/page/food-protein-induced-enterocolitis-syndrome-fpies.aspx",
        "id": 354,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is rest necessary, recommended, or unnecessary in a mild M\u00e9ni\u00e8re's episode?",
        "body": "The short answer: I haven't come across anything that states that patients with a mild Meniere's episode should rest on principle even if they're feeling well enough to perform activities. So, I think it would be up to the patient's own judgement about what they are comfortable doing.  The longer answer: Meniere's disease is a disease of the inner ear, and is associated with distortions of the delicate membranes found in the inner ear. The underlying cause is not fully understood - various theories include that Meniere's disease is caused by a blockage at the endolymphatic sac, genetics, a virus, or a problem with blood vessels, but nobody knows for sure. If a person has definitively been diagnosed with Meniere's disease by a physician, then the treatment focuses on reducing symptoms. Treatments include lifestyle chances (limiting salt intake to 2-3 g per day, avoiding caffeine/alcohol/nicotine/MSG which are harmful substances that can worsen symptoms based on their effects in the inner ear, etc.). Treatments also include certain medicines (prescribed by a physician, e.g. anti-nausea medications like prochlorperazine.) There's also vestibular rehabilitation therapy which tries to help people with their balance, and hearing aids for hearing problems. Finally, there are some surgical procedures that might help in certain really severe cases of Meniere's that don't respond to any other treatments. In all my reading about Meniere's, I was not able to find any studies that suggested that patients should force themselves to rest during a mild Meniere's episode during which they would be capable of performing various activities. At the end of the day \"listening to your body\" is really a good piece of advice: if the patient feels safe and comfortable performing certain activities during a mild episode, it is probably alright; if they start to feel worse, they can stop what they are doing or take it more slowly. Of course, the best person to answer this question would be the patient's personal physician, since the physician will know the patient's full medical history and will therefore be able to give a more individualized answer.  Source: I'm a medical student, and I referenced the article on Meniere's disease in UpToDate, a medical encyclopedia.",
        "id": 510,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do blue light filtering lenses work? Is it possible that they could they negatively impact your vision?",
        "body": "There are many different ways (proprietary methods) that these blue light coating are manufactured, but one general principle is called anti-reflection coatings. *I say \"one general method\" because hybrid methods can exist depending on the manufacturing company.   Anti-reflection coating:  The coating creates two reflections (on each side of the coating) that destructively interfere (cancel each other out), thus reducing the amount of blue (high energy) light reaching the eyes. This is the reason why the coating is promoted to help alleviate eye strain from computer light.       Physics behind the image:  Index refraction of coating is somewhere between air (~1) and glass (~1.5); the coating's thickness is around 1/4*light's wavelength (number varies, but should be around blue/green area of light spectrum).     From what I can tell, there doesn't seem to be any negative impact on vision/eye health by reducing the amount of blue light that reaches your eye.   These blue light coatings remind me of the 'orange sunglasses/blue blocking glasses' and research is still being done to study how reducing blue light yields health benefits such as eye protection, improving cortisol level and better sleep.       References:  Different types of blue light coating  Physics behind Anti-Reflection Coatings  Neat Information on Blue Light, the Good and the Bad  Research on benefits of blocking out blue light ",
        "id": 2126,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pain in knee joint",
        "body": "Applying cold compresses to the painful knee is one of the best and easiest ways to reduce pain and swelling. The cold will constrict the blood vessels, reducing blood flow to the affected area and thus reducing swelling. It will also give you relief from the pain.   Wrap a handful of ice cubes in a thin towel. Apply the compress to the affected knee area for 10 to 20 minutes. Do this two or three times daily until your pain is gone. A bag of frozen peas also works well as a cold compress. You can opt for alternating hot and cold compresses as well for chronic pains.   http://www.top10homeremedies.com/home-remedies/home-remedies-knee-pain.html  http://everydayroots.com/arthritis-remedies  http://www.healthline.com/health/pain-relief/knee-pain-home-remedies",
        "id": 1290,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of eating rice at dinner time",
        "body": "The glycemic index of rice varies quite a lot: according to this link from Harvard Medical School, from 38 for Parboiled rice to 72 for white rice. The latter is a rather high glycemic index. As a consequence, it may be that white rice at dinner releases glucose rapidly, and what is not needed then gets stored as fat.  Of course, this depends on a number of factors, like how much rice do you eat, what sort of rice it is (there are many!), whether your dinner has been preceded or is followed by physical activity, and so on. Generally, I would reject the claim that eating rice during dinner is not good for one's health.",
        "id": 1753,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the effect of diet on sleep allowances?",
        "body": "Exercise can improve sleep quality, as demonstrated for instance here, so maybe this improved quality reduces the needed quantity of sleep. It has been claimed that the practice of yoga reduces sleep needs, and long-term yoga practice has been linked to better sleep quality.  As for diet and sleep, there are indeed correlations, but these may vary and it seems the impact could go both ways. In particular, sleep deprivation has been linked to increased caloric intake. Closer to your question, a study on the effects of diet on sleep quality has shown evidence of the impact of certain foods on sleep quality, but concludes on the necessity of more studies on the subject.",
        "id": 1711,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Looking for research data for amount of hearing loss resulting from otitis media with effusion (OME)",
        "body": "Otitis media with effusion (OME) is most common in young children (under 2) making studying the effects on hearing difficult. While newborn hearing screening is common, it does not provide a full audiogram. Collecting an audiogram a a child who does not speak or understand direction and has limited attention is hard. Collecting an audiogram on a sick child is even harder. With a some serious caveat regarding sample size, Werner and Ward (1997) provide the best study on this that I am aware of. They conclude that the effect of OME is 15-30 dB (while the child is sick).",
        "id": 288,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is this internet meme about the price of insulin true?",
        "body": "The insulin price has grown significantly over the years, mostly from 2000-ish to 2014 for almost every major producer.  The percentage of people that have to pay (and/or copay) more than 1000$ has for the first time since 1999 the 50% mark, and for a lifesaver medicine like insulin, this is a major problem that affects the 1.5 million people living in the US with type 1 diabetes. (plus the type 2 diabetic people) There are several factors that impact the cost structure of this industry and vary from the drug makers itself to an indefinite number of intermediaries (pharmacy benefit managers, companies) and the R&amp;D for developing new types of insulin, like the Fiasp. On the other hand, there are countries like Italy (where I live) where you (mostly) don't have to pay for insulin.  Response to Marzipanherz: Yes, here in Italy the price of insulin have been less affected by the rise compared to the US. A package of 5 vials of Novorapid, cost just a little bit over 50\u20ac to the Italian Sanitary System, and years ago was just under that price. The situation is a little bit more complicated, due to the fact each region can, in a broad way, publish public notices allowing each drug-maker to make an offer in order to enhance the competition between them and getting the lower price for the market.  Of course, if a patient has a need of getting a specific type of insulin, he will get it but the general rule is to administer the insulin brand that won the public notice. There is a quite relevant paper (written entirely in Italian) where it states that the average expenditure for a type 1 Diabetic person in Italy is about 4777\u20ac of which 1399\u20ac are on medicine and materials. In the US the direct costs (paid directly or indirectly) for the Diabetic person is about 7888$. Those data should be interpreted with more context but they give a general idea of the differences between the 2 countries.",
        "id": 2357,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What forms of prevention of STIs are there?",
        "body": "The CDC lists two:  complete abstinence, and being in a long-term mutually monogamous relationship with an uninfected partner.  Sexual intercourse naturally introduces microtears (small tears in the the epithelial layer) through which diseases can transfer between partners.  One might think that additional lubrication would help with this, but the jury is most definitely out on that.  I think it's pretty safe to say that if there was another clinically verified way of preventing STDs, the CDC would have put it on this list.  (For example, they note that there are specific things you can be vaccinated against, namely hepatitis B and HPV.)  It strains credulity to think that there is a mechanism available that the CDC just forgot to mention there.  Having said all of that, I'll just mention the fact that there are a variety of types of condoms.  If you are in a situation where you need to use them (e.g. non abstinent and not in a long term monogamous relationship), you might be able to find a brand or type that works better for you.  EDIT:  A comment has pointed out that a cervical barrier method can reduce the risk of transmission of certain types of STIs.  Since that does not show up on the CDC list I mentioned, I feel that it's worth bringing up.  By no means is that a \"safe substitute\" for a condom (and I don't think anyone is implying that it is).  However, as a risk reducer, it should be added to the list.",
        "id": 60,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is breathing using the nose and diaphragm truly healthier?",
        "body": "just a short answer, since no-one has responded yet:  Diaphragm  Except from deepening your breath by expanding the volume of the lungs down towards the belly,     the diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions, helping to expel vomit, feces, and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.   From wikipedia.  But this is only one aspect of many more, others are   posture -> since the diaphragm inserts at the lower ribs and the vertebrae it influences the way you spine is aligned lung volume -> when the diaphragm contracts during inhalation, it expands downwards and gives way to the lungs to expand as well. thus you have a bigger volume and can breath in more air. slower breathing -> the more air you breath in, the slower you breath, this may lead to a relaxation during stress situations.   Nasal breathing     It is often considered superior to mouth breathing[6][7] for several reasons. Air travels to and from the external environment and the lungs through the nasal passages, as opposed to the mouth. The nasal passages do a better job of filtering the air as it enters the lungs. In addition, the smaller diameter of the nasal passages creates pressure in the lungs during exhalation, allowing the lungs to have more time to extract oxygen from them. When there is proper oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange, the blood will maintain a balanced pH. If carbon dioxide is lost too quickly, as in mouth breathing, oxygen absorption decreases. Nasal breathing is especially important in certain situations such as dehydration, cold weather, laryngitis, and when the throat is sore or dry because it does not dry the throat as much.   From wikipedia as well.",
        "id": 642,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are parts of my teeth super white, but most yellow?",
        "body": "White spots can be due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors. Examples of intrinsic are Hypoplasia (poor formation of the tooth structure) or flourosis (too much flouride uptake into the tooth struture during formation). Extrinsic could be due to uneven bleaching/whitening of the teeth. If the intrinsic defects are superficial, simple tooth-coloured fillings can correct the situation. More severe problems need crowning (a cap over the tooth). Depending on what the extrinsic factors are, corrections are to reduce or stop the problems like stop or maybe bleach even more to even things out! ",
        "id": 1920,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will reading in dim light damage my eyes?",
        "body": "Short answer The consensus is that sub-optimal lighting does not permanently damage the eye.    Background Sub-optimal lighting can create a sensation of having difficulty in focusing. It also decreases the rate of blinking and leads to discomfort from drying. These complaints do not persist. The majority consensus in ophthalmology is that reading in dim light does not damage your eyes; it is a myth. Although it can cause eye strain with multiple temporary negative effects, it is unlikely to cause a permanent change to the function or structure of the eyes (Vreeman &amp; Caroll, 2007).   If you Google your question many credible sources outside the scientific literature seem to agree that it is a myth busted, including WebMD, ABC and Wall Street Journal.  Reference - Vreeman &amp; Caroll, BMJ (2007); 335",
        "id": 554,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dietary Requirements of Gold",
        "body": "There's no established lower or upper intake level, but there's data showing that the average human body contains around 3ppb of gold, mostly in the form of nanoparticles.  Here's a long review of the academic literature on medical uses of gold nanoparticles:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3347577/  In particular, it has a lot of effects on the immune system and it has been used as an adjuvant.",
        "id": 729,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is asking patients whether they know the current day for?",
        "body": "It was an assessment of your mental status. It's usually among the first questions an EMT will ask. The purpose is to determine if your are mentally alert and oriented. The reasons for this assessment are to look for possible brain injury (concussion or worse) and also other causes such as intoxication with alcohol or drugs, low blood sugar, and other conditions that can cause mental confusion. It also has legal ramifications. If they judge you to be mentally incompetent, your right to make medical decisions for yourself is extinguished, including the right to refuse care (I'm assuming US law here, but most developed countries are similar).  This assessment has significant impact on the actions they take next. If you fail the test, they'll be wondering if your confusion is a result of injury from the crash or something else. Intoxication is always high on the list of possibilities, and so is low blood sugar. You would likely be asked if you are diabetic at that point, and they would probably do a finger stick to check blood sugar levels no matter what your answer. If your blood sugar is normal then they'll have to assume you've suffered head injury from the crash and expedite you accordingly. The smell of alcohol on your breath or signs of intoxication wouldn't change this course of events because drunks suffer head injuries too.",
        "id": 2389,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can we erase problematic memories to aid recovery from depression?",
        "body": "Yes, I understand you. I have been fighting a depression myself for the past months, although it must have gone on longer than that, undiagnosed. I know how it feels, and understand how you just want it gone away.   The direct answer to your question is: Selective memory loss is impossible. There is no way to forget that past year. But there is a way to get over the depression without forgetting.   The insidious thing about depression is that it makes everything seem like an insurmountable problem, and makes you feel incapable of solving it. So of course, you want the problems gone away. But the way forward is not to change the events which happened, or erase your memory of them. It is to learn that they are not really as bad as they feel, even when your depressed mind is convinced that they are terrible.   I know it might seem impossible to you to do so - after all, you are feeling in your bones that they are bad things. But clinical practice, and my own experience, shows that it is very possible. \"Seeing the world with different eyes\" is a skill which can be learned, just like you can learn to knit socks or play the piano. And there are many things you can do to learn it - reading books, talking to a specialist (therapist), observing and imitating those who have it, talking with others who are going through the same process, practicing your new skill, and having support from non-affected friends and family members who cheer your success without putting you into a pressure trap.   One of the tricky things about depression is that it saps our motivation to do anything, even the things which will heal us. It is very logical: why do something that is hopeless? The important thing here is to recognize that this hopelessness is not real, it is an illusion created by the illness. It's hard to get over it, because it feels absolutely real, but it is possible. If your ability to motivate yourself is so far down you cannot start with something as hard as cognitive therapy, you could start a medication course (st john's worth for milder cases, if you don't take any other medications, or go straight for synthetic antidepressants), which will give you the initial \"spark\" which will give you the energy to pack your problems at the root.   You will need a long time until you start feeling normal again, but believe me, it does work, even it is a hard, two-steps-forward-one-backward road. And even when the goal is still far away, the gradual progress is better than staying in place.   The result of it will be that you won't have forgotten what happened to you that last year. But the memories will just be memories, which will not make you feel like an anxious, hopeless failure, the way they do now. Right now, you experience them like a barrier blocking your way forwards in life, and want them gone. When you learn to manage the depression, they will be more like a chalk line on your way - you can step over it without it holding you back in any way.     Many of the resources you need have to be found locally, but I can suggest a few books. I have read tons of them in my own healing process, but these are the ones I found most helpful.    \"The mindful way through depression\" by Mark Williams. It is a straight depression self-help book, and the program outlined there is worth it. But even if you can't bring yourself to go through the program, just reading it will bring you valuable insights.  \"Performing under pressure\" by Hendrie Weisinger and J. P. Pawliw-Fry. When you are depressed, your problems seem much more overwhelming, while the energy you have to deal with them goes down. Learning strategies to make the best out of your limited energy is very helpful, and can bring you into an important positive feedback loop - the more problems you solve, the less hopeless you feel.  \"The gifts of imperfection\" by Brene Brown. Depression makes us feel flawed, like we have failed at being proper humans. There are schools of thought which support such conclusions, and this book exposes the errors of these ways of thinking.  \"On being certain\" by Robert Burton. We grow up believing in, well, our beliefs. But a successful cognitive change requires us to recognize that some of our beliefs are wrong, no matter how right they feel. This book is probably not for everybody, and it does not address the problem of depression directly. But once you realize that there are cognitive illusions, just like there are optical illusions, it becomes much easier to understand how a cognitive behavioral therapy or a mindfulness training works, and to not dismiss it as mumbo jumbo from the start.      Good luck with your journey. And don't forget: you don't have to be special, or a super hero, to get over your own depression. All you need is the knowledge how to do it (I listed the sources above) and the tenacity to not give up when it feels hopeless. ",
        "id": 170,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the general causes of migraine and how can it be treated",
        "body": "The exact cause of migraines is unknown, although they are thought to be the result of temporary changes in the chemicals and blood vessels in the brain. Some people find migraine attacks are associated with certain triggers, which can include starting their period, stress, tiredness and certain foods or drinks.  There is no cure for migraines, but migraines can be usually treated with:   painkillers \u2013 including over the counter medicationssuch as paracetamol and ibuprofen, triptans \u2013 medications that can help reverse the changes in the brain that may cause migraines, anti-emetics \u2013 medications often used to reduce nausea and vomiting.   Many people find that sleeping or lying in a darkened room can also help.  Sometimes a specific trigger can cause migraines, such as stress or a certain type of food (artificial sweeteners, preservatives), so avoiding it can reduce your symptoms.  Read more about symptoms of a migraine and treating migraines.  Source: Migraine at NHS",
        "id": 20,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to tell if my leg fracture is healing?",
        "body": "First, please note that I am not an orthopedist, and please make note of the disclaimer in the yellow box next to your question. This is not to be construed as personal medical advice.  Second, major ouch! You have my sympathy.  You can tell is a fracture is healing by looking for a callus.  This is a series of radiographs of a more serious tibial-fibular fracture (tib-fib fx for short) at different time periods:    There was an extensive repair done on this tib-fib fx, but looking at the week 10 fracture, you will see that, like yours, it doesn't look much different from the day 1 radiograph. What you can see if you look carefully is a kind of softening of the edges of the fractures. This is due to bone remodeling and callus formation.  The callus is barely visible in this series until week 14 (the image isn't very high quality), and is becoming obvious by week 20.  Note the callus is more easily seen in this series:    You can see the callus very clearly on week 9 when the leg was still in a cast; it is a rounded, radioopaque bulge adjacent to the fracture. The x-ray labelled \"callus\" was taken at 4 months.  If you look at your radiographs, you can see the callus forming, so long answer short, yes, your fracture(s) are healing. It will take a long time to look healed - about a year - on x-ray.  \"Breaking\" the fibula (or fibular ostotomy) in cases of tibial non-union is not unheard of, but I have absolutely no idea of how often it's done, or if the additional weight-bearing associated with it speeds tibial healing. But please note that you already have an angulated distal fibular fracture (look at the bone - the fibula - behind the tibia just above its concave surface in the leg on the left.) It looks to be at about 20\u00b0.   Also note that the tibial stress fractures - the fracture lines perpendicular to the plane of the tibial fracture itself - are more prominent in the second set of x-rays (this may just be picture quality), as well as more prominent displacement of your fracture, which is easier to see if you follow the medullary lines - the \"hollow\" inner part of the bone where the bone marrow is - you'll see they line up nicely in the first set of x-rays, less so in the second.     I am considering going to another doctor for a second opinion   If you don't fully trust your doctor for any reason whatsoever (and clearly you don't), get a second opinion. It's your leg, and you are to some extent responsible for getting the best medical advice. The internet isn't the best place to do that; a good orthopedist is.  Image obtained from Recombinant Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 for Treatment of Open Tibial Fractures Image of callus formation from Bone Growth and Remodeling Oblique osteotomy for the correction of tibial malunion. Danger Zones Associated with Fibular Osteotomy.",
        "id": 533,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why should we finish antibiotic treatments in order to prevent antibiotics resistance?",
        "body": "Mayo Clinic on the example of tuberculosis:     Stopping treatment too soon or skipping doses can allow the bacteria   that are still alive to become resistant to those drugs, leading to tuberculosis   that is much more dangerous and difficult to treat.   So, the logic behind completing the course is to kill as much bacteria as possible to prevent the surviving ones to mutate and become resistant.    UPDATE: This question seems to be quite complicated, actually.  According to The BMJ (2017):     However, the idea that stopping antibiotic treatment early encourages   antibiotic resistance is not supported by evidence, while taking   antibiotics for longer than necessary increases the risk of   resistance.   The official policies of prescribing antibiotics have not changed because of such discussions, but the BMJ authors recommend that the information material for the public should contain \"take antibiotics exactly as prescribed\" and not \"finishing the course.\" So, it's a doctor and not a patient who should decide the treatment period.",
        "id": 2343,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How likely is the seasonal flu shot to protect you from a flu pandemics?",
        "body": "Based on the most recent large-scale and high quality Cochrane review on more than 80,000 healthy adults from 52 clinical trials aged 16 to 65 years, including pregnant women, over a single influenza season in North America, South America, and Europe who received vaccination between 1969 and 2009 (1):     71 healthy adults need to be vaccinated to prevent one of them experiencing influenza, and 29 healthy adults need to be vaccinated to prevent one of them experiencing an influenza-like illness (2)   These statistics (i.e., 71 and 29) are called number needed to be vaccinated/treated (NNV or NNT) representing the clinical effectiveness of vaccines (NNV) or medications (NNT). http://www.thennt.com/ is a quite useful source to find out such measures of clinical effectiveness of diagnostic, preventive, or therapeutic medical interventions.        Considering the difference between pandemics and seasonal outbreaks: Basically, the current flu vaccines are based on previously recognized sub-types (e.g., in previous epidemics/pandemics). If the virus of an upcoming epidemic/pandemic has been covered in the vaccine, these likelihoods may be true. However, it should be noticed that it is a bit unlikely for a previously  well-recognized and covered sub-type to form a pandemic (i.e. an influenza virus that spreads on a worldwide scale and infects a large proportion of the world population [Wikipedia]), unless by mutating to a new pandemic strain. Also, note that studying vaccines' effectiveness against pandemics (the exact protection rate in populations) by current research equipment, methods and budgets is not feasible. Also, we should not forget that human kind has only experienced 5 flu pandemics.",
        "id": 2653,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does exercise relief stomach pain/bloating",
        "body": "Exercise helps move the gas out of your body:      the study found that walking helped move food through the stomach much   more quickly. When the stomach empties faster, gas is able to move   more quickly into your small intestine and cause less distress.     \"Simply lying down often provides relief from bloating,\" Palmer says.   \"But the thing about gas and bloating is that when you lie down, gas   is less likely to be able to pass out of the body. You might feel   better, but you\u2019re actually trapping more gas.\"    So the posture of exercise(walking, bending) could be why it offers relief, as well.   The effect of physical exercise on parameters of gastrointestinal function.  While exercise can be a cause to aggravate heartburn, walking after dinner can be beneficial for symptoms. I do not know what intense workout entails for you, however.    Walking and chewing reduce postprandial acid reflux Lying down after dinner can aggravate acid reflux. So should be avoided for at least 3 hours.  Exercises that promote the gastric content movement should be avoided as they can aggravate symptoms   So the posture may help the GERD symptoms as lying down can causes gastric movement in the wrong direction. ",
        "id": 943,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If I think my mole is changing, what should I do?",
        "body": "Get to a doctor or dermatologist straight away  A changing mole is an indicator of possible melanoma. Melanoma spreads very quickly, and mortality rates rise fast if it is left to grow.  Here is some information on what to look for, and potential indicators of melanoma (UK NHS).     Melanomas usually appear as a dark, fast-growing spot where there was not one before, or a pre-existing mole that changes size, shape or colour and bleeds, itches or reddens.   A specialist will be able to do a diagnosis, and advise you on future checks. If they think it could be a melanoma, they will remove the mole and perform a biopsy.",
        "id": 55,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "A nutritionally complete diet that respects W.H.O. standards?",
        "body": "Since you have stated you are looking for a way to build a diet I will supply you with a tool that I have designed. It already includes a practical example of what I eat every day.    This is not simply a table, it's a calculation tool. Instructions:   Research foods that you eat at https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list and http://nutritiondata.self.com/ Make sure the Serving size is set to 100g! I used to forget that all the time. Paste the Values (for a 100g serving size) into the light grey tiles with yellow font. Adjust the amount that you eat everyday with the number above the green tiles (in gramms).   If you're one of the people that eat the same thing every day like me you can use this to take creating your \"perfect diets\" to the next level.  I hope links are allowed on stackexchange, because this is the most important part. Get the Excel file here: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B4AGSo-ayQGUa3QtSG1saFVXd2M?usp=sharing  Clarifying:   Column \"A\", dark grey tiles: name of Nutrients. Column \"B\", red tiles: your RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance). Keep in mind the RDA is slightly different from the RDI (Recommended Daily Intake), research and tweak these values to your hearts content. Column \"C\", red tiles: is the Upper Limit. You should not excess this number. Column \"D\", orange tiles: is the total nutrients you consume (sum of all the green tiles of the same row) Column \"E\", orange tiles: Your Total / RDA. If you're anywhere near 100% you're good. However it will not warn you if you exceed the UL. Column \"F\", \"I\", \"L\"... grey tiles with yellow font: Insert the nutrition value for a 100g serving size of a food of your choice. Column \"G\", \"J\", \"M\"... green tiles: Calculation of nutrition value for a serving size of your choice (adjust with number above the green tiles) Column \"H\", \"K\", \"N\"... grey tiles: Percentage of RDA of the specified food ",
        "id": 1351,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "can sleeping near a wifi router harm your health?",
        "body": "There has been an ongoing debate regarding health risks from the electromagnetic fields being emitted from WiFi routers. The constant radiation exposure is arguably dangerous at close distances and may contribute to serious health issues, especially with long-term \u201cchronic\u201d exposure.  In 2011, the World Health Organization classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as \u201cpossibly carcinogenic to humans\u201d based on an increased risk for glioma, a malignant type of brain cancer, associated with wireless phone use.   The potential for adverse health effects resulting from exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields, such as those emitted by wireless communication devices, are detailed in a 2011 World Health Organization press release titled, 'IARC Classifies Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields as Possibly Carcinogenic to Humans'.     From May 24-31 2011, a Working Group of 31 scientists from 14 countries has been meeting at IARC in Lyon, France to assess the potential carcinogenic hazards from exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. These assessments will be published as Volume 102 of the IARC Monographs, which will be the fifth volume in this series to focus on physical agents, after Volume 55 (Solar Radiation), Volume 75 and Volume 78 on ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma-rays, neutrons, radio-nuclides), and Volume 80 on non-ionizing radiation (extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields).    The IARC Monograph Working Group discussed the possibility that these exposures could induce long-term effects, in particular an increased risk for cancer. The exposure categories involving radiofrequency electromagnetic fields that were discussed and evaluated included:     \u2026occupational exposures to radar and microwaves; environmental exposures associated with transmission of signals for radio, television and wireless telecommunication; and personal exposures associated with the use of wireless telephones.   International experts shared the complex task of tackling the exposure data, the studies of cancer in humans, the studies of cancer in experimental animals, and the mechanistic and other relevant data.     Results      The evidence was reviewed critically, and overall evaluated as being limited* among users of wireless telephones for glioma and acoustic neuroma, and inadequate** to draw conclusions for other types of cancers. The evidence from the occupational and environmental exposures mentioned above was similarly judged inadequate. The Working Group did not quantitate the risk; however, one study of past cell phone use (up to the year 2004), showed a 40% increased risk for gliomas in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10\u2010year period)           *'Limited evidence of carcinogenicity': A positive association has been observed between exposure to the agent and cancer for which a causal interpretation is considered by the Working Group to be credible, but chance, bias or confounding could not be ruled out with reasonable confidence.          **'Inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity': The available studies are of insufficient quality, consistency or statistical power to permit a conclusion regarding the presence or absence of a causal association between exposure and cancer, or no data on cancer in humans are available.       Dr. Jonathan Same (University of Southern California, USA) and overall Chairman of the Working Group, suggested that     \u201c\u2026the evidence, while still accumulating, is strong enough to support a conclusion... The conclusion means that there could be some risk, and therefore we need to keep a close watch for a link between cell phones and cancer risk.\u201d   The IARC Director, Christopher Wild added,     \u201dGiven the potential consequences for public health of this classification and findings, it is important that additional research be conducted into the long term, heavy use of mobile phones. Pending the availability of such information, it is important to take pragmatic measures to reduce exposure such as hands-free devices or texting\u201d   Several scientific articles resulting from the Interphone study were made available to the working group and were included in the evaluation.   One of the scientific articles, \u2019Acoustic neuroma risk in relation to mobile telephone use: results of the INTERPHONE international case-control study.\u2019 determined that     There was no increase in risk of acoustic neuroma with ever regular use of a mobile phone or for users who began regular use 10 years or more before the reference date. Elevated odds ratios observed at the highest level of cumulative call time could be due to chance, reporting bias or a causal effect. As acoustic neuroma is usually a slowly growing tumour, the interval between introduction of mobile phones and occurrence of the tumour might have been too short to observe an effect, if there is one.   A second scientific article also included in the evaluation, \u2018Estimation of RF energy absorbed in the brain from mobile phones in the Interphone Study,\u2019 explained     While amount and duration of use are important determinants of RF dose in the brain, their impact can be substantially modified by communication system, frequency band and location in the brain. It is important to take these into account in analyses of risk of brain tumors from RF exposure from mobile phones.   The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued a guide on Wireless Devices and Health Concerns addresses the topic of RF exposure.      ...the Federal Communications Commission, federal health and safety agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) have been actively involved in monitoring and investigating issues related to RF exposure. For example, the FDA has issued guidelines for safe RF emission levels from microwave ovens, and it continues to monitor exposure issues related to the use of certain RF devices such as cellular telephones. NIOSH conducts investigations and health hazard assessments related to occupational RF exposure.      Federal, state and local government agencies and other organizations have generally relied on RF exposure standards developed by expert non-government organizations such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP).       Since 1996, the FCC has required that all wireless communications devices sold in the United States meet its minimum guidelines for safe human exposure to radiofrequency (RF) energy.    The FCC\u2019s guidelines and rules regarding RF exposure      ...are based upon standards developed by IEEE and NCRP and input from other federal agencies...    These guidelines specify exposure limits for hand-held wireless devices determined by the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR).      The SAR is a measure of the rate that RF energy is absorbed by the body. For exposure to RF energy from wireless devices, the allowable FCC SAR limit is 1.6 watts per kilogram (W/kg), as averaged over one gram of tissue.   As of 1996, the FCC has required that     ...all wireless devices sold in the US go through a formal FCC approval process to ensure that they do not exceed the maximum allowable SAR level when operating at the device\u2019s highest possible power level.   Several US government agencies and international organizations work cooperatively to monitor research on the health effects of RF exposure.     According to the FDA and the World Health Organization (WHO), among other organizations, to date, the weight of scientific evidence has not effectively linked exposure to radio frequency energy from mobile devices with any known health problems.   Some health and safety interest groups have interpreted certain reports to suggest that wireless device use may be linked to cancer and other illnesses, posing potentially greater risks for children than adults.      While these assertions have gained increased public attention, currently no scientific evidence establishes a causal link between wireless device use and cancer or other illnesses.    Although no scientific evidence currently establishes a direct link between wireless device use and cancer (or other illnesses), some consumers are skeptical of the science and analysis that underlies the FCC\u2019s RF exposure guidelines. Thus, some parties recommend taking precautionary measures to further reduce exposure to RF energy.\u00a0  The FCC does not endorse the need for these practices, but provides information on steps you can take to reduce your exposure to RF energy from cell phones.\u00a0For example,     ...wireless devices only emit RF energy when you are using them and, the closer the device is to you, the more energy you will absorb.   Some of the FCC's suggested measures to reduce RF exposure include the following:     Use a speakerphone, earpiece or headset to reduce proximity to the head (and thus exposure). While wired earpieces may conduct some energy to the head and wireless earpieces also emit a small amount of RF energy, both wired and wireless earpieces remove the greatest source of RF energy (the cell phone) from proximity to the head and thus can greatly reduce total exposure to the head.Increase the distance between wireless devices and your body.Consider texting rather than talking -\u00a0but don\u2019t text while you are driving.   Although potentially misleading, some parties recommend considering reported SAR values of wireless devices.     First, the actual SAR varies considerably depending upon the conditions of use. The SAR value used for FCC approval does not account for the multitude of measurements taken during the testing. Moreover, cell phones constantly vary their power to operate at the minimum power necessary for communications; operation at maximum power occurs infrequently.       Second, the reported highest SAR values of wireless devices do not necessarily indicate that a user is exposed to more or less RF energy from one cell phone than from another during normal use            For additional information, see\u00a0SAR and cell phones.          Third, the variation in SAR from one mobile device to the next is relatively small compared to the reduction that can be achieved by the measures described above. Consumers should remember that all wireless devices are certified to meet the FCC maximum SAR standards, which incorporate a considerable safety margin.            For additional information, see maximum SAR value for each phone.      Some studies have also reported that wireless devices might interfere with implanted cardiac pacemakers      ...if used within eight inches of the pacemaker.    Although several studies claim health risks associated with wireless and EMF radiation, there is still much work to be done before definitive statements about EMF safety can be made. Because these health risks are of concern to you, it may be advisable to take precautionary measures by placing your router at an appropriate distance from your body, especially while sleeping. However, it is best to discuss any health-related questions or concerns with your primary care physician or specialist.   As a side note - you may also want to review the specs on the Asus RT-AC5300 router listed on the Asus website and request additional product documentation from the company to review with your primary care physician or specialist.    Supplemental information and resources:   Wireless Devices and Health Concerns Guide  Radio Frequency Safety  CNN's Dr. Sanjay Gupta Explains: Cell phones and radiation  Cell Phone Radiation Safety Tips With Dr Sanjay Gupta on Anderson Cooper 360",
        "id": 1889,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can nasal irrigation help for chronic sinusitis?",
        "body": "The American Rhinologic Society says:     Nasal/Sinus Irrigation   Conclusions:   Recent research has confirmed that sinus and nasal irrigations with salt water are helpful. Multiple devices are available for delivery however the high volume and positive pressure methods seem to work the best. Both the irrigation device and the water source have the potential for contamination and thus proper sterilization of both is critical to the safe and effective use of irrigations. Medicated irrigations are being used more commonly and may improve our ability to treat chronic sinusitis.   Sometimes surgery is needed to properly reach the actual sinuses and simple salt solutions might not be enough to really treat acute symptoms in some cases.  It should be noted that the longtime daily use might also have some small detrimental effects (most research shows benefits), despite heeding all precautions, depending on the goals of this intervention:     Neti Pot, Nasal Irrigation Pros and Cons   Cons of Nasal Irrigation      Using nasal irrigation to clear stuffed sinuses can be helpful from time to time for relieving symptoms, but a study presented at the American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology in 2009 shows that it may actually be counterproductive when used regularly over the long term. The study showed that patients who used nasal saline irrigation for a year and then stopped using it for a year had a 62% lower incidence of sinusitis during the year in which they stopped.   It is worth a try if the dosage (of the salt or meds) is well measured, the water luke warm, and the water and other equipment clean. Unless your doctor advises strictly otherwise.",
        "id": 2102,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you get infected with HIV?",
        "body": "What should I take care of while sleeping with another woman to protect her against AIDS?   Get tested and go see you doctor. CDC.gov:     No HIV test can detect HIV immediately after infection. If you think   you\u2019ve been exposed to HIV, talk to your health care provider as soon   as possible.   It takes 3-12 weeks after initial exposure for testing to be able to detect antibodies. Contacting your doctor can help you by him/her explaining risk and possibly giving you medication that can decrease risk. Both get tested so your status is known. Abstainng or utilize protective sex methods. Abstaining can cut out all possibilities of exposure, unless blood pathogens are involved. Safe Sex with condoms, etc simply decrease risks.  Risk-Reducing and HIV Notify her of your exposure. This can help her be aware of the possible repercussions and prepare for what testing she may need.      I am afraid if I have sex with my wife it will cause her to have AIDS?   You could give her HIV, which is the virus that leads to AIDS. Follow through on doctor visits and testing to confirm whether or not you were infected. ",
        "id": 854,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much of the following vitamins would result in a vitamin overdose?",
        "body": "Perhaps to emphasize the definition of vitamins:     The vitamins are a disparate group of compounds; they have little in   common either chemically or in their metabolic functions.   Nutritionally, they form a cohesive group of organic compounds that   are required in the diet in small amounts (micrograms or milligrams   per day) for the maintenance of normal health and metabolic integrity.   They are thus differentiated from the essential minerals and trace   elements (which are inorganic) and from essential amino and fatty   acids, which are required in larger amounts.   Below is a table showing the RDAs for named vitamins:    I compiled this tablet with information obtained from these sites:   Vitamins and minerals Vitamins and Minerals: How Much Should You Take?   While it may seem you are well under the upper tolerable limits, continuing this habit will eventually results in toxicity over a long period of time. Bear in mind these micronutrients are needed in trace amounts and over-accumulation will inevitably introduce adverse effects.  Actually (as suggested in comments) you should be more concerned with the other minerals/components you are over consuming namely sodium and sugar. These surely will precipitate other conditions like organ damage, increased blood pressure, renal damage cardiovascular disease etc and you should be equally concerned as with the vitamins.   Acknowlegements   Why is the Vitamin B complex, a \u201ccomplex\u201d? ",
        "id": 2094,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How should I deal with my leg being tired at the fourth day after the overexertion?",
        "body": "Not neccessarly. If you're in acute pain then you should definitely go to the doctor or emergency room.   But I've recently overexerted myself biking and jogging and it took about 5 days for my aching calf muscles to get back to normal.",
        "id": 1876,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stevia Sweetener",
        "body": "About Stevia : I don't know for sure what this product is so I will assume it is just Stevia rebaudiana extract. There has been a huge controversy over the safety of the product, but serious studies (WHO - Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives: Steviol Glycosides) tend to prove there's no significant effect on health (not a mutagen) in \"consumption\" doses.     The Committee concluded that stevioside and rebaudioside A are not genotoxic   in vitro or in vivo and that the genotoxicity of steviol and some of its oxidative   derivatives in vitro is not expressed in vivo.    The no-observed-effect level (NOEL)   for stevioside was 970mg/kgbw per day in a long-term study evaluated by the   Committee   It should also be noted that it is not an \"inert\" compound has apparently some effects on humans. Please ask a doctor if you think you might be affected by the Stevia extract you use.     The Committee noted that stevioside has shown some evidence of pharmacological   effects in patients with hypertension or with type-2 diabetes [..]. The evidence available at present was inadequate to   assess whether these pharmacological effects would also occur at lower levels of   dietary exposure, which could lead to adverse effects in some individuals (e.g.   those with hypotension or diabetes).    All depends of the flavor. Hazelnut flavor is most likely to be filbertone but it could also be a mix of different other chemicals I'm not aware of. Filbertone is naturally present in hazelnut.  I am not aware of any study claiming that filbertone is harmful but also none that claimed it was totally safe. Normally it should be present in very small quantity.  Normally your stevia drops should contain information about its composition. Ask a someone competent if you want detailed information. It can be a doctor, a chemist or a pharmacist.",
        "id": 1509,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "International drug labeling guidelines",
        "body": "Generally, legislation of each country prescribes how medicines should be labeled. There are international guidelines, but national regulations always come first.  An example of international guidelines on labeling are the ones by World Health Organisation (WHO) given in Guidelines on packaging for pharmaceutical products; WHO Technical Report Series, No. 902, 2002 which state that the label should contain at least:     (a) The name of the drug product;      (b)  a  list  of  the  active  ingredients  (if  applicable,  with  the  International  Nonproprietary  Names),  showing  the  amount  of  each   present,  and  a  statement  of  the  net  contents,  e.g.  number  of   dosage units, weight or volume;      (c)  the batch number assigned by the manufacturer;      (d)  the expiry date in an uncoded form;      (e)  any special storage conditions or handling precautions that    may   be necessary;      (f)   directions  for  use,  and  warnings  and  precautions  that  may  be   necessary; and      (g)  the name and address of the manufacturer or the company or the   person responsible for placing the product on the market.   Other example of international guidelines are those by European Medicines Agency in Guideline on the Packaging Information of Medicinal Products for Human Use Authorised by the Union which is binding for the member states.",
        "id": 1288,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lab test result meaning",
        "body": "Measurements will always have measurement errors, we distinguish between systematic errors and statistical errors due to noise, or other random effects than on average are zero. Usually the former type of error should not be in play, the tests will have been designed such that on average the tests results are correct. The latter type of error is always in play, this leads to an error margin that typically gets worse at lower measured values. This means that there will always exist a lowest cutoff value such that measurement values below it will be consistent with a real value ranging from zero up to the cutoff. This will then be reported like your value for the microsomal antibodies. For values that are a bit higher than the cutoff, the protocol will be to report the measured value, but the measurement error may still be significant. ",
        "id": 1062,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could any Vaccines be dangerous for G6PD enzyme deficient people?",
        "body": "Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme that protects red blood cell against oxidative damage. G6PD deficiency is one the most common genetic disorders.  Most of the patients with G6PD deficiency remain clinically asymptomatic. However they are at increased risk of developing acute haemolytic anemia (AHA) in the presence of oxidative agents, which can be either fava beans, infections and drugs.  Considering that infection can precipitate acute haemolytic anemia, which can in some case have severe outcomes, vaccination would confer a solid way to prevent this.   The question asks about any contraindications for vaccinations in G6PD deficient patients.  Consulting the Vaccine Contraindications and Precautions provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/admin/contraindications.html) did not mention G6PD deficiency as proven contraindications for vaccination. Additionally, a search in Medline (a biomedical literature referencing more than 26 millions citations from journals and online books) does not seem to provide any studies or case report concerning the occurrence of adverse events in G6PD deficient patient after immunisation either.  One study advocated hepatitis A vaccination in patient with G6PD deficiency in order to prevent damaging consequences from intravascular hemolysis precipitated by acute hepatitis A infection in two children with G6PD deficiency.  So far, there seems to be a lack of evidence against vaccination in G6PD patients. Like in many cases in medicine, the benefits of vaccination should be balanced with its possible adverse events.   Sources:   Ozbay Hosnut F, Ozcay F, Selda Bayrakci U, Avci Z, Ozbek N. Etiology of hemolysis in two patients with hepatitis A infection: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency or autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Eur J Pediatr. 2008 Dec;167(12):1435-9. Youngster I, Arcavi L, Schechmaster R, Akayzen Y, Popliski H, Shimonov J, Beig S, Berkovitch M. Medications and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: an evidence-based review. Drug Saf. 2010 Sep 1;33(9):713-26. ",
        "id": 1027,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "what does this abnormality (arachnoid cyst) mean in a brain MRI?",
        "body": "First of all, your \"main question\" contains a lot of small other questions, which I think are difficult to answer as we are not your sister's neurologist (we haven't seen the MRI, we haven't examined her,etc...) But I will try to address some of your concerns:  What are arachnoid cysts?  Arachnoid cysts (AC) are a collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the arachnoid membrane. The CSF is produced by the arachnoid cells which line the cyst. The exact mechanism by which those cyst appear and grow is still not clear. The current main theories are passive diffusion of CSF into the cyst or progressive entrapment due to a ball valve effect. The image below (from http://weillcornellbrainandspine.org/sites/default/files/arachnoid-cyst-pediatric-lg.jpg) shows you an arachnoid cyst (the structure in red).    How frequent are those arachnoid cysts?  Arachnoid cysts represent 1% of intracranial masses. In a retrospective study conducted among adult brain MRI, the prevalence of arachnoid cyst was 1.4 percent; of these, only 5 percent were symptomatic. Symptomatic arachnoid cysts are more frequent in children (75 percent of symptomatic arachnoid cysts occur in children)  What are the symptoms associated with arachnoid cysts?  Symptoms depend on the location of those cyst as well as their size.  Most of those cysts (approximatively 50%) arise in the Sylvian fissure (so approximatively in the same region as your sister\u2019s AC), although they may occur in any part of the nervous system where there is arachnoid. Other common sites include: cerebral convexity, interhemispheric fissure, suprasellar cistern, quadrigeminal cistern, cerebellopontine angle, midline of the posterior fossa, and the spine.   Cysts in the Sylvian fissure are usually asymptomatic but can present with headache, seizure and less commonly, focal neurological deficits. Subdural hematomas may occur following relatively minor head trauma.  What is the treatment for arachnoid cysts?  Treatment is generally initiated if patients have symptoms. If mainly asymptomatic, current recommendations recommend serial imaging and neurologic examinations (as suggested by your neurologist).  In general, surgery is indicated if patients suffer from symptoms of increased intracranial pressure, seizures, focal neurologic deficits (= motor or sensory problems in face, limbs) or cognitive impairment. Needle aspiration usually is of temporary benefit and is not a good long-term treatment option .  Your sister has also a retention cyst in the maxillary sinus.  According to Wang et al 1, who followed 40 patients with retention cysts,     Most retention cysts of the maxillary sinus spontaneously regressed or   showed no significant change in size over the long term. These   findings suggest that, in the absence of associated complications,   \u201cwait and see\u201d may be the appropriate management strategy for these   retention cysts.   Sources:   http://www.uptodate.com/contents/uncommon-brain-tumors (unfortunately not accessible if you are not a medical professional or don't have a subscription, but the text in this post is inspired by their paragraph on AC) Dyck P, Gruskin P. Supratentorial arachnoid cysts in adults. A discussion of two cases from a pathophysiologic and surgical perspective. Arch Neurol 1977; 34:276.  Smith RA, Smith WA. Arachnoid    cysts of the middle cranial fossa. Surg Neurol 1976; 5:246. Al-Holou WN, Terman S, Kilburg C, et al. Prevalence and natural history of arachnoid cysts in adults. J Neurosurg 2013; 118:222. Cakirer S. Arachnoid cyst of the craniospinal junction: a case report and review of the literature. Acta Radiol 2004; 45:460. Mazurkiewicz-Be\u0142dzi\u0144ska M, Dilling-Ostrowska E. Presentation of intracranial arachnoid cysts in children: correlation between localization and clinical symptoms. Med Sci Monit 2002; 8:CR462. ",
        "id": 1148,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How big is the risk of agranulocytosis when taking metamizole?",
        "body": "This German report covering 22 years of prescribing and millions of prescriptions identified 161 cases of reported agranulocytosis of which there were 38 deaths, and 30% of the cases developed within 7 days and some even after 1-2 doses.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26169297  Based on this report the risk is minute but detectable, and perhaps one should consider using another drug with potentially less severe side effects.",
        "id": 908,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Colorectal Examinations",
        "body": "Various terms exist.  Proctoscopy is a collective term for the examination of the anus, rectum and sigmoid colon (one or all of them).  Anoscopy is the investigation of the anus (only) using an anoscope.  Rectoscopy is the investigation of the rectum (only) using a rectoscope.  Sigmoidoscopy is an examination of the rectum and sigmoid colon using  a sigmoidoscope.  Colonoscopy, also called lower endoscopy, is an examination of the rectum and colon, including the sigmoid colon, using a colonoscope.  Combined terms, such as rectosigmoidoscopy, are less commonly used.  On the other hand, when it comes to upper endoscopy, more known as gastroscopy, the combined term esophagogastroduodenoscopy is commonly used in the medical documentation or literature.  Here are Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes for the investigations of lower gastrointestinal tract with exact definitions and descriptions. The terms used include anoscopy, proctosigmoidoscopy, flexible sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy.",
        "id": 2674,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How harmful is it to drink a mix of beverages?",
        "body": "The cumulative dose of ethanol is the actual issue, from the medical standpoint. However, if you start with beer or mixed drinks by the time they take effect someone has suggested drinking straight vodka and your ability to make decisions has been compromised such that you just go along with it even though sober you would not consider it. In the end, you are in my emergency department vomiting and barely responsive with an ethanol level of 400 mg/ dL.  Beer is a very weak alcoholic beverage relative to distilled spirits, but it takes very little alcohol in the system to impair judgment enough to move onto more dangerous solutions, hence the downward spiral of college fraternity parties.",
        "id": 2137,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the significance of 1 second in calculations of PFTs",
        "body": "In the case of spirometry, after taking the deepest possible breath, there are two values used most often:   FVC (forced vital capacity) is the total volume of air that the person can exhale.  There will still be some air in the lungs even after exhaling to the max possible. FEV1 (Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second) is how much air a person can exhale in 1 second when trying to exhale as fast as they can.  As you can see below, since the normal ratio of FEV1/FVC is 0.8, the majority of air can be expelled within one second normally.   Obstructive lung pathology, for example what happens in asthma and COPD, reduces the ability to rapidly expel air due to \"air trapping\" and therefore the FEV1 drops.  Restrictive patterns like fibrosis do not have that kind of air trapping, so the FEV1/FVC ratio is normal or even higher than normal - but FEV1 is lower because the overall lung volume is lower due to the restrictive pathology.  (Of course this is a simplification; there are mixed patterns and fine details that are out of scope of this question.)  Your actual question about why exactly 1 second as opposed to 0.5 or 1.5 is most likely not answerable beyond the above.  Often during research on topics, values are chosen because they are simple to use, and then stick.  There are a number of odd values in physiology that were chosen by someone who researched it and now we all memorize it.  ",
        "id": 2504,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Am I really sleeping if I wake up with lingering memory of my dream many times into the night?",
        "body": "Superficially, yes, that sounds like fairly poor sleep. Don't loose hope entirely, though - in general, when people say \"I never fell asleep all night\" or \"I kept waking up in the middle of the night\", but are observed while sleeping, many still do have periods of uninterrupted sleep that they don't remember.  So, nights like you describe sound like you are getting poor sleep, but chances are you're getting some sleep.  Still, it sounds rough! I'm sorry this is an issue you deal with.",
        "id": 769,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do Western Blot 'false negatives' eventually produce positives?",
        "body": "In short, Yes. In an otherwise healthy immune system you'd expect that someone with Lyme disease will eventually test positive with Western Blot.  The \"whatever it is that Lyme Disease produces that this Western Blot tests for\" is worth discussing in some detail. Lyme Disease is caused by a bacterial infection, transmitted by tick bites. As you guessed, there are different strains of bacteria that can cause the disease. They're all members of the genus Borrelia in the phylum Spirochette. In North America, the disease is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi.  Our bodies will respond to the presence of these bacteria by producing molecules to fight the infection called antibodies. The Western Blot tests for the presence of these antibodies (in this case, Immunoglobulin M and Immunoglobulin G) in our system.  In the early stages of the disease, there may not be enough of the antibodies in circulation to show up on the Western Blot. That's where the false negatives come in. In the later stages of the disease (after 4-8 weeks) the sensitivity and specificity of the test goes up to 99%1.   Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. Nineteenth Edition. page 1152  ",
        "id": 651,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do artificial sweeteners cause insulin spikes?",
        "body": "There is a good article on that in Nature, where in a study it was found that non-caloric artificial sweeteners (NAS) in fact do lead to a rise of serum insuline levels, possibly via a induced change of the gut flora, proven by the fact that the effect could be reproduced after fecal transplantation in mice. (Full article here)  And this is about the status of scientific knowledge about it. There is a good review on the NAS topic in childrens' diets.  Also, Aspartame exposure during pregnancy has been found to reduce insulin sensitivity in male mice, thereby showing a gender difference and other side effects.  So, to answer the question: By today's knowledge it's yes, they may cause insulin spikes, but rather indirectly. But nonetheless, they produce measurable adverse effects on your glucose homeostasis, the pathways of which are still not quite clear but may - amongst others - have to do with your gut flora, your insulin receptor sensitivity or behaviourial mechanisms of the brain reacting to sweet taste.",
        "id": 199,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is Clinical Decision Support (CDS)?",
        "body": "What is Clinical Decision Support?  This ends up getting a little bogged down in compliance mumbo jumbo, but Clinical Decision Support is defined by the US centers for medicare and medicaid services as:     Health information technology functionality that builds upon the foundation of an electronic health record to provide persons involved in care processes with general and person-specific information, intelligently filtered and organized, at appropriate times, to enhance health and health care.   I've spelled out the abbreviated terms in this definition.  You can understand CDS as a general concept (electronic tools to support clinical decision making), but generally, it's used to refer to US requirements for \"meaningful use\" of an electronic health record.   Meaningful Use  In US healthcare, the phrase \"meaningful use\" is almost a synonym for electronic health record (on wikipedia, meaningful use redirects to the EHR article), but the phrase comes from the HITECH act, a 2009 law that gave incentive payments for transitioning to electronic health records (and using those electronic records in a meaningful way).  Is it really required?  Strictly speaking, you can practice medicine in the US without using an electronic health record or clinical decision support, but, if you do, you won't have access to funds the federal government has set aside for modernizing health care, and in some cases, you will also be paid less for services. EHR rules are typically described as \"required\" when they mean \"required in order to qualify as meaningful use\".  What is the official reasoning behind making it required?  One of the main goals of the HITECH act (see link above) was development of a health information technology infrastructure that improved health care quality and reduced errors. Decision support tools directly support these goals. HealthIT.gov, the website for the office set up by the HITECH act, has a page that spells out the official reasons. Some highlights:     CDS has a number of important benefits, including:         Increased quality of care and enhanced health outcomes   Avoidance of errors and adverse events   Improved efficiency, cost-benefit, and provider and patient satisfaction         Health information technologies designed to improve clinical decision making are particularly attractive for their ability to address the growing information overload clinicians face, and to provide a platform for integrating evidence-based knowledge into care delivery   Of note, though one of the official reasons for requiring CDS for meaningful use is \"growing information overload\", in order to qualify, you only need 5 clinical decision support interventions, a drug-drug and drug-allergy check. I believe these are useful things to do, but targeting 5 quality measures seems fairly limited if the goal is to help with \"information overload\". If it's truly \"general and person specific information, intelligently filtered and organized, at appropriate times\", I hope we can move beyond pop up alerts for a few quality measures.",
        "id": 2510,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "how soon after unprotected sex can side effects of getting pregnant occur?",
        "body": "If fertilization took place, chances are that implantation wouldn't even have happened yet, since that takes 3-4days, so until that happens, your body has no clue anything happened, much less react to it. http://www.webmd.com/baby/understanding-conception#1",
        "id": 1873,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are some treatment procedures for aortic insufficiency?",
        "body": "For mild cases, no treatment is needed.   For more severe cases, ACE inhibitors and diuretics are used as medical treatments. The surgical options are aortic valve repair (valvuloplasty) or replacement with a mechanical or tissue valve.   Replacement carries high risks (1 in 50 patients dies) as it is open heart surgery and also a risk the risk of blood clots and thus needs to be carefully considered, and patients need to take anti-blood clot medication afterwards.   Sources:  Medlineplus on Aortic Insufficiency  Mayo Clinic on Aortic valve regurgitation (different name for aortic insufficiency)   NHS page on aortic valve replacements",
        "id": 115,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are afternoon naps healthy?",
        "body": "There is a reason you get tired after eating - It's due to a portion of your blood in your body moving to your gut and bowel, leaving less for the rest of your body (brain, muscles etc) and slowing you down, making you sleepy(1)!   Whether is is healthy or not, it's neither here nor there. It can mess with your natural sleeping cycle, but it is also not good to deprive yourself of sleep. I feel the best advice I can offer is just to listen to your body and what feels right for you. We are all built slightly differently, so forcing yourself to adhere to other peoples norms certainly isn't good for you! There have been studies done showing it has very little impact on how well you learn (2).  My apologies for the shoddy response and references, I've put 2 basic sources in, if you have any further questions I will do my best to answer them and improve my referencing. A lot of my information comes from my degree and background (Medical Physics).   (1) - http://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2016/10/04/why-do-we-feel-sleepy-after-eating-a-meal.html?src=mostviewed&amp;pg=/  (2) - A nap is as good as a night, https://www.nature.com/articles/nn1078#references",
        "id": 1301,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do concept unique identifiers (CUIs) in UMLS have a hierarchy?",
        "body": "As far as I know, there is a hierarchy, but it is based on the original sources (ie not created by UMLS).  For example, SNOMED concepts belong to a hierarchy.  UMLS records this hierarchy in the mrhier table. It is probably best to consider the hierarchy based on the source's code, and not on the UMLS concept ID, as the mapping between UMLS CUIs and codes are often very rough. Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9676/",
        "id": 1402,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If sphygmomanometer literally cuts off the blood flow, is it gonna kill the patient if pressure is not released?",
        "body": "Heart attacks are caused by reduced or blocked blood flow to the heart, but a sphygmonanometer cuts off the blood flow to the arm (or leg) only. It's not possible it could cause a heart attack directly even if it were left on indefinitely.  However, leaving a BP cuff on for a very long time could cause injury and eventual tissue death in the arm, or possibly the formation of blood clots which could cause a heart attack when the cuff is finally released. (By \"long time\" I mean hours, not minutes.) Arms and legs can withstand a lack of blood flow for quite a long time, which is why surgeons can stop the blood flow to a limb in order to do surgery on it.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2494408/",
        "id": 1002,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does ice pack therapy have any healing effect for a tendinopathy?",
        "body": "As I mentioned in this answer, icing is not meant to heal tendinopathy. It is supposed to be a painkiller. It can have some effects that may feel like they are fixing the problem though. The cold ice forces blood vessels to contract which can help reduce the inflammation. This might be considered healing, but the tendinopathy is still there, until the tendon heals itself.",
        "id": 38,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I be concerned if I suffer insomnia but still am still largely functional the next day?",
        "body": "You should not worry about having a body that functions in a way that is a bit outside of the norm if this doesn't cause problems for you. If our distant ancestors had the intellectual capability to worry about such things, we could never have evolved to become humans. A healthy human being can after all also be considered as a pathological version of Australopithecus.  While not all that common, there are people who only need about 4 hours of sleep. Because this gives them a lot more time in the day, they tend to do well in life. At least they are overrepresented in the group of CEO's famous scientists etc.:    Some more examples here     Marissa Mayer   Marissa Mayer, currently the CEO of Yahoo and previously the renowned Google executive, gets very little sleep. It should come as no surprise--considering that she infamously worked as much as 130-hour work weeks while at Google--that Mayer prioritizes work over rest. She reportedly gets only four to six hours of sleep every night, recharging by taking week-long vacations about three times every year.      Martha Stewart   Whatever you think of Martha Stewart, she's a woman who needs no introduction. Stewart has achieved an astounding amount, and she hasn't done it by sleeping. Somehow, household name Martha Stewart manages to not just get by, but also to thrive, on four hours or less each night.   None of this proves that sleeping for 4 hours in any particular case is not a sign of some underlying medical condition, nor that in general, sleeping for 4 hours per day is not linked to adverse health conditions. However, what we can say is that the mere fact that someone sleeps for less than four hours per night instead of the recommended 8 hours, isn't necessarily going to be a problem. It won't necessarily prevent that person from doing all the hard work necessary to become a real estate mogul, take care of a big family and still have energy to spare to run for president of the United States. ",
        "id": 794,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Getting thirsty often even consuming water often- why?",
        "body": "It might be diabetes  As others have said, it might be diabetes, or it might be something else. You may need some lab tests done.  Untreated diabetes can cause worse problems  If you do have diabetes, and you don't treat it properly, it can cause worse problems. Therefore, you should phone a doctor today and book an appointment.  If you can't afford to see a doctor  If you can't afford to see a doctor, seek charity care.  Some diabetes treatments cost more; some cost less. The expensive ones may be the best and most convenient. But, if you can't afford them, ask the doctor for cheaper treatments.",
        "id": 1564,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which is the best injection after dog bite in india",
        "body": "It is one of several brands of rabies vaccine available in India. A list can be found here. It wouldn't be appropriate for anyone allergic to eggs since it is cultured in eggs. Otherwise, it should be perfectly fine and is on the lower end of the cost scale.   Probably only a pharmaceuticals distributor in India could say whether it's the \"preferred\" brand, but it is a major brand from a reputable manufacturer. It should be completely adequate to protect the patient.",
        "id": 1658,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is corneal ulcer contagious?",
        "body": "There are a couple variables, let me explain.   An ulcer itself is not contagious. It is just an open sore that won't heal properly. What exactly causes an ulcer to occur needs to be determined by a physician. Contact lense wearers and individuals whom scratch the cornea are more susceptible to ulcers and bacterial issues. The short answer is no the ulcer is not contagious. HOWEVER if the ulcer is a result of bacterial infection it very well could be. Bacteria is non discriminatory, so you could possibly pick something up if you come into contact with any objects or non sterile material that someone else touches or has.   Rubbing eyes, or sharing contact lense solution could possibly transfer bacterium. Nothing is contagious as long as you take the proper medical precaution. It's best to practice very good hygiene.",
        "id": 1884,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Contagiousness of lip herpes in the work environment?",
        "body": "Estimating the risk of communication of two members of the herpesvirus family (Herpesviridae) in this context is very difficult to answer, not only because of lack of research, but because of the many possible environmental factors.  Nevertheless, HSV (Herpes Simplex Virus) survives for short periods of time outside the host (1). It can survive on dry inanimate surfaces, with a survival ranges from a few hours to 8 weeks (2).  The use of disinfectants could certainly help diminish the risk of contagiousness. It can be inactivated by 0.5% Lysol[benzalkonium chloride] in 5 minutes, by 2,000 ppm (2,000 ul/liter) of bleach in 10 minutes, or by rubbing alcohol (1:1 mixtures) (3, 4, 5).  To conclude, prophylactic use of oral acyclovir could be, in extreme cases, an option to reduce risk of communication (6).  References:   Chayavichitsilp, P., Buckwalter, J. V., Krakowski, A. C., &amp; Friedlander, S. F. (2009). Herpes simplex. Pediatrics in Review, 30(4), 119-129. Kramer, A., Schwebke, I., &amp; Kampf, G. (2006). How long do nosocomial pathogens persist on inanimate surfaces? A systematic review. BMC Infectious Diseases, 6. Croughan, W. S., &amp; Behbehani, A. M. (1988). Comparative study of inactivation of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 by commonly used antiseptic agents. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 26(2), 213-215. Wood, A., &amp; Payne, D. (1998). The action of three antiseptics/disinfectants against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection, 38(4), 283-295. doi:DOI: 10.1016/S0195-6701(98)90077-9 Prince, H. N., &amp; Prince, D. L. (2001). Principles of viral control and transmission. In S. S. Block (Ed.), Disinfection, sterilization and preservation (5th ed., pp. 543-571). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins. Prophylactic oral acyclovir after renal transplantation. Pettersson, Erna et al. (http://journals.lww.com/transplantjournal/Abstract/1985/03000/Prophylactic_Oral_Acyclovir_After_Renal.14.aspx)   Ref 1-3 from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/herpes-eng.php",
        "id": 1679,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "\"Disease X is allelic with disease Y\" - what is the meaning of \"allelic\" here?",
        "body": "According to Humpath.com, allelic diseases are two different diseases caused by mutations of the same gene.  Two or more different errors at the same gene can result in two or more different diseases.  Examples:   The mentioned folinic acid-responsive epilepsy and pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy (NCBI Gene Reviews) Noonan syndrome and LEOPARD syndrome (PubMed) Cowden Syndrome and Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba Syndrome (PubMed) Muckle-Wells syndrome, CINCA syndrome and familial cold urticaria (Orphanet) ",
        "id": 2705,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Leukemia this merciless desease",
        "body": "I'm sorry to hear about your little sister. You may well have found an answer to these questions by now, but I have an answer below for the sake of others who may have similar questions. I assume you are asking about Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia or \"ALL\".  The American National Cancer Institute has very comprehensive and well presented material online. This is for health professionals [ https://www.cancer.gov/types/leukemia/hp/child-all-treatment-pdq ] and also information which is for patients / parents [ https://www.cancer.gov/types/leukemia/patient/child-all-treatment-pdq ].  Significant advances in ALL treatment and prognosis have been made in recent years: \" For ALL, the 5-year survival rate has increased over the same time from 60% to approximately 90% for children younger than 15 years and from 28% to more than 75% for adolescents aged 15 to 19 years.\"  Ref: Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M: SEER Cancer Statistics Review (CSR) 1975-2013. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute, 2015.  This applies to the US &amp; UK population (intensive chemotherapy with excellent supportive care, which is costly), but as I'm not sure where you are based I cannot answer about the prognosis in your area.  I'm afraid I cannot answer your third question about supplying chemotherapy.",
        "id": 1736,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do sensibility to hot, cold, sweet, acid foods/drinks or air mean different levels of tooth decay?",
        "body": "It's just a rough initial check.  Sensitive teeth are indicative of exposed dentin, but not necessarily tooth decay.    Teeth have layers to them:   The top layer (enamel) is composed almost entirely of hard minerals. It is impermeable, and totally insensitive to physical stimuli. However, the next layer (dentin) is a little softer, and has many thin channels that connect inward to the center of the tooth.  This allows various things like temperature, airflow, or some foods to stimulate nerves in the pulp of the tooth. The centre of the tooth (pulp) connects to the circulatory and nervous systems through the jaw. Stimulation of these nerves is felt as pain or discomfort.   Dentin may be exposed by tooth decay, but also through erosion from other origins (such as bruxism), developmental defects, or due to receding gums exposing thinner-enamelised parts of the tooth nearer the roots, among others.  If any stimulus is painful, then there's definitely a problem. However, any particular stimulus being more painful than another says nothing about what the problem is, because tooth pain operates by such a very simple mechanism.  Such a check must be followed up by a more detailed examination to determine the problem.",
        "id": 1317,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What do these blood tests mean in general and why do doctors ask for them before taking action?",
        "body": "CRP     C-reactive protein (CRP) is produced by the liver. The level of CRP rises when there is inflammation throughout the body. It is one of a group of proteins called \"acute phase reactants\" that go up in response to inflammation.   So, when there is an inflammation anywhere in your body, the amount of C-reactive protein in your blood will rise.   The CRP test is a general test to check for inflammation in the body. It is not a specific test. That means it can reveal that you have inflammation somewhere in your body, but it cannot pinpoint the exact location.  Source: Medlineplus.gov  Test Results   For Inflammation:     A test result showing a CRP level greater than 10 mg/L is a sign of serious infection, trauma or chronic disease, which likely will require further testing to determine the cause.        For Heart Diseases     If you're having an hs-CRP test to evaluate your risk of heart disease, there is a high risk if you have an hs-CRP level greater than 2.0 mg/L.    Source: MayoClinic.org    ESR     ESR stands for erythrocyte sedimentation rate. It is commonly called a \"sed rate.\" [...]   This test can be used to monitor inflammatory diseases or cancer. It is not used to diagnose a specific disorder.   (Emphasis mine)   Basically, they measure how long red blood cells (erythrocytes) take to travel down a thin  tube.  Source: Medlineplus.gov  Test Results     Results from your sed rate test will be reported in the distance in millimeters (mm) that red blood cells have descended in one hour (hr). The normal range is 0-22 mm/hr for men and 0-29 mm/hr for women. The upper threshold for a normal sed rate value may vary somewhat from one medical practice to another.   Source: MayoClinic    AFP     An alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) blood test checks the level of AFP in a pregnant woman's blood. AFP is a substance made in the liver of an unborn baby (fetus).    This is a very solid indication whether one is pregnant or not. It can also help to asses the health of the fetus.  If one is not pregnant, it is highly probable that there are problems with the liver if a high amount of AFP can be found in the blood.  Source: WebMD  Test Results     For women who aren\u2019t pregnant as well as men, the normal amount of AFP is usually less than 10 nanograms per milliliter of blood. If your AFP level is unusually high but you aren\u2019t pregnant, it may indicate the presence of certain cancers or liver diseases.   Source: Healthline.com    CEA     The carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) test measures the amount of this protein that may appear in the blood of some people who have certain kinds of cancers, especially cancer of the large intestine (colon and rectal cancer). It may also be present in people with cancer of the pancreas, breast, ovary, or lung.   This protein is usually only produced in the fetus, so a high level of CEA in the blood can be linked to cancer.  Source: WebMD  Test Results     The normal range is 0 to 2.5 micrograms per liter (mcg/L). In smokers, the normal range is 0 to 5 mcg/L.   Source: Medlineplus.gov    WBC  The White Blood Cell  Count (WBC) determines the amount of leukocytes, or white blood cells in your blood.   The leukocytes play a vital role in your immune system. Generalized:     These cells help fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that invade the body.      Having a higher or lower number of WBCs than normal may be an indication of an underlying condition. A WBC count can detect hidden infections within your body and alert doctors to undiagnosed medical conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, immune deficiencies, and blood disorders.    This is a standard part of any blood test.   Source: healthline.com  Test Results     The normal number of WBCs in the blood is 4,500 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter (mcL) or 4.5 to 11.0 x 10^9/L.      Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different labs. Some labs use different measurements or may test different specimens. Talk to your doctor about your test results.   Source: Medlineplus.gov    RBC     An RBC count is a blood test that measures how many red blood cells (RBCs) you have.      RBCs contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen. How much oxygen your body tissues get depends on how many RBCs you have and how well they work.   This is a standard part of any blood test.  Source: Medlineplus.gov  Test Results     A normal range in adults is generally considered to be 700,000 to 5.2 million red blood cells per microliter (mcL) of blood for men and 500,000 to 4.6 million red blood cells per mcL of blood for women. In children, the threshold for high red blood cell count varies with age and sex.   Source: MayoClinic    Platelet Count     Platelets are parts of the blood that help the blood clot. They are smaller than red or white blood cells.      The number of platelets in your blood can be affected by many diseases. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.   This is a standard part of any blood test.  Source: Medlineplus.org  Test Results     A normal platelet count is between 150,000 and 450,000 platelets per microliter (one-millionth of a liter, abbreviated mcL). The average platelet count is 237,000 per mcL in men and 266,000 per mcL in women.      A platelet count below 150,000 per mcL is called thrombocytopenia, while a platelet count over 450,000 is called thrombocytosis. Platelets seem to have a large backup capacity: blood typically still clots normally as long as the platelet count is above 50,000 per mcL (assuming no other problems are present). Spontaneous bleeding doesn\u2019t usually occur unless the platelet count falls to 10,000 or 20,000 per mcL.   Source: WebMD Answers",
        "id": 1755,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a sunburn increase your resting heart rate?",
        "body": "One word: dehydration.  You spent a day out in the sun, exerting yourself, and probably didn't maintain your normal level of hydration. Consequently, you're mildly dehydrated (or, more properly, hypohydrated).  Dehydration means a lower blood volume, which in turn means your heart has to beat faster to move the same volume of blood. Consequently, your heart rate is mildly elevated until you restore your normal hydration levels.   Summary of Findings 1   Scientific  Definitions:  Hypohydration  is  the  steady state  condition  of  decreased  total  body water.  Dehydration  is  the  process  of  losing  body  water  (eg,  during exercise). Body  mass  losses  as  small  as  2%  have  been  shown  to  result  in  an  increase  in  cardiovascular  strain  and  subsequently  decrease performance  during  exercise. Exercise  in  the  heat  further  exacerbates  cardiovascular  strain,  thus  causing  further decrements  in  performance. Results  have  shown  that  for  every  1%  decrease  in  body  mass  during  exercise  in  the  heat  there  is  an  increase  in  heart  rate  of  3.29 beats/min.  This  equates  to  an  increase  in  heart rate  of  10  beats/min  if an  athlete is  3%  dehydrated. Exercise  at  a  fixed  and  variable  intensity  has  shown  an  increase in heart  rate  of  3.55  and  1.39  beats/min  respectively during  exercise  in the  heat. ",
        "id": 726,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Explanation of normal CRP during neutrophilia?",
        "body": "C-reactive protein synthesis is driven primarily by interleukin-6     IL-6 induces CRP production in the liver by activating Janus kinases. Signal transducers and activators of transcription subsequently switch on the CRP gene expression, leading to the production of CRP.   but fever is caused by a range of cytokines including IL-6, IL-1, TNF-a.  So, at the time a fever appears, IL-6 levels may not have been high enough and present long enough to stimulate hepatic synthesis of CRP.     Whereas proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor) appear within one hour after the start of bacterial infection, and procalcitonin (PCT) after 5 hours, the hepatic synthesis of CRP starts 6 to 8 hours after onset and peak concentrations are reached between 36 to 50 hours after infection has started. [1]    http://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2013/124021/ ",
        "id": 926,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can a bone marrow transplant from a donor of a different blood type not get rejected?",
        "body": "You are right that any foreign biological material would normally be attacked by the immune system. That is why people have treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy to erradicate their own bone marrow stem cells and thus suppress their immune function before the transplant. This reduces the risk of the transplant being rejected.  From Medline:     Before you have a transplant, you need to get high doses of   chemotherapy and possibly radiation. This destroys the faulty stem   cells in your bone marrow. It also suppresses your body's immune   system so that it won't attack the new stem cells after the   transplant.   Because the transplanted (or graft) bone marrow is now the main source of immune cells in the body, it can in fact attack elements of the person's body. This is called graft versus host disease.  Over time, the recipient\u2019s blood cells will be replaced by those of the donor, meaning that the recipient will acquire the blood group of the donor.",
        "id": 1684,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Meaning of \"Chest wall, Sp, Ps\" in a description of tumor recurrence locations",
        "body": "Mr. Hiroyasu Yamashiro wrote an anwer:     Thank you for your question about the paper.    The meaning of the abbreviations you ask is as follows.    Thank you.      Sp - Supraclavicular lymph nodes   Ps - Parasternal lymph nodes        Hiroyasu Yamashiro ",
        "id": 2607,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I access my medical records in the United States?",
        "body": "Every American patient has a legal right to access their own medical records.  The federal law is called \u201cHIPAA\u201d(Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996) which is United States legislation that provides data privacy and security provisions for safeguarding medical information.  How to navigate HIPAA is described here in laymen\u2019s terms.  Here is a PDF that you can print which summarizes what your rights are under HIPAA Law.  Each medical entity (hospital, clinic, individual medical provider) that has treated you as a patient has a legal obligation under HIPAA Law to both preserve your medical records, and make them accessible to you as their patient.  You can contact them in writing to obtain a copy for yourself (usually for a fee,) or sign a \u201cConsent to Release\u201d form to have them sent from a prior provider to a new one.  Since each medical provider uses a different record keeping method, there is no single clearinghouse that contains the totality of your medical records.  If that is what you need, you will need to contact each entity at which you were a patient.  Regarding how an ER obtains your medical information and records, this occurs through what medical professionals call \u201cdoc-to-doc\u201d exchange: \u201cthe HIPAA Privacy Rule permits a health care provider to disclose protected health information about an individual, without the individual\u2019s authorization, to another health care provider for that provider\u2019s treatment of the individual.\u201d  hhs.gov  There is no specific service I am aware of which can do the work of collecting your health records for you, other than perhaps your lawyer.",
        "id": 1102,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do vitamins affect sense of taste?",
        "body": "So it's important to separate cravings/specific hungers from taste.    One's body should, to some degree be able to adjust it's specific hungers to meet it's dietary needs.  This one area where our larger brains come with a catch 22.  While being smarter and aware allows us to feed ourselves better, we also can ignore or improperly process the bodies attempt to control our appetites.  Moving on to taste buds (here is a better review than wiki).  The average taste bud lasts 8-12 days (ibid), so if you're noticing an effect before then, it's probably not related.  Also, there development and distribution is associated with genetic and epigenetic factors, not environment and diet.  Instead I think that you are noticing that your taste receptors, like most sensory systems, become less responsive after saturation and repeated stimulation.  If we look at part F of the following figure:    You will notice how the response of the taste bud to a salty solution decreased significantly after each application (the time between each stimulus was 10 min).  Thus something that started as tasty and salty 30 min ago won't by the time you've finished gorging yourself on oranges.  A way to test this at home, with the extreme caveat that I do not recommend super dosing vitamin C, would be to try this with a fixed dose (appropate for age and weight) of vitamin C dissolved in water over the same interval you were eating the oranges.  I think you will notice little to no change in the taste of the vitamin C unless you are doing it in a very short amount of time.",
        "id": 206,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can cause reduced hearing range?",
        "body": "It's possible the speakers you're using to test are not able to output frequencies that high, even if they claim they should be able to.  Aside from that, I'm pretty sure by age 30 your hearing ability for higher frequencies has declined some - check out this chart http://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/data/Journals/JSLHR/934609/m_JSLHR_58_5_1592fig1.jpeg.  If you want to research it more, search for ISO 7029.",
        "id": 783,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there health issues with gaining 24 pounds in one year if otherwise healthy?",
        "body": "Yes, I would be worried because at 5'9 an 160lb, you were at a normal BMI of 23.6.   At 5'9 and 184lb you are overweight with a BMI of 27.2   The calculator I used was: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm  The question now is: Why?   Your doctor may not be to concerned and this can fall under several reasons such as: Did not read your history chart, did not have enough history with you, or just feel compelled.   This means you need to take it into your own hands. Have you had any different patterns or daily habits from last year?  Has your diet change?   What is your daily routine?  Do you incorporate healthy habits such as gym, avoiding unhealthy foods, skipping meals or such?   If you are not sure, I suggest starting a journal recording daily events such as: When you wake up, what you eat, what is the dosage/weight/serving, where you dine at (if you eat out), when you go to sleep, any medications taken, etc.   After a week you should have enough data to pour through to see some observations that may be linked to the weight gain.   This is assuming the weight gain is from lifestyle and diet intake. ",
        "id": 1748,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any long term health risks for a woman (and/or her children) when using hormonal birth control?",
        "body": "Yes.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=ORAL+CONTRACEPTIVES+AND+MOOD%2FSEXUAL+DISORDERS+IN+WOMEN  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24014598  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29145752  Increased risk of depression, sexual dysfunction, breast cancer, nutritional deficiencies, stroke, blood clots among other issues.  Some studies have also shown that the hormones going into the water supply effect male fertility as well as fish fertility:  https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/birth-control-in-water-supply/  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160304092230.htm  Hormonal contraceptives are not recommended during breastfeeding because it can decrease the milk supply and the hormones will pass into the breastmilk and the baby will drink the hormones. Can you imagine a baby boy drinking estrogen?  Physicians\u2019 desk reference 2005. 59th ed. Montvale, N.J.:Thompson PDR, 2005. The Physicians\u2019 Desk Reference advises that a nursing mother should not use oral contraceptives but should use other forms of contraception until she has completely weaned her infant.   As for becoming pregnant on the pill... more research is needed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4703703/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/744667 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5576004 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4400183/",
        "id": 847,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Best type of water to drink?",
        "body": "MICROBES  Bottled spring waters can contain microbes, which can, rarely, cause infections, for example, in the US, one outbreak in 1999/2000 has been reported (wcponline.com); some other small outbreaks are mentioned on CDC.gov.   According to one 2010 study in Canada, bottled waters may contain more microbes than tap water (Telegraph.co.uk).  Bottled carbonated mineral waters have, in general, less bacteria than non-carbonated waters (PubMed).  Bottled reverse osmosis waters should contain very few microbes; they are also additionally treated by ozonation or UV lights (CDC.gov, Wikipedia).  MINERALS  Mineral waters usually contain more calcium and magnesium than tap water, but it is not clear if this has any health benefits (PubMed, 2013). We get most minerals from food, not water, anyway.  Reverse osmosis waters contain very little of both nutritional minerals and chemical contaminants (CDC.gov).    In summary, it is not possible to say which type of water is better for everyone. Mineral/spring water can have better taste, and reverse osmosis water can be appropriate for individuals with weak immunity, since it contains very little microbes.",
        "id": 2666,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where can I find statistics about micronutrients deficiencies in European countries?",
        "body": "The most accurate data sets about nutrient intake of european population are linked to basically two sources:   The EPIC cohort study, involving more than half a million participants recruited across 10 European countries and followed for almost 15 years. The homepage of the project is http://epic.iarc.fr . There's not a unified table providing summarized statistics for all nutrients as I was asking in my question, but very reliable data can be extracted from individual studies that investigate singular nutrients; the list of these studies can be found here: http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v63/n4s/index.html The European Nutrition and Health Report, 2009, showing similar statistics, togheter with other health and lifestyle indicators and major critical issues in each country. The report is here: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20081327 ",
        "id": 102,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I always thought mouth breathing was a joke",
        "body": "Not only in adults, even in children, if treated too late, the bone changes can be irreversible - they may not re-morph naturally.  The article linked from your question: Influence of Mouth Breathing on the Dentofacial Growth of Children: A Cephalometric Study (PubMed, 2014) says:     Because upper airway obstruction is an obstacle to normal dentofacial   development, mouth breathing children deserve prompt attention before   growth has proceeded irreversibly. ",
        "id": 2568,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Interpreting DXA results myself",
        "body": "I definitely agree with you, to not bother with bioelectrical impedance devices as they really are not worth that much. The dexa scan readouts I have seen in America are pretty straight forward. They tell you bone density, lean body mass and fat mass and a few other things in a very readable format. It will give you the data per section of your body such as your left arm is x percent fat mass etc..",
        "id": 954,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does sleeping on one side affect cognitive development?",
        "body": "No, this will have no affect on your cognitive processes. It may affect your sleep pattern; side sleeping help open your airways  allowing you to breath better. Don't sleep on your back if you're snore. Don't sleep on a sore or bruise, this will put pressure on it, sometimes that may be good. Most of the time though this may make your recovery slower.  The fluid in your cranium called  Cerebrospinal actually keeps your brain balanced when you are sleep, so your brain is not taking extra pressure in any form. Now if you were to get smacked, your brain will move of course. But as long as your still your brain is pretty much at an equal balance.    Read more   Don't worry your body is and incredibly engineered structure. Your body is prepared for anything natural. Now if you sleep upside down that may cause some problems because that not position your body is programmed for.   Diseases of course can cause your body to reprogram itself.",
        "id": 1685,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does gas cause pain?",
        "body": "Try this: poke your tongue out of your mouth and, holding your hand in front of your mouth, jab your hand (finger, palm, whatever) a little with your tongue. Push at your hand. I predict your hand will interpret this as a very soft contact and nothing the slightest bit painful. Go ahead and push as hard as you can.  Next, push your tongue against your cheek so that your cheek bulges out a little and stretches. Push harder. Keep going. It hurts, right? In fact, you probably have to stop before you push as hard as you did against your hand. Your tongue isn't sharp, but the pain probably feels sharp.   Stretching is a different form of pain than other pressure sensations. I don't know why, but it is. The gas bubble distending the intestine locally is like your tongue distending your cheek. Someone even did a study (excerpt) putting balloons into people to prove that it is the distension in the intestine that is causing the reported pain.",
        "id": 1784,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the definition of Suicidal Ideation?",
        "body": "Thoughts about wanting to die or killing oneself do constitute suicidal ideation.  Ideation is defined as     the process of forming ideas or images.   So that applied to suicide or wanting to die = suicidal ideation.  That said, it doesn't mean that the individual is at immediate risk of completing suicide.  Depression is common; 1/3 of human beings alive will have at least a short episode of depression at some time in their lives.  Having passing thoughts about wanting to die (or not be alive) is not uncommon.    Clinicians are now recommended to screen for depression/suicidality at all primary care visits due to how common and treatable it is.  If someone replies \"yes\" to that question, additional questions are asked to characterize it.  Reassuring factors that a person isn't at immediate risk of self-harm:   Passive suicidal ideation means the individual is thinking about it like \"it'd be nice if I died\" or \"I'm ready for life to be over\" but without a desire or plan to actually commit suicide to achieve that. No plan of how they'd go about doing it. Protective factors and reasons for living like family, spiritual beliefs, goals.   A person is more likely to follow through with suicide if they have a plan of how to do it.  Or access to a gun.  Or have tried before.  So those are more red flags that this person may be at risk of harming themselves.  In the case there's risk of immediate harm, a person needs to seek help or be involuntarily given help - ideally by a counselor or medical professional.",
        "id": 1859,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Gallbladder/Ulcer Pain",
        "body": "Both a duodenal ulcer and gallbladder dyskinesia can result from stress.   Duodenal ulcer and stress Biliary dyskinesia and stress   Duodenal ulcer can, rarely, affect the opening of the common bile duct (sphincter of Oddi) into the duodenum and cause \"sphincter of Oddi dysfunction\" (PubMed), which is one type of \"biliary dyskinesia.\"  NOTE: It is important to obtain a written medical diagnosis to know which exact type of gallbladder or biliary dyskinesia one has, because different types have different causes and treatments.    Since the treatment for duodenal ulcer is better known and, in general, more succesful than for dyskinesia, it seems logical that one should try to treat the ulcer first.",
        "id": 2331,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Inspiratory and Expiratory Muscle Training",
        "body": " The Powerbreathe is an inspiratory muscle trainer promoted as improving inspiratory muscle strength (and consequently exercise performance) in athletes and patients with respiratory disease. No published evidence supports its efficacy.2 An advantage to training was observed when outcome was assessed by maximal static inspiratory mouth pressure (mean advantage 14.5 cm H2O, 95% CI 2.2-26.9 cm H2O, P=0.025). However. no significant difference was observed between the groups in any other parameter.2      The continued sale and use of the Powerbreathe device is not justified by our data.2   However Another Article suggest-     There were found 14 respiratory training devices available on the market and reported by published studies. However, three were not described in detail, due to lack of information. Amongst the 11 evaluated devices, all of them showed positive aspects and limitations that should be considered. Although some devices appear to be more advantageous than others, it is not possible to choose the best one, based only upon their technical information and clinical utility.       To select the most appropriate one, it is also necessary to consider the specific health condition, the nature of the impairments, and the purpose of the training. Furthermore, the professionals should also consider the purpose of the device, including whether it is for use within research or clinical contexts. Future studies with good methodological quality should investigate the efficacy of the other devices, which were not described in detail in the present review.   Terms/Abbreviations:  maximal static inspiratory mouth pressure- Measurement of the maximum\u00a0static inspiratory pressure\u00a0that a subject can generate at the\u00a0mouth\u00a0(PImax)\u00a0here",
        "id": 2634,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can tumor size (T) and presence of cancer in the lymph nodes (N) in patients with lung cancer be identified on the first visit?",
        "body": "It is not likely that at the first visit, a doctor will even know if there is a cancer or not. One likely scenario is:  During the first visit, a doctor (a primary doctor or lung specialist) usually only asks about symptoms (chest pain, cough, coughing blood...) and checks for abnormal lung sounds, among other. At this visit, a doctor can order an X-ray, CT or MRI to check for eventual Tumor, its size and Nodes involvement, but this usually happens at another visit at a radiologist. At the third visit, the original doctor explains the results to the patient.  If lung cancer is suspected, a bronchoscopy with biopsy of the lesion is ordered, if applicable; this would be done at the 4th visit. The obtained sample needs to be checked by a pathologist, who sends the results to the original doctor, who explains them to the patient at the 5th visit.  It is the tumor size, type and location within the lungs, and node involvement that allows prognosis. Age by itself is not necessary a prognostic factor, but eventual comorbidities can be.  It is an experienced lung specialist or oncologist who can tell how realistic your scenario is. In any case, you would need to include more data than just T, N and age.  Further reading:   Prediction of non-small cell lung cancer metastasis-associated microRNAs using bioinformatics (PubMed) The risk factors of bone metastases in patients with lung cancer (Nature) A Clinical Prediction Rule to Estimate the Probability of Mediastinal Metastasis in Patients with Non-small Cell Lung Cancer (Journal of Thoracic Oncology) Google search: \"lung cancer metastasis prediction\" ",
        "id": 2536,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does echinacea help prevent or treat a viral infection?",
        "body": "Some species are used to treat and prevent common cold, flu, and other infections.  One study from 2002 didn't find any significant differences between the echinacea and placebo groups for any measured outcomes. Another study from 2003 confirmed that Echinacea purpurea was not effective in treating URI (upper respiratory tract infections) symptoms in children and its use was usually associated with an increased risk of rash. The more recent one from 2014 didn't provide enough benefits for treating colds by using Echinacea products, although there could be a weak benefit, but potential effects are of questionable clinical relevance.  So two NCCIH-funded studies didn't find any benefits from using it. Others found that it may be beneficial, so the results are mixed and it's not clear whether it can prevent or effectively treat URIs (such as common cold) and NCCIH is continuing to support the study of echinacea as well as potential effects on the immune systemNCCIH.",
        "id": 84,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which type of chair is best to avoid back pain?",
        "body": "I can share my personal experience with you. I'm a 31 year old guy with a sedentary job where I need to spend hours on my computer. I developed lower back pain around 6-7 years ago and more recently upper back and neck pain. I went for Physiotherapy and felt relieved from the pain. So my answer will be based on recommendations of my physiotherapist.  Before telling about the chair I would share about the ideal posture with the help of the following figure  This figure appeared in a google search and is closest to the physiotherapist's recommendation.  Based on this posture the points to note when choosing a chair is:   Height should be adjustable such that your eye level is as indicated in the figure. In addition your feet must be flat with thighs supported on the chair and parallel to the floor. With a laptop, maintaining eye level can be a problem. IMO, you can use a wireless mouse and keyboard and keep the laptop at a suitable height. Arm rest may not always be good. It should not be so high that it blocks you from moving closer to your desk. Ideally you should be close enough to the desk so that your elbows rest on the desk. Height of the desk should be such that shoulders are relaxed and don't feel pushed up by the desk. Sometimes if you rest your arm on the arm rest and use a mouse placed on the desk, the edge of the desk can put unnecessary pressure on the wrists. Back rest should be flat with slight curve for supporting lumbar back. If needed you can use a lumbar back support or a cushion for the purpose. The ideal angle for the backrest (from horizontal) should be around 100 degrees so that you are almost upright.  In addition the seat should not be too hard as it can put unnecessary pressure on the hips.   In addition, I was recommended not to slouch or lean forward. For this the screen should be at a right distance and font size should be large enough for you to read while sitting straight (leaning back on the chair). Moreover take regular breaks from work and walk around a bit.  Note that this is what my physiotherapist told and I felt benefited. I haven't read any studies on this, so scientific references are welcome.",
        "id": 819,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Brain performance suppliments",
        "body": "In addition to Narusan's comment on exercise, it's important to consider diet too. Sometimes a lack of concentration and mental alertness can result from lower-than-usual energy levels, which can in turn be caused by poor dietary choices.   NHS Choices stresses that eating well (as in a healthy, balanced diet) is preferable to taking supplements when trying to boost or maintain energy levels: http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/tiredness-and-fatigue/Pages/energy-mythbuster.aspx ",
        "id": 1785,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I recover from a torn wrist ligament?",
        "body": "I have a similar problem. So I was snowboarding when I wiped out and slammed, twisted, and poped my knee on the hard snow. It hurted! Anyway I want to the doctor after a couple weeks to determine if any bones were broken, there wasn't and I was told that the X-ray didn't show any sign of tear. But then I was hand examined and I had a swollen part of my knee that indicated that I tore my meniscus. Doctor said if you don't feel better in two weeks come back(to have surgery ). (Ok this anwser is taking too long).   Anyway the accident happened in January and my knee still hurts.(after I started exercising it started to feel better. I have read that exercising(not to harsh obviously) that will actually help. This will cause the muscle to grow around my knee and strengthen it.  That will do the same with your wrist. Every part of the human body is able to repair itself.  Babies can regrow  finger tips(part of their finger) for crying out loud.  Now the speed of your recovery depends on the listed items below.   Age Current state of health (smoking....etc will slow cellur process which is essential to any type of body repair.   Exercising if not done right.    Ok... Finally now I am going to tell you what to do about your wrist.   How to help your body recover   I can't guarantee that you will recover from your injury but I do have some tips that hopefully will help. If you don't recover you might have to get surgery cause I am guessing you don't want to hurt forever.  You should apply ice for 25 minutes a day on the wrist. This will help reduce pain.   Next you should slowly exercise your wrist. Look the exercises up. Don't over do it.  Get alot of sleep and eat correctly. Healing will be quicker.  A torn ligament takes 6-9 months to heal. Make sure, when you sitting at a desk, to not lay your wrist on the border of the desk this will put a sharp pressure on your wrist causing it to hurt. Don't put any unnecessary pressure on your wrist!  Sorry if this anwser is long, once I start typing I don't stop!   Listen to your doctor not stack exchange. Although it got me thinking when he/she said  torn ligaments never heal. This is not true under normal conditions.",
        "id": 1686,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the role of surgery when treating an overuse tendinitis?",
        "body": "Depending on your age, clinical treatment with rest, physiotherapy, NSAID, epicondylitis, both lateral and medial, may take one to several months to resolve. Surgery is a last resort and should be reserved to those cases where there is complete rupture of a tendon.",
        "id": 1375,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are long term complications of mild to moderate leg length discrepancy?",
        "body": "Two Types of Leg Length Discrepancies (LLD)  Just a heads up it's pretty tough to give a general answer to such an involved area (I tried lol). I\u2019m forced to leave quite a bit out as there are so many causes, tests, treatments etc.    True LLD   Simply put there is an anatomical or structural difference (L) vs (R) Typically these are congenital (i.e malformations such as adolescence coxa vara) or trauma (such as a fracture can also cause this) Exactly you\u2019ve already outlined above. as this is an actually difference in length some type of external intervention is required. Unfortunately when dealing with a True LLD anytime the brace, orthotic etc. is removed the underlying kinematic imbalance will reappear. Not surprisingly you\u2019ll see frontal plane devations toward the affected (shorter) side - such as a lateral pelvic tilt, scoliosis etc..   Functional LLD   An apparent or functional LLD generally results from a compensation due to improper positioning -- they are never structural. There\u2019s a whole battery of orthopedic tests used to narrow down the cause and type of LLD, I will not be going into this in any depth.  Also there are TONS of  conditions that can lead to this, for simplicity I\u2019m going to focus primarily on Sacroiliac (SI) Joint and the related musculature.     SacroIliac Joint Dysfunction  Pain in or around region of joint that is presumed to be due to malalignment or abnormal movement of SI joints    Common Pelvic Girdle (SI) Dysfunctions   Posterior torsion of innominate Anterior torsion of innominate Superior Pubis Innominate Upslip Innominate Outflares     Sacroiliac Joint - 3 Kinetic Chains   LE kinetic chain   Sacrum-innominate-LE  Spine kinematic chain   L4-5-sacrum  Closed kinetic chain   Innominate-sacrum-innominate      Symmetrical Motion   Movement of both in nominates relative to sacrum    See this primarily with ant and post pelvic tilts  Asymmetrical motion   Antagonistic motions of each innominate relative to sacrum  Lumbopelvic motion    Rotation of Spine &amp; both innominates around femoral heads  Posterior torsion   Ipsilateral ASIS higher Ipsilateral PSIS lower      SI Joint: Supportive Network of Musculature   Iliopaoas Rectus Femoris Hip abductors/adductors Piriformis Gluteus maximus Sartorius Hamstrings Abdominals  Quadratus Femoris Multifidus     Joint Characteristics   Primary support to SI jt - self locking mechanism, shape of the articular surfaces, and the ligaments SI Joint \u2013 Normally in a position of stable equilibrium and b/c of that there tends to be the need for significant force to disrupt it some of the strongest muscles in the body surround the SI but none have the primary function of moving it no voluntary SI movements and the movements that we do see is influenced by other body regions thru weight changes and positional changes  -these surrounding muscles are going to facilitate the stability of the joint      Musculature Details  Iliopsoas   -  Unilateral - when the pelvis and femur are fixed the iliopsoas will produce ipsilateral FB of the lumbar spine with contralateral RO. The FB of the spine relative to the pelvis will decrease lumbar lordosis Bilateral contraction of iliopsoas produces ant pelvic rotation and takes the sacrum along   Rectus Femoris  - when pelvis is fixed,  flexes the thigh on the pelvis  - thigh and lumbar spine are fixed \u2013 and pelvis is free to move \u2013 it can cause ant innominate torsion ipsilaterally   Hip Abductors / Adductors  - Directly influence SI jt thru the pubic symphysis - since the gluteus medius tends to pull the ilium away from the sacrum- almost a distraction effect  - Create stress through public symphyisis   - Adductors- create stress thru pubic symphysis  - Abductors sartorius may have an anterior torsion effect on the innominate when the hip is extended and the knee is slightly flexed abductor   Piriformis:  -Bilateral contraction of the piriformis produces a nutation effect on the sacrum  \u2013 Unilaterally get a rotational effect toward contralateral side  Gluteus Maximus: Bilateral contraction of the maximus- post pelvic rotation \u2013 unilateral contraction \u2013 causes ipsilateral post torsion   Hamstrings: Tightness can cause post innominate torsion  Transversus Abdominis:  Contributes to the stiffness of the SI jt  Quadratus Femoris - bilaterally contraction-stabilizes the lumbar spine and can result in sacral nutation  Multifidus \u2013 it is considered an anticipatory stabilizer of the LS spine  the multifidi are recruited as a stabilizer before the Lower and Upper limbs  move  Co contraction of multifidus and the TrA \u2013 further increase stiffness of the SI jt.  Ipsilateral side bending will increase the shearing stress to the ipsilateral SI jt     Specific Treatments  As treatments are very evaluation dependent I\u2019d really need results of an evaluation and orthopedic testing otherwise I\u2019d just be throwing out random exercises.    Sources   Orthopedic Clinical Examination: An Evidence Based Approach for Physical Therapists.  A System of Orthopaedic Medicine, 3rd Edition. ",
        "id": 1908,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I treat calluses on my palms?",
        "body": "A callus is a thickening of the skin that occurs in response to repeated friction, in order to protect the area that is affected. If you remove the calluses, then you will need to either wear gloves or other protective gear to prevent them from reforming.  Once you have calluses, there are a few ways you can reduce them. It's not recommended to simply cut them off or similar, as the skin underneath will (generally) not be sufficient to protect the area when the stress reoccurs. This can lead to blisters and/or breaks in the skin, which opens up the possibility of infections.  Lotions and soaks such as epsom salts can help soften the area, and then something like a pumice stone can be gently used to abrade away the surface of the callus. Again, do not try to remove the entire area at one time. There are also many home remedies such as soaking in chamomile tea and similar, but I have no experience with their efficacy.  If you wish to prevent them in the future, take note of where on your hands they form, and then look for gloves that have padding in those specific areas. Be aware, that even with good gloves, you may still get callus formation.",
        "id": 24,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do US students take USMLE exams of the same content like IMG (foreign) doctors?",
        "body": "   Do US students take USMLE exams of the same content like IMG (foreign) doctors?    Yes, they do.     Is it true that American students take USMLE separated in subjects not a as a whole set of 300 questions on all topics?   It is false. It's the same.   USMLE Step 1 :  single-day, composed of seven 40-question sections with a maximum 280 multiple-choice questions (Source: usmle.org) USMLE Step 2 CK: 9-hour single-day computer-based test composed of eight question sets with no more than 40 questions per set (Source: usmle.org) USMLE Step 3: 2 days (9 hours and 8 hours) with the first day multiple choice questions, and second day multiple choice and computer-based (simulation-like) questions.  It's broken into hour chunks like Step 2 CK. ",
        "id": 1610,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a natural way by which I can hold my erection for more than a hour? How do I maintain my erection after ejaculation?",
        "body": "Problems with erections can be caused by a physical condition, and they can be caused by psychological factors.  Treating any physical or psychological underlying condition should help. Your GP can suggest possible treatment options.  Treating erection problems caused by psychological factors can be more challenging. However, most men who persevere with treatment find the problem resolves.  If you are concerned that things are not going as they should, you should seek advice from a doctor or licensed mental health professional who can see you in person and learn the important parts of your history (medical, social, and psychological).  You can learn to delay climax.     There are a number of self-help techniques you can try before seeking medical help.      These include:         masturbating an hour or two before having sex   using a thick condom to help decrease sensation   taking a deep breath to briefly shut down the ejaculatory reflex (an automatic reflex of the body, during which ejaculation occurs)   having sex with your partner on top (to allow them to pull away when you are close to ejaculating)   taking breaks during sex and distracting yourself by thinking about something completely different (Source: NHS)      but you cannot naturally maintain erection after ejaculation.  As NetDoctor points out:     At orgasm, the signalling from the brain changes dramatically. There is a sudden increase in noradrenaline production from nerves in the genitalia. This seems to both trigger orgasm and contract the muscle fibres in the corpora cavernosa and their supplying arteries. As a result of this the blood flow into the penis reduces. ",
        "id": 2310,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Restless Legs Syndrome treatment",
        "body": "Restless Legs Syndrome (a.k.a. Willis-Ekbom Disease) is not rare! What it is is woefully under-diagnosed. Not that you asked, but, although estimates of prevalence vary widely depending on the criteria used, 5-8% of people in Europe/U.S have clinically significant RLS/WED, with women affected about twice as often as men.   Now to what you did ask: treatment of RLS/WED. In most situations, there is no curative treatment. However, there are excellent (mostly pharmacologic) treatments available to suppress symptoms. A few words about the various treatments by class:   Iron. For reasons that are not fully understood, even sub-clinical (i.e. otherwise non-problematic) iron deficiency is associated with an increased prevalence of RLS/WED, and treatment with iron has been repeatedly shown to be helpful in that population. Recommendations vary, but most people would agree that iron supplementation should be provided to raise ferritin >20 \u03bcg/L, with some advocating cut-offs as high as 50 \u03bcg/L. Transferrin saturation should also be > 16% - 20%. Occasionally, RLS symptoms completely resolve with treatment of iron deficiency. Dopaminergic agents. L-dopa (the therapeutic ingredient in Sinemet) has long been known to be effective treatment for RLS/WED. Unfortunately, it tends to promote \u201caugmentation\u201d, where the drug ends up causing an iatrogenic worsening of symptoms over time, necessitating a change in treatment The newer dopamine agonists - pramipexole and ropinirole - have a lower (although still existent and commonly problematic during long-term treatment) incidence of augmentation. These are the medications most people start with for treating RLS. Nearly all patients who are correctly diagnosed will have at least partial improvement in RLS/WED symptoms with introduction of dopamine agonists.  Alpha-2-delta agents. This is a class of anti-epileptic drugs that has been increasingly used for treatment of RLS in recent years. The advantage of these drugs over dopaminergic agents is mostly that they are much less likely to cause augmentation. (Some would say that augmentation is exclusively a dopaminergic phenomenon, but this is debated.) The most commonly used drugs in the U.S. in this category are gabapentin and pregabalin. A landmark study in 2014 published in the New England Journal indicated that pregabalin is at least as effective as pramipexole, with a much lower incidence of augmentation. These drugs may become first-line agents in the future. Opiods. You mentioned a family member on methadone for RLS/WED. This medication in particular is remarkably effective for RLS. There was also a recent study demonstrating the efficacy of oxycodone. Opioids have many side effects for long term usage (some of the more problematic: respiratory depression, potential for overdose, abuse potential, constipation). However, particularly for patients who have been suffering from RLS for many years and experienced augmentation with dopaminergic agents, opioids are at times appropriate and generally provide substantial relief.    Please see the most recent practice parameters from the American Association of Sleep Medicine and a recent meta-analysis of treatment options for further information. ",
        "id": 399,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hyponatremia and hypobicarbonatemia",
        "body": "   Carbonic Acid / Bicarbonate Buffer System   CO2 + H2O \u2194 H2CO3 \u2194 H+ + HCO3    Metabolic Acidosis and DKA     Includes the following:   Decreased pH Low HCO3 levels This condition occurs when acids other than carbonic acid accumulate in ECF or when there is a loss of HCO3. Rarely occurs spontaneously but in is with other problems (starvation, shock, trauma... but the answer you're looking for is.......     ANSWER  Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)       Key Points (Information Below MerekManual Professional Version)      Metabolic acidosis can be caused by acid accumulation due to increased acid production or acid ingestion; decreased acid excretion; or GI or renal HCO3\u2212 loss. Metabolic acidoses are categorized based on whether the anion gap is high or normal. High anion gap acidoses are most often due to ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, renal failure, or certain toxic ingestions Normal anion gap acidoses are most often due to GI or renal HCO3\u2212 loss Calculate delta gap to identify concomitant metabolic alkalosis, and apply Winters formula to see whether respiratory compensation is appropriate or reflects a 2nd acid-base disorder. Treat the underlying cause NaHCO3 is indicated when acidosis is due to a change in HCO3\u2212 (normal anion gap acidosis) Intravenous NaHCO3 is controversial in high anion gap acidosis (but may be considered when pH &lt; 7.00, with a target pH of \u2264 7.10).     Sources:   http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/tc/diabetic-ketoacidosis-dka-topic-overview#1  http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/acid-base-regulation-and-disorders/metabolic-acidosis",
        "id": 1940,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is rabies virus infectious outside host?",
        "body": "   Can rabies virus remain infectious on environment i.e on soil, grasses, leaves and water?   Generally, an exposure requires a bite from an infected animal, or saliva or neural tissue to be introduced to an open wound or mucous membrane.  The CDC has a succinct description here.   There are rare instances of infection from other exposures:  Human to human transmission can occur via tissue and organ transplantation from a person who died of rabies.  There were two cases (in 1956 and 1958) where transmission to humans was  attributed to aerosol exposure in a particular cave in Texas inhabited by millions of bats.  This may have involved direct contact with saliva or neural tissue. There is a fascinating 1962 study, in response to these reports, that suggests transmission to animals without direct contact with the bats. A more recent study also demonstrated aerosol transmission between animals. This type of transmission seems to require a very particular environment and a large dose of virus.  In summary  Generally you need direct exposure to an animal for it to be considered an infectious exposure. There are very rare reports of two other types of exposure described above. If, somehow, you have a large, still wet sample of saliva or CSF from a rabid animal laying on soil, grass, or leaves, though, there may be viable virus. Rabies is not particularly hardy, and difficult to maintain in culture. There are no reports of transmission from fomites (contaminated objects in the environment).",
        "id": 2487,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How risky is it to try a dog shock collar (e-collar) on yourself?",
        "body": "For a one off experiment, a search of YouTube  suggests that while uncomfortable, testing a dog shock collar on yourself is not particularly risky. That said, if you wish to avoid the discomfort, existing videos might get the point across.",
        "id": 215,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does high LH means I have PCOS?",
        "body": "Leutenising hormone (LH) can be elevated in a number of conditions, including polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).  How PCOS develops is not fully understood, but there are three main processes going on that give rise to the possible symptoms of irregular periods and ovulation, excessive hair growth but with thinning scalp hair, weight gain and oily skin or acne.  These three processes are below, adapted from this article):   An alteration in gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion results in increased luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion. This is what can affect the normal menstrual cycle and ovulation. An alteration in insulin secretion and insulin action results in hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance. This is associated with weight gain and a higher risk of diabetes. A defect in androgen synthesis that results in increased ovarian androgen production. This refers to testosterone, which is what causes symptoms of excess hair growth and oily skin.   While a high LH can be associated with PCOS, one might expect testosterone levels to be raised (though there are different ways to measure this and it can need some interpretation). Not all women experience all of the symptoms, and there is great variation in severity. The next step would usually be an ultrasound scan of the ovaries to look for multiple cysts.  There are diagnostic criteria from the AE-PCOS Society (2009), which I have simplified a little here:   Elevated testosterone plus either: Fewer than 6-9 periods per year (oligomenorrhoea) or At least 12 cysts in ovaries on ultrasound scan     By the way, welcome to the Health Stack Exchange. Personal medical questions are off-topic and no answers or comments on the site should be considered as medical advice. I have provided an answer discussing LH and PCOS in general terms. Be sure to keep in touch with your doctor.",
        "id": 2414,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The difference between ticks & fleas?",
        "body": "@Carey Gregory: You're right, they are neither.  She went to a small-animal vet clinic as I suggested and had them looked at under a microscope; the vet confirmed they are neither ticks nor fleas and didn't have an idea as to what they might be.  They had 6 legs.  Needless to say, she is relieved but still curious.",
        "id": 1939,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can taking high doses of iodine every day cause psychosis?",
        "body": "Drugs.com mentions that prolonged use of Lugol's solution (potassium iodide + iodine) can cause confusion, caused by potassium.  In long-term treatment of Grave's disease (overactive thyroid), 10\u2013400\u2009mg iodide per day has been used (PubMed, 2107).  Various drug websites do not mention psychosis, aggressiveness, illusions or irritability as a side effect of potassium iodide.  Grave's disease symptoms include irritability and anxiety, among others (Mayo Clinic).",
        "id": 2696,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can any wound be sutured?",
        "body": "Not necessarily.  Here are some examples that aren't good candidates for closing with sutures:   A wound that is much wider than it is deep-- a bad road rash abrasion, for example.  A wound with extremely fragile or messy margins (I treated a patient a few weeks ago whose food processor turned on while her hand was in there scooping food out). A wound that has lots of dead tissue (such as when there is a flap of skin with poor blood supply) A very dirty or contaminated wound (for example a cat bite, which is deep and filled with bacteria).   These wounds are not amenable to suturing, aka closing via primary intention. Instead, they are allowed to close via secondary intention, which essentially means heal on its own.  For wounds that should be sutured, there are many techniques that allow you to closely appose irregular wound margins.",
        "id": 2152,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Onion juice and hair regrowth",
        "body": "Every single website that suggests onion juice is good for hair regrowth doesn't have credible sources. I went through a lot and all of them are full of mumbo jumbo and charlatans.  However, this onion madness seems to have some.. I repeat some... scientific basis and maybe that's where it all started.  There is an actual research paper on the matter:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12126069  The problem though is that it was a very small study. Only 38 patients. They divided them in 2 groups and gave onion juice to one and plain tap water to the other. They noticed hair regrowth on the first group... but also on the second group!!!  Does that mean onion juice is good for hair regrowth? - Maybe, but the study is too small to prove anything.  Does that mean water is good for hair regrowth? - uh... I don't know, wouldn't there be a lot less bald people walking around?",
        "id": 1767,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Prevention of numb limbs caused by sleep posture",
        "body": "Personal experience:  If I fall asleep in a number of different postures, I also experience numbness, as I have since I was about your age. If I fold my arms, kink my wrists, place my hands under my head, etc, numbness typically ensues. Depending on which nerves are pinched off, the thumb and adjacent fingers may be numb, the pinky and adjacent fingers may be numb, or they may all be. If I fall asleep on a hard wooden chair, my legs may be numb and I may be unable to walk in a controlled manner when I extract myself from the silly thing. Research: Unless you do have a disorder, deficiency, or tendency to use mind-altering substances, you will probably have no long-lasting effects from this phenomenon. According to James Dyck, MD, it could be you are actually waking up before your body is. I quote, \u201c...During REM sleep, the brain sends a signal to cause a body-wide paralysis. The purpose of this is to keep you from acting out dreams (which occur during REM). But if you wake up during one of these phases, you can be conscious before your [sic] fully regain control of your limbs. This is called sleep paralysis, and it can be a frightening situation. You're stuck somewhere in between dreaming and wakefulness, and you can't move...\u201d What seems to me is happening is a little different, he explains what seems to be your condition (and mine) like, \u201cThe nerve compression has led to a temporary paralysis (perhaps because you got stuck in a compressed position during REM).\u201d He warns, \u201cCompressing nerves can damage them. The good thing is that the body will naturally wake up as a protection mechanism when a nerve has been compressed too long. After you wake and relieve the pressure, the nerves will quickly come back online, usually first with a pins-and-needles feeling.\u201d I recommend reading this article in full: https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.vox.com/platform/amp/2016/6/6/11854588/numb-arm-sleep If your consciousness is impaired, eg, from alcohol or drug use, you may not wake up until you have already caused at least temporary damage to your nerves. It is possible that a deficiency or disorder is causing the numbness*, so it is recommended to see a physician if numbness or tingling persists,** and I would say the same would go for weakness, particularly if it\u2019s at all possible to be certain that you aren\u2019t imagining yourself to be weaker. Are you measurably unable to lift or reposition the same items or weights you used to? If you\u2019ve ruled out disorders, or possibly in diagnosing whether it\u2019s normal or something to be concerned about, you can try the following list of remedies from lovetoknow.com:*** \u201cTo reduce or prevent this from happening, try the following tips:  Keep your hands from being under a pillow or your head while you sleep. Don't lie directly on your arm and cut off the circulation. Don't fall asleep with your hands in a fist; try to keep them uncurled. Hold your hands above your heart to help them \"wake up.\" Try drinking ginger tea, which can improve circulation. Try doing exercises to strengthen your shoulders, neck, and arms. Try using softer pillows, including a knee pillow, and sleeping on your back (side sleeping can cause hands to fall asleep when they're under the pillow). If you're having carpal tunnel or tendonitis problems that are causing your hands to fall asleep or feel numb, an anti-inflammatory drug might also be helpful. Nocturnal support braces for your wrists and hands can help reduce the tingling sensation that disrupts your sleep. Splints can provide support, help you avoid bending the hands and wrists awkwardly and reduce the chance of crimping any nerves.\u201d  I personally would recommend trying some braces that keep your wrists from bending freely. If that doesn\u2019t help, it could be that keeping your elbows straight will fix the problem. Either way, the advice will always be to consult with your physician, which makes a lot of sense if he knows any more about you than you\u2019ve described, especially if he has experience in the field. Hope this helps.  *https://symptomchecker.webmd.com/multiple-symptoms?symptoms=difficulty-sleeping%7Cnumbness-or-tingling%7Cnumbness-or-tingling&amp;symptomids=79%7C164%7C164&amp;locations=2%7C40%7C52 https://www.healthline.com/health/arms-falling-asleep-at-night *http://sleep.lovetoknow.com/Numbness_in_Hands_While_Sleeping",
        "id": 2021,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Frequency of drug side effect listed as \"unknown\"",
        "body": "A GUIDELINE ON SUMMARY OF PRODUCT [pharmaceuticals] CHARACTERISTICS (EUROPEAN COMMISSION, 2009)     In exceptional cases, if a frequency cannot be estimated from the   available data, an additional category frequency \u2018not known\u2019 may be   used.   Sometimes, knowing the number of cases of a drug side effects in a certain group of users is not enough to estimate the frequency of side effects in the entire population. For example, if only one person spontaneously reports a side effect, the reported frequency is known, but this may not be enough to estimate the actual frequency, because the producer does not know how many others experienced side effects.  When the reported frequency is low, the producer can't automatically claim the actual frequency is low, so they may say it's unknown, but you can assume it is probably low, because...when the reported frequency is high, the poducer can automatically estimate the actual frequency is also high. ",
        "id": 2693,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Taking Blood Pressure Bilaterally -- Why?",
        "body": "Because that's the way to measure blood pressure  The German guidelines for treating hypertonia are to always measure bilateral. (German Source Only)  As @DoctorWhom pointed out in the comments, atherosclerosis1 and ascending aortic dissection2 can lead to difference in the blood pressure.  Furthermore, as a study fairly recently conducted (2012) found, not measuring bilaterally can have other devastating effects as well: An undetected difference in blood pressure greater than 15 mmHg increases the overall mortality by 60%, and cardiovascular mortality even by 70%. Furthermore, the risk of suffering from an undiagnosed PAD (peripheral artery disease)3 increases by factor 2.5.   The study concludes that     A difference in SBP of 10 mm Hg or more, or of 15 mm Hg or more,   between arms might help to identify patients who need further vascular   assessment. A difference of 15 mm Hg or more could be a useful   indicator of risk of vascular disease and death.   (Link to whole   study)   Furthermore, the chances of a wrong reading are significantly lower if verified once.    1: Atherosclerosis is a form of arteriosclerosis where the artery wall thickens, thus leading to an increased blood pressure in this artery (and depending on the location, can lead to a difference between L and R blood pressure).  2: The aortic dissection is a tear in the wall of the aorta. As the tear extends along the wall of the aorta, blood can flow in between the layers of the blood vessel wall (dissection). This can lead to aortic rupture or decreased blood flow (ischemia) to organs. A decreases blood flow will result in lower blood pressure. Thus measuring L and R gives one a quick overview and a faster way of ruling aortic dissection out than sending the patient to the CT.  3: PAD's is a broad term for the narrowing of arteries different from coronary arteries and cerebrovascular arteries. Depending on the location of narrowing, a difference in blood pressure between L and R can occur).",
        "id": 1919,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is rock salt? Is it helpful for diabetics?",
        "body": "Rock salt is no different from sea salt or table salt, chemically speaking, as all of them consist of nearly-pure sodium chloride (NaCl)   The UK Consensus Action on Salt and Health organisation has released a study that showed that NaCl content of various types of standard and \"gourmet\" salts were not significantly different.     It also detailed a few misconceptions about \"gourmet\" salts:     Myth 1. Gourmet salts contain less sodium than table salt so are   better for your health Gourmet salts contain approximately 100% sodium   chloride, just like your average table salt, meaning they will have   exactly the same effect on your blood pressure and health.      Myth 2. Gourmet salts contain minerals essential for good health   Gourmet salts are not a good source of essential minerals, instead you   can get all the vitamins and minerals you need from a balanced diet   with plenty of fruit and vegetables.      Myth 3. Gourmet salts taste better or stronger so you can use less   There is no evidence that people use less of any type of salt. If you   prefer the flavour of a particular type of salt, and really want to   use it, use less to help cut down on your salt intake. Some gourmet   salts also have a larger crystal size, these might not taste as salty   as finer grains so the danger is you could end up using even more! ",
        "id": 166,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dangers of the OJ diet?",
        "body": "The diet consists of 24 oranges per day plus water. Nothing else. So let's see how much nutrition you're actually getting per day. Percentages are based on US Recommended Daily Intake for an adult.  Calories: 1128 kcal (56%) Sugar: 224 grams Fiber: 58 grams (232%) Fat: 2.9 grams (4%) Protein: 22 grams (44%)   Vitamins  Vitamin A: 24% Thiamine: 192% Riboflavin (B2): 72%  Niacin (B3): 48% Pantothenic acid (B5): 120% Vitamin B6: 120% Folate (B9): 192% Choline: 48% Vitamin C: 1536% Vitamin E: 24%   Minerals  Calcium: 96% Iron: 24% Magnesium: 72% Manganese: 24% Phosphorus: 48% Potassium: 96% Zinc: 24%   In essence, this diet is the same as living on sugar water, fiber and vitamins for two weeks. Without doubt you will lose weight consuming only 56% of a normal daily caloric intake. Unfortunately, a significant portion of that weight loss will be muscle since the diet meets less than half of your daily protein needs. It's also virtually devoid of fat, so it's quite likely you'd actually absorb far less of the fat soluble vitamins than it provides. You might also find that it would lead to dry skin and dry hair.  No, two weeks on this diet wouldn't significantly harm a healthy adult, but frankly it's a hideous diet that would result mainly in short-term fat loss and long-term muscle loss, which would make it all the more difficult to keep the fat off going forward.",
        "id": 758,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the consequences of chronic sleep deprivation for mental function?",
        "body": "Most of the time it is critically important to realize that sleep deprivation is very often due to unrecognized sleep disorders. After a typical night's sleep, you may not feel restored and refreshed and be sleepy during the day, but be totally unaware that you are sleep-deprived or have a sleep disorder. You might tend to think, \"It's just the stress of work or the kids,\" or you might have \"always felt this way\" and had no idea that you should feel differently. This lack of awareness compounds the consequences, because so many people remain undiagnosed for years.  Now speaking about the disorders or consequences that the sleep deprivation can cause are.    Decreased Performance and Alertness: Sleep deprivation induces significant reductions in performance and alertness. Reducing your nighttime sleep by as little as one and a half hours for just one night could result in a reduction of daytime alertness by as much as 32%.  Memory and Cognitive Impairment: Decreased alertness and excessive daytime sleepiness impair your memory and your cognitive ability -- your ability to think and process information.   Automobile Injury: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates conservatively that each year drowsy driving is responsible for at least 100,000 automobile crashes, 71,000 injuries, and 1,550 fatalities. Increase Stroke risk:Even without the typical risk factors, like being overweight or having a family history, short sleep can up your risk for stroke, according to 2012 research. Adults who regularly slept fewer than six hours a night had four times the risk of stroke symptoms,  Fuel Memory Loss:You probably know that on the days when you are most tired, you're forgetful and unfocused -- but sleep deprivation can lead to permanent cognitive issues. The less we sleep, the less we benefit from the memory-storing properties of sleep. But additionally, a lack of sleep can cause \"brain deterioration,\" according to a 2013 study, which may at least in part explain memory loss in seniors.    see also:   Important sleep habits:webMd.com 8 Scary Side Effects Of Sleep Deprivation Extent and Health Consequences of Chronic Sleep Loss and Sleep Disorders Sleep Deprivation: Wikipedia ",
        "id": 85,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "ICD-10 codes: required to go to most-granular level?",
        "body": "It does not have to exhausted.   The best way would be to point to coder's guideline.  Instead, I will use a data method to prove it. To prove it via data, you can analyze data from Columbia Open Health Data (from Columbia U in NYC) and look for broad terms and you would see that they have counts that are greater than sum of the most granular terms.  COHD data comes as ICD and gets mapped to SNOMED CT terms. But the issue of parent vs. detailed child is preserved. (even after the mapping)  data reference: https://www.nature.com/articles/sdata2018273 data API: http://smart-api.info/ui/9fbeaeabd19b334fa0f1932aa111bf35  API output for a single term. You must traverse SNOMED CT hiearchy for the related terms. ",
        "id": 1529,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I know if I'm flossing correctly?",
        "body": "Dental flossing, essentially is done to maintain periodontal health, in hard to reach areas. Areas which are not used to any \"friction\" so, they will react in a rather singular manner in comparison to our exposed gums, per say. Thus, providing you presently have good oral health i.e. you don't have gingivitis which causes bleeding of the gums amidst brushing.   Initially, flossing will cause inflammation and minor bleeding however, if the bleeding is rather severe it could indicate a periodontal disease and require medical intervention. Gums, if they are \"virgins\" to interdental flossing scene, will be tender, and this is common amongst nearly all whom who haven't flossed. So, despite your concern, they will become more firm once the plaque has been plausibly removed. As your gums become less tender, they will hence become less sensitive and no longer bleed as you floss.   Albeit, if the bleeding still prevails after a period of a week, it would be advised to either, refresh your knowledge on how to floss, or pay a visit to your dentist. The latter could conclude that, you are incorrectly flossing e.g. too much pressure and rigor.   It's difficult to judge when you'll become apparent of the benefits since, the greatest improvements will initially happen beyond your eye's magnification. This study may cure your curiosity, though.  ",
        "id": 155,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to measure the size of a blister?",
        "body": "There is nothing very scientific about measuring a blister; measure it just as you would a mole.  With a ruler held above or next to it, note it's length and it's width, and it's general shape.  Blisters from burns or friction or do not tend to \"grow\" once the damage to the epidermis is finished (The skin is cooled down or the shoe comes off). They may become more tense, but that doesn't change their length and width.  Blisters from a process that separates the epidermis in an ongoing manner (e.g. an autoimmune reaction such as bullous pemphigoid or a drug reaction) or from a slow-acting contact irritant (e.g. poison ivy), etc., may grow.   If you have blisters from an unknown source, you should see a physician.",
        "id": 212,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is \"nervous eczema\"?",
        "body": "Eczema is caused by nerves that are over sensitive to the surrounding environment or over reactive immune system.  It is also triggered by stress as the body responds by increasing production of stress hormones like cortisol. Cortisol is a steroid hormone that increases the blood sugar which is essential when facing a fight-or-flight situation. However, it also can hinder the immune system. When this happens, the skin will be more vulnerable to inflammations and wounds as the healing of skin may also get delayed.  Correct me if I am wrong. ",
        "id": 2123,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there an official public list of US physicians?",
        "body": "There are several sources for publicly available health practitioner databases. One of the most common sources is from the US government, which assigns a National Provider Identification (NPI) number to all medical practitioners. There is an online database you can use here:  https://npiregistry.cms.hhs.gov/  Enter a doctor's name, and you'll see a lot of information about them.",
        "id": 1443,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Swallowing mucus gaves me sore throat?",
        "body": "Naturally, your nasal passageways and sinuses drain down into the back of your throat - and you swallow the drainage without even realizing it.  In the diagram below, it's the oropharynx where your mouth and your nasal/sinus passageways come together.  Sore throats are a common symptom of the common cold.  You may notice the pain more when swallowing the increased mucus from your cold.    ",
        "id": 1080,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can food poisoning be detected in the blood after recovery?",
        "body": "   [I] was wondering if I were to go to the GP now is there any way they could tell that I was sick these last couple of days through some kind of blood test or something?    \"Food poisoning\" covers a vast number of illnesses, and whether it is detectable after your recovery depends on what type of illness caused it. For example, if your gastroenteritis was caused by a norovirus (formerly called Norwalk virus, the most common cause of food poisoning), a blood test for IgM (Immunoglobulin M) to the virus, indicating a recent illness, might be positive.  However, diagnosing after the fact in a short term and self-limiting illness like norovirus infection is harder than diagnosis during the illness (which requires just a small stool sample), unless the pathogen is known with certainty, and even then, there may not be a residual response to test.  Clearly, you will be paying for a large number of tests with only a chance that one of them will come up positive.  In terms of getting a doctor's note, it's best if you a) have a prior relationship with the physician, b) call him while you're sick (not after) or c) see a health care provider, go to the school health clinic, a walk-in clinic, or something similar.  Writing a note after the fact is a tricky area ethically. Many doctors who know and trust their patients will do it without hesitation. But I can understand others simply refusing the request for a post-illness work-up (which might be negative regardless) on the basis of cost and questionable need.  Or to use a medical metaphor, an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure.  Antibody Test To Detect Genogroup II Norwalk-Like Virus Infection Assessment of a rapid immunochromatographic test for the diagnosis of norovirus gastroenteritis.",
        "id": 210,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of eating healthy food for a limited amount of time",
        "body": "At least with effects like inflammation, caused by pro-inflammatory eating &amp; living habits, it seems extremely plausible that your body gets harmed further when on such a lifestyle, and gets some \"pause\" from being harmed as bad during the time which are on a low-inflammatory lifestyle. Problems with clogging arteries will get worse quicker when on the \"bad\" lifestyle than on the \"good\" lifestyle.  When you speak of \"neutralizing\" you seem to imply the reversibility of certain health deterioration, forward or backward. Many health issues seem only to get worse with progressing age. Worse slower or faster, but rarely better.  It seems that early stages of e.g. diabetes type II can be reversed by nutrition, though. Jack Challem writes about things like that in the book \"Inflammation Syndrome\". Sorry, no link to studies, but the book has many. Let me just mention that on this topic, you will also find books written by not so scientific people. It needs some sorting.  As for studies, it may not be exactly what you asked for - showing that \"bad\" vs. \"good\" eating can cancel each other out. But apparently, eating nothing, once in a while, alternated with \"eating normally\", can decrease some of the bad effects of the \"normal eating\"  Enter \"Intermittent Fasting\"",
        "id": 1033,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health Benefit of Social Nudity - Parasite Reduction?",
        "body": "A bit speculative as this seems to be, given current attitudes in most societies towards nudity, this would be a somewhat promising scenario.  All human infesting lice species are parasites that depend not only on skin contact for nutrition but on certain types of fibres to dwell, to hide, to travel  and to procreate. Eradicating this natural habitat on a large scale is very likely too destructive and radical for the lice to adapt quickly enough to such a new situation.  But there is also a problem:     Apes, lice and prehistory (2009)   Head and body lice used to be designated Pediculus capitis and P. corporis but they are now known to belong to the same species, P. humanus x. Fifty years ago Levene and Dobzhansky showed that head lice could be trained or adapted to become the rather larger body lice by attaching them to the body in small pill boxes.   More extensive phylogenetic analyses [16,17] indicate that body lice evolved from head lice several times within the worldwide clade A, as they are found in many branches of the cladisitic tree. Multiple derivations of body lice from head lice had already been considered by Zinsser 1, and it makes good sense if one considers that clothing was not a single invention. Wearing animal pelts fur-side next to the skin would have provided a suitable place for lice to breed before fabrics were developed with the inventions of spinning and weaving.      In 17th and 18th century Europe, most of the aristocracy and gentry shaved their hair and wore wigs. Had this custom arisen to protect them from lice as Zinsser  suggests? Not according to Samuel Pepys' diary, as he complained more than once about his wig being infested: \"Thence to my barbers, to have my periwig cleared of its nits.\" I wonder if they were head or body lice \u2013 is a wig hair or clothing?      Lice and nudity   Why naked apes are naked and when we 'lost' our hair has long been disputed, as discussed by Desmond Morris in The Naked Ape. Rantala suggested that nakedness could have had a selective advantage to rid the body of lice and other ectoparasites, a view also championed by Pagel and Bodmer, who added that being seen to be free of lice would be a fitness indicator and a good mating strategy.    These little parasites are highly adaptable and while not that robust in general, the amount of fibre, fabric or hair they need to breed is really minimal.     Shaving can be safer head lice treatment than insecticides (2005)   Sladden and Johnson reviewed common skin infections in children.1 The life cycle of head lice (Pediculosis capitis) was well described and is similar to that of pubic lice. I worked in chronic emergencies in Somalia in 1993 and Sudan 1996-7 among internally displaced populations and in the nomadic Karimajong of Uganda in 1998-9, whose poor hygiene would have been a good breeding ground for head lice. However, head lice were never a clinical problem because these populations know how to interrupt its lifecycle: they shave off their hair, the only place where the eggs (nits) are anchored and glued close to the skin. Lice outside the hair are not transmissible and do not cause infestation.   It is therefore likely that we might be able to not only reduce the lice problem, but to eradicate them completely. But only by going naked and really hairless.     Pubic lice: an endangered species? (2014)   The incidence of pubic lice infestations is estimated to be between 1.3% and 4.6%, with an average incidence of 2% worldwide. It is also estimated that 70% to 80% of adults now remove pubic hair in part or entirety, using a variety of methods. It is hypothesized that the destruction of this pubic hair habitat may account for the falling incidence of pubic lice and may possibly lead to its eradication or atypical presentation.   Aim:  To report the changing incidence of pubic lice infestation from our unit over the last 10 years and assess its association, if any, with pubic hair removal of any kind.   Methods: Assessment of medical records and questionnaires were used to identify the incidence of hair removal and pubic lice infestation over a 10-year period. Data were anonymized and analyzed to identify any correlation.   Results: A significant and strong correlation between the falling incidence of pubic lice infections and increase in pubic hair removal was observed, with a Pearson correlation r value of 0.9686 (95% confidence intervals, 0.88-0.992). The P value is less than 0.0001.   Conclusions:   The increased incidence of hair removal may lead to atypical patterns of pubic lice infestations or its complete eradication as the natural habitat of this parasite is destroyed.   That seems to be the future. Well, a possible one. Prudes then need to find something else to get their pulses up.",
        "id": 1774,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to cure a dry eye",
        "body": "Mild to moderate cases of dry eye syndrome can usually be treated using lubricant eye treatments that consist of a range of drops, gels and ointments. These lubricants are often called artificial tears because they replace the missing water in the tear film. For more information on other treatments for different other causes, visit the website below.                                                     http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Dry-eye-syndrome/Pages/Treatment.aspx",
        "id": 1297,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are there different perscriptions for glasses and contacts? Help me see eye to eye on this",
        "body": "Partly the additional sizing information required for contacts (Diameter and curvature of the cornea are needed for contact lenses but not for glasses) and the power also changes because the physical distance between the eye and the lens is different.  References:  Here is a page explaining the differences between the two prescription types with explanation as to what the different values mean.",
        "id": 2461,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can we take a shower with salty water",
        "body": "Humans have been spending hours per day immersed in sea water without harm since before recorded history. Many sportsmen, professional divers, and fishermen still do. Other than the mild drying effects salt water has on the skin, I can find no documentation of harm from exposure to it.    What else might be in the water can only be revealed by laboratory testing. If you want to be sure the water is free of harmful contaminants, you'll need to have it tested. Never a bad idea with well water.",
        "id": 555,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do people get nosebleeds from overexerting themselves or when they're sick?",
        "body": "Blood vessels do pop or rupture at times, causing a nosebleed.   So what exactly in the sick and stressed cause them to have more nosebleeds?  In regards to the sick, medicines that cause you to bleed more easily, including aspirin and anticoagulants such as warfarin and heparin will tend to cause higher rates of nosebleeds. (1)  Now with regards to stress, there is debate (2). A study published in 1977 found no correlation (3), but a more recent study in 2012 (4) suggests that high blood pressure is associated with nosebleeds. If this is the case, researchers theorize that since high levels of stress cause high blood pressure and constrict blood vessels (5), then it is possible for stress to cause these vessels in our nose to rupture.  These sources seem to indicate that both stress and certain medications can in some situations cause nosebleeds.  Sources:   http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Nosebleed/Pages/Causes.aspx (1) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1120295/ (2) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/339142 (3) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22694985 (4) http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HighBloodPressure/PreventionTreatmentofHighBloodPressure/Stress-and-Blood-Pressure_UCM_301883_Article.jsp#.VrAi_XSxalx (5) ",
        "id": 746,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why vitamin D3 is deficient in children and the elderly?",
        "body": "   Vitamin D is not strictly a vitamin, rather it is the precursor of one   of the hormones involved in the maintenance of calcium homeostasis and   the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, where it has   both endocrine and paracrine actions.   It is important to note that the most important source is the endogenous synthesis in the skin by photolysis of 7-dehydrocholesterol compared to dietary sources; problems of deficiency arise when there is inadequate exposure to sunlight.     Two compounds have the biological activity of vitamin D:   cholecalciferol, which is the compound formed in the skin, and   ergocalciferol, which is synthesized by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation   of ergosterol   There are few foods that are rich sources of vitamin D. It is generally accepted that, for people with inadequate exposure to sunlight (young children and the house-bound elderly), supplements are necessary to maintain adequate status.   Unfortunately, dietary sources of vitamin D are few, and most foodstuffs are devoid of vitamin D. The only significant sources of vitamin D (D2 or D3) are animal liver, fatty fish (e.g., salmon, halibut, cod), egg yolks, and fish oils. Because human milk is an extremely poor source of vitamin D, breast-fed infants require a vitamin D supplement. This contributes to the other reason to the inadequacy in the body.  On the other hand, excessively high intakes of vitamin D are associated with hypercalcemia and calcinosis.    References   Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins: Vitamin D (D .A Bender 2nd Ed) Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease 11thed Ross et al. ",
        "id": 2086,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "To what extend can passive smoking be dangerous?",
        "body": "Yes, passive smoking can induce an asthmatic attack and, depending on duration of exposure, harm your lungs. There is also a publication in NEJM from 1999 (http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199903253401204) that shows that passive smoking is associated with a small increase in the risk of coronary heart disease. ",
        "id": 1608,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a pattern of increased aggression/violent behaviors in hotter climates? Scientific Research? Mixed reviews",
        "body": "I've never found any scientific evidence to back me up but I always thought hot weather predisposes people to violence.  However, it may be that during the very cold months of winter people tend to be indoors most of the time and outdoor interaction and sports are less frequent. Anyway, it would be interesting to check the statistics of violence reports in the northern US states in January and in July and compare them. That might tell us something.",
        "id": 1376,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will donating bone marrow weaken a person's health?",
        "body": "Not really, not in any long term way. The purpose of bone marrow is (Most often) to provide clean slates (The scientific term being \"stem cells\") for the production of platelets (Helps with blood clotting), red blood cells (Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to tissues), and white blood cells (Fights infection). Usually only two to three percent of bone marrow is extracted when donating. The bone marrow will likely regenerate within a few weeks. The donation of bone marrow won't endanger anything (Except perhaps make pathogens slightly more dangerous), and the bone marrow will grow back in a few weeks. It's less dangerous than giving blood.  EDIT:  I apologize for getting my facts wrong. The use of general anesthesia may leave you feeling tired after the surgery (Although you will be kept until you recover from the anesthesia's effects), and as the marrow is taken from your pelvic bone, you will likely be sore for a week or so, resulting in no long term damage, posing no risk to your daily life. On the other hand, in blood donation, afterwards you can expect to feel nauseous, and have the potential to bleed profusely if you perform any \"Heavy lifting,\" posing a possible risk to you and possibly your surroundings, if you work in any job which requires operating machinery. Ergo, donating bone marrow is still less dangerous than donating blood.  https://bethematch.org/support-the-cause/donate-bone-marrow/donation-process/ https://bethematch.org/transplant-basics/how-marrow-donation-works/myths-and-facts-about-bone-marrow-donation/ https://bloodcell.transplant.hrsa.gov/donor/donating/index.html http://m.kidshealth.org/en/teens/donating-blood.html https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow/basics/risks/prc-20020055",
        "id": 2085,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the disorder when a bodily process/function that is usually automatically controlled by the brain suddenly has to be consciously controlled?",
        "body": "The only term that I can think of is dysautonomia, or autonomic neuropathy.  This is a blanket term used to describe failure in portions or all of various autonomic functions, such as digestion, sweating, reaction to posture changes, things like this.  There is a webpage, Dysautonomia International that has more information if you would like to research it further.",
        "id": 380,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is exercise at night dangerous?",
        "body": "If you are exercising outside make sure to bring a flash light and other saftey precautions. From what I have read there are many benefits to exercing at night. Here is an article from the Washington Post. And then here is another one which talks about research on this very subject (Chtourou &amp; Souissi, 2012). Other research in the article includes Schoenfeld, et al. (2014) and Gillen, et al. (2013).  (I find it ironic that they said \"What is the best time of day to exercise? It\u2019s not when you think.\" since it is exactly what I thought.)  References  Chtourou, H., &amp; Souissi, N. (2012). The effect of training at a specific time of day: a review. The Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 26(7), 1984-2005.DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825770a7  Gillen, J. B., Percival, M. E., Ludzki, A., Tarnopolsky, M. A., &amp; Gibala, M. (2013). Interval training in the fed or fasted state improves body composition and muscle oxidative capacity in overweight women. Obesity, 21(11), 2249-2255.DOI: 10.1002/oby.20379  Schoenfeld, B. J., Aragon, A. A., Wilborn, C. D., Krieger, J. W., &amp; Sonmez, G. T. (2014). Body composition changes associated with fasted versus non-fasted aerobic exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1), 54. DOI: 10.1186/s12970-014-0054-7",
        "id": 1965,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Looking for Bipolar Disorder treatment method",
        "body": "Since Bipolar disorder is a medical condition you and your brother should find a psychiatrist who can manage your pathology optimally.  Even if you trust in this audio-psycho-phonology it is not supported by any scientific evidence so I would advice against using it.  Medical therapy (lithium etc) is essential and could be eventually supported by phycotherapy.  As a side note I would add that Tomatis method has only been indagated in a case-control study on autism and has been proven of none efficacy.",
        "id": 1497,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "on what metabolism depends",
        "body": "Well metabolic rate is determined by many factors.   Hormones: BMR is regulated by the thyroid glands. The T3 and T4 hormone levels increase or decrease the BMR. Body Mass: BMR is directly proportional to the total body mass. Muscle Mass BMR is also directly proportional to the percentage of muscle mass of your body. Age: BMR is inversely proportional to age. Activity Levels Regular aerobic/anaerobic exercise will raise the metabolism.   There are other factors that may have some impact like levels of Stress, menopause or total skeletal mass.",
        "id": 1587,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Coffee for solving sleep problems?",
        "body": "It is very difficult to prove a negative. This is true both because there always exists the possibility of a small effect that a given study is underpowered to find, and because of the chronic issue with reporting negative results in biomedical literature and science in general (that is, experiments with a negative result are less likely to be published).  However, there is no recommendation for or substantial scientific evidence for sleep benefits of morning caffeine consumption and acute avoidance of caffeine, regardless of time of day, has been observed to have a modest improvement on sleep.  Given the ubiquity of caffeine in society, the multitude of studies concerning caffeine, and the existence of studies that show that caffeine avoidance is better for sleep, I think there is a pretty solid body evidence that suggests any sleep-beneficial role of caffeine is either non-existent extremely minimal.  Several authors have noted that peoples' perceptions of the impact of caffeine on sleep and wake are substantially exaggerated. Caffeine in regular users has little impact on sleep, and the immediate cognitive benefits of caffeine are mostly explainable by a reduction in baseline abilities under caffeine withdrawal. Similarly, sleep can improve in long-term users of caffeine when caffeine is withdrawn, but the effect is both small and short-lived.  I think it is important to recognize that adenosine is not the only signal contributing to sleep pressure, and so it is problematic to treat the system like it is. Habitual caffeine users adapt to the caffeine intake by increasing adenosine receptor expression, but they may also adapt to the increased adenosine receptor expression with modification of other contributors to sleep.  In the individuals of most concern: those with chronic insomnia or other sleep problems, their issues seem to persist despite the inherent increases in sleep pressure that people who lack sleep will accumulate, so there is unlikely to be a \"quick fix.\" The standard practice is an overall emphasis on \"sleep hygiene\" including setting a regular sleep-wake cycle, avoiding sleep-influencing substances including caffeine and alcohol, keep a standard and comfortable sleep environment, and exercise regularly: however, each of these strategies individually have only a modest impact.  There is also the issue of individual differences: if someone sleeps better in the evening when they wake up with caffeine, then there is little reason to change. There just isn't any scientific evidence that suggests prescribing morning caffeine as a sleep aid.  References    James, J. E. (1998). Acute and chronic effects of caffeine on performance, mood, headache, and sleep. Neuropsychobiology, 38(1), 32-41.  Nehlig, A. (2010). Is caffeine a cognitive enhancer?. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 20(s1), S85-S94.  Sin, C. W., Ho, J. S., &amp; Chung, J. W. (2009). Systematic review on the effectiveness of caffeine abstinence on the quality of sleep. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 18(1), 13-21.  Stepanski, E. J., &amp; Wyatt, J. K. (2003). Use of sleep hygiene in the treatment of insomnia. Sleep medicine reviews, 7(3), 215-225.",
        "id": 2295,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fact or Hoax : Unconventional method of saving human life from stroke?",
        "body": "My Grandmother died of a ischemic stroke (TIA followed by blockage) after weaning herself off of blood thinners because she didn't \"need the medicine\".  Huge issue with his advice - the large majority of strokes are due to a clot or another form of vessel blockage. The rest caused by a hemorrhage (you'll have the worst headache of your life) while bleeding profusely internally.     That advice literally makes me mad (not at you) -- but whoever wrote it.    Physiologically it makes no sense.  In most cases that would kill someone.     Below is Advice According to the MayoClinic.org    Symptoms    Watch for these signs and symptoms if you think you or someone else may be having a stroke. Note when your signs and symptoms begin, because the length of time they have been present may guide your treatment decisions:   Trouble with speaking and understanding. You may experience confusion. You may slur your words or have difficulty understanding speech. Paralysis or numbness of the face, arm or leg. You may develop sudden numbness, weakness or paralysis in your face, arm or leg, especially on one side of your body. Try to raise both your arms over your head at the same time. If one arm begins to fall, you may be having a stroke. Similarly, one side of your mouth may droop when you try to smile. Trouble with seeing in one or both eyes. You may suddenly have blurred or blackened vision in one or both eyes, or you may see double. Headache. A sudden, severe headache, which may be accompanied by vomiting, dizziness or altered consciousness, may indicate you're having a stroke. Trouble with walking. You may stumble or experience sudden dizziness, loss of balance or loss of coordination.     When to see a doctor  Seek immediate medical attention if you notice any signs or symptoms of a stroke, even if they seem to fluctuate or disappear.  Think \"FAST\" and do the following:   Face. Ask the person to smile. Does one side of the face droop? Arms. Ask the person to raise both arms. Does one arm drift downward? Or is one arm unable to raise up? Speech. Ask the person to repeat a simple phrase. Is his or her speech slurred or strange? Time. If you observe any of these signs, call 911 immediately.   Call 911 or your local emergency number right away. Don't wait to see if symptoms go away. Every minute counts. The longer a stroke goes untreated, the greater the potential for brain damage and disability.  If you're with someone you suspect is having a stroke, watch the person carefully while waiting for emergency assistance.    Causes  A stroke occurs when the blood supply to your brain is interrupted or reduced. This deprives your brain of oxygen and nutrients, which can cause your brain cells to die.  A stroke may be caused by a blocked artery (ischemic stroke) or the leaking or bursting of a blood vessel (hemorrhagic stroke). Some people may experience only a temporary disruption of blood flow to their brain (transient ischemic attack, or TIA).     Ischemic Stroke   About 85 percent of strokes are ischemic strokes. Ischemic strokes occur when the arteries to your brain become narrowed or blocked, causing severely reduced blood flow (ischemia). The most common ischemic strokes include:   Thrombotic stroke. A thrombotic stroke occurs when a blood clot (thrombus) forms in one of the arteries that supply blood to your brain. A clot may be caused by fatty deposits (plaque) that build up in arteries and cause reduced blood flow (atherosclerosis) or other artery conditions.  Embolic stroke. An embolic stroke occurs when a    blood clot or other debris forms away from your brain \u2014 commonly in    your heart \u2014 and is swept through your bloodstream to lodge in    narrower brain arteries. This type of blood clot is called an    embolus.      Hemorrhagic stroke   Hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in your brain leaks or    ruptures. Brain hemorrhages can result from many conditions that    affect your blood vessels, including uncontrolled high blood pressure    (hypertension), overtreatment with anticoagulants and weak spots in    your blood vessel walls (aneurysms).  A less common cause of hemorrhage is the rupture of an abnormal    tangle of thin-walled blood vessels (arteriovenous malformation)    present at birth. Types of hemorrhagic stroke include:  - Intracerebral hemorrhage. In an intracerebral hemorrhage, a blood vessel in the brain bursts and spills into the surrounding brain    tissue, damaging brain cells. Brain cells beyond the leak are    deprived of blood and also damaged.  High blood pressure, trauma, vascular malformations, use of blood-thinning medications and other conditions may cause an intracerebral hemorrhage.   Subarachnoid hemorrhage. In a subarachnoid hemorrhage, an artery on or near the surface of your brain bursts and spills into the space between the surface of your brain and your skull. This bleeding is often signaled by a sudden, severe headache.  A subarachnoid hemorrhage is commonly caused by the bursting of a small sack-shaped or berry-shaped outpouching on an artery known as an aneurysm. After the hemorrhage, the blood vessels in your brain may widen and narrow erratically (vasospasm), causing brain cell damage by further limiting blood flow.      Transient ischemic attack (TIA)   A transient ischemic attack (TIA) \u2014 also known as a ministroke \u2014 is a brief period of symptoms similar to those you'd have in a stroke. A temporary decrease in blood supply to part of your brain causes TIAs, which often last less than five minutes.  Like an ischemic stroke, a TIA occurs when a clot or debris blocks blood flow to part of your brain. A TIA doesn't leave lasting symptoms because the blockage is temporary.  Seek emergency care even if your symptoms seem to clear up. Having a TIA puts you at greater risk of having a full-blown stroke, causing permanent damage later. If you've had a TIA, it means there's likely a partially blocked or narrowed artery leading to your brain or a clot source in the heart.  It's not possible to tell if you're having a stroke or a TIA based only on your symptoms. Up to half of people whose symptoms appear to go away actually have had a stroke causing brain damage.",
        "id": 1799,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Need help interpreting histology results (punch skin biopsy)",
        "body": "How do I interpret a histology / pathology result?  As mentioned in comments, Health.SE isn't a place for personal medical advice, so I'll steer clear of addressing your result specifically. That being said, some general points about pathology reports and some of the nuances may be illuminating for you or others.  Why isn't the result clear?  Rather than thinking in a binary way about results:   \u2610 cancer \u2611 not cancer   pathologists can't always be certain- sometimes it's clearly malignant, sometimes it isn't.   \u2610 malignant ? probably malignant ? maybe malignant ? pre-alignant \u2610 not malignant   Margins, are extremely important when diagnosing whether a lesion (\"lump\") is malignant, are by definition not available in a punch biopsy. There are quite a number of factors to balance when deciding whether a sample is malignant or not (eg cell size, shape, differentiation, numbers)  Why are my pathologist and surgeon saying different things?  I don't want to speak for either person involved here; but although both the pathologist want to do the best they can, they may have slightly different 'views'.  The pathologist has been a small specimen of a larger lesion and has to make a determination about what is going on in it. It's not always possible to say with 100% certainty what is actually happening.  Your surgeon has (I assume) seen you, seen the lesion in person, and hear you say that it's a new and recent occurrence. They may have added that knowledge to the pathology report and decided that on the balance of probability that it is malignant, and that it should be removed.  Disclaimer: the above is speculation, and merely offered as a possiblity as to why they are saying different things. If this concerns you, then read the next section.  What should I do?  As recommended, speak to the doctors involved- the pathologist and the surgeon. They should be happy to explain their reasoning to you and be able to clarify what they mean and why they made the decision they did.  If that does not satisfy you, you always have the option to seek a second (in this case, third!) opinion.  Further reading   Pathology services explained - starts with \"Unlike the pathologists you might see on the television...\", which is a good start in my book Punch biopsy outline from American Family Physician Reading a Pathology Report from cancer.net   Further Disclaimer / TL;DR  There may well be some pathologists reading this who are thinking \"that's way too oversimplified\" or similar. Really, it's probably still too complicated. It's a tricky job to do and so it's not easy to summarise a speciality in an answer on a Q&amp;A site.  The take-home message is in the bullet points above: pathology does not always give a clear answer.",
        "id": 1642,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens when a hemophiliac woman gets her period?",
        "body": "\"Luckily\" haemophilia only occurs in men*; women may be carrier of the disease but their bleeding tendency is in general less severe.  However, haemophilia carriers and women with other bleeding disorders (such as von Willebrand disease or platelet problems, e.g. Glanzmann) may experience very heavy menstrual blood loss. In general the menstruation won't take more days, but the blood loss can be much more severe. This could lead to anaemia and potentially death.  To minimise this blood loss, one could suppress the period (e.g. oral contraceptives or an intra-uterine device). Other options would be administration of the part that's missing or malfunctioning (clotting factor or platelets) or blood transfusion to treat anaemia.  * based on the comments below I want to add that it is possible that a woman is a true haemophiliac, but that this is very rare. Haemophilia is an X-linked disorder; because men inherit XY one affected X chromosome will cause the disease. Women have XX, which means that they can \"compensate\" the effect of one affected X chromosome by the activity of the other X chromosome. She is then a carrier of the disease: there is a 50-50 chance of her son (to whom she gives one X) is a haemophiliac. A woman could inherit two affected X chromosomes if her father is a haemophiliac and her mother is a carrier (and inherits the affected X chromosome). This makes true haemophilia much more rare in women than in men.",
        "id": 2030,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is canola oil good or bad as compared to other cooking oils?",
        "body": "Fat rodents are slightly dumber than lean mice?  The Effect of canola oil consumption on memory, synapse and neuropathology in the triple transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease (2017) is an interesting result, to be sure. If rapeseed oil is indeed responsible for the effects observed we should definitely get to know that and react to that.  But it is a very preliminary result in one animal study, eagerly picked up by 'journalists'. Given the small effect of a study so subpar in design that  one has to wonder why that relatively prestigious journal did not enforce higher standards for what has been published. Reading just said article I wonder how a simple replication could be reliably constructed from the limited information given. The section \"Materials and Methods\" was either shortened severely or the design of that study was \u2013 naive \u2013 to stay polite.     Temple University again greases the clickbait machine with canola oil study      Scientists should be lauded for investigating health claims used to a market a product. But when preliminary findings are reported to the public without appropriate context, that\u2019s a problem. [\u2026]       Only the Inquirer warned readers about relying on a mouse study, stating in the second paragraph: \u201cThe results should be viewed with caution because what happens in mice often does not happen in people.\u201d But that warning came only after baiting readers with the overreaching headline.[\u2026]      The Inquirer\u2019s story also contains information that\u2019s not in the news release and does serve to temper some of the hype. It reports that the senior investigator \u201cconsiders the study a \u2018red flag\u2019 for canola oil users, though he would not tell people to stop eating it,\u201d that he plans to experiment with different fats and doses \u201cto see how much is needed to induce brain changes and whether changes are reversible,\u201d and that he acknowledges not knowing why canola oil and olive oil might affect the brain differently.   An even nicer analysis than in the compressed comments on Nature is on Medium:     No Evidence of Canola Oil Causing Alzheimer\u2019s and Dementia   Sensational Misinterpretation of Published Data Creates Concern where None is Warranted   Overall. When looking at this paper I see a good lab with competence and expertise in the area performing a test on a small number of mice, where they give standard lab chow and lab chow containing significant amount of canola oil. The effects seen cannot be directly attributed to canola oil per se, but to oil consumption, or increased calories in the diet, or just being overweight. Obesity is associated with at least certain forms of AD, so seeing specific markers and mild impairment in an AD mouse model is probably not surprising.   It may very well turn out that unidentified or untested for toxins, pollutants, pesticides, mineral oil residues or who knows what in the oil tested elicits undesirable effects. Erucic acid is perhaps not the only poison naturally found in rapeseed that makes it less than ideal as 'the standard cooking oil'. That paper in question doesn't tell and does not allow to infer any such conclusion either way. It may be an important clue, an honest error or just junk.  In the meantime, the positive evidence in favour of using rapeseed oil seems to have the majority: Lin Lin et al.: \"Evidence of health benefits of canola oil\", Nutrition Reviews, Volume71, Issue6, June 2013, p 370-385, DOI:     Canola oil\u2010based diets have been shown to reduce plasma cholesterol levels in comparison with diets containing higher levels of saturated fatty acids. Consumption of canola oil also influences biological functions that affect various other biomarkers of disease risk. Previous reviews have focused on the health effects of individual components of canola oil. Here, the objective is to address the health effects of intact canola oil, as this has immediate practical implications for consumers, nutritionists, and others deciding which oil to consume or recommend. A literature search was conducted to examine the effects of canola oil consumption on coronary heart disease, insulin sensitivity, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, energy metabolism, and cancer cell growth. Data reveal substantial reductions in total cholesterol and low\u2010density lipoprotein cholesterol, as well as other positive actions, including increased tocopherol levels and improved insulin sensitivity, compared with consumption of other dietary fat sources. In summary, growing scientific evidence supports the use of canola oil, beyond its beneficial actions on circulating lipid levels, as a health\u2010promoting component of the diet.   Concerning Alzheimer's directly, it is even suggested that rapeseed oil might be  more of a positive factor than a danger, because of their vitamin E and fatty acid contents. Michelle Walters et al.: \"Role of Nutrition to Promote Healthy Brain Aging and Reduce Risk of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease\", Current Nutrition Reports, June 2017, Volume 6, Issue 2, pp 63\u201371, DOI",
        "id": 2099,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Breakthrough bleeding and antibiotics",
        "body": "You should not skip any pills when taking oral contracptives. Breakthrough bleeding is not uncommon, especially early on, and the pill is still effective at preventing pregnancy. You should, however, report breakthrough bleeding; your doctor may want to change your pill.   Breakthrough Bleeding is one of the most common reasons for women to stop taking their pill. However, it is still an effective contraceptive when taken regularly. An adjustment of one of the components of your pill can stop breakthrough bleeding.     [B]reakthrough bleeding... is vaginal bleeding that occurs during your active pills. This is a common side effect during the first 3 months of birth control pills use and up to 50% of users may experience this. By the third pack of pills, 90% of users are no longer experiencing spotting. Some may notice some mild menstrual cramping with the spotting but this should resolve for most by the third pack of pills as well. Contraceptive effectiveness is present even with spotting, as long as no pills have been missed. If you are experiencing light bleeding on your active pills that lasts longer than 5 days, or heavier bleeding lasting more than 3 days, contact your provider.   Evidence on the association between antibiotic use and combination oral contraceptive (COC) failure remains controversial, with recent studies reporting no evidence to support decreased effectiveness of birth control with the use of antibiotics except rifampin and rifabutin.  However, some doctors will ask an oral contraceptive user to use additional protection while using an antibiotic.   The reasoning that antibiotics might interfere with the effectiveness of COCs revolves around the antibiotic decreasing steroid hormone\u2019s plasma concentrations by hepatic microsomal enzyme induction or inhibition, interference with enterohepatic circulation of COC metabolites, interference with absorption from the GI tract, competition between two drugs for the same metabolizing enzyme, alterations in plasma protein binding, induction of an opposite physiologic effect, or increased urinary or fecal excretion of the contraceptive.  The strongest evidence is for rifabutin and rifampin: a significant decrease in the hormonal levels was noted in women taking rifampin even after a single dose.  Dirithromycin slightly decreased plasma ethinyl estradiol levels, with questionable clinical importance. A recent study in the Netherlands did find a relationship between the use of antibiotics and breakthrough pregnancy in a population-based prescription database; also, individual patients do show large decreases in the plasma concentrations of ethinyl estradiol when they take certain antibiotics, notably tetracycline and penicillin derivatives.    Because of earlier studies, anecdotal reports, and the above (it's not possible to identify whose levels will drop with antibiotic use), a cautious approach is advised. Physicians and pharmacists (80-90% of both) still lean towards believing that broad-spectrum antibiotics decrease the effectiveness of COCs, and continue to advise the use of back-up contraception.   The tide is shifting, however, as new studies come out. Here are a few excerpts of recent studies:     Available scientific and pharmacokinetic data do not support the hypothesis that antibiotics (with the exception of rifampin) lower the contraceptive efficacy of oral contraceptives. (J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:917-23.)    Since dermatologists treat acne with antibiotics, and a significant percentage of these patients are young women of child-bearing age, they certainly have a vested interest in knowing if this is true.     Rifampicin and griseofulvin induce hepatic enzymes and do appear to have a genuine interaction with the COCP, leading to reduced efficacy. The situation with the broad-spectrum antibiotics is less clear. There are relatively few prospective studies of the pharmacokinetics of concurrent COCP and antibiotic use and few, if any, demonstrate a convincing basis for any reduced contraceptive efficacy.      We did not find an association between concomitant antibiotic use and the risk of breakthrough pregnancy among COC users. However, due to limited power and potential carryover effects, findings from this study cannot rule out an elevated risk of COC failure among antibiotic users. (2011)   So, the answer is (except with your noted exceptions) the penicillin-class antibiotics probably do not interfere with effectiveness of COCs. However, one unwanted pregnancy is one pregnancy too many, and the use of a back-up method is not a huge deal (just ~14 days).  Until more and larger studies demonstrate a lack of interaction between most antibiotics and COCs, this will likely be the advice people continue to receive. When you look at the risk to benefit ratio of back-up, it's probably the wisest course for people prescribed a short course of antibiotics. It is more significantly problematic for people prescribed continuous antibiotic use for acne, Crohn's and other conditions/illnesses.  Birth Control Pills (BCPs)  Birth Control Pills  (Oral Contraceptives) Oral contraceptive efficacy and antibiotic interaction: A myth debunked Interaction between broad-spectrum antibiotics and the combined oral contraceptive pill: A literature review Antibiotics and oral contraceptive failure \u2014 a case-crossover study Are antibiotics related to oral combination contraceptive failures in the Netherlands? A case-crossover study Drug interactions between oral contraceptives and antibiotics. Survey of pharmacists and physicians on drug interactions between combined oral contraceptives and broad-spectrum antibiotics.  ",
        "id": 341,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Benadryl (=diphenhydramine) lead to tolerance? Can I use it to help with sleep?",
        "body": "First generation H1-antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine = Benadryl) are well known for their sedative effects explaining their limited use in patients with allergic rhinitis. Several pharmacological studies have shown that diphenhydramine crosses the blood brain barrier and produces CNS sedation.  Two studies have (partly) addressed your question regarding the loss in sedation efficacy over time. Both studies focused on daytime sleepiness (as this one of the side effects which prevents prescription of diphenhydramine in patients with allergic rhinitis) but the mechanisms of tolerance can probably be extended to diphenhydramine use against insomnia.   In the first study, participants receiving dimenhydrinate (an ethanolamine antihistamine that is metabolized to diphenhydramine and chlorotheophylline) were asked to assess their sleepiness while in parallel, psychomotor performance tests where conducted. Results showed a modest attenuation of subjective sedation and performance impairment after successive doses during a single day of drug exposure. In the second study authors conducted a randomised double blind placebo controlled crossover study in 15 individuals. Here again, a tolerance to the drug was observed: sedative effects which were evident on the first day became indistinguishable from placebo by the end of 3 days of treatment.   Three possible mechanisms for the tolerance to diphenhydramine were suggested in the literature: behavioural adaptation (only if diphenhydramine was taken during the day for allergic rhinitis); (2) altered drug metabolism, e.g., increased clearance; or (3) altered neuropharmacological effect.  So according to current knowledge, there is evidence for tolerance of diphenhydramine over time.  Sources:   Richardson G et al. Tolerance to Daytime Sedative Effects of H1 Antihistamines. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 22(5):511-515, October 2002. Manning C et al. Central nervous system effects of meclizine and dimenhydrinate: evidence of acute tolerance to antihistamines. J Clin Pharmacol 1992; 32:996\u20131002. ",
        "id": 1165,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to keep reusing shop bough probiotics?",
        "body": "Thomas, you don't want to keep probiotics for a long time - they are living bacteria and will die fairly quickly compared to most things. For instance, if you waited a year (just a guess based on years of experience, no formal source) the potency of the probiotic will be much less because many of the bacteria will have died. If you buy it, you should use it on a regular basis until it's gone - including using it in sauerkrat!  Hope this helps.",
        "id": 2055,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Left pinky finger pain due to typing",
        "body": "The pain in your finger may be due to a condition called RSI(Repetitive Strain Injury). I heard there could be many reasons for you to have an RSI. In this case you already mentioned that this finger is used mostly in typing.  I had an RSI months back on my right pinky finger due to typing. I did some stretching exercises found on the internet which you could gather easily on the web. I also changed my typing habits a bit in such a way that i don't have to use the right little finger, which may not be practical at all cases. The point here was to give some rest for the finger. Now like the above comments, no one could diagnose you over the internet so i recommend you to go and see a doctor!",
        "id": 1737,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do the metabolisms of anorexic individuals ever recover?",
        "body": "They appear to.   In Caloric consumption and activity levels after weight recovery in anorexia nervosa: a prolonged delay in normalization, researchers looked at anorexia patients 2 to 6 weeks after what is called \"refeeding\", and patients 6 months after.      Patients with anorexia nervosa, in the weeks after achieving target   weight and terminating refeeding, have elevated levels of activity and   caloric intake, compared to normal controls. In contrast, caloric intake   and activity in anorectics who had maintained weight for months after   weight recovery were similar to controls.   So they were maintaining weight at the same amount of calories that people without a history of anorexia were also maintaining their weight at.  The same was found in this study: Resting metabolic rate and total energy expenditure in acute and weight recovered patients with anorexia nervosa and in healthy young women     No significant differences were found between the weight-recovered anorectic women and the healthy controls in RMR (1,330 \u00b1 131 kcal/day [weight-recovered]; 1,419 \u00b1 197 [controls]) and in TEE (2,602 \u00b1 637 kcal/day [weight-recovered]; 2,596 \u00b1 493 kcal/day [controls]).   RMR = Resting Metabolic Rate; TEE = Total Energy Expenditure   Both studies had small sample sizes though.   During recovery, patients recovering from anorexia need more calories than expected for weight gain, which is called hypermetabolic, but that period ends at around 4 to 6 months.   Nutritional rehabilitation in anorexia nervosa: review of the literature and implications for treatment (figure 2)",
        "id": 465,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In a viral infection, which symptoms are caused by the virus itself, and which symptoms are caused by the body fighting the virus?",
        "body": "To provide a brief answer, as I think a sufficient answer would be far beyond the scope of this site, the symptoms that are \"generic\" to the common colds are all caused by the body's response to a pathogen (it's why they are generic).  Specific pathogens tend to cause additional symptoms on top of that, some of which seem to be directly related to viral damage.    First, I want to point out to a very nice website/data set from the Common Cold Project (CCP).  The publications from the comprising trails is a good repository for information on the common cold.   *It should be noted that there were a few experimental design problems that they were unable to avoid (for a combination of cost and lack of knowledge).  It turned out the the RSV challenge strain used in the British study was not a very pathogenic strain.  Further, as it has delayed onset of symptoms meant that it wasn't well studied with in the time frame of the trial.  That said, it provides a good deal of details on HRV, and the \"common cold\" more generally.    What are the common symptoms of the common cold?  This might seem like a more obvious question, but it's what must be answered first before the broader question of what is being caused by the virus is addressed.  One of the better lists of symptoms comes from the first British study mentioned in the CCP:   Cough Hoarseness Sore throat Nasal obstruction Sneezing Increased tissue usage Nasal stuffiness Sinus Pain Post-nasal discharge Cervical adenitis Sputum Chills Extra bed rest Watering Eyes Headache Malaise Myalgia [muscle pain] Mucopurulent discharge Temperature increase in the day Temperature increase at night   [Table 3, ibid]  Not a single one of these is actually caused \"directly\" by the virus, but it kind of get's back to what can the virus do?  Viruses are very small obligate parasites that rely on changing host systems to replicate and spread their genetic material.  If we take a look at the snotty, cough, and sneezy symptoms (cough, bronchoconstriction and airway mucus secretion), they are all \"caused\" by rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) along the airway.  That is to say, the damage the viruses do actually cause to cells along the airway is detected by RARs either through the cell debris, chemical signaling (indirect activation from other cells), or direct interaction of immune cells.  If we look at a runny and stuffed up nose (rhinorrhea and nasal obstruction) specifically, we know that neutrophils are coming to the sinuses and inducing inflammation and mucus over production.  What do the viruses actually do then?  This is where the question gets very broad very quickly.  I will deal with three viruses as examples: HRV, RSV, and influenza.  Some of the best sentinel data on colds, at least colds severe enough to seek medical treatment, has been coming from China. The two leading candidates from these studies are HRV and RSV (also true in US, see a related SE.BIO awnser of mine).  I want add in flu because it has some other interesting traits.  Both HRV and RSV often are found with co-infection of other viruses or bacteria, but RSV is more likely to have this problem [ibid].  While \"drained\" resources while fighting the common infection might be a partial explanation for this, we know that RSV produces two proteins, NS1 and NS2, which directly inhibit the innate immune system.  This could explain the high rate of co-infection with RSV.  Which leads me to the first general thing that viruses do, directly counter the immune system of a host.  Another comparison would be what kind of direct cell damage (cytopathology) the virus might do.  RSV and flu tends to destroy the airway epithelial barrier by infecting and killing the epithelial cells (this sets of the RARs).  HRV on the other hand, doesn't often kill the cells off, but just disrupts their function [ibid].  Thus the second general thing viruses do is \"kill\" or \"disrupt\" the cells they infect.  The final action of a virus I want to look at goes back to a symptom that is on our list, myalgia.  Of our three viruses, this is most closely associated with flu.  Though the exact mechanisms may vary, it is believed to be caused cytokine release.  Here's a good example where answering the question of what is \"caused\" by the virus is tricky.  Some influenza strains produce proteins where a main function seems to be inducing cytokines.  This can lead to all kinds of bad things like a cytokine storm.  But flu also needs to cause an up regulation of trypsin to help process it's proteins.  This might be done indirectly through a cytokine or directly from a viral protein.  Either way the trypsin can remain in the tissue causing damage to host proteins after the virus has moved on (been cleared).  So would we say this was tissue damage caused by the virus?  It wasn't an immune response in the normal sense, and it was started by the virus, but then again the trypsin is not a viral protein.  That leads to my final overly generic statement about viruses, they activate complicated pathways with all kinds of incidental downstream consequences (normally bad).  Imagine if someone was in front of a power breaker box randomly turning off and on switches.  If the food was spoiled in the refrigerator would you say it was because the refrigerator wasn't on, or because somebody pulled the fuse out?",
        "id": 717,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why might lab test results be normal when thyroid nodules are present and there are symptoms of hyperthyroidism?",
        "body": "This constellation may result from at least five reasons:   Hypothesis #0: Both conditions (thyroid nodules and symptoms of hyperthyroidism) are independent. Hyperthyroid symptoms including anxiety, hair loss, fatigue and palpitations are unspecific. Although they are typical for thyrotoxicosis, they may also result from other conditions, e.g. masked depression or pheochromocytoma. Hypothesis #1: The nodules represent fully compensated toxic adenomas, where somatic mutations lead to constitutive activation of TSH signaling. Since autonomic production is fully compensated, concentrations of thyroid hormones remain within their respective reference ranges. Symptoms of thyrotoxicosis result from deviation of free T4 concentrations from the personal set point of thyroid homeostasis. It is well known that the intra-individual variation of TSH and free T4 concentrations is much smaller than inter-individual variance (see http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11889165 and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25567792 ). This is a consequence of an individual set point of the pituitary-thyroid feedback control mechanism, which is encoded as TRH signaling from the hypothalamus. Deviations of thyroid hormones within the reference range may still lead to symptoms if they are far from the personal set point. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26635726 for a review article discussing this topic and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24480737 for a method for reconstructing the personal set point. Hypothesis #2: This is somewhat similar to hypotheses #1. The nodules represent fully compensated toxic adenomas (like in hypothesis #1), but they predominantly produce T3, which results from intracellular hyperdeiodination (ensuing from constitutive activation of TSH signaling and consecutive stimulation of the distal part of the TSH-T3 shunt). T3 concentrations remain within their reference ranges, but are above the range of concentrations that are appropriate for the personal receptor sensitivity. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23339744/ for a discussion of this topic. It may be helpful to calculate the sum activity of peripheral deiodinases (SPINA-GD), see also http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27375554 for a methodological overview. Hypothesis #3: The thyroid nodules produce non-classical thyroid hormones (e.g. 3,5-T2, a highly active T4 metabolite), which destabilize the heart rhythm and exert other symptoms of hyperthyroidism. This is an understudied topic. One of the few papers discussing this condition is http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26279999 . Hypothesis #4: T3 is secreted episodically from thyroid nodules, so that it is missed from diagnostic work-up. This is also an understudied topic. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2045066 for more details.   It may be beneficial to determine concentrations of free T3 and free T4 (rather than total T3 and total T4) in order to avoid false negative results due to low plasma protein binding.",
        "id": 1063,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Drug abuse and hair loss",
        "body": "Some amphetamines can cause hair loss. The mechanism how this happens does not appear to be known.  Also some anabolic steroids (AAS) can cause it, presumably through conversion to DHT. The situation with AAS is more complicated, as they can also cause the opposite (hirsutism). The effect of AAS depends on the area, i.e. whether the hair is androgenic or not.",
        "id": 2119,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to prevent sleepiness at study time?",
        "body": "Well, in order to avoid sleeping while studying, just follow this steps below:  1.Switch the Lights On. Don't even think about studying in just the lamplight at night.  2.Sit in Front of a Table.  3.No Heavy Meals.  4.Move Around in Your Room  5.Read out Aloud While Studying  http://www.newhealthadvisor.com/How-to-Avoid-Sleep-While-Studying.html",
        "id": 1289,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Storing pills together",
        "body": "Prescription drugs always have a label with their expiration date.  That date is only valid if you keep the tablets/pills/solution in their original containers. Once you remove them, they are exposed to air humidity and they deteriorate quicker. Therefore, your physician wouldn't advise you to remove the pills from their original package and store them somewhere else.",
        "id": 1372,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the stomach handle liquid vs solid food?",
        "body": "More stuff = More time  The stomach has sensory capabilities that help determine the nutritional content of what it receives. This allows it to \"taste\" and decide what it needs to add to the \"stirring pot\" to get cooking. When the stomach receives traditional foods like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, it adds protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin and hydrochloric acid (HCL) to break down the nutrients for absorption in the intestines.   (This is why we consume fluids and light carbs on an upset stomach- we want to prevent the stomach from getting aggravated and overworked or even inflamed.)  The more complex the food, the longer it stays in the stomach. So protein can take hours while simple carbohydrates like white bread or sugar could take just half an hour or less. Liquids like tea, juice, and alcohol tend to be even less complicated, water least of all- taking possibly just minutes to start passing into the blood stream if there is no food in the stomach and fully entering the blood stream within 1-2 hours.  If there happens to be food already in the stomach, the liquid must wait until the stomach finishes digesting the food to enter the small intestine along with the broken-down food. This is why health centers often advise alcohol consumption with food. Food will slow the emptying of the stomach into the small intestine, where alcohol absorption is very rapid.  References are respective to order of mention.   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach#Stomach_as_nutrition_sensor http://www.uhs.wisc.edu/health-topics/digestive-system/upset-stomach.shtml http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=275 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21997675 http://www.brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/alcohol,tobacco,&amp;_other_drugs/alcohol/alcohol_&amp;_your_body.php ",
        "id": 565,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does caffeine boost adenosine buildup?",
        "body": "Your question demonstrates a key understanding of homeostatic mechanisms: in many cases, long-term pharmaceutical modulation leads to compensatory changes that blunt the effects of the modulation. This can lead to rebound effects and sometimes physical/physiological dependence.  Your hypothesis is good, however, you have the mechanism wrong in this case. Blocking adenosine receptors tends to increase the expression of receptors, especially the adenosine A1 receptor, rather than the production of the agonist adenosine. Interestingly, this seems to be regulated not by increased transcription (mRNA production) but instead by later mechanisms (Johansson et al. 1993).  Receptor expression changes rather than agonist production changes tends to be a general rule for similar circumstances, though there are certainly exceptions as well. Altering receptor levels is a more reliable homeostatic mechanism, because often a given agonist acts on many different receptors with different affinities. It is also the cells expressing the receptors that have the most direct way to assay the level of receptor activation. In order to change agonist production levels, you would need a communication mechanism where the receptor cells signal back to the agonist producing cells, whereas receptor expression can be controlled all within the receptor cells.  References    Fredholm, B. B. (1982). Adenosine actions and adenosine receptors after 1 week treatment with caffeine. Acta Physiologica, 115(2), 283-286.  Johansson, B., Ahlberg, S., van der Ploeg, I., Bren\u00e9, S., Lindefors, N., Persson, H., &amp; Fredholm, B. B. (1993). Effect of long term caffeine treatment on A 1 and A 2 adenosine receptor binding and on mRNA levels in rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's archives of pharmacology, 347(4), 407-414.  Ramkumar, V., Bumgarner, J. R., Jacobson, K. A., &amp; Stiles, G. L. (1988). Multiple components of the A1 adenosine receptor-adenylate cyclase system are regulated in rat cerebral cortex by chronic caffeine ingestion. The Journal of clinical investigation, 82(1), 242-247.  Svenningsson, P., Nomikos, G. G., &amp; Fredholm, B. B. (1999). The stimulatory action and the development of tolerance to caffeine is associated with alterations in gene expression in specific brain regions. Journal of Neuroscience, 19(10), 4011-4022.",
        "id": 2292,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is biking linked to erection- or fertility problems?",
        "body": "A decade ago, a study (1) reviewed the evidence regarding the effect of cycling on impotence (due for example to pudendal nerve entrapment) and the effect of repeated scrotal temperature on spermatogenesis. While sparse evidence suggested a possible link, the author concluded that those results needed to be replicated in larger studies.  Some years later, several studies have indirectly investigated this:   A study examined sperm quality among male partners (2261) of couples attending IVF (2)   Conclusion: in men who reported bicycling as their primary form of exercise, bicycling of \u22655 hours per week was associated with low sperm concentration and total motile sperm   A cross sectional study of 10 cyclist (compared to 10 sedentary controls) (3)   Conclusion: compared to controls, cyclists had a lower proportion of spermatozoa with normal morphology. However, they did not report any significant difference in semen volume and sperm motility, viability and count.   A study including 24 healthy non professional cyclists (4)   Conclusion: a 16-week low-to-intensive cycling training could possibly impact negatively on spermatozoa  Finally a larger and recent study (5) conducted in the UK in 2014 among 5284 male cyclist reported no associations between cycling volume erectyl dysfunction and infertility.  So to summarise, current evidence is controversial and larger studies are needed to investigate this potential association.  Sources:   Southorn et al. Great balls of fire and the vicious cycle: A study of the effects of cycling on male fertility. The Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care. 2002: 28(4) Wise LA, Cramer DW, Hornstein MD, Ashby RK, Missmer SA. Physical activity and semen quality among men attending an infertility clinic. Fertility and sterility. 2011;95(3):1025-1030. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.11.006. Gebreegziabher et al. Sperm Characteristics of Endurance Trained Cyclists. Int J Sports Med 2004; 25(4): 247-251 Maleki B. et al. Long-term Low-to-Intensive Cycling Training: Impact on Semen Parameters and Seminal Cytokines. Clin J Sport Med. 2015 Nov;25(6):535-40. Hollingworth Milo et al. An Observational Study of Erectile Dysfunction, Infertility, and Prostate Cancer in Regular Cyclists: Cycling for Health UK Study. Journal of Men's Health. July 2014, 11(2): 75-79. ",
        "id": 1200,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take for the simple sugars in a drink to reach the bloodstream?",
        "body": "When ingesting sugar water, the body attempts to regulate movement of food from the stomach into the duodenum (first part of small intestine) to a rate of about 2.1 kcal per minute.  Your drink that contains 24 grams of sugar will provide 96 kcal, and will likely be absorbed over a period of about 45 minutes.  A normal healthy person will have around 80-110 mg/dl of glucose circulating in their blood plasma. An average person has about 50 dl of blood circulating in their veins, or about 5 grams of glucose total. If all 24 grams of sugar entered the blood stream instantly, that would cause the blood sugar level to rise by around 480 mg/dL, which would be well above the level defined as acute hyperglycemia and high enough to put a person into the emergency room or even cause death.",
        "id": 196,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What should I check before taking protein supplements?",
        "body": "Usually, protein supplements (e.g., whey protein) are used by athletes and body-builders. Because isometric exercise like body-building increases the diastolic blood pressure in short-term 1, it is recommended to check for serum creatinine and Urea before supplementation (because it may accelerate renal function decline in people with mild renal insufficiency 2), along with check-ups every 6 months (it is my personal comment as a physician). It is all because there are some researches stating that high amount of Urea due to the intake of protein supplement may promote kidney damage by chronically increasing the glomerular pressure and hyperfiltration 3 , 4 ,5.      Even recommended doses of creatine monohydrate supplementation may cause kidney damage; therefore, anybody using this supplement should be warned about this possible side effect, and their renal functions should be monitored regularly6.    Toxic hepatitis is another rare side effects of supplementation for body-builders, which warrants these check-ups 7.      However, it does not mean that high-protein intake necessarily damages the kidneys in all users 8.   Furthermore, interactions with other drugs should be noticed if the users have underlying diseases or they use other medications.",
        "id": 1872,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is transvaginal ultrasound the only imaging modality option for diagnosis of PCOS?",
        "body": "If PCOS is unable to be diagnosed by the presence of the 2 other criteria out of the 3 you listed, then imaging is critical to diagnosis if PCOS is strongly suspected.  Diagnosis is important, as treatment can sometimes prevent complications.  Of all imaging modalities, transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) is the first choice because it gives the best visualization of pelvic organs, as it can get closer to them than transabdominal ultrasound, and the ultrasound technology allows characterization of cysts based on echogenicity.    Transvaginal ultrasound is done using a probe that is covered with a condom-like sheath, and covered in lubrication.  The probe looks like this:    The probe is usually approximately the width of 2 fingers. If a woman is able to tolerate manipulation of tampons, it is less likely to cause trauma to the hymen.  Although there is some discomfort with the exam, most women report it is not as traumatic as it seemed it would be.   However, there do exist alternative recommendations for diagnostic imaging in adolescents prior to sexual debut, which can be applied to virgin adults as well:      transabdominal ultrasound is preferred to the transvaginal approach in adolescent girls, but this approach may be technically limited in overweight and obese individuals.\u00a0   \"Technically limited\" means that abdominal fat reduces the ability of ultrasound from outside the abdomen to visualize the ovaries accurately, and therefore may yield inconclusive results.  In that case, a transvaginal ultrasound would be preferred.  It is possible to start with a transabdominal ultrasound and then get transvaginal if the first is inconclusive.  Alternatively, CT scan or MRI are options; however, CT radiation is generally preferred to be avoided unless necessary (it exposes your ovaries to 200+ times the radiation of 1 chest Xray), and MRI is a long and expensive test.  An adolescent or adult with concerns about TVUS should talk with their provider to discuss the viability of alternative imaging options, if imaging is essential to the diagnosis, and perhaps look at an ultrasound probe to reduce concern with the use of the instrument.",
        "id": 2694,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Where does Ibuprofen inhibit COX-1, and what is its MoA?",
        "body": "I'm not clear why you're asking this as this information is readily available unless I missed something in your question.  As for anticoagulant activity, my recollection is that if anything Ibuprofen is one of the worse NSAIDs in terms of cardiovascular side effects being prothrombotic, though not as bad as Diclofenac.       The main mechanism of action of ibuprofen is the non-selective, reversible inhibition of the cyclooxygenase enzymes COX-1 and COX-2 (coded for by PTGS1 and PTGS2, respectively).   ...     Ibuprofen exerts its anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects through inhibition of both COX isoforms. In addition, ibuprofen scavenges HO . radical, . NO and ONOO - and can potentiate or inhibit nitric oxide formation through its effects on nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms. Ibuprofen may activate anti-nociceptive axis through binding to the cannabinoid receptors and through inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) that metabolizes endocannabinoid anandamide.   The supplementary question is, why is that NSAIDs also don't have anti-coagulant effect?.  And the answer is that they do but it is short lived and reversible as the drug concentration falls, where aspirin's effect is irreversible.     All conventional, non-COX selective NSAIDs, also block platelets by inhibiting thromboxane synthesis but in contrast to aspirin, this effect is reversible. This is why an NSAID is not a satisfactory substitute for low-dose aspirin as a prophylactic therapy for cardiovascular events. As the blood concentration of the NSAID declines, the effect on the platelets also declines and is lost. This loss of platelet inhibitory effect is more pronounced for NSAIDs with shorter half-lives in the body such as ibuprofen, where for significant parts of the 24 hour day, platelets will not be inhibited. This problem is compounded if compliance with the NSAID is not perfect.      There is one other important complication. This effect of aspirin is blocked by concomitant therapy with all non-selective, conventional NSAIDs, except for diclofenac. (2) Also, we now know that the non-selective, conventional NSAIDs also increase the risk of cardiovascular events occurring. Diclofenac happens to be the most risky of the non-selective NSAIDs, and approximately equivalent to available COX-II selective NSAIDs such as celecoxib. (3)   https://www.pharmgkb.org/pathway/PA166121942 https://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f3195/rr/656306  Coxib and traditional NSAID Trialists\u2019 (CNT) Collaboration. Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of individual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet 2013; doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60900",
        "id": 2454,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the abbreviation\"r/o\" on a test report used in the declarative or imperative sense?",
        "body": "A full radiology report typically contains several sections, similar to a progress note. The \"HISTORY\" section discusses the medical history and possibly indications for the imaging. Here, r/o means neither \"has been ruled out\" nor \"should be ruled out in the future\".  It means the patient has such and such a history and this imaging test was done in order to rule out these things.  To find out what the radiologist concludes, look for an \"IMPRESSION\" section.  Source: I'm answering based on my education and experience, but a search for \"parts of a radiology report\" returns this helpful learning module from the University of Virginia.",
        "id": 2622,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How well can we test for deadly reactions to a drug, like anesthetics for an operation?",
        "body": "The only way to know if a drug is going to kill you, or have a serious side affect is to take it and see what happens. However, there are usually many ways to predict risk of such reactions. Researchers do their best to figure this out in the drug development and testing stage, so each drug that get's approved will come with a list of contraindications (conditions that have been determined to put you at greater risk of the side effects).  There's no such thing as a general drug safety test - nor could there ever be, since each potentially deadly reaction happens in it's own way. Researchers do attempt to identify the mechanism behind serious drug reactions. Once that mechanism is identified, then they are sometimes able to develop tests for susceptibility to that particular mechanism, but this is typically on a case by case basis. In some cases, a particular mechanism might apply to a whole class of drugs so one test can help predict a potential negative affect to any drug in the class.  Anesthesia  There are various risks associated with anesthesia - all of which are very rare. They include interactions with other drugs and conditions, as well as human error (overdose, etc.). One significant cause of death directly due to a reaction to anesthesia itself is due to something called malignant hyperthermia. The first manifestation of this is typically in the operating room, so it's difficult to predict. It seems the only approved test involves a muscle biopsy (they have to take a cell sample from a muscle), so this is only done if you have a family history of the condition. Research on less invasive tests is ongoing and promising, including a genetic test and an injection test  Drug allergies  Many drug reactions (including some deadly ones) fall under the category of what you know as an 'allergy'. Often times these reactions can be tested with a skin or blood test.  Other types of reactions  This list can go on and on, so I'll just refer the interested reader to a paper that does a much better job than I could: Adverse Drug Reactions: Types and Treatment Options",
        "id": 2345,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do detection of Kidney cysts (PKD) at an early stage helps prevention of Kidney Failure?",
        "body": "There is no way to prevent PKD. However, there is a drug in pre-clinical trials now that may be effective in treatment of PKD.      Researchers at UT Southwestern Medical Center, working with a   California biotech firm, have developed a potential drug to treat   polycystic kidney disease -- an incurable genetic disease that often   leads to end-stage kidney failure.      The drug, now called RGLS4326, is in preclinical animal testing at San   Diego-based Regulus Therapeutics Inc. An investigational new drug   filing to pave the way for human clinical trials is expected later   this year, said Dr. Vishal Patel, Assistant Professor of Internal   Medicine at UT Southwestern. ",
        "id": 2025,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cola in soft drinks?",
        "body": "The early coca-cola recipies (the first \"cola\") contained extract from the coca plant, and thus contained small doses of cocaine up until 1903 where cocaine was replaced with caffeine from the kola nut. However, nowadays the kola nut has been replaced with other sources of caffeine (mainly synthetic caffeine) and flavorings in most colas.  You should certainly not expect health benefits from any cola since the copious amounts of sugar outweigh any potential benefits from trace amounts of kola extract that may be found in some exceptional colas even today.",
        "id": 1018,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does vitamin E in liquid oil form help to fade scars?",
        "body": "Apparently not. An Austalian ABC article says     It is true that collagen, a fibrous protein in the skin, is involved in scar formation and that vitamin E, when present in the body, influences the formation and arrangement of collagen fibres.      But Dr Artemi says it does not automatically follow that applying vitamin E to skin will improve the way collagen is formed and laid down when wounds heal and scars form.      In fact several studies have tested this exact idea and shown it to be false. One study even found that in almost a third of cases, vitamin E caused a common skin irritation \u2014 known as contact dermatitis.   I think I found the last study mentioned:     The results of this study show that topically applied vitamin E does not help in improving the cosmetic appearance of scars and leads to a high incidence of contact dermatitis.      In 90% of the cases in this study, topical vitamin E either had no effect on, or actually worsened, the cosmetic appearance of scars. Of the patients studied, 33% developed a contact dermatitis to the vitamin E. Therefore we conclude that use of topical vitamin E on surgical wounds should be discouraged.   The NYT take on this also mentioned that paper and also another study:     One of the largest studies to investigate the claim was published in 1986 in The Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation. In it, scientists followed a group of 159 people who had suffered burns over the course of a year, randomly selecting some to regularly apply vitamin E to their scars and others to use a different topical cream. Those in the vitamin E group showed no noticeable improvement in the size, thickness or appearance of their scars by the end of the study.   Which seems to be this study     One hundred fifty-nine operative procedures for postburn contractures of interdigital webs (96), the axilla (46), or the neck (17) were prospectively randomized to be treated postoperatively for four months with a topical steroid (Aristocort A), topical vitamin E, or the base cream carrier for these drugs. The nature of the medication was blinded both to the patient and to the evaluator. Patients were followed for one year. Observations were made for range of motion, scar thickness, change in graft size, and ultimate cosmetic appearance. No beneficial effect of either vitamin E or topical steroid could be demonstrated. However, adverse reactions occurred in 16.4% of patients receiving active drug, compared to 5.9% treated only with base cream. Interestingly, the grafts initially contracted and subsequently grew to be a size larger (about 20%) than the original graft by one year. It is concluded that neither topical steroid nor topical vitamin E is effective in reducing scar formation after grafting procedures for reconstruction for postburn contractures. ",
        "id": 2052,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why have 2 bones in lower arm/leg and only 1 in upper?",
        "body": "The reasons for 2 bones in your lower arm can be to help your hand turn and give you more control over it. The shoulder joint is a ball and socket joint and has large muscles to help control it. Since the movements and actions of a wrist and shoulder are different, different joints were needed. Wrist are more delicate and do a lot different precise task. This distribution of bones also helps keep the body strong and keep balance. More bones always equals more flexibility. We need more flexibility distal of our joints than at the joints.   Resources:  For more data try reading more on the biomechanics of bones and the skeletal system.   Skeletal Biomechanics  enotes.com   Why do we have 2 bones in the forearm and only one in the upper arm? Not a good source, however I think their explanation is helpful. This is Yahoo answers, so if you don't care for their opinion please don't click.",
        "id": 737,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do steroids work in treating a multiple sclerosis relapse?",
        "body": "Steroids are used as treatment for acute attacks/flares in many diseases because they reduce inflammation.   In multiple sclerosis, they are given to reduce inflammation of the nerves that occurs when the immune system attacks the nervous system. This inflammation may be one mechanism that causes the nerve damage in multiple sclerosis, although this seems to still be a subject of research.  After treating the inflammation, symptoms are reduced and recovery takes less time. However, why, we don't really know yet.      It's not fully understood how steroids speed up your recovery from a relapse, but they are thought to suppress your immune system so that it no longer attacks the myelin in your central nervous system. They may also help\u00a0reduce the amount of fluid around any nerve fibre damage.   Multiple Sclerosis - Treatment at the NHS website      The way that steroids work in MS is not fully understood   Managing relapses  Other sources  Multiple Sclerosis treatment (the section Treatment of Acute Relapses)   The Neurobiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Genes, Inflammation, and Neurodegeneration (summary of research into inflammation and multiple sclerosis from 2006) ",
        "id": 579,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Multivitamin course duration",
        "body": "The potential toxicity of vitamins varies enormously, but as a rough guide, fat soluble ones have a much higher potential to be stored in your body and build up to toxic levels whereas water soluble ones are likely to simply be flushed out in your urine. I would be wary of taking high doses of fat soluble vitamins over an extended period. See here.",
        "id": 782,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the best method to get a non-student clinical rotation in the US?",
        "body": "I think externships may be helpful for your situation:     Externships:   International Medical graduates looking to fulfill the \u201cUnited States Clinical Experience\u201d (USCE) requirements as necessitated by several residency programs.  Externships also provide doctors of international countries the opportunity for acclimatization with the US healthcare system. Doctors looking to familiarize themselves with Electronic Medical Records, Electronic Healthcare Record services, Medical Billing and Coding procedures, Insurance claims, and review of malpractice cases.  Externships are also a good way to have RECENT exposure to clinical patient care as many international applicants have been out of touch with patient care for many years prior.  ",
        "id": 2657,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which are the effects of removing sugars from a balanced diet for an otherwise healthy person",
        "body": "Firstly, removing all added sugars from you diet certainly will improve your general health in the long term due to the decreased risk of diabetes: your blood glucose level will be more stable with less variability and your diet will include less \"empty calories\". In order to endure in work, in hobbies, in exercise and in day to day living does not rewuire added sugar in a diet. They are bad.  Removing carbohydrates from your diet may have some negative impact but not necessarily. Classic low carb diets recommend to remove all substances with a high glycemic index (GI) from your diet. The higher the GI, the faster your blood glucose level will rise when digesting the food. White bread or white rice are examples of foods with a high GI value. In the very extreme, a low carb diet may result in ketosis, which means that your body will get slightly acidic and all your energy consumption is due to burning fat. Removing all carbohydrates stops the citric acid cycle inside cells and this results in the formation of ketone substances which are acidic.  Ketosis may improve your weight loss by burning fat more efficiently. However there are considerable between-subject variations in this. Low carb diets and subsequent ketosis may result in nausea, headaches and general illness. Not all people  tolerate low carb diets or ketosis.  If you perform long duration exercises I can\u00b4t recommend removing high GI  substances from your diet. Skeletal muscles need a lot of energy  while doing long duration exercises. The most important energy storage is muscle glycogen. This is consumed in long duration exercises, and after it runs out the body starts to use fats and proteins. Foods with a high GI value are important to restore your muscle glycogen storages after exercise. Therefore removing, say, white rice from your diet won\u00b4t be good for exercise if they are usually long duration. Interval or strength training is a different issue. It is also important to note that even a long day at work may be similar to long duration exercise. How well your body does tolerate the lack of your muscle glycogen, is very depending on your general health and fitness.",
        "id": 34,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What would happen if a person used Flea medicine on themselves?",
        "body": "Many of the active ingredients in flea and tick powders are harmful to humans, or suspected of being carcinogenic, or have effects on the nervous system.  The Humane Society has a page on OTC flea and tick products, one of the sections details a couple of these effects:     Besides pyrethroid-based products, ingredients to be wary of are organophosphate insecticides (OPs) and carbamates, both of which are found in various flea and tick products.  The only OP currently found in flea and tick products in the U.S. is tetrachlorvinphos.  This chemical is classified by the EPA as being \"likely to be carcinogenic to humans.\"  There are questions about the effects of long-term, cumulative exposures as well as combined exposures from the use of other products containing OPs and carbamates.  Permethrin is another chemical that the EPA has classified as \"likely to be carcinogenic to humans\" if ingested orally.       If the ingredient list includes carbaryl or propoxur, the product contains a carbamate.  According to the NRDC, the potential dangers posed by thee products are greatest for children and pets.  Propoxur is considered to be a \"probable human carcinogen\" by the EPA.  As of September 2010, Carbaryl will no longer be permitted for use in new pet products.  However, existing stock of flea/tick products containing carbaryl can still be sold.  The HSUS recommends that pet products containing carbaryl should be disposed of and not used on pets.   Additionally, one of the current varieties of powder (K9 Advantix II) has the following warning on it's website for the product:     Hazards to Humans: Warning. Causes substantial but temporary eye injury. Do not get in eyes or on clothing. Harmful if swallowed. Harmful if absorbed through skin. Avoid contact with skin. Wash thoroughly with soap and water after handling and before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco or using the toilet. Remove and wash contaminated clothing before reuse.   So there are a host of possible side effects, from possible nerve damage up through it being a possible carcinogen. I would not advise using them on yourself.",
        "id": 138,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is honey elemental nutrition, if not why not?",
        "body": "Honey is not appropriate for elemental diet because:  -- It is not sterile (elemental diet for both intravenous or enteric use needs to be sterile).  -- Various types of honey have very different ratios of sugars (Honey.com) including some disaccharides, such as sucrose and maltose, and also some proteins and other ingredients (the exact composition of elemental diet needs to be known).",
        "id": 977,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the criteria for assessing the quality of evidence in a medical research article?",
        "body": "I am not sure if I am answering your question correctly but I wanted to point you towards the following tools that I have found very useful when conducting critical appraisal of literature:  CASP Tools + Checklists  From the above site:  This set of eight critical appraisal tools are designed to be used when reading research, these include tools for Systematic Reviews, Randomised Controlled Trials, Cohort Studies, Case Control Studies, Economic Evaluations, Diagnostic Studies, Qualitative studies and Clinical Prediction Rule.  Even if it doesn't help you at all, perhaps others may find it of use when browsing this question :)",
        "id": 881,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Disease and Conditions",
        "body": "there's a discussion of this point here     Condition is perhaps the least specific, often denoting states of health considered normal or healthy but nevertheless posing implications for the provision of health care (eg, pregnancy). The term might also be used to indicate grades of health (eg, a patient might be described as in stable, serious, or critical condition). While this term is often used in medical discussions to specifically indicate the presence of pathology or illness, Dorland\u2019s Illustrated Medical Dictionary provides no definition of the term used in this sense. Merriam-Webster\u2019s Collegiate Dictionary, however, defines condition as \u201ca usu. defective state of health,\u201d2(p258) and the Oxford English Dictionary similarly opines that it denotes \u201c[a] state of health, esp. one which is poor or abnormal; a malady or sickness.\u201d1(p309)   where disease refers to a condition where usually there is a well established pathological process.",
        "id": 1391,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Morning nausea after Chemo",
        "body": "Yes, you should be looking into getting help.  Nausea during chemotherapy is very common, and should be treated. But nausea in the morning 9 years after chemotherapy? That is not at all normal.  There are a great many medical problems that can cause nausea, including, unfortunately, a possible recurrence of her cancer. These should be ruled out by her doctor(s) as soon as possible.  While you are waiting to see the doctor, you mentioned, ginger is a natural anti-emetic (anti-nausea). Ginger tea, ginger ale and even candied ginger can help. Eating 5-6 smaller meals, rather than 3 large meals, helps, as does keeping plain crackers by the bedside and eating some as soon as she wakes up (before rising), and rice or toast at night. ",
        "id": 342,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical term for headbanging inability post-car-crash condition",
        "body": "Given the context of pain when rapidly moving the head after a car accident, one should look into wether you have a Concussion. A concussion is an altered functioning state of the brain after a traumatic event that made it move and swell within your skull.   Naturally, I strongly recommend seeing a doctor ASAP if this has recently appeared or gotten worse recently, or if you weren't diagnosed. ",
        "id": 1237,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can cause a visual disturbance followed by a headache?",
        "body": "What you're describing has been known since antiquity. What you first describe (an arc-like enlargening area of blurry vision) has been called a scintillating scotoma and artists and patients alike have tried to describe it with interesting results:      It is important to note that this happens in both eyes simultaneously, so that the same part of the visual field is disturbed in both eyes. (If it in monoccular, it is different and more concerning, and should be reported to your doctor immediately.)  The headache that follows is a migraine. For this reason, this has variously been called ocular migraine, opthalmologic migraine, visual migraine, etc.  It is never a bad idea to talk to your doctor at least once about migraines, even if they are infrequent, though a significant number of migraine sufferers don't seek medical care.  What is an ocular migraine? Visual Migraine Migraine Patterns of Diagnosis and Acute and Preventive Treatment for Migraine in the United States: Results from the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention Study  ",
        "id": 530,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chances of getting diabetes type 1?",
        "body": "Being diagnosed with type 1 diabetes (DM1) at the age of 54 is very rare. It's usually diagnosed in children or teenagers and used to even be called 'juvenile diabetes' because of that. The reason it's usually diagnosed this early is because it comes from the body's inability to produce insulin in the pancreas after the immune system has destroyed these cells. But it's not totally unheard of to be diagnosed late. (I'm just including this because the answer for type 2 diabetes would be different)   Inheritance  Diabetes isn't inherited in any kind of simple pattern. You can't say \"if a parent has it, the child will have it with a 50% probability\" - or even that a child of two people with DM1 will have DM1 themselves.   The Joslin Diabetes Center has a few numbers:        If an immediate relative (parent, brother, sister, son or daughter) has type 1 diabetes, one's risk of developing type 1 diabetes is 10 to 20 times the risk of the general population   The risk for a child of a parent with type 1 diabetes is lower if it is the mother \u2014 rather than the father \u2014 who has diabetes      Since you don't know whether your mother had it, your risk is even harder to judge.  Prevention  There are risk factors other than genetics for DM1, but unfortunately generally, type 1 diabetes can't be prevented. There are a few trials about this, the one I could find about injecting children with insulin was unsuccessful.  The good news is that if you are worried about having diabetes, testing isn't very complicated and can be done regularly with no adverse effects.",
        "id": 153,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Soft foods that are high in vitamin B3",
        "body": "A list of foods rich in vitamin B3 (niacin) is available here. Although meats are the richest source, those are often not soft to chew. However, if you look at that table you'll see that it shouldn't be difficult to consume the RDA even on a vegetarian diet.",
        "id": 386,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bacterial growth inhibitors used in Deodorants",
        "body": "Just as aluminium compounds such as:   Aluminium chlorohydrate, Aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex glycine, and Aluminium hydroxybromid   are the antiperspirant active ingredient in deodourants, antibacterials are the active aspect of odour reduction.  Antibacterial ingredients work to eliminate the bacteria that cause bad odours from areas where sweat is common. Many types of deodourants use alcohol ingredients that kill bacteria, while others use artificial chemicals such as\u00a0triclosan (Source: ChemService)     Triclosan is used in a number of personal care products including toothpaste. Many people have been critical of this chemical in over-the-counter products. However, the FDA\u00a0explained that it is not known to cause harm\u00a0to humans and has been proven to be beneficial in some circumstances, such as fighting gingivitis. ",
        "id": 2630,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is daylight savings linked to heart attacks?",
        "body": "This connection has been reported by several groups, in credible journals (I left a few references below). The study and news article you are referring to is confirming earlier findings, it is not the first to report this. In the examples I've seen, the studies rely on large datasets, for example, incidences in an entire country, in order to show a significant effect. Despite being significant, the effects are modest; that is, we are talking about fractional increases that would account for a tiny minority of acute MI over an entire year period, but is significantly greater given a current week.  Because of the marginal significance of the effects, they could be overstated due to biases in publishing significant results, but I don't see much reason to be specifically skeptical of these findings versus others. The fact that it is true for both MI and stroke in one dataset is further support it is a real effect, but since the effect is only seen on certain days of the week and those days differ between studies it could still be spurious or smaller than reported. These studies also tend to show the opposite effect on daylight savings time transitions in the other direction, so they don't necessarily support elimination of daylight savings time.   I find the best resource for finding individual studies reported in the news media is Google Scholar, scholar.google.com - if you search for the author's name, a few key words, and a year if you have it, you can likely find the original work. Some studies may be more difficult to access in full text if you don't have access to a university library, however.    Janszky, I., &amp; Ljung, R. (2008). Shifts to and from daylight saving time and incidence of myocardial infarction. New England Journal of Medicine, 359(18), 1966-1968.  Sandhu, A., Seth, M., &amp; Gurm, H. S. (2014). Daylight savings time and myocardial infarction. Open heart, 1(1), e000019.  Sipil\u00e4, J. O., Rautava, P., &amp; Kyt\u00f6, V. (2016). Association of daylight saving time transitions with incidence and in-hospital mortality of myocardial infarction in Finland. Annals of medicine, 48(1-2), 10-16.  Sipil\u00e4, J. O., Ruuskanen, J. O., Rautava, P., &amp; Kyt\u00f6, V. (2016). Changes in ischemic stroke occurrence following daylight saving time transitions. Sleep medicine, 27, 20-24.",
        "id": 2582,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does frequent masturbation decrease testosterone levels in men?",
        "body": "No, masturbation does not decrease testosterone levels in the blood.    Relevant studies cited in the linked article:  Fox CA, Ismail AAA, Love DN, Kirkham KE, Loraine JA. Studies on the relationship between plasma testosterone levels and human sexual activity. J Endocrinol. 1972;52:51\u201358.  Batty J. Acute changes in plasma testosterone levels and their relation to measures of sexual behaviour in the male house mouse (Mus musculus) Anim. Behav. 1978;26:349\u2013357.  Phoenix CH, Dixson AF, Resko JA. Effects of ejaculation on levels of testosterone, cortisol, and luteinizing hormone in peripheral plasma of rhesus monkeys. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1977;91:120\u2013127.",
        "id": 1853,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to drink urine when you have nothing else to drink?",
        "body": "If you are in a no-other-liquid situation then not, it's not safe to drink. The problem is that your urine is a way to remove superfluous minerals and other stuff from the body. The body's job, especially in a state of dehydration, is to remove this waste with the least amount of water sufficient to flush it away.   If you then drink this urine, you are ingesting back all the salts you just got rid of. You are not getting your liquid-to-salts ratio better, you are making it worse. So when you are already dehydrated, you get dehydrated even quicker if you drink your urine.   If you are at no risk of dehydration (you can additionally ingest sufficient water from drinks or food), then the above does not apply. As long as you don't have an urinary tract infection, your urine is also sterile, so you are not at risk of infection either. This makes urine safe to drink.   There are people who drink urine (outside of dehydration situations) for supposed health benefits, but I have never heard of any evidence that such benefits exist.   I don't know of peer reviewed sources for this, but the dangers of drinking urine for survival are both logical from a theoretical view point and common knowledge in outdoor lore, for example see http://survivalcache.com/water-purification/.   The Outdoors site has the same question, with a suggestion for a possible purification method which might remove the dissolved minerals. But urine is also rich in organic compounds and starts breeding bacteria almost immediately upon leaving your body. So I'd be weary to try it: fresh urine is safe, but urine which has stood around at room temperature isn't. ",
        "id": 243,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Topical nifedipine cream and hypotension",
        "body": "Nifedipine is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker. As you point out, it is used via oral administration for treatment of hypertension. Its effects are mediated primarily by blocking voltage-dependent calcium channels in the walls of systemic vasculature, causing vasodilation. This has the effect of lowering blood pressure.   Your question, then, rests on  whether the nifedipine applied topically to the anus will reach the calcium channels in the vasculature. This is: is topical nifedipine systemically absorbed to a clinically relevant extent?   The answer, based on the research I can find, is no. This was explored directly in a study1: Serum levels and possible haemodynamic effects following anorectal application of an ointment containing nifedipine and lignocaine : a study in healthy volunteers. The authors used 3 g of an ointment containing 0.3% w/w2 nifedipine, applied twice daily for 7 days. Serum levels of nifedipine were below the below the limits of quantification, consistent with therapeutically negligible concentrations. Mean blood pressure was not changed when compared to baseline.     Notes    1. Perrotti P1, Grumetto L, Barbato F, Antropoli C. Clin Drug Investig. 2006;26(8):459-67. Note: I was not able to locate a free full text version of this. All of the information reported in my answer is verifiable using the abstract at the link provided. If you would like more information about the specifics of methodology, please fell free to ask in comments or ping me in chat.      2. Weight/weight. If the concentration is significantly higher, the answer may be different. ",
        "id": 63,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of taking 1800mg of ibuprofen at once",
        "body": "Using any medication, including ibuprofen, in doses higher than recommended,  is very unwise. There is a reason that patient information leaflets exist, and that health professionals insist that the patients read and understand these leaflets (and ask questions when necessary) prior to consumption.  First of all, ibuprofen is a non-steroid anti-inflamatory drug (NSAID). If the cause of your toothache is tooth decay (cavities) it will treat the pain, i.e the symptom, but not the underlying cause of your toothache. There might be another reason for your toothache, but nonetheless: if you are experiencing unbearable pain this is definitely a reason to see a doctor, or in this case a dentist.    Recommended daily dose of ibuprofen for an adult is 1.2g to 1.8g in divided doses which means that you could take up to 1800 mg during a day - that is during a 24 hour period, but definitely not all at once. And yes, taking them 30 minutes apart is pretty much the same as at once, given ibuprofen's kinetics. These recommendations are based on an average adult, with a healthy liver and kidneys.   Sometimes this dose may be increased up to 2.4g (UK) or even 3.2g (USA) and this would be the maximal daily dose. (Martindale) However, this is not a common practice for a toothache.   There are side effects associated with the use of ibuprofen, and many of them are dose-dependent.   From NHS:     Ibuprofen can cause a number of side effects.      For this reason, take the lowest possible dose of ibuprofen for the shortest possible time needed to control your symptoms. The same source lists some of the possible side-effects.   Common side effects include:   nausea  vomiting  diarrhoea  indigestion (dyspepsia) abdominal pain   Some less common:   headache dizziness fluid retention (bloating) raised blood pressure gastritis (inflammation of the stomach) a stomach ulcer allergic reactions \u2013 such as a rash worsening of asthma symptoms by causing bronchospasm (narrowing of the airways) kidney failure   In high doses there are additional risks, such as those for the cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels):     Data from meta-analyses and epidemiological studies indicate that there is an increased risk of cardiovascular events (such as myocardial infarction or stroke) associated with the use of high-dose ibuprofen (at or above 2,400 mg per day).1-4      The risk with high-dose ibuprofen is similar to the risk seen with some other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including COX-2 inhibitors and diclofenac.   (from: European Medicines Agency).    Ibuprofen might interact with and increase the toxicity of some other concomitantly used medication, such as: aspirin, ciclosporin, fluconasole, voriconasole, colestiramine, mifepristone, tacrolimus, methotrexate, lithium, zidovudine, warfarin, ciprofibrate, baclofen...  If you are taking any other medication with ibuprofen, the best course of action is to consult with a healthcare professional first.    Finally, although ibuprofen is an OTC, higher potency preparations, such as those of 600mg per dose are actually prescription only in many countries.    A side note: I don't even know how to comment on your: \"let's take a lot of this medication and see what happens\" approach. Medicines are not candy. If you behave so recklessly about your own health, who else is supposed to take care of it for you?      References:  Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference, 34th edition, 2005, The Pharmaceutical Press  NHS: Side effects of ibuprofen  EMeA: Updated advice on use of high\u2011dose ibuprofen",
        "id": 795,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is diarrhea often accompanied by sweat? What is the function of the sweat in this process?",
        "body": "According to sources - Diarrhea is caused mainly due to viral infections and food poisoning.Cramps, Sweats, and diarrhea can go along due to infection in the uterus or intestines. ",
        "id": 1508,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dealing with a lot of standing",
        "body": "How can I deal with standing for long periods?  I have an odd sensation, like pins and needles  The technical name for that kind of altered sensation is paraesthesia. It can have a number of causes; so much so that if you are getting this and it's bothering you the usual response applies: go and seek medical advice.  On the other hand, if you are still a bit reticent and want to try other things first, there are a number of options.  Stand right!  Postural problems can cause nerve compression. An anterior pelvic tilt is relatively common:    (credit: Anonymous - Posture &amp; Foundation Garments, public domain)  Posterior pelvic tilt can happen too:    (credit: SPSC Crossfit)  So if you are standing for long periods, make sure your posture is good:   head level (not forward) chin parallel to ground chest high shoulders level and relaxed abdomen flat, held up and in lower back flat and tucked under legs straight, knees relaxed feet parallel, toes forward   Check your footwear  Related to the above, differences in footwear may affect posture (NB, small n). Interestingly, high-heels may not be as bad as many think in this area.  The main point is to wear relatively 'neutral' footwear where possible; and support/take account of high/fallen arches if appropriate.  Take Breaks / Exercise  If you are able to take a break to sit down for a while, or at least move in a way that is different to how you stand, this movement can grant some relief.  Squats (supported by a wall if needed), simple weight transfers - either leg-to-leg, or forefoot-to-hindfood - and pelvic tilting exercises can assist.  This may be a point to ask a physiotherapist for advice (as below), as it is easier for someone else to observe your posture and where the sensation is; then make recommendations based on that!  Other Options  Ask for Help     I don't want to bother my doctor with issues of no concern   As a general point: if something is causing you issues, then it is of concern. You don't have to have to be terribly unwell to see a doctor! I understand where you are coming from, but if you are suffering as a result of something it may be worth running it past them.  Alternatively, you could consult a physiotherapist for their opinion and suggestions for exercise. Here, it is possible to self-refer to physios (although there was a significant wait last time I used that service); but there are usually reasonably-priced private options too.  Use a Foam Roller  Since you asked for suggestions backed by personal experience and not just the usual sources, I would be remiss in not putting this forward. Anecdotally (n=3), using a foam roller has helped and given relief for back stiffness (with its attendant altered sensation) and pain. The ns in this case are myself, my father, and a close family friend.  They are fairly simple things in and of themselves:   (credit: self)  and decent relief can be achieved by lying perpendicularly on top of them positioned near your power back, and rolling back and forth. More info can be found elsewhere.  Disclaimer: This is highly anecdotal and I haven't yet found good sources to back them up- but lots of (trendy) health mags like them. That might be a positive or a negative thing, depending on your perspective.  Further Disclaimer  If you start having significant other issues, like numbness, issues with continence, severe pain, weight loss or other red flag symptoms; definitely see a doctor!    Further reading:   Good posture, from St Luke's health System (others are similar) Mayo Clinic's 'improve your posture' Working while standing information from CCOHS     (note, this was written focusing on back pain which is not as relevant to OP, it is left in for others who find this answer who do have back pain)  Actually, I have pack pain too...     I feel like this is a general issue that many people have.    You are so right.  Back pain is a huge and varied subject. It is extremely common, and as such has a big impact on a great number of individuals but also society writ large- Medline claims that it is a condition \"affecting 8 out of 10 people at some point during their lives\". UK statistics are similar.  Given the problem you are having, you probably already knew that. You probably also know some of the recommendations for back pain, but they are worth restating, in brief:   keep active; in general mobility helps back pain more than immobility try exercises geared towards back pain anti-inflammatory painkillers may help; but if you have stomach issues or are going to be taking them longer-term the you definitely should have a conversation with your doctor about that hot and cold compression packs can give relief   These ones are summarised from the NHS page on back pain; but similar advice is available elsewhere. ",
        "id": 1630,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Catch a cold from the grass?",
        "body": "No, you can't catch a cold from plants. You can, however, inhale lots of grass pollen because...     we would run around and lots of dried grass dust would get kicked up.   The second clue it's a pollen allergy is the short nature of it. Colds last longer than 24 hours.   http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Cold-common/Pages/Introduction.aspx",
        "id": 1533,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What might be the cause of this unexplained, prolonged groin pain symptom",
        "body": "The differential diagnosis of pain in the left lower quadrant of the abdomen or groin is quite extensive, which is why questions on history-taking and a clinical examination are so important. I see some investigations (MRI) have been completed, which should narrow it down a bit.  Anatomy    This diagram shows the position in question: the left lower quadrant (or left iliac fossa) and the left groin region.    This anatomical image shows the various deep structures in this area (though the image focuses more on hernia repair).  This is a very useful summary of the potential causes and has useful links itself. Using this as a guide, I will go through the possibilities.  Differential Diagnoses  Firstly, the pain is chronic rather than acute because it has gone on for a year now. This helps us exclude short term causes like urinary infections, diverticulitis and gastroenteritis.  Gastrointestinal causes  Constipation: Chrinic constipation is often due to diet and the pain is usually left sided or central lower abdomen.  Irritable bowel syndrome: This can cause a variety of symptoms, including cramps, bloating, nausea, constipation and loose stools. This is a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that it is important to exclude other causes before diagnosing this, as there are no confirmatory tests.  Cancer of the rectum or descending colon: This would usually cause a change in bowel habit, weight loss and bleeding. The MRI scan would probably have excluded this, though colonoscopy would be useful.  Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis: These are types of inflammatory bowel disease. They would usually cause a change in bowel habit as well.  Gynaecological causes  If the person is female, possible causes include pelvic or ovarian tumours and endometriosis. The MRI may have excluded the former, but laparoscopy is often needed to diagnose endometriosis.  Musculoskeletal causes  Left hip pathology: This could be arthritis or other mechanical problems with the soft tissues around the hip and upper leg. The fact that the pain changes with position might suggest one of these causes. MRI scans might miss muscular causes, but would detect arthritis. Sometimes nerves can be entrapped which will give the pain a different character.    Image of pelvis and hips from Radiopaedia.  Other causes  Hernia: Some groin and femoral hernias might be missed on MRI scanning if they are small or reducible.  Medically unexplained symptoms: Sometimes a purely physical diagnosis is not forthcoming. Sometimes this reflects the limits of diagnostic and imaging technology and sometimes it results from the fact that the human body is amazing and the interaction of mind, nervous system and body is complex. Sometimes this complexity gives rise to symptoms that doctors can\u2019t explain.  Summary  The positional nature of the pain and (presumed) lack of bowel or urinary symptoms would probably make a musculoskeletal cause for the pain most likely, or possibly a hernia. Given that it has been there for a year and there have been some normal investigations, it is unlikely to be a serious or progressive problem. However, other investigations may be needed to find the cause more definitively. Please note that this answer is not providing medical advice. It is important to see a doctor or healthcare professional if you are suffering from these symptoms.",
        "id": 1713,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a difference between raw-eaten and dispersed sugar?",
        "body": "Diabetics when calculating insulin doses for a meal look at the carbohydrate content for the whole meal.  It's not important if the sugars are taken in one mouthful, or dissolved and taken over the whole meal.  So, to answer your question, the approach taken is that functionally it makes no difference.",
        "id": 912,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I determine reputable health information?",
        "body": "Great question! There are actually a number of resources out there that answer this question. Here is a very dry (but unbiased) answer from the Canadian Paediatric Society written for paediatricians who are helping parents with this issue.   Here are some quick question to ask yourself when appraising the website you're looking at:  1) Most importantly, whose website is it? The most reliable are generally university or health agency websites. Next would be not-for-profit professional organizations (for example the American Academy of Cancer Researchers or the American Medical Association). Be wary of for-profit organizations and websites run by one individual or a small group of individuals.  2) Is the information referenced and peer reviewed? An unreferenced statement is useless. Even if it's referenced, the reference should ideally point to the peer reviewed literature, not to a secondary source (such as a news site).  3) Is the website itself peer reviewed? This isn't mandatory but it helps you have trust in the website.  If you have the background you can go to the references and evaluate the literature itself - is the population described relevant to you? Was the intervention what you were looking for? This is advanced and probably unnecessary if you follow the other rules (especially number 1).  The bottom line is that reputable organizations are likely to have accurate information. The NIH, CDC, or Mayo Clinic will always be more reliable than a single person's website (no matter who they are). Look for .gov or .edu at the end of the URL - these are reasonable indicators that the information has at least been vetted by more than one person.",
        "id": 135,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any examples that gave a person new mental abililities after a head injury?",
        "body": " An accident left Derek Amato with a severe concussion and a surprising ability to play the piano. One theory is that his brain reorganized, making accessible existing memories of music. Another is that his brain no longer filters sensory input, enabling him to hear individual notes rather than melodies.   http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-02/when-brain-damage-unlocks-genius-within  2.Shortly after her accident, the US-based woman, who has chosen to remain anonymous, began to develop extraordinary precise memories \u2022She is now able to recall exact details about every single place she has ever seen - and can draw a map or diagram of each location and building  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-3040907/Woman-reveals-ski-accident-left-phenomenally-advanced-mental-abilities-head-injury-developed-rare-brain-condition-known-acquired-savant-syndrome.html",
        "id": 1131,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are normal values for EMG/nerve conduction studies?",
        "body": "This paper might be of interest to you (1) They have attempted to summarize together a table of the values for the common upper and lower limb nerves including both sensory and motor. It is quite detailed in the location of the electrodes, and includes latency, amplitude and conduction velocity which you are looking for.  Paper: (1) Chen, S.; Andary, M.; Buschbacher, R.; Del Toro, D.; et al. Electrodiagnostic reference values for upper and lower limb nerve conduction studies in adult populations. Muscle &amp; Nerve. 2016 Sept;54(3):371-7",
        "id": 2499,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can of soup with negative pressure (slightly implodes) on opening: Safe to eat?",
        "body": "One method of food sterilisation involves vacuum-sealing. This is why there was negative pressure in the can1 and why the lid got sucked in as soon as it was able to move.  Bacteria creating positive pressure is due to digestion and excretion of gasses, which have a lower density and thus result in higher pressure. I am unaware of any bacteria or other germs that will excrete substances significantly condensed so that a negative pressure will result.    1: Ironically, what made you think the product might be spoiled is what ensured the product wouldn\u2019t get spoiled.",
        "id": 2019,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rheumatoid arthritis and hormones",
        "body": "Women are actually treated with hormones, just ones that aren't estrogen/progesterone/ect..  People with severe RA are treated with glucocorticoids in order to decrease T and B cell proliferation that further damage to the synovial joints. These hormones have long term health impacts (such as Cushing's disease) and should be used as a last ditch effort.   Hormones such as progesterone and estrogen, which are at elevated levels during pregnancy, may decrease T cell  and B cell proliferation to an extent, but they are not as efficacious as glucocorticoids. Furthermore, estrogen and progesterone are related to many other autoimmune diseases: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/775536_5  Here is information regarding estrogen's role in decreasing T cell proliferation: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8955504   *Note: women who are young enough to conceive without medical assistance may still have a thymus. The reduction in thymus activity by estrogen may decrease RA symptoms. However, older women do not have a thymus and will not experience any effects like this from estrogen.",
        "id": 1439,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "TPO (Thyroid Peroxidase) Antibodies - reference range change",
        "body": "Reference ranges vary by labs. In some assays, 35 IU/mL is still considered the upper limit of normal. The reason for the dramatic difference in reference ranges is the detection limit of the assay itself. As time progresses, assays become more sensitive to small titers of antibody. In labs using newer techniques, concentrations as low as 9 IU/mL can be detected, so anything above that is considered abnormal.*  The question of whether an antibody concentration between 9 and 35 IU/mL is as detrimental as a higher concentration is an interesting one. First, in way of background for those not familiar with anti-TPO antibodies: these are antibodies directed against the thyroid gland. They are most often measured in a patient with \u201csubclinical\u201d hypothyroidism (i.e. elevated TSH but normal free T4). In such cases they have been shown to be prognostic for progression to overt hypothyroidism.2   As it turns out, there is evidence1  that the titer of antibody within the range you ask about affects prognosis. The linked study used an assay detecting levels as low as 5.5 IU/mL. Those who spontaneously improved had a mean TPO titer that was significantly lower than the group that progressed to overt hypothyroidism requiring thyroid replacement (13.85 IU/mL vs 39.9 IU/mL, p= 0.028). Note that the mean in the spontaneously improving group would have been considered \u201cless than assay\u201d in a test with a detection limit of 35 IU/mL.   So yes, \u201csomewhere between 9 and 35 IU/mL is actually not that bad\u201d, if \u201cbad\u201d refers to a titer greater than 35 IU/mL and the relative prognostic value is of interest.     * Many lab tests have a lower limit of detection within the physiologic range like this. These tend to be looking for antibodies or enzymes that are not supposed to be present at a detectable level. In such cases the \u201cnormal\u201d result is \u201cLTA = less than assay\u201d. As lab tests get better and that detection limit goes lower, more people end up characterized as \u201cabnormal\u201d. Such is scientific progress.      1. Myung Won Lee, Dong Yeob Shin, Kwang Joon Kim, Sena Hwang, and Eun Jig Lee, The Biochemical Prognostic Factors of Subclinical Hypothyroidism. Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Jun; 29(2): 154\u2013162.      2. Vahab Fatourechi, Subclinical Hypothyroidism: An Update for Primary Care Physicians. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009 Jan; 84(1): 65\u201371.   ",
        "id": 490,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which is better for health tea, water tea or milk tea?",
        "body": "The only well studied effects of drinking tea are the Green Tea Catechins:     I would highly recommend people pay attention to the bioavailability   issue and pay attention to Quercetin. Green tea seems Godly in vitro,   but it has high variability in people because not 100% of the   catechins get to the cell to exert effects. Any supplementation with   green tea catechins, in my opinion, should have thought given to   increasing bioavailability through Quercetin, Fish Oil, or consuming   green tea with a meal that has these two.      The combination of all four catechins seems to be better than just   isolated EGCG, although pairing an EGCG capsule with a cup of green   tea would be even better.      \u2014   Kurtis Frank      http://examine.com/supplements/Green+Tea+Catechins/   The above site references many studies but the overall conclusion is green tea is really good for you, drink it:     It has been implicated in benefiting almost every organ system in the   body. It is cardioprotective, neuroprotective, anti-obesity,   anti-carcinogenic, anti-diabetic, anti-artherogenic, liver protective   and beneficial for blood vessel health. These beneficial effects are   seen in doses present both in green tea itself (as a drink) as well as   from a supplemental form. ",
        "id": 1138,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can one go underweight then bulk afterwards safely?",
        "body": "Body Mass Index, or BMI, is not really a reliable indicator. It was based on statistics developed almost 200 years ago, and ignores such things as high muscle content (Muscle weighs more than fat), strong bones and also where and what type the body stores fat as.  Visceral fat is much more dangerous health wise than subcutaneous fat, and BMI makes no distinction on this.   Spot reduction is also a myth. It's entirely possible that you could lose another 10 lbs, and still have that \"10 mm\" of belly fat.  Finally, \"cutting all fat\" is not really possible for long term maintenance, and is in fact, unhealthy. The body needs fat for vital vitamin transport, organ health, many other factors.  As RPL suggests, you may be suffering from body dysmorphia, I would encourage you to talk to a medical professional about your weight and body goals before you go further.",
        "id": 721,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I'm not sure, but might have something stuck in my ear",
        "body": "The first thing to do is to see a doctor. Your primary care doctor is the place to start. He or she can look deep into your ear to see if there is anything lodged in it. It may be a build up of wax, or debris. If so, yoUr doctor can clean it out. If there is nothing blocking your ear drum, and the feeling of blockage continues you should see a specialist. These physicians are called Ear, Nose &amp; Throat (ENT) doctors. They can test to see if there is a problem with how your ear works on the inside. Here is a web site that explains how the ear works.  It is a remarkable and complex instrument. Protect it. Good luck.   https://www.hearinglink.org/your-hearing/how-the-ear-works/ ",
        "id": 1416,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can consuming food that was cooked with olive oil have a negative impact on health?",
        "body": "I seem to perceive some confusion in your question, and I'll try to clarify all doubts as much as I can. Olive oil is one of the best oils you can use to cook. It is mainly composed by monounsaturated fatty acids (1), that are neutral to cardiovascular risk and blood cholesterol. There are some oils that are better, by this point of view, like canola oil, that has a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids, that are beneficial to cardiovascular risk. Some oils are worse, like palm oil, because of the higher proportion of saturated fatty acids, that are detrimental to cardiovascular risk. For the same reason you should also avoid margarines and butter.  Olive oil has also a high smoke point (2), that makes it suitable for frying. Smoke point is the temperature at which toxic compounds are formed; it means that you should never heat beyond smoke point of any oil. This is the reason why the dangerousness of very hot olive oil is not something specific of olive oil, but of any oil that is heated beyond its smoke point.  Finally, something that you should also be aware is that most of cooking oils are extracted with the use of hexane (3), a chemical solvent. Although the oil is subsequently refined, \"cleaned\", and the industry claims it's safe enough to be consumed, this procedure has risen a lot of concern.  \"Virgin\" and \"extra virgin\" olive oil do not involve the use of any solvent during the production; this characteristic is shared with other oils that are cold pressed. Cold pressing is an extraction technique that, additionally, preserves the chemical content of the polyphenols, antioxidants, and vitamins present in the oil, that are reduced by high temperatures. The regulation of the definition of \"virgin\" oils and cold pressing is different between countries.  I apologize for my english, it is not my mother language. Here in Italy we speak a different language, and we know about oil.",
        "id": 119,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do I sometimes get itchy skin after taking a shower?",
        "body": "Read about Capillaritis. Hot water of any kind is bad for the skin. The prickly feeling after the shower is proof of that. ",
        "id": 248,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many sweat glands are there in the axilla?",
        "body": "Numbers in the literature vary by a lot. In A Short History of Sweat Glands, Willey et al. compared data from four different studies, the data can be seen in table 1 of the publication. Numbers varied from 68 to over 400 per square centimeter. They explain thus variance by different counting techniques and whether only \"active\" sweat glands are counted. Also, studies were done on few subjects and only in one gender an ethnicity, which may have quite an impact on this.   The density is highest on the palms and soles, not the armpits, by the way. ",
        "id": 664,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Crohn's disease and naproxen",
        "body": "From the World Journal of Gastroenterology, a 2006 submission on Excerabation of IBD by NSAIDS and cox-2 inhibitors: Fact or Fiction, found a weak link between NSAIDs and a IBD flare but some patients will experience a flare up on the medication. The article ends with the recommendation that NSAIDs should be avoided if possible.  However, research done by the NIH, from 1990 to 2008, on 76,000 predominantly white women, found an absolutely increase in incidence of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis when the patients were given NSAIDs. They didn't claim it was statistically significant just an absolute increase; this generally occurred with women using the drugs at least 15 days per month.   Exacerbation of inflammatory bowel disease by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors: Fact or fiction? Aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use, and risk for Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis   You will need PubMed access for article two. Neither article had a definitive answer but extended use seems to be associated with flare ups. ",
        "id": 28,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ejaculating while sleeping",
        "body": "Nocturnal emissions (q.v.) are completely normal and generally nothing to worry about.",
        "id": 1802,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ultrasound sniff test: why does lowering intrathoracic pressure collapse the subclavian vein?",
        "body": "Your thought process is correct; in the absence of all other factors, physics dictates that the reduction of pressure surrounding a flexible fluid-filled vessel would result in expansion.  But there is an even stronger force: venous return, which is the flow back to the heart from peripheral circulation.  (Resource linked is from the author of the cardiology physiology text used in many med schools.)   Inhalation = diaphragm contracts, decreasing intrathoracic pressure This causes the R atrium to expand, reducing pressure in the R atrium This increases venous return to the R atrium by pulling from the SVC and IVC. If this occurs rapidly, then much like sucking liquid rapidly through a flexible tube, the tube (vein) can collapse.   Also this video is a good illustration of venous return and its impact on the IVC.  I couldn't find a diagram of exactly what I wanted so I altered a graphic to illustrate.    ",
        "id": 2505,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is this noise I see when I close my eyes?",
        "body": "You are seeing phosphenes.  These have been described in medical notes for thousands of years  They are assumed to be caused by random firing of optic nerves due to stray electrical stimulation in the brain, or pressure on the eye  Other causes are; sudden changes in air pressure, moving from bright light outside into a dark room, violent body motions (like coughing or sneezing), over stimulation (sexual, drugs, grief), diabetic shock, violent sports (boxing, rugby etc); all these may cause pressure on the eye, or over stimulation of the bodies electrical system  If you are getting increased phosphenes, bright flashes of light, or fixed objects appearing with your eyes closed, these may be a sign of eye nerve damage, and a trip to the doctor may be a good idea  Interestingly, this is similar to the CCD device in a camera chip. They are very susceptible to stray electrical charge, and this causes a low level background noise in the picture, even in a totally dark room    Cellular mechanisms underlying the pharmacological induction of phosphenes  Phosphenes  Wikipedia - Phosphene",
        "id": 296,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the tailbone for?",
        "body": "According to an online article [See Reference], \u201cThe tailbone derived its name because some people believe it is a \u2018leftover\u2019 part from human evolution, though the notion that the tailbone serves no purpose is wrong,...\u201d A look at an anatomy reference book will reveal that many muscles, tendons and ligaments attach to the tailbone (a.k.a. coccyx); these appendages serve to stabilize us when we sit.   An online visual can be found here.  And if there is still any lingering doubt about the tailbone helping us sit, sitting is certainly cumbersome when the tailbone is unhealthy (coccydynia).     Reference:  Human Tailbone: Evidence of Evolution?",
        "id": 2118,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does lifting legs up before going to bed really reduce nocturia?",
        "body": "After a literature search on Pubmed, Google Scholar, and consulting UpToDate, the answer to your question is we do not know.  It appears that there are many expert recommendations (see #1 and #2) in articles that recommend leg elevation but there appears to be no real supporting trials or other literature evidence that leg elevation will help in general with people with nocturia.  Also, sometimes the recommendation is specific to whether or not you have leg edema as elevation during the day may reduce the volume in your body at night.  The recommendations are likely based on physiology and likely taking into account the low risk of leg elevation.",
        "id": 270,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are essential oils good disinfectants?",
        "body": "There are many essential oils and each can work differently and on different micro-organisms. They could affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful.  For example steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions, however there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus and dozens are used as sources of essential oils, so products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects and also the products of the very same tree can vary grosslywiki.  Some other studies show that tea tree oil is capable of killing MRSA in a laboratory setting, however there is insufficient evidence. A 2012 review by the NIH rates Tea tree oil as \"possibly effective\" for: treating acne, fungal toenail infection or symptoms of athlete's foot. Which indicates its antibacterial properties only against certain infection.  On the other hand some other essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or \"neat\" form, as can cause potential danger such as severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove hepatotoxic. Some other, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing the skin's vulnerability to sunlight.  In summary, non-therapeutic grade essential oils are never recommended for topical or internal use (including animals, which could cause extreme hepatotoxicity and dermal toxicity), unless specific essential oil has pharmaceutical properties and you know they're safe for use, however they're not good alternative to alcohol-based disinfectant products.",
        "id": 13,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Aspirin for prevention of heart attacks?",
        "body": "This is a good and pragmatic question.  Just to give some insight, the benefits of aspirin in high risk patients (with acute or previous vascular disease or some other predisposing condition) are explicitly shown. I recommend reading the freely available meta-analysis published in BMJ in 2002.  Naturally, the patients without any disease or predisposing conditions are low risk patients, or normal as the asker terms.  Clinical guideline by the American College of Physicians, American College of Cardiology Foundation, American Heart Association, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, Preventive Cardiovascular Nurses Association and Society of Thoracic Surgeons clearly states that aspirin is recommended only for patients with Stable Ischemic Heart Disease.  Clinical guidelines by the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice gives some more comprehensive insight.  Chapter 4.10.1 outlines the \"Antiplatelet therapy in individuals without overt cardiovascular disease\".     Risk of vascular mortality was not changed by treatment   with aspirin. Aspirin cannot be recommended in primary prevention   due to its increased risk of major bleeding   To answer your question, no, it is not useful for healthy individuals to take aspirin, since the harm caused exceeds the potential benefits.",
        "id": 371,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "DRI: All actually daily?",
        "body": "Good question(s). I can't answer all of it by I'll try to en light.  Your body obviously needs vitamins, minerals, proteins etc.  First of all, it needs those in different quantities at different times. Example, need more water if its hot and your exercising. You need more folic acid when you are pregnant (because the new forming child needs it for DNA synthesis).   Secondly, some of those can be stored very in large quantities and for a long period, while others can't. Example, if you have a normal diet your body has a storage of vitamine B12 to last 2 years. As you pointed out, you only last a few days without water intake.   Thirdly, your body can synthesize some nutrients by itself. Vitamine D3 is produced in the skin from cholesterol using UV light. Some aminoacids are synthesized by your body (non-essential amino acids), while others need to be supplied by diet (essential amino acids).  Then another factor of the DRI is how well your body can absorb those nutrients. Example, iron absorption from meat is much better than iron absorption from vegetables. However, water is absorbed for almost 90%.  Also important: There is a huge difference in how well your body can tollerate shortage (deficiency) or overdosis (intoxication) of different nutrients. Example, you can handle enormous amounts of vitamine C, glucose (sugar), fats, proteins and more. However, it can't handle large quantities of iron or tablesalt (actually, the body can regulate its salt levels very well, but eat 6 tablespoons of salt and you need medical care) can be very bad for health.  And last but not least, most of those factors are very different per individual.  So there are numerous factors (and i hardly described them all) that play a role in how much nutrients you can and should take in.  Your questions:     Similarly, what are the absorption limits so that if someone tries to cheat by not taking a nutrient for a few days and then trying to make up for it every so often?    As said, that depends on which nutrient. Some you can skip for months (years!) and some you don't.      Assuming Vitamin-A requirements are weekly, does this mean that I'm   getting about 2.68 times of it? OR (the more likely scenario) that   some of the carrot vitamin-A is not being absorbed and I'm just   managing?   Your body can store vitamine A very well. I can't tell how much days you can \"skip\". The DRI are \"avarage intake\" over a period.      What I'm ultimately interested in is finding the \"time period\" of each nutrient.   This can't be answered. You would need to know for every (which is unknown) nutrient you need: - how much you as a person need, which differs per individual - how much of every nutrient is in all foodstuff (which is unknown and differs per appel/tomato/carrot etc) - how well your individual body absorbs those nutrients and then calculate it for every nutrient, which are very much.  I'm not a health professional nor diet guru. But my advise: do not worry to much. Wanting to know what you need to eat and what is healthy is a very good custom. But I think you want to calculate everything and that is unhealthy, since it will take you too much time and stress.   Your national dietary guidelines are based on the latest knowledge and research. Try to keep up with them and you will be safe. And have a varied diet! Always eating tomatoes and carrots is not necessarily healthy, as you could miss some less well known proteins and minerals.   Sources:  While it is not very scientific, this article seems to answer a lot of your questions and seems quite accurate: http://www.kitchenstewardship.com/2014/06/20/cheat-your-supplements-what-works-what-doesnt/  Webmd has some excellent content on living healthy http://www.webmd.com/living-healthy  Wikipedia has some pretty good articles on different vitamines: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_K etc     My doctor asked me to take one Vitamin-D supplement (cholecalciferol) every 10 days, so I'm assuming Vitamin-D requirement is not daily.   In the Netherlands (where I'm from) it's common to take Vitamin-D everyday. A 10 day supplement is very uncommon, since you would forget to take it in. So i'm quite surprised..",
        "id": 840,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What methods are there to diagnose helminths?",
        "body": "Yes, there are other methods, but they are dependant on the type of helminth. Common tests for helminths are the following:   serological tests  molecular tests microscopic tests      To have the most significant diagnostic impact, new techniques and assays should be simple and yield rapid results. Such characteristics could be achieved by reducing the number of steps to be performed in a procedure and making result interpretation obvious enough to avoid significant operator-dependent biases. An optimal diagnosis method would possess these favorable features while still maintaining a high level of sensitivity and specificity. Moreover, many of the tests that are used today cannot differentiate between current and past infections. Assays that are capable of making this distinction are necessary to properly determine disease prevalence, choose the appropriate treatment, and assess the effect of treatment. Currently, diagnostic and reference laboratories use several techniques, including microscopy, molecular assays, and serological assays. Each method has its advantages as well as disadvantages. Furthermore, many research laboratories are focusing on the development of new diagnostic methods as well as the improvement of old ones. There has especially been a focus on the development of molecular diagnostic techniques. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedures for the detection of various parasites are continuously being optimized. Recently, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has attracted much attention and seems to be the molecular tool of the future.     These tests are recommended by the CDC per type of helminth:   Ndao, Momar: Diagnosis of Parasitic Diseases: Old and New Approaches, Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases Volume 2009, Article ID 278246, 15 pages  An outline of each test can be found in the same study.",
        "id": 2332,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How did I not get Mono?",
        "body": "Mononucleosis is usually caused by Epstein-Barr virus, but other viruses such as cytomegalovirus can cause it as well [1]. EBV is a really common infection, and it's very likely that you've been exposed at an early age without developing serious symptoms[2]. If that's the case, you wouldn't be infected by a person with active mononucleosis.",
        "id": 1423,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol) vs. Dimenhydrate (Gravol)",
        "body": "Bismuth subsalicylate and antihistamines have different mechanisms of actions, so one drug is appropriate for some and another for other conditions with nausea.  Bismuth subsalicylate can \"soothe\" the gut by being a mild anti-inflammatory, antacid, antibiotic and anti-diarrheal, so it can reduce nausea and diarrhea in gastrointestinal conditions, for example, acid reflux, food poisoning, infections (stomach flu, H. pylori infection, etc.), irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory diseases (see also Drugs.com and RxList).  Antihistamines, such as dimenhydrinate, inhibit the stimulation of the labyrinth in the inner ear, so they are mainly used for motion sickness and other conditions of the inner ear (viral labyrinthitis, Meniere's disease, etc.). Antihistamines are also used for nausea in (migraine, morning sickness in pregnancy, after surgery and during chemotherapy), but I'm not sure how effective they are in those cases.    In summary, bismuth subsalicylate may help in nausea, diarrhea, upset stomach and heartburn caused by gastrointestinal conditions and antihistamines may help in inner ear conditions, including motion sickness.  The bottom line is that bismuth subsalicylate acts in the gut and antihistamines in the inner ear.",
        "id": 2586,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Application of acellular dermal matrix (ADM) and other external materials in transgender female's vaginoplasty",
        "body": "Acellular dermal matrix has been used experimentally [1,2] to successfully repair vaginal agenesis in cisgender female patients, so there's some evidence to support that ADM could be used in an SRS vaginoplasty. It's important to note that these authors are from institutions in China, which may mean that their surgical technique is region-specific (and perhaps not allowed by regulatory agencies in the United States). Generally speaking, any type of SRS procedure you might receive from a qualified plastic surgeon will likely produce satisfying and relatively uncomplicated results. [3]  Researchers in South Korea, another hotspot for plastic surgery, have published very favorable data on long-term results (in terms of anatomic and sexual function as well as patient satisfaction) on a minimally-invasive vaginoplasty that takes a laparoscopic rectosigmoid approach. [4] Naturally, this procedure can have complications, as it involves dissection of the rectum, creating potential for gut flora to migrate into the peritoneum and neovagina. However, long-term studies (10 and 25 years) have shown the rectosigmoid approach to be \"useful, safe, and well-accepted\" without requiring a graft. [5,6] Again, this procedure is largely region-specific.  Finally, you might consider that the \"additional use of full-thickness skin graft does not influence neovaginal shrinkage, nor does it affect the patient- and physician-reported aesthetic or functional outcome\" [7], so you'll likely be able to avoid having a graft if you explain your wishes to your surgeon. I can find at least one surgeon in the United States from cursory Googling [8] who mentions the optional nature of the graft: \"Occasionally, skin grafts are required in order to achieve adequate vaginal depth. Your consultation will determine whether or not a skin graft is necessary.\"",
        "id": 2701,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Differential diagnosis for a facial lesion?",
        "body": "Facial lesions are very common and the differential is broad. I will attempt to narrow down the possibilities based on size, appearance and presence or absence of pain.  Pain is a significant symptom, and clustering of the lesions is important as well.  Benign facial growths (such as warts, seborrheic keratoses, moles, basal cell carcinomas, cherry angiomas, dermatofibromas, etc., are not fluid-filled, nor painful, so need not be discussed.   Pre-malignant or malignant skin lesions are also solid, not fluid filled or usually painful.  Bacterial skin infections (acne, abscesses, etc.) are inflammatory, and present as painful, tender areas of swelling and commonly redness, but do not present as clear fluid-filled lesions. Pus may be present with a bacterial skin infection, but pus is white or off white, sometimes blood tinged, not clear. The exception is discussed below.  This leaves blister-like lesions of the face. What are possible causes of blisters on the face? Emphasis will be on the face and small blisters or grouped vesicles. There is a difference between a blister (usually larger than .5 cm) and a vesicle (.1-.4 cm). Also, vesicles can occur singly or in clusters in the same lesion. A cluster of vesicles in the same area may appear to be a blister. They are different.  Varicella Zoster Virus  Before vaccinations became available, the most common cause of blisters on the face was chicken pox. Almost 100% of an unvaccinated population contracts this virus (Varicella Zoster Virus or VZV) at some point in life. While chicken pox is still quite common in many parts of the world, the incidence has fallen considerably in countries routinely vaccinating their young.  The lesions of chicken pox are probably familiar to most adults: multiple small (less than .5 cm) scattered red papules (small bumps on the skin), clear vesicles on a red base, or small crusted lesions on a red base (initially just the papules, followed by lesions in each stage) scattered  all over the body. These lesions are very itchy.  Since VZV infects spinal nerves and lies dormant in the body after chicken pox infection, reactivation (called shingles or herpes zoster) is possible. Like chicken pox, the lesions are clear fluid filled small blisters (called vesicles) on a red base. Unlike chicken pox, reactivation most commonly occurs only in one nerve root at a time, on one side of the body, in the skin which that nerve serves, called a dermatome. Also, the lesions tend to be painful (sometimes very much so), and the skin can be exquisitely sensitive.  The trunk of the body is the most common area to be affected, but the face is commonly affected as well.  The clear fluid from a ruptured vesicle contains live viruses, therefore attention should be directed to avoid infecting others.  Contact or Allergic Dermatitis  Contact with certain chemicals can cause blistering of the skin. Industrial strength cleaners, harsh alkaline substances, etc. can cause painful blistering and redness that looks like a second degree burn of the skin. The source of such chemical burns is usually obvious, as the substance irritates the skin on or very closely after contact. The lesions are usually painful and feel like burns. Treatment is similar to that of burns.  A common allergen causing blistering is urushiol, the active organic compound that in  poison ivy that causes a form of contact dermatitis. With sufficient contact, an itchy, red, vesicular rash will appear after several days where contact has occurred, accompanied by itching. The lesions caused by poison ivy often tend to be linear (caused by rubbing along the edge of the leaf) or diffuse (on the hands) if one has been handling poison ivy. If handling the plant, and accidentally touching the face or other body part, urushiol can be transferred to the face as well. The diagnosis is made by the appearance, the distribution of the rash, the characteristic itchiness without pain, and the history of outdoor potential exposure.   Impetigo  Impetigo is a skin infection most commonly involving young children, but  it is highly infectious, adult close contacts may be affected. There are two types. Nonbullous impetigo starts as as painless or possibly itchy single papule that progresses to a vesicle. The vesicle ruptures, and the lesion secretes clear fluid that forms the typical honey-colored crust. As the fluid is infectious, the lesion grows in diameter, and new lesions appear near to the initial one. It is commonly found near the nose or mouth, but can occur anywhere on the face/exposed areas of the body.  Bullous impetigo forms small to large, soft blisters which break easily. It is not particularly painful although it can resemble a superficial second-degree burn. Bullous impetigo is not common on the face, rather it seems to occur more commonly in moist areas, such as the diaper area (in infants), the underarms, and neck folds.  Herpes Simplex Virus  Once infected with Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV), the virus, like VZV, lives in sensory nerve ganglia. There are two types of HSV, Types 1 and 2. HSV-1 is the common cause of cold sores or \"fever blisters\", but in fact can infect and recur on any part of the body. HSV-2 is the most common cause of genital herpes. Both viruses are spread by direct contact, so any skin/mucosal membranes directly exposed to either HSV-1 or HSV-2 can become infected, with recurrences common. HSV-1 infection, though it is with the same virus, can have different names depending on the area infected: Herpes labialis (lips), sacral herpes (on back near buttocks), herpetic whitlow (fingers), Herpes gladiatorum (aka 'mat herpes', initially diagnosed in wrestlers with close skin-to-skin contact), etc. Herpes Simplex Virus infections can occur anywhere on the body.  HSV, since it infects sensory nerves, is characterized by a period of pain or tingling preceding and accompanying the outbreak of clustered small vesicles - often more than one cluster - on a swollen, sometimes red base. The first outbreak is usually the most dramatic, but it may be minor and overlooked. The pain can often seem disproportionate to the size of the lesion(s).  Caution should be taken not to spread infectious fluid from ruptured vesicles to the eyes (especially, as it can lead to blindness), to other parts of the body, or to other individuals.  Fixed Drug Eruption     The term fixed drug eruption describes the development of one or more annular or oval erythematous [red] patches as a result of systemic exposure to a drug; these reactions normally resolve with hyperpigmentation [skin darkening] and may recur at the same site with re-exposure to the drug.    Fixed drug eruptions can occur anywhere (including eyes, mouth, tongue, genitals, etc.), and can take many forms. One form may be a blister. This is called a Bullous fixed drug eruption. Symptoms may include itching, burning, and/or pain. There usually isn't pain preceding the eruption.     Initially, a single lesion or a few lesions develop, but, with re-exposure, additional lesions occur. The vast majority of patients present with 1-30 lesions, ranging in size of 0.5-5 cm, but reports of lesions greater than 10 cm have been published. Lesions may be generalized. The most common reported site is the lips, and these may be seen in up to half of all cases.    The initial lesion can be a vesicle or small blister. The characteristic recurrence after one particular drug or class of drugs, hyperpigmentation  (more common in dark-skinned individuals), and lack of pain or tingling preceding eruption helps differentiate this from other causes.",
        "id": 2172,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a way to diagnose Male Pattern Baldness?",
        "body": "I have found the following articles which may be of help.     Hillmer, et al. (2005)      Androgenetic alopecia (AGA), or male-pattern baldness, is the most common form of hair loss. Its pathogenesis is androgen dependent, and genetic predisposition is the major requirement for the phenotype. We demonstrate that genetic variability in the androgen receptor gene (AR) is the cardinal prerequisite for the development of early-onset AGA, with an etiological fraction of 0.46. The investigation of a large number of genetic variants covering the AR locus suggests that a polyglycine-encoding GGN repeat in exon 1 is a plausible candidate for conferring the functional effect. The X-chromosomal location of AR stresses the importance of the maternal line in the inheritance of AGA.   This article was cited in an article by Ceruti, et al. (2018)     Beyond sexual functions, androgens exert their action in skin physiology and pathophysiology. Skin cells are able to synthesize most active androgens from gonadal or adrenal precursors and the enzymes involved in skin steroidogenesis are implicated both in normal or pathological processes. Even when the role of androgens and androgen receptor (AR) in skin pathologies has been studied for decades, their molecular mechanisms in skin disorders remain largely unknown. Here, we analyze recent studies of androgens and AR roles in several skin-related disorders, focusing in the current understanding of their molecular mechanisms in androgenetic alopecia (AGA). We review the molecular pathophysiology of type 2 5\u03b1-reductase, AR coactivators, the paracrine factors deregulated in dermal papillae (such as TGF-\u03b2, IGF 1, WNTs and DKK-1) and the crosstalk between AR and Wnt signaling in order to shed some light on new promising treatments.   and Adil &amp; Godwin (2017)     Androgenetic alopecia, or male pattern hair loss, is a hair loss disorder mediated by dihydrotestosterone, the potent form of testosterone. Currently, minoxidil and finasteride are Food and Drug Administration (FDA)\u2013approved, and HairMax LaserComb, which is FDA-cleared, are the only treatments recognized by the FDA as treatments of androgenetic alopecia.      Objective      This systematic review and meta-analysis assesses the efficacy of nonsurgical treatments of androgenetic alopecia in comparison to placebo for improving hair density, thickness, growth (defined by an increased anagen:telogen ratio), or subjective global assessments done by patients and investigators.   References  Adil, A., &amp; Godwin, M. (2017). The effectiveness of treatments for androgenetic alopecia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 77(1), 136-141. 10.1016/j.jaad.2017.02.054  Ceruti, J. M., Leir\u00f3s, G. J., &amp; Bala\u00f1\u00e1, M. E. (2018). Androgens and androgen receptor action in skin and hair follicles. Molecular and cellular endocrinology, 465, 122-133. doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.009  Hillmer, A. M., Hanneken, S., Ritzmann, S., Becker, T., Freudenberg, J., Brockschmidt, F. F., ... &amp; Heyn, U. (2005). Genetic variation in the human androgen receptor gene is the major determinant of common early-onset androgenetic alopecia. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 77(1), 140-148. doi: 10.1086/431425",
        "id": 2455,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "could catalepsy be caused by being beaten in the street?",
        "body": "Possibly so. Head trauma can lead to the development of epilepsy, which is a disorder characterized by chronic seizures, also having catalepsy as a symptom. It may be a different disorder, depending on how the trances present themselves. If you want the trances to be chronic, multiple over time, this leads to the question of whether or not there's a trigger. If you want it to be triggered by, say, a loud noise, it would be considered Post Traumatic Stress disorder. This might result in him curling up in a ball on the ground, or screaming, and becoming somewhat unresponsive. I believe you're looking for Atypical Absence Seizures, during which the person having the seizures stares straight ahead, becomes unresponsive. These episodes are only considered \"Atypical\" if they last longer than 20 seconds. Otherwise, they're just called Absence Seizures. You'll need to start being concerned if the seizure lasts longer than five minutes. Either way, they're symptoms of Myoclonic Astatic Epilepsy. Hope this helps! A few helpful websites for more information:  https://www.epilepsy.com/learn/types-seizures/absence-seizures https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myoclonic_astatic_epilepsy http://doosesyndrome.org/mae-explained/absence-seizures?phpMyAdmin=6847bcaa11f3a4c4a30eee927e12da01",
        "id": 2084,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Calorie content of foods",
        "body": "Probably the most comprehensive and practical tool to check for calorie content of foods is USDA Food Composition Database. You can find calorie content for baked chicken, fried chicken, breaded chicken...which is not the same. It also lists the main nutrient composition of every food (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins).  You can also search by some food ingredients, such as flour or sugar, and by nutrients, such as protein, fat and carbohydrates.",
        "id": 1125,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Septic shock versus ordinary shock, symptoms?",
        "body": "When a person is in a shock their organs aren't recieving enough blood or oxygen.  The main types of shock are:  Cardiogenic shock (due to heart problems) Hypovolemic shock (caused by too little blood volume) Anaphylactic shock (caused by allergic reaction) Septic shock (due to infections) Neurogenic shock (caused by damage to the nervous system)   In Septic shock: the inflammation resulting from sepsis causes tiny blood clots to form. This can block oxygen and nutrients from reaching vital organs. The symptoms of septic shock are:  Significantly decreased urine output Abrupt change in mental status Decrease in platelet count Difficulty breathing Abnormal heart pumping function Abdominal pain   There's an important sign in septic shock that the hypotension does NOT improve with fluid replacement.  From a symptomatic point of view: patients with sepsis often present with a fever, tachycardia, and hypotension but feel warm to touch with a bounding pulse due to the raised cardiac output in the early stages, while in other types of shock the patient presents with cold peripheries.  http://rrapid.leeds.ac.uk/ebook/05-circulation-04.html Also serum albumin level could be used to differentiate septic shock from other types of shock: http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1045614  Finally, septic shock and other types of shock have very similar symptoms, the main differences in septic shock are the fever and the hypotention that doesn't respond to fluid replacement.  For more:  http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sepsis/symptoms-causes/dxc-20169787  http://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-shock/basics/art-20056620  https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000039.htm  http://www.healthline.com/health/septic-shock#Overview1",
        "id": 1466,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does relaxation/meditaion help when you have cold feet/hands?",
        "body": "It's possibly due to your blood pressure. High blood pressure can cause ineffective blood perfusion which could be the cause of your cold hands and feets. The meditation/relaxing could be lowering your blood pressure and therefore increasing blood perfusion throughout the tissues.   Complaints of cold extremities among patients on antihypertensive treatment     It is concluded that cold hands and feet are common among   hypertensive patients and may be aggravated by treatment with not only   beta-blockers but also diuretics   And while the above article talks about hypertensive patients, it was just a example of how high blood pressure can affect your extremities temperature.  Anxiety and Cold feet:   This can occur via the fight-flight mechanism. Which overall means less blood flow to feet and hands.       Anxiety also causes blood to flow into your heart and trunk muscles.       Anxiety also can lead to faster breathing and hyperventilation.   Hyperventilation causes blood vessels to constrict, which slows down   blood flow dramatically.     Sweating is designed to cool down your body so that you don't overheat   when you run away. Unfortunately, since there is no danger, you simply   start to sweat, and your feet are often the area that sweat a great   deal and are prone to feeling cold more than other areas of the body.  ",
        "id": 930,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When using a Philips Sonicare toothbrush with pressure sensor, is it possible to cause gum damage when pushing too hard?",
        "body": "   Q: When using a Philips Sonicare toothbrush with pressure sensor, is it possible to cause gum damage when pushing too hard?   Yes, absolutely. That is the reason for the pressure sensor. It warns the user but the user may override this warning and continue. But see hte last quote on how influential pressure force is across the board.     Lets you know when you're pressing too hard You may not notice if you\u2019re brushing too hard, but your toothbrush will. If you start taking it out on your gums, the toothbrush will make a pulsing sound as a reminder to ease off on the pressure.   Most products from this manufacturer seem to provide a special \"sensitive\" for, well sensitive teeth and gums. But they seem to not include the matching brush head?     Sensitive and Gum Care cleaning modes are provided, but no Sensitive brush head, this is an optional extra.   The producer itself says this:     Troubleshooting      My gums are tender after using my Sonicare toothbrush?      Sometimes your gums feel tender after brushing with an electric Philips Sonicare toothbrush. Find out what could be the cause and how to prevent it.   Common causes and solutions      If you have a gum disease, if you haven't been using an electric toothbrush before or haven't maintained regular gum care, some tenderness may occur. Apply only light pressure on the Sonicare when brushing your teeth and gums. Your gums should become less tender within a few days of use. If you still have concerns, consult your dental professional.   And the company wants you to stay calm:     Can the speed of the Sonicare toothbrush harm my gums?      A Philips Sonicare electric toothbrush behaves differently than a manual one. Be sure it cannot do any harm.   Philips Sonicare toothbrushes will not harm your gums      Sonicare toothbrushes have even been shown in studies to be gentler on dentin than a manual or an oscillating toothbrush.   While gentle, Sonicare technology cleans effectively by:      Gently whipping toothpaste and saliva into an oxygen-rich foamy liquid   Directing the liquid between and behind teeth, and along the gum line where plaque bacteria flourish   Gently massaging the gums, stimulating blood circulation and helping to dislodge plaque      The Philips Sonicare DiamondClean, FlexCare+ and FlexCare toothbrushes come with special Gum Care and massage modes to assure even more comfort for sensitive gums. Gum Care mode provides two minutes of complete whole mouth cleaning, with one additional minute of gentle cleaning for problem areas and along the gum line. Massage mode uses our patented technology to drive fluids to stimulate gums, resulting in healthier gums.   Note that I searched for pressure at the manufacturers site and was presented with an overly specific search result talking about the speed!  The marketing phrases should not be taken at face value anyway. But on the other hand, following the 'advice' given out by that sensor is a great tool:     Contrary to some research that indicates the superiority of power toothbrushes to manual toothbrushes, a recently published analysis of selected studies by Heanue et al. found that only one type of power toothbrush was more effective at removing plaque and decreasing gum disease than manual brushes. The study, whose \u00aendings were published in early 2003 in the Cochrane Library, was conducted by a British-based non-profit health research group called the Cochrane Collaboration.      Heanue et al. concluded that the only category of power toothbrushes that cleaned better than manual toothbrushes were those that worked with rotation\u00b1oscillation action, with brush heads      Gingival abrasion and safety   The safety of power toothbrushes has been clearly established, and research indicates that daily use of a power toothbrush is at least as safe as a manual toothbrush (15). It is widely believed that use of a powered toothbrush, which employs a mechanical action instead of a manual action, reduces brushing force and the incidence of gingival bleeding because of gum damage. In a study by Danser et al., it was observed that brushing force was not influenced by the speed of the brush head and had no correlation with the incidence of gingival abrasion. In another study by Boyd et al., it was determined that power toothbrushes were used with about one-third the force of a manual toothbrush.      In a Swiss study evaluating the clinical effects and gingival abrasion aspects of two power toothbrushes and one manual toothbrush, it was determined that in a group of dental students trained in manual brushing technique, where efficacy was similar with the three toothbrushes tested, there was no evidence of greater gingival abrasion with either powered toothbrush when compared with a manual brush.      The concerns of gingival abrasion associated with tooth brushing are influenced by the filament end-rounding of the brush on either manual or power toothbrushes. The results of the Danser et al. study concluded that end rounding has no effect on plaque removal, but does affect the incidence of gingival abrasion. They showed that gingival abrasion is not influenced by brushing force, but is affected by filament end rounding.      Catherine Penick: \"Power toothbrushes: a critical review\", Int J Dent Hygiene P, 2004; 40\u201344. DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5037.2004.00048.x   Summary  It is possible to negatively influence gums by using powerbrushes. But the pressure with which they are used is usually already smaller than manual brushing with most people. Pressure is also a much smaller factor to consider, usually, than too bristles that are not well rounded. Still, gently does it.",
        "id": 2472,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Grapefruit Seeds (not juice) and Cialis",
        "body": "Your question took me a while to research; it goes beyond basic medicine and delves into biochemistry, pharmacology, and physiology.  The short answer is: Yes!  It can; however, as you will see in the studies that are linked, it's dose dependent.  From what I found, the primary culprit of drug interactions in grapefruit juice lies in naringenin; however, other compounds play a role as well. Naringenin is a natural compound (a flavonoid) found in fruits such as grapefruit, oranges, and tomatoes. The concentration of naringenin can be viewed in the following studies.   http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/77/4/903.full.pdf    http://fshs.org/proceedings-o/2007-vol-120/FSHS%20vol.%20120/288-294.pdf   For general information on Grapefruit and it's drug interactions, you will find this article useful.  Unfortunately, I could not find a \"critical level\" that would cause increased drug interactions. In light of all the studies reviewed, the best course of action would be to avoid grapefruit in any form - juice, seed, or otherwise - in order to prevent any drug interaction.  I hope this answers your question.",
        "id": 356,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are generics tested for side effects?",
        "body": "I'm going to assume you're referring to the United States and the FDA generic approval process.  FDA Abbreviated New Drug Application  For Abbreviated New Drug Applications (that they use for generic drugs) they are required to undergo bio equivalence testing as you said, but they:      are generally not required to include preclinical (animal) and clinical (human) data to establish safety and effectiveness.   This is because generic medications use the same active ingredient as the brand name equivalent. Chemically these substances are exactly the same. Since this is the chemical that got FDA approval as a drug, this is the chemical that was monitored for side effects and adverse reactions extensively in the original brand name drug application. Since this chemical is identical in both the brand and generic they expect no difference in side effects IF the dose exposure to the patient is the same. That is why most generic testing focuses on drug release, exposure, serum levels, etc. If they prove that the same chemical in their product is comparable in all of those aspects then it is assumed side effect profile will be comparable if not identical. ",
        "id": 1054,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does spot fat reduction doesn't work?",
        "body": "When you do not get enough nutrients from food, your blood glucose levels tend to fall, which triggers the release of the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline). Epinephrine is transported via the blood to the fat stores anywhere in the body, where it triggers the breakdown of fats (triglycerides) into fatty acids. Fatty acids leave the fat stores, enter the blood and are transported to any \"hungry\" muscle, where they are broken down to energy. (The Science Behind Fat Metabolism: Ketoschool)  So, the muscles don't just eat the nearby fat but the fat that is delivered to them via the blood from any part of the body.    Genetics affects where a person loses weight first, and it also depends on where they gain it first. (Dr. Janet Brill Medical Daily)    Additional sources:   Effects of Sit up Exercise Training on Adipose Cell Size and Adiposity (Tandofline)  The effect of abdominal exercise on abdominal fat (PubMed) ",
        "id": 2311,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Theoretically, are spots with brown spots inside them cancerous?",
        "body": "You are quite right; most moles are harmless, but it's important to keep a vigilant eye for abnormalities! So kudos to you for being aware, doing research, etc. According to this website http://www.nhs.uk/Tools/Pages/Mole-slideshow.aspx, the ABCDE of suspicious mole detection are the following:    A: Asymmetry B: Border C: Color ---       A normal mole usually has one uniform colour, whereas melanomas are   often uneven in colour. As the picture shows, a melanoma can have two   or three shades of brown or black, or varying shades of red and pink.   The darkening of a mole is a sign that it is possibly becoming   cancerous.    D: Diameter E: Elevation or Enlargement   **There's more information on each of the ABCDE (included on the website), but color seemed to be the most relevant and concerning to you.   I recently had the same question myself (as I've noticed a darker center in my mole that was spreading its diameter). I can certainly understand the worry.   I went to the dermatologist who actually just removed the mole as a skin biopsy so that it can be tested to see if it's positive for melanoma. I have not gotten the results back yet, but the procedure was painless and quick. I'm not sure that a dermatologist can tell just by appearance if it's positive for melanoma -- that's why they do the biopsy -- so I suggest that you see a dermatologist (you might need a referral from your family doctor).   Best of luck!! ",
        "id": 1279,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the significance of white blood cells count to platelets count ratio?",
        "body": "The WBC to platelet ratio is not a commonly used index in medicine, and does not have any general significance. For example, infection, hematological malignancies, or solid organ tumors can all cause low or high WBC and low or high platelet count [1].  There is one study [2] looking at a specific population (patients undergoing splenectomy for trauma) showing that a lower platelet to WBC count ratio can be helpful to differentiate patients developing an infection from noninfected patients. The rationale behind this is that trauma patients often have a high WBC count (leukocytosis due to stress demargination of neutrophils), such that the WBC count is no longer reliable as an indicator of infection. Therefore, this study combined the WBC count with the platelet count, which initially goes down in most patients with infection [3], to try to improve discrimination between the two conditions. The generalizability of this index is extremely limited since the patient population studied was quite specific.  There is also one study [4] that showed that platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (note that lymphocyte count only represents a subset of WBC count) correlates with prognosis in patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumors.  Other than these two studies, a search of the medical literature reveals no mention of the WBC to platelet (or platelet to WBC) ratio. ",
        "id": 970,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is Lamisil Once (terbinafine film-forming solution) marketed for athlete's foot, but not for jock itch or ringworm?",
        "body": "After you apply Lamisil Once, it forms a medicated film. If you're careful, the film can remain on your skin for up to 72 hours. This will help to make sure that the optimal amount of medication will make its way into your skin.  Novartis advise their customers:  \"It is recommended to apply Lamisil Once after a shower or bath, and then wait 24 hours before washing your feet again. Keep the affected area clean by washing it regularly after the first 24 hours. Dry the skin thoroughly, but be careful not to rub the skin.\" (Emphasis mine.)  On its website, Kiwi Drug elaborates: \"After 24 hours, showering may resume, but the application site ... should be gently patted dry, not rubbed, as doing so will remove the film. ... With these considerations in mind it's easy to see how Lamisil Once may not be the best choice for treatment in some areas, such as the groin or armpits, that tend to ... rub against skin or clothing.\"  Based on all this, it seems to me that Lamisil Once might fail miserably if used for jock itch or ringworm. If you want to maximize your chances of success, it's probably wiser to choose a different product instead.",
        "id": 1098,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Need succinct overview article about insulin resistance",
        "body": "After massive searching I found a suitable fact sheet.  Its primary focus is diabetes but it includes the basic information I need to get across about insulin resistance.  https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-diabetes-report-web.pdf  Insulin resistance is explained succinctly, and well, on p. 9.  Also, the difference between the terms \"pre-diabetes\" and \"insulin resistance\" is made clear in this fact sheet.  (That is something the school has always been confused about.  They think that because the specialist has not diagnosed pre-diabetes, therefore my son isn't insulin resistant.)",
        "id": 1217,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do we continue compressions after the first AED shock?",
        "body": "The only thing that keeps a patient in cardiac arrest alive is constant, high-quality chest compression.  Cardioversion (\"shocking\") of a patient aims to return the heart to normal (sinus) rhythm in the case that a cardiac arrest is due to a dysrhythmia.  If it works, great - return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) will be achieved and there will be signs of this; coughing, spluttering, pulse etc.  We assume that it will not be successful and immediately resume compressions because even a couple of seconds delay in chest compressions dramatically reduces organ perfusion and worsens outcome.  A couple of chest compressions in a patient who has been successfully cardioverted will not do any particular harm and the downsides of waiting to see if it has worked are huge.",
        "id": 2328,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to eat fruit with the skin having cleaned it only with water?",
        "body": "Your question is hard to give a proper answer.  I think a big (but not complete) answer is already here: How much pesticide remains on a harvested organic fruit?  Anyway, (thanks to) my approach as engineer I can produce another kind, a different answer: a schematic list of statement that you can use to infer an answer by your own:   (Legal) chemicals used in agriculture are safea to human. Organic fruit will certainly have less chemicals than normal fruitb, so if you worry about chemicals, you should prefer organic fruit and vegetables. There are different chemicals and each one interact differently with the fruit.   There will be hydrophile (\u201eliking water\u201c) molecules and washing your fruit, they will go away. There will be lipophile (\u201eliking fat\u201c) molecules and washing your fruit, they will remain on the fruit, on the peel; an interesting solution is hered.  Part of chemicals stay on the peel, part of chemical are adsorbed inside the fruit, in the fleshc: if you remove physically the peel you will physically remove chemicals in it.   As you see issue is really complex!  a If chemicals used are legal, they have been tested on human. b https://consumersunion.org/news/cu-research-team-shows-organic-foods-really-do-have-less-pesticides/ c https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/10/well/eat/do-pesticides-get-into-the-flesh-of-fruits-and-vegetables.html d https://www.popsci.com/how-to-actually-remove-pesticides-from-your-fruit  ",
        "id": 1135,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eating burned food",
        "body": "cancer.gov     Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)   are chemicals formed when muscle meat, including beef, pork, fish, or   poultry, is cooked using high-temperature methods, such as pan frying   or grilling directly over an open flame   These chemicals are found to be mutagenic and may increase the risk of cancer.   From the same article, things that influence how much HCA's and PAH's are:   meat type cooking method \"doneness\u201d level (rare, medium, or well done)      Whatever the type of meat, however, meats cooked at high temperatures,   especially above 300\u00baF (as in grilling or pan frying), or that are   cooked for a long time tend to form more HCAs. For example, well done,   grilled, or barbecued chicken and steak all have high concentrations   of HCAs. Cooking methods that expose meat to smoke or charring   contribute to PAH formation   For bioactivation the HCA'S and PAH's need to be metabolized by specific enzymes in the body. While:     Studies have shown that exposure to HCAs and PAHs can cause cancer in   animal models      Population studies have not established a definitive link between HCA   and PAH exposure from cooked meats and cancer in humans   Additional highlights:   More research is being done No official FDA guidelines are available The cancer.gov article did give some tips on how to reduce HCA and PAH formation when cooking Better Health Websites ",
        "id": 813,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you read a US nutrition label?",
        "body": "You're going to want to read the label from top to bottom.  Serving Size and Calories  The first thing you will see at the top tells you the serving size and the amount of calories. It will say \"Serving Size {x} \" where x is the amount of whatever measurement is used. It may also give the amount of another measurement (usually grams) and sometimes even amount of how many of the product is one serving size (chip bags usually do this). Using the amount of servings that you eat, you can use simple math to determine how much of each nutrient/vitamin you have, this also includes the daily value percentage.   Under the serving size, there will be the amount of calories and the amount of calories from fat. The calories shown are the calories per serving, so if you eat two servings, then you can double the amount of calories. You can compare the calories that you eat to the daily amount you are supposed to have.   General rules for calories (based on a 2000 calorie diet)   40 calories or less - low Around 100 calories - moderate 400 calories or more - high   Calories from fat are just the amount of calories that come from fat in the product. Calories are important because eating too many calories is linked to obesity.  Nutrients  The next section (under calories) on the food label is about the nutrients in the food. There are two subsections in this section, nutrients to limit and nutrients to get enough of.  Nutrients to Limit   Total Fat - under it there will also be trans and saturated fat Cholesterol  Sodium   These nutrients have been shown to increased risks some cancers, heart disease, and high blood pressure.  Nutrients to get Enough of   Dietary Fiber - under Total Carbohydrates Vitamins A and C Calcium Iron   Getting more of these has been shown to reduce the risk of many of the diseases and problems mentioned, but you shouldn't have too many of these.  Other nutrients   Total Carbohydrates - sugar is under this Protein   These foods are neutral-ish, but there are some risks in having too much (over the limit) of these. In fact, too much sugar has been shown to increase the risk of diabetes.1  Reading the numbers  The nutrients to limit usually have both an actual amount and a daily value percentage (%DV) based on a 2000 calories diet. The nutrient to get enough of usually don't.  Guide to %DV   5% or less - low 20% or more - high; most products won't have anything higher than 20%   If you have something that has 20%DV of vitamin A, then there will 80%DV of vitamin A left. You could eat 4 more products with 20%DV of vitamin A or some other combination that equals 80%DV.  Footnote  There will three columns, one with the daily recommended amount for a 2000 calories diet and one for a 2500 calorie diet. All of the %DV are based on the 2000 calorie diet, but you can easily convert the percentages to the 2500 calorie diet if you have a calculator (or you can do them by hand). The one column I didn't mention is the calories column. If it says \"Less than\" then you should have less than the amount said in the column of the diet you are on.  Usually \"Total Fat\", \"Sat Fat\", \"Cholesterol\", and \"Sodium\" will have a \"Less than\" next to them, so you should have less of these than the amount to the right says. \"Total Carbohydrates\" and under it \"Dietary Fiber\" will usually have nothing next to them, so you should get the recommended value to the right.    Reading an ingredient list  This is a bit trickier than reading the actual label, but the ingredients should be put in order of quantity. There isn't any definite way to see the exact amount of each ingredient in the product, though. It is better to rely on the amount of each nutrient instead of trying to guess how much of each ingredient there is. If you just want to know what you are eating, then there are some good tricks.   Sugar has many names - high-fructose corn syrup or corn syrup, agave nectar, barley malt syrup, dehydrated cane juice Sodium does too - salt, sodium benzoate, disodium, monosodium glutamate Trans fat - not listed as an ingredient, but it is in hydrogenated oil which is a common ingredient     [1] Is there evidence that eating too much sugar can increase the risk of diabetes?  How to Understand and Use the Nutrition Facts Label  Understanding Ingredients on Food Labels",
        "id": 40,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The scientific evidence of '4-7-8' breathing trick to induce sleep",
        "body": "There is no evidence:  \"Despite a potential bit of miscommunication about the technique's effect on insomnia, there\u2019s one thing I can be certain about \u2013 there doesn\u2019t appear to be any reliable evidence that the 4-7-8 breathing method works.\"",
        "id": 822,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is glucosamine sulfate effective treatment for meniscus injury?",
        "body": "You don't see swelling in meniscus or anterior cruciate ligament injuries. You just get pain and ROM (Range of Motion) restriction. However, glucosamine sulfate or chondroitin will just relive the pain. I recommend you to go see another doctor and get another x ray, which may differ from machine and specialist to another, to make sure. Then, depending on the injury you have we can give you rehabilitation recommendations.",
        "id": 864,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effect of dexamethasone iontophoreses on tendons",
        "body": "The penetration is limited, therefore it's less risky than a steroid injection which carries a higher risk of tendon rupture(1).  Study conclusion from 1999 (PDF) by SMJ was:     Iontophoresis using sterile water or corticosteroid resulted in minimal or no biochemical and histologic changes in the tendon compared with injection of either substance. The method of corticosteroid delivery may be as important as the actual drug effects on the biomechanical and histologic properties of tendons. ",
        "id": 8,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much T4 thyroid is equivalent to an amount of T3?",
        "body": "This is the best answer I could find (from a page with more discussion):     In a mythical \"normal\" human, around one third of the T4 is converted   to T3. So you could argue that T3 is \"three times as strong as T4\".       When taking tablets, for example, changing from T4 only to mixed T3   and T4, it is common to estimate on the basis of T4 being one quarter   the \"strength\" of T3.       So, 100 mcg T4 (thyroxine) could be similar to 25 mcg of T3   (liothyronine) OR 50 mcg of T4 plus 12.5 mcg of T3.       This seems a reasonable basis for estimating doses but it is no better   than an informed guess.       BUT if you are NOT converting properly this falls down. Imagine if you   are taking 100 mcg of thyroxine and NONE of it is converting. So you   have NO T3. You then take just 10 mcg of T3 and that has an effect   which the T4 NEVER had. So there really is no way you can think of one   being stronger than the other. One does something; the other does not ",
        "id": 263,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dextroamphetamine vs Dextroamphetamine Salt Combo",
        "body": "In order to substitute lawfully, the 2 drugs must be bioequivalent and in the same dosage form.  Therefore the 2 drugs not only must be chemically equivalent, but also therapeutically equivalent.  In your situation, dextroamphetamine and dextroamphetamine salts combo are 2 different drugs.  The former is a single ingredient product while the latter is a mixture of salts.  The basis of bioequivalence is determined by the kinetics of absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination from the body.  In general, a drug and its salt form will have different dissolution rates and therefore will be absorbed at dfferent rates, distributed differently, metabolized differently and eliminated differently from the body.  So they have different effects on the body.  In most cases, the drug itself and its salt are similar enough that there is no major therapeutic difference and are considered bioequivalent.  However it\u2019s not true in all cases. A controlled release formulation (such as sustained release, extended release, delayed release, long-acting, etc.) releases the drug slower, get absorbed  slower and reaches the peak plasma level slower than the regular formulation.  Therefore the two formulations are not bioequivalent and are not substitutable.  The d-amphetamine salts combo prescription you have now may be an extended release formulation and so the effects are very different from the single ingredient d-amphetamine that you had before.  The prescriber might have changed it. Another example is the drug hydroxyzine.  It is marketed as the hydrochloride salt under the trade name Atarax\u00ae and is also marketed as the pamoate ester under the trade name Vistaril\u00ae.  The salt form cannot cross the blood brain barrier, so it is used peripherally as an anti-histamine.  The ester can cross the blood brain barrier and acts centrally as a minor tranquilizer.  These 2 drugs are not bioequivalent.  In this case, the 2 drugs distribute dffferently and are not substitutable. For more information on bioequivalence, check out The Orange Book published by the FDA.",
        "id": 2580,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does male ejaculation shortens life span?",
        "body": "If a male person ejaculates the body produces certain hormones, such as dopamine, which is a happiness hormone. It is the reason for the good feeling - your body relaxes. Your well being increases, your organs work well. To make it short: Ejaculation, no matter how often, does not make your life shorter and it does not make your life longer. It just increases your well being. It can only be dangerous if you forget to eat or drink or something like that because you are 'too busy ejaculating'. In that case you would need professional help. What did your doctor say about your question? I am very interested in that, because a doctor should know it isn't bad for your life or anything.",
        "id": 1251,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If apply regular warm compress unto my scalp, will it mimic the use of topical vasodilators?",
        "body": "According to the french equivalent of the FDA, the ANSM, in a minoxidil presentation  Resume des Caracteristiques Produit :     Le m\u00e9canisme pr\u00e9cis d'action n'est pas connu.   Translation :     The mechanism of action is not known   According to the following study : Minoxidil: mechanisms of action on hair growth. the mechanism of action is still not known, even if scientist start to suspect some mechanism of action to be the cause of the effects :     There is some evidence that the stimulatory effect of minoxidil on hair growth is also due to the opening of potassium channels by minoxidil sulphate, but this idea has been difficult to prove and to date there has been no clear demonstration that KATP channels are expressed in the hair follicle. [...]stimulation of cell proliferation, inhibition of collagen synthesis, and stimulation of vascular endothelial growth factor and prostaglandin synthesis. Some or all of these effects may be relevant to hair growth, but the application of results obtained in cell culture studies to the complex biology of the hair follicle is uncertain   As you can read, vasodilatation does not seem to be the reason behind the hair growth.  Your hair loss, unless a physician diagnosed something else, is probably normal male pattern hair loss . Studies tend to prove alopecia in male is androgen (testosterone and DHT) related and appear to be caused by a lack, or an inactivation, depending on the source, of stem cells.   It is however not about the lack of nutrition or blood flow of the hair follicle. This is a very (very) vast subject, but the wikipedia \"Pattern hair loss\" article (can't post more link) provides plenty of valuable information about it.   The warm compress treatment is therefore very unlikely to work and I'd suggest you to ask a physician before attempting anything.",
        "id": 1503,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Inconsistencies in statin prescribing practices?",
        "body": "Your question about why any individual physician chooses to practice a specific way is not answerable, but the underlying question about how physicians use evidence to make decisions is what I will address.  This is from a perspective in the USA, but I believe that much of this applies globally.  (But please feel free to add answers from other countries, as I'd love to hear how things work elsewhere!)  Guidelines (see also hierarchy of evidence here or here or here) are generally not rigid rules, they are consensus best-practice recommendations from a professional organization, based on evidence as it emerges.  Guidelines are excellent tools for decision-making because they provide a consensus of what many experts in the field have assessed that the current evidence from all available studies best supports.    But Guidelines take a while to form and a while to revise or overturn, so they aren't necessarily reflecting cutting edge research.  Additionally, there are sometimes even conflicting guidelines from different organizations on a topic - for example frequency of mammogram (yearly vs every 2 years) is currently a hot debate between the major organizations that address women's health, with valid viewpoints on all sides (balancing frequency of rapidly progressing cases vs the harms of false positive rates and complications of unnecessary biopsies etc etc, which is a huge discussion on its own).  There is no single organization that issues guidelines for all physicians. There are professional organizations for each specialty and even subspecialty (like AAFP ACOG AAP ACP etc), professional organizations for major disease processes (like American Cancer Society), national organizations that look at how guidelines apply at a population level (USPSTF, NIH), and independent organizations that provide EBM (evidence based medicine) tools for a fee that try to unite all recommendations and provide a discussion of how to approach decision making (UpToDate, Dynamed, and to a degree Medscape or Epocrates, etc).  When a new guideline comes out that creates a paradigm shift, how does a doctor decide whether to follow it for an individual patient in his/her practice?  When guidelines contradict, which does he/she choose to use?  When a new study comes out that challenges current guidelines, does he/she change his/her practice based on the study, or wait until the professional organizations have digested it and weighed it against the current evidence, and issued new guidelines?  There is no single answer to those questions.  Physicians are trained to interpret and evaluate the strength and applicability of evidence, from guidelines to individual journal articles.  If there is a standard of practice, and the physician chooses to deviate, there very well may be good justification for that.    For an over-simplified example, if a physician who has been practicing a long time has had success in treating patients with the old paradigm, and the new paradigm is controversial, or the new paradigm was only non-inferior without clear mortality or morbidity benefit, they might choose to stick with what they have seen work.  Medicine is called an art for a reason.  This is an interesting article that might help expand understanding of physician decision-making: https://www.elsevier.com/connect/why-arent-all-physicians-using-clinical-practice-guidelines.    This article shows how the AAFP processed and recommended approaching the new ACC/AHA guidelines, to give another view into the complexity: https://www.aafp.org/afp/2018/0315/p372.html  So, what about LDL guidelines?  It's a little bit controversial.  I would say most newer physicians are going by the new guidelines, as that is what they learned while training.  But a discussion about how to decide whether or not to follow those new guideline is not a short, concise answer.  If I find a good article on it I will add it here.",
        "id": 2665,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Walking while eating - choking?",
        "body": "Provided you are healthy and your walking speed does not make you short of breath, there is usually no problem.   ",
        "id": 1601,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "After a dog bite, why are vaccines given in multiple injections rather than a single injection containing multiple vaccines?",
        "body": "Brief background  There are 2 major types of vaccines, passive and active vaccines. Passive vaccines are simply \"antibodies\" to fight off disease and active vaccines are \"dead/weakened/components(e.g. proteins)\" of the offending agent to allow your body to produce your own antibodies.     Same is true for anti tetanus, (which may come in different mixtures) tetanus toxoid is an active vaccine which is given to adults if it has been 10 years from your previous booster or unrecalled date of the last dose.  Tetanus immune globulin(igtet) is the passive form. For anti-rabies, we use ARV(anti-rabies vaccine/active) and ERIG/HRIG(passive vaccine)  -HARRISON'S principles of Internal Medicine 18th ed Tetanus pg. 1199  In short, you may take at least 2-4 injections depending on your previous vaccinations and what category your animal bite injury is.     Mixing vaccines in one syringe     \"No vaccines should ever be mixed in the same syringe unless the   combination has been specifically approved by the FDA.\"   -immunize.org   &nbsp;     It is prudent to give in separate limbs (if possible), so there is no   confusion about which vaccine caused an allergic reaction.   -immunize.org   &nbsp;     \"Diluting or mixing a biological product with other components or   repackaging a biological product by removing it from its approved   container-closure system and transferring it to another   container-closure system is highly likely to affect the safety or   effectiveness of the biological product\" -FDA link to FDA protocol,   PDF   file     Giving vaccines on a schedule (lifted from OP's provided link)     \"The rabies vaccine is made up of the dead rabies virus. When it is   injected into your body, your immune system it immediately starts to   produce antibodies to fight off the perceived infection. Multiple   shots ensure that the levels of antibodies remain elevated so that   even if the live virus is already in your system, the antibodies will   neutralize it.\"      -HARRISON'S principles of Internal Medicine 18th ed Rabies pg. 1615     References  Cdc.gov, immunize.org, who.int, fda.gov    P.S.  The anti-tetanus vaccine schedule is in the provided link and I lifted the answer from OP to give a short preview of the answer. A total of 3-5 injections if we include antibiotics.",
        "id": 2372,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much mercury is contained in sea salt?",
        "body": "In general, the answer seems to be no, it does not contain a meaningful quantity. Refer first to this answer in Seasoned Advice.   Although not peer reviewed, this article appears to be a credible source and it's the only documented direct test for mercury in sea salts that I've seen. Refer to Table 3 (Hg is mercury).  ",
        "id": 419,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does having more muscles influence blood pressure measurement?",
        "body": "There is evidence that a muscular arm will produce a higher systolic reading if the wrong sized cuff is applied.  There are two measurements in a blood pressure reading, the systolic and the diastolic. The systolic blood pressure (SBP) is the first number in a reading (Such as the 120 in 120/60), and the diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is the second number.  The method for taking an arm blood pressure is to wrap the cuff around the upper arm, place the stethoscope over the brachial artery, and inflate the cuff until you cannot hear any sounds. Slowly bleed the air out of the cuff, and note the number when the first sound appears, and when the sound disappears to get your reading.  The study I refer to above was performed at a Mexican bodybuilding competition. When a medium cuff was used, the SBP was significantly higher than with the larger cuff. Blood pressure overall was slightly lower with the correct sized cuff as well.  So while being muscular is not really a factor, clinicians should be aware of using the correct sized cuff to avoid artificially inflated blood pressure readings.",
        "id": 176,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the effects of hyperglycemia",
        "body": "I have written a few blog posts about this topic, to which I will share the links on the topic. In a short-as-possible answer, this is my thinking.  Elevated blood glucose, hyperglycemia is extremely bad for a variety of organs, and the damage can accumulate over time. Free glucose in the blood can bind to positively charge amino acids on proteins. This includes proteins in your blood (like haemoglobin and albumin) protein in your kidneys, eyes, arteries etc. It is called glycation and it accumulates over time, contributing to what is called metabolic disease and all the risks and complications that are associated with being a type II diabetic. (Ageing ourselves in fast forward)  Glucose also binds to the cholesterol particles in your blood, specifically to LDL, the so called \"bad cholesterol\" and changes their character to become extremely harmful to your arteries and increases the risk for heart attack by 7-fold. (Heart disease, sugar and saturated fat)  In short, hyperglycemia is without any doubt, one of the most dangerous untreated chronic situations for your body to be in.  As for your father's blas\u00e9 attitude towards hyperglycemia, it is very bad indeed. Type II diabetes is merely the accumulation of years of prolonged damage caused by untreated hyperglycemia. Diabetes is when your body can no longer cope with the sugar burden and by then, the catastrophic effects that sugar has on your body, will be accelerated multiple times. This how Diabetics end up with kidney disease, fatty liver disease, vision loss, foot amputations etc, heart attacks, strokes, etc.  Scientific thinking around how our modern diet is causing type II diabetes, is changing really fast. Type II Diabetes is no longer thought of as a chronic and terminal illness.",
        "id": 368,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do penile stretchers really work?",
        "body": "Yes, it looks like they do. Within certain limits, though and with the limitation that only small pilot studies have been done.  A study assessing the the results of such a device in 15 men found that      After 6\u00a0months the mean gain in length was significant, meeting the goals of the effect size, at 2.3 and 1.7\u00a0cm for the flaccid and stretched penis, respectively. No significant changes in penile girth were detected.\u00a0   A pilot phase-II prospective study to test the \u2018efficacy\u2019 and tolerability of a penile-extender device in the treatment of \u2018short penis\u2019  There is one meta study on the subject (a study looking at and summarizing other studies) that says      In conclusion, penile extenders appear to be an effective treatment for patients who complain of \u2018short penis\u2019. The application of such devices can be recommended in all patients regardless of the penile length, because of the low risk of complications   Non-invasive methods of penile lengthening: fact or fiction?  There's links to the original studies in that review.   Both studies are from the British Journal of Urology, which seems like a decently trustworthy journal and nothing in the papers stood out to me as unreasonable. The usual warnings apply, though: talk to you doctor about your plans and have one supervise the process if you both decide this is the best course of action for you.   So, yes, preliminary research seems like they have some effect (1 to 2 centimeters) if used as advised. ",
        "id": 494,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do nutrition fact labels include the nutritional content of wasted (unreachable) food?",
        "body": "No, they do not take waste and left-overs into account.  Nutrition information is by serving or package content:     The first place to start when you look at the Nutrition Facts label is the serving size and the number of servings in the package. Serving sizes are standardized to make it easier to compare similar foods; they are provided in familiar units, such as cups or pieces, followed by the metric amount, e.g., the number of grams.      The size of the serving on the food package influences the number of calories and all the nutrient amounts listed on the top part of the label. Pay attention to the serving size, especially how many servings there are in the food package. Then ask yourself, \"How many servings am I consuming\"? (e.g., 1/2 serving, 1 serving, or more) In the sample label, one serving of macaroni and cheese equals one cup. If you ate the whole package, you would eat two cups. That doubles the calories and other nutrient numbers, including the %Daily Values as shown in the sample label.      FDA.org, Emphasis Mine ",
        "id": 2205,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Prophylactic effect of hand sanitizer",
        "body": "Yes, to a degree. Since the stuff we touch will be on our hands and the stuff that's on our hands will be on what we touch. CDC:   Quickly reduces number of microbes, but not all Less effective in greasy or dirty circumstances   So if the handle is greasy or visibly dirty the amount of microbes that are killed are decreased. It may be better to just grab handles with tissues.   Hand Sanitizer usually kills around 99% of common germs within 30 seconds They can \"kill\" some viruses, but aren't slowed to make that claim by the FDA   The handiwork of good health   I would take into factor that it dries fast. And that door handles can be pretty dirty. It also depends on the amount of sanitizer you use. ",
        "id": 922,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is sweating good for you?",
        "body": "According to this article: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/melissa-edmonds/does-sweating-release-tox_b_8372452.html, just sweating has no clear health benefits.  The health benefits of sweating come with exercise.",
        "id": 1037,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How reliable is MRI to diagnose ACL (anterior cruciate ligament rupture)?",
        "body": "Nothing is more helpful than a comprehensive physical examination by an expert and the clinical course of the disease, for ruling out the ACL rupture. Evidence supports that      The accuracy of the clinical examination and MRI evaluation was equal   for diagnosing meniscal tears and ACL ruptures   [reference]. Moreover,      the Lachman test has great efficacy in ruling out a diagnosis of ACL   rupture because of the lowest negative likelihood ratios [reference]       Notice that, MRI is associated with higher false-positive rates, if performed suddenly after trauma or in patients with prior knee trauma. All mild soft injuries may show some signal contacting after trauma.    ",
        "id": 2659,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Definition of \"prospective birth cohort study\"",
        "body": "Yes that is what is meant.  Prospective means the study subjects are recruited at the beginning.  Since it's a birth cohort they have to be enrolled at or before birth.  Consider this a non-authoritative answer.",
        "id": 2181,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the body be shocked into a faster metabolism?",
        "body": "If a person's body is in a low-metabolism state induced by starvation or restricted calorie intake, then an increase in the calorie intake will allow a raised metabolism. The natural lower limit to metabolism is death: if a person restricts calories too much, their metabolism drops lower and lower, until they develop various complications and then die. The natural upper limit to metabolism is, in my view, heat: a person's metabolism is only going to increase naturally to a certain point, based on their BMI, body composition, genetics, lifestyle, etc., and after that point the metabolism will not increase any more otherwise excessive heat would be generated (also leading to death.) A example of dysfunctional metabolism where people just burn more and more energy is the misuse of the now-unavailable drug mimicking \"uncoupling protein\" (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/death-of-medical-student-sarah-houston-after-taking-banned-slimming-drug-dinitrophenol-highlights-8584597.html). BUT this is an example where a drug was taken that dysregulated metabolism. Normally the body will not allow the metabolism to increase like that. What happens instead in the natural world is obesity. If you increase calories too much, past the point of metabolic increase, then extra calories are stored as fat and you become obese.",
        "id": 198,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is length a cause of alopecia?",
        "body": "No, long hair has a appearance of falling out. But everyone's hair is constantly falling out. Hair generally falls out at a rate of 50 to 100 strands of hair a day. And regrowth of the hair generally matches that rate.  http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/11/hair-loss-causes_n_923727.html  Longer hair is more noticeable than short. And our hairs are more likely to come out all at once when stressed. Long hair might also break releasing a portion of the strand, a problem that short hair doesn't have. When you are in the shower you aren't going to notice 2 or 3 short strands falling out. Strands of long hair are very noticeable.   Now, there is one related issued tied to this subject. Hair that is frequently pulled on will fall out faster. Hair that is kept in tight hair styles or is constantly being tugged on by it owner will fall out faster than normal. But that is due to the roots literally being tugged out of the head. The weight of hair alone can't do this. It is problem that favors long hair.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_alopecia",
        "id": 1588,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Seeing through objects",
        "body": "This isn't normal, you might have misaligned eyes like my grandmother had, who had similar symptoms to you when she was younger. It was corrected with minor surgery later on in her life.   This is definitely something to talk to your GP or Optometrist about!",
        "id": 1652,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can you never have a dental cavity your entire life?",
        "body": "Well, you could die today and that would make the answer yes.   https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-some-people-get-mo/     Dental caries is the most prevalent infectious disease in humans,   affecting 97 percent of the population in their lifetime.   From the above we can conclude that 3% of the population go their entire lives without a cavity.",
        "id": 1994,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can we live only on chocolate?",
        "body": "1 oz (28g) of dark has 155 calories. If you scale these 155 calories to 2000 (13 oz) then it looks like this:          Source: United States Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28, Basic Report:  19902, Chocolate, dark, 45- 59% cacao solids   Below is a table with the daily value:  % Daily Value*       Total Fat\u00a09 g          13.00%   167.74% Saturated fat\u00a05 g      25.00%   322.58%  Cholesterol\u00a02 mg        0.00%     0.00% Sodium\u00a07 mg             0.00%     0.00% Potassium\u00a0158 mg        4.00%    51.61% Total Carbohydrate\u00a017 g 5.00%    64.52% Dietary fiber\u00a02 g       8.00%   103.23% Sugar\u00a014 g       Protein\u00a01.4 g           2.00%    25.81%     Naturally it is high on fat. About the only guidelines chocolate meets are cholesterol and fiber.  Chocolate is also low on essential vitamins.    Clearly over the long term it will negatively impact health.  3 each 10 oz bars is even more.  It is 4,650 calories.   ",
        "id": 2213,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What effect does long-term caffeine use have on memory?",
        "body": "There are actually quite a lot of studies pointing in all directions when it comes to memory and caffeine use. I wouldn't call it a closed case by any standard, although many sites hawk caffeine as a great improver of memory, especially long-term memory.  Some studies showing no effects of long-term caffeine use on memory:   Hameleers et al. (2000): A large number of adults (1875) ranging in age from 21 to 84 were studied while consuming caffeine over long periods of time. Even after compensation for various medical and sociological factors, no effects on short-term memory were observed. The sheer amount of data gathered is one thing in favor of this study, as outliers would not have influenced the result. Herz (1999): A large number of subjects were studied while undergoing certain sessions containing cognitive tasks. No effects on memory were observed from caffeine usage. Warburton (1995): Low doses of caffeine were used on subjects over an extended period of time. There were non-negligible mood changes, but no effects on working memory. Note that this study focused in part on caffeine deprivation, rather than giving subjects additional caffeine.   Some studies showing positive effects of long-term caffeine use on memory:   Angelucci et al. (2002): A group of rats (not humans!) was studied, given caffeine injections at various points during training. They were then given the Morris water maze test. Some of the rats were able to better remember pervious sessions - as the authors put it,     These data provide evidence that caffeine improves memory retention but not memory acquisition, explaining some discrepancies among reports in the literature.  Beydoun et al. (2014): Caffeine and alcohol use and diet were studied simultaneously in a large group of subjects. The findings were mixed, although some evidence was found supporting the hypothesis that caffeine use can increase overall cognitive function in older adults.   Some studies showing negative effects of long-term caffeine use on memory:   Han et al. (2007): Subjects were studied over four weeks while using low doses of caffeine. A slight decrease in memory function was observed, caused in part by inhibition of part of the hippocampus.   I haven't shown the same amount of studies in all three categories - neutral, positive, and negative - and that's by design. There is a substantial amount of studies that found no significant effects, and that much more research would be needed to give strong evidence for long-term benefits. There is a decent amount of studies showing some positive long-term benefits, and almost none showing negative long-term benefits.  Therefore, I don't think it's safe to go in any of the three directions. However, it does seem like the effects of long-term caffeine use may be negligible.  Also, be careful to differentiate between long-term effects of caffeine on memory and the effects of caffeine on long-term memory! Studies often cover both, because studying subjects over only a few days won't tell you much about long-term memory (certainly not about acquisition, at least). However, they aren't the same thing.",
        "id": 294,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How exactly is whole-wheat flour healthier than white flour?",
        "body": "The bran (fiber) from whole-wheat flour slows down the movement of food from the stomach into the small intestine (gastric emptying), which results in slower glucose absorption. So, the glucose from whole-wheat flour (with fiber) is absorbed slower than the glucose from white flour (no fiber), which results in smaller blood glucose spikes after meals, which may be a preventative factor against diabetes type 2 (PubMed, 2018).  The fiber from whole-wheat bread can help maintain bowel regularity better than white bread. Whole-wheat bread also contains more minerals, such as potassium and magnesium (Foodmetrics.org) ",
        "id": 2599,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What effects does alcohol have on underage children?",
        "body": "Alcohol is a psychoactive drug that acts as a central nervous system depressant.  Drinking under-age increases alcohol risks in later life. Research shows the brain keeps developing well into the twenties, during which time it continues to establish important communication connections and further refines its function and studies show that young people who drink heavily may put themselves at risk for a range of potential health problems.  Extreme alcohol consumption can cause memory loss, loss of coordination and alcohol poisoning, in some cases can be fatal.  Health risks associated with drinking include:   brain effects,  Alcohol interferes with communication between nerve cells and all other cells limiting the ability to think clearly.  First alcohol affects the forebrain responsible for motor coordination and decision making. Secondly it knocks out the midbrain, so you lose control over emotions and you've more chances of black outs.    Image credits: The Immortal Alcoholic     Research has shown that animals fed alcohol during this critical developmental stage continue to show long-lasting impairment from alcohol as they age2002. Subtle changes in the brain may be difficult to detect but still have a significant impact on long-term thinking and memory skills.NIH  liver effects,  Every time you drink, your liver has to filter it out of your blood and a lot of alcohol over a short period of time (BAC) won't give enough time for the body to process it all.  In addition persons below the age of 25 and women may process alcohol more slowlywiki.     Elevated liver enzymes, indicating some degree of liver damage, have been found in some adolescents who drink alcohol2001.      Young drinkers who are overweight or obese showed elevated liver enzymes even with only moderate levels of drinking2000.  growth and endocrine effects,  Consuming alcohol largely affects the body's endocrine system resulting in changes of various hormone levels which can disrupt a normal growth.     Drinking alcohol during puberty period of rapid growth and development may upset the critical hormonal balance necessary for normal development of organs, muscles, and bones. Studies in animals also show that consuming alcohol during puberty adversely affects the maturation of the reproductive system2001.   See: Alcohol and cortisol at Wikipedia   Source: Underage Drinking at NIAAA",
        "id": 52,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Long term side effects of Xolair",
        "body": "Yes, there are many studies, too numerous to list. I'm unsure of what is meant by \"long term use\", since the drug is relatively new.  For ethical reasons, it is required that every author state if there is a potential conflict of interest (e.g. the study was funded by the manufacturer.) Just look at the beginning or the end of the paper, where it lists if there is a potential conflict of interest. Look under \"Author information\" and \"Grant support\" sections; some even list it under \"Disclosures\" or other similar names.",
        "id": 1915,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sleeping and talking and it's effect on vocal chords",
        "body": "It is possible. Voice Disorders are caused by many factors include vocal fatigue which can result from overuse or increases in vocal effort. Vocal effort is a messy thing to define, but it generally depends on subglottal pressure and vocal fold tension (as well as other factors). A change in posture can affect vocal effort and it is possible that it could lead to the onset of vocal fatigue faster.",
        "id": 2341,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why antacid for overeating?",
        "body": "In medicine, upset stomach, bloating, discomfort or pain in the belly as well as feeling full quickly when eating is often referred as functional dyspepsia (FD). Although functional dyspepsia can be present without overeating, FD can be precipitated by rapid eating and overeating.  Several studies have shown that delayed gastric emptying and gastric hypersensitivity to acid or distension are involved in the pathogenesis of functional dyspepsia.  What is the role of antacids in symptoms of FD or overeating?  The exact role of acids in gastric motility has still to be defined. Current evidence suggest that gastric protons lead to the release of mediators (from the upper small intestine), which activate neuronal systems involved in controlling gastric motility. Additionally, high concentrations of acid are associated with increased fundic tone and impaired sensation to distension of the fundus. It is therefore possible that antacids, in particular proton pomp inhibitors (PPI), may reduce postprandial symptoms by modulating the effect of protons (acids) on gastric motility.  Interestingly, in 2006, a pilot study conducted among 12 healthy volunteers, showed that the administration of a PPI (20 mg bid for 2 days) reduced postprandial symptoms 30 min after ingestion of a small test meal. Other studies have reported that H2RA (Histamine H2 Antagonist) reduce intragastric volume and therefore lead to a reduction in postprandial fullness.  Sources:   Grudell, A. (2006), Effect of a proton pump inhibitor on postprandial gastric volume, emptying and symptoms in healthy human subjects: a pilot study. Alimentary Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics, 24: 1037\u20131043. Upset stomach (functional dyspepsia) in adults (Beyond the Basics). (Uptodate.com) Miwa, H. (2012), Life style in persons with functional gastrointestinal disorders \u2013 large-scale internet survey of lifestyle in Japan. Neurogastroenterology &amp; Motility, 24: 464\u2013471. ",
        "id": 1046,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How a bite inside the mouth gets healed though mouth is always wet inside?",
        "body": "One reason the mouth heals quickly because it's very well vascularized (meaning it has a lot of blood vessels). Yes, the mouth does have a lot of bacteria, but so does the rest of you: humans contain 10x more bacterial cells than human cells, and a lot of those bacteria are extremely helpful to have around. Natural bacteria alone will not reduce healing. Infection with \"bad bacteria\" can reduce healing, but unless a person has poor oral hygiene, there is no reason to suspect they will have \"worse bacteria\" in their mouth compared to anywhere else on their body. Also, the tissues in the mouth have simple structure, meaning it is easy to rebuild them. For more information you can visit http://www.joseylanedentistry.com/3-reasons-why-your-mouth-heals-faster-than-other-parts-of-your-body/",
        "id": 1483,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Cause and solution for - pain on right side of nose after blowing nose",
        "body": "It sounds like as you say air is being forced under pressure into one of the paranasal sinuses and being trapped by a one way valve similar to pneumosinus dilatans. But in your case the valve breaks down and lets the air release.  Perhaps you shouldn't blow so hard, or try blowing one nostril at a time so that the pressure isn't so great.",
        "id": 893,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Contagiousness and Survival of the Chlamydia trachomatis Bacterium",
        "body": "For the case I'm talking about this is the current situation:   Eye lashes turning? No, the patient is in the scarring phase (TS in picture below).  How long did the patient have it for? Hard to say but probably 4/6 months, not years.  After one week under treatment with Azithromycin antibiotic and Erythromycin eye ointment the patient isn't getting worse but isn't getting better either.  The patient is negative to Chlamydia test   The patient's doctor (in the US) confirmed that:   The patient is contagious until the swelling goes away and no follicles have swelling in the eyelids. It can only be spread if the patient touches her eye and touches something and someone else touches it and it reaches his/her mucoses.  What is the worst possible scenario of the patient's vision loss? Or contact wearing?  The patient could have partial vision loss in her old age due to the scars ruining the surface of the eye. May not be able to wear contacts again. Will have to evaluate when the patient is healed. The scarring is permanent and may cause irritation using contacts.  How long does trachoma live on inanimate objects?  Not sure. Not enough research (PS. see update below). If children touch the patient (the patient likely got the disease from her students coming from countries at risk of Trachoma), she should just wash her hands immediately.  What can the patient do in the future to reduce chances of getting trachoma again?  Good hand washing.  Can the patient be around people?  Yes, the patient should avoid to hold babies or touch children and make sure not to touch her face without washing her hands.  Why is the patient getting headaches?  The patient strains her eyes during the day to see, because of the medication and inflammation.     Image source  UPDATE:  According to this source \"The life cycle of Chlamydia trachomatis is approximately 48\u201372 hours. It requires that the bacteria live within a host cell and that they survive by replication those results in death of the cell.\"  UPDATE 2: Received an answer from trachomacoalition@gmail.com:     Chlamydia trachomatis survives \u2248 30 minutes on a dry surface (e.g.   glass) and up to 2-3 hours under humid conditions.      Trachoma is contagious in the active, inflammatory phase   (TF/TI). ",
        "id": 1899,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Motor neuron diseases",
        "body": "   Paralytic polio      About 1 percent of polio cases can develop into paralytic polio. Paralytic polio leads to paralysis in the spinal cord (spinal polio),brainstem (bulbar polio), or both (bulbospinal polio).   https://www.healthline.com/health/poliomyelitis  Those infected that developed diaphragmatic paralysis were put into iron lungs  ",
        "id": 2209,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How exact do I need to be for Penicillin every 12 hours?",
        "body": "With most medications, the important thing is to simply be consistent and make it easy on yourself to remember to take them. An hour or two one way or the other isn't going to matter with most medications, and if something is sensitive enough that it does matter then your doctor should tell you that. In case s/he overlooks that part, you can and should ask the pharmacist who fills the prescription.",
        "id": 1494,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Excessive sweating of hands/feet: what is it, and how is it dealt with?",
        "body": "What you are describing is most likely hyperhidrosis, a disorder that causes excessive sweating. It  This sweating usually occurs on the underarms (axillary) or the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (palmoplantar).   There is also another type of classification for hyperhidrosis. Primary hyperhidrosis (more common) is excessive sweating not related to another medical condition or medication, while secondary hyperhidrosis is related to a medication or medical condition. Some other differences are that sweating from primary hyperhidrosis does not typically occur while sleeping and that primary hyperhidrosis onsets earlier than secondary hyperhidrosis.1 If you don't have another medical condition or take any medications that may cause the sweating, then the condition you most likely have is primary palmoplantar hyperhidrosis.  The cause of primary hyperhidrosis is mostly related to your genetics, rather than any external causes. Overactive sweat glands are the most common cause and hyperhidrosis is known to run in the family. What actually triggers the sweating to occur is much harder to pin down. Heat can be a trigger, as well as anxiety, but the sweating can occur randomly at nearly all times.  Besides sweating, there are some other possible side effects of hyperhidrosis. One study2 concluded that patients with hyperhidrosis were at an increased risk of skin infection. This can be dealt with by treating your hyperhidrosis, though.  Treating primary hyperhidrosis can be as easy as using prescription or even over-the-counter antipersperants. If those don't work, iontophoresis has been known to help, especially with palmoplantar hyperhidrosis, which would be especially useful in your case. In incredibly drastic circumstances, surgery is available as a last resort. This surgery would involve removing some of the sweat glands. The surgeries have been known to be safe and effective.3, 4    1: Clinical differentiation of primary from secondary hyperhidrosis.  2: Primary hyperhidrosis increases the risk of cutaneous infection: a case-control study of 387 patients.  3: Endoscopic transthoracic sympathectomy: an efficient and safe method for the treatment of hyperhidrosis.  4: Hyperhidrosis treated by thoracoscopic sympathicotomy.  MedlinePlus - Excessive sweating - overview  WebMD - Excessive Sweating (Hyperhidrosis)  Medscape - Hyperhidrosis",
        "id": 645,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Maximum dose of olanzapine",
        "body": "The manufacturer\u2019s prescribing information (a.k.a. package insert) provides recommended dosing based on safety and efficacy data obtained during the drug development and approval process. It indicates that 10 mg/day is a \u201cnormal\u201d target dose for most indications. A higher dose of 15 mg/day is appropriate in acute manic episodes. In the portion of the PI discussing safety data, it refers to the \u201cmaximum\u201d dose as 20 mg/day.   There have been reports of using up to 60 mg daily in cases of treatment-resistant schizophrenia, but this is rare and the data supporting it are weak.1   In the course of normal clinical practice, including care of many psychiatric patients on atypical antipsychotics, I have never seen doses above 20 mg daily used. It is rarely used in twice daily dosing due to the long half-life of ~30 hours (as described in the PI).    Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, et al, American Psychiatric Association, Steering Committee on Practice Guidelines. Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia, second edition. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161(2 Suppl):1-56.  ",
        "id": 299,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When is swallowing fish bones dangerous",
        "body": "Optimally, it passes into your stomach where it get dissolved by stomach acids. This is what happens in most cases.  Sub-optimally, it gets stuck in your throat and requires a doctor to remove it, surgically or otherwise.  Seriously sub-optimally, it get stuck in and pierces your throat, stomach, colon, or small intestine. This can lead to unpleasant things like pierced carotid artery or jugular vein, abscess at the point of puncture, pierced stomach or intestine with attendant infection, impaction, and various complications that need surgery to be fixed.  https://www.reference.com/health/happens-someone-swallows-fish-bones-cd9367cefae3d75b",
        "id": 713,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Baby aspirin interaction with other NSAIDs",
        "body": "   Is it right and safe to prescribe this combination (NSAID like   diclofenac + baby Aspirin) specially with the knowledge that this   combination gonna be used for a long time?   While NSAID are associated with many side effects (alteration in renal function, hypertension, hepatic function and platelet function), the most deleterious effects of aspirin and other NSAID are gastric and duodenal mucosa damages which are associated with a considerable morbidity and mortality 12. Recently, two distinct studies have shown that low dose aspirin did not show a statistically significant difference in terms of gastrointestinal bleeding risk compared to other NSAID 23. While I couldn\u2019t find a study providing evidence regarding the relationship between time-exposure to NSAID + ASA and the occurrence of adverse event, the co-administration of NSAID and low dose aspirin should be taken with caution. Moreover, even in patients not under aspirin, long term use of NSAID is not recommended (both for its lack of long term analgesic effect as well as potential cardiovascular and renal side effects)4.     What is the best nsaid choice for this situation and how should they   be taken (in different hour/ dosage adjustment)   Several strategies can be used. Here current recommendations 12:   using anti-inflammatory or analgesic drugs that have minimal effects on COX-1 at usual doses, such as acetaminophen (=paracetamol), or non-acetylated salicylates for very short term use of NSAID, prescribing either a potent inhibitor of gastric acid production such as a proton pump inhibitor or a prostaglandin E analog such as misoprostol together with the NSAID. as suggested by @M. Arrowsmith, opioids, in particular products combining paracetamol and opioid, are considered as alternatives in pain control in elderly patients 5   As a side note:  Several studies have shown that selective COX2 Inhibitors are associated with lower risk of GI bleeding compared to other NSAID (but not compared to plavebo) but most of these substances were removed from the market as numerous trials have reported increased risk of stroke and myocardial infarction 6  Regarding enteric coated and buffered aspirin: while some studies reported reduced endoscopic sign of gastrointestinal bleedings, no protection against clinically relevant end point of gastrointestinal bleeding were reported 7.  Finally, regarding what was suggested in a previous answer concerning rivaroxaban, this has to be taken with extreme caution in my opinion. In particular because, to my knowledge, no study so far has provided sufficient evidence regarding the use of rivaroxaban in the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Moreover, rivaroxaban is probably one of the DOAC which showed the most unconvincing results regarding major bleeding outcomes (as well as clinically relevant nonmajor bleeding) in the studies assessing its safety and efficacy in patients with non valvular atrial fibrillation 8.",
        "id": 1095,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many never leave the hospital?",
        "body": "I don't know where 720,000 comes from; I get 700,000 (50,000,000 x .014). But ignoring that....  Assuming the 1.4% number from the Lancet represents the US patient population, and assuming your 50-million figure is correct, then yes, it means 700K in-patient surgery patients in the US don't leave the hospital every year. But if the Lancet figure is for some other population (the UK or EU, for example) then it doesn't apply. It would probably still be a close estimate, but the numbers all need to come from the same population for them to be reliable.",
        "id": 1115,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are all kinds of liquor and alcohol equally bad for liver?",
        "body": "The only difference it makes to the liver how alcohol is consumed is how high the blood alcohol content becomes and for how long - the other particulars of the beverage will be filtered out by the digestion process. Beverages containing a higher alcohol content will tend to cause a higher peak blood alcohol content because they can be consumed more quickly than the same amount of alcohol in a larger volume, and the more concentrated alcohol will be absorbed from the stomach more quickly. The liver is limited in its capacity to process alcohol. Low blood concentrations of alcohol are efficiently converted into acetate and metabolized, but at high concentrations some of the alcohol is converted into toxic acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is thought to cause hangover symptoms and also contribute to liver cell death through oxidative stress (Min, JA; Lee, K; Ki, D. June 2010. The application of minerals in managing alcohol hangover: a preliminary review. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 3(2): 110-115). Replacement of these cells leads over time to enlargement of the liver, accumulation of scar tissue (cirrhosis) and cancer. So avoiding hangover by consuming alcohol in moderation may help avoid liver damage if alcohol is consumed. It is also very important to avoid consumption of acetaminophen with alcohol because processing the alcohol prevents the liver from properly eliminating the acetaminophen, which can cause severe liver damage.  Like the liver, the brain is also only concerned with the concentration of alcohol in the blood and how long it has been that way, in terms of how intoxication is experienced. It will take more alcohol as beer to produce the same level of intoxication as vodka because more of it will have had time to metabolize before the peak blood concentration is reached. The brain also becomes more tolerant to the effects of alcohol as time passes, so that the blood concentration has to be increased over time to maintain the same level of intoxication. So having more drinks to maintain the same experience will be harder on the liver than the initial drinks.",
        "id": 301,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take for iron supplements to start improving energy levels? Is it instant or gradual?",
        "body": "Ferritin levels of 21 ug/L are on the extreme lower edge of the normal range. You can think about iron stores as follows. A healthy person will have iron stores of a few grams. Since iron is present in every cell of the body, we lose iron via the loss of dead skin cells, mucus, sweat etc. etc. The iron in red blood cells is recycled when they die, so we don't lose that iron. But you can lose iron due to bleeding, e.g. intestinal bleeding can go unnoticed and only cause low iron levels. Women who get heavy menstrual bleeding can also end up with low iron levels.  The typical loss of iron in healthy persons is about 1 milligram per day, this means that we absorb about 1 milligram of iron from food. The typical diet contains 10 to 20 milligrams of iron, our bodies are capable of absorbing quite a bit more than the 1 milligram and will typically be able to do that when iron stores get low unless, of course, the cause of the iron deficiency is due to poor iron absorption or a poor diet.  Iron supplements prescribed by a doctor typically contain about 100 milligrams of iron. You'll be able to absorb anywhere between 20% and 50% of this, so it will take at least a month before you've put back 2 grams of iron into your body. Without such supplements, with a good diet this would take ten times longer, so at least a year or so (assuming that the dietary fix is actually going to do the job).  Since you are young person (you're not an old, frail, 90 year old) you have to consider the cause of the iron deficiency even if it isn't due to serious medical problems. If it's due to a poor diet (as opposed to heavy menstrual bleeding), then your diet must be so poor that it's likely affecting your health in other ways besides causing low iron levels. If you were 90 years old then it would be far more reasonable that a normal diet could fall short of the iron requirement. ",
        "id": 1728,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What effects would aspheric contact lenses have on eyes without astigmatism?",
        "body": "A toric lens is the type that is used to treat astigmatism, not an aspheric lens. An aspheric lens is primarily designed to correct for the spherical aberration of the contact lens itself, the spherical aberration of the combination of the cornea and lens of the eye, or both.   A toric lens is shaped like a slice of the side of a torus. It has a different index of refraction along its horizontal axis than it does along its vertical axis, with a smooth gradient of the refractive power in the quadrants between those axes. Astigmatism is the condition where the corneal surface, the lens of the eye, or both have the same kind of difference in refractive power along the horizontal and vertical axes of the eye. The toric lens's corrective axes must line up correctly with the astigmatic axes of the eye. A common method of accomplishing this is by making the lens heavier near one part of the edge so that the heavy edge self-rotates to the bottom.  An aspheric lens, on the other hand, has a gradually changing refractive index moving radially from the edge of the lens to the center. It will either be \"flatter\" or \"steeper\" than a purely spherical lens, but the refractive index is constant moving along any circumferential path at a constant radius from the center of the lens. The magnitude of the lens's deviation from being purely spherical is known as its spherical aberration. An aspheric corrective lens is used to correct for the inherent spherical aberration that a spherically-surfaced contact lens introduces, which is directly proportional to its sphere power, and ideally also the spherical aberration of the eye itself.    Simply by the properties of optics, the effect of using either of these types of lenses if one does not have the corresponding visual defect the lens was designed to correct would be to introduce some degree of distortion into one's vision. This could only negatively affect visual acuity, though how severely would depend on the particular lens's strength. I could not find any references as to whether there are any long-term harmful effects of intentionally distorting a person's vision or visual acuity since the subject of all the references I checked was trying to achieve the opposite effect. The only mechanism I can postulate that could potentially cause damage to the eye would be by the long-term eye strain induced by the intentional distortion of a person's vision.  Here are two helpful references I found in further elaborating the above information: http://www.clspectrum.com/issues/2005/march-2005/aspheric-contact-lenses-fact-and-fiction https://coopervision.com/about-contacts/toric-contact-lenses",
        "id": 1010,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What exactly does \"general practitioner\" mean?",
        "body": "Note: I can give you a breakdown of the CURRENT medical system in the US.  Naming and training used to be different some decades ago, when the term GP was more broadly applied, but I am less familiar with its history.  Also note that Nurse Practitioners and Physician Assistants are also often Primary Care Providers.  Their training, licensing, and ability to practice medicine independently differ; I am not including a description of that here.    A General Practitioner (GP) is a type of physician.  The term means slightly different things in different countries.  The term is used frequently in Europe and other regions to refer to a physician who practices in \"primary care\" medicine.   The process of medical training and licensing also differs between countries, so it is not really easy to make a direct comparison.  But the closest term in the USA to what a GP is in Europe would be a Primary Care Physician.  The comparison is complicated because in the USA, the term GP generally refers to a physician that has completed medical school and 1+ years of residency to obtain a medical license - but has not completed a residency or board certification in a specialty.  These GPs usually practice in primary care - but it is important to note that in the USA, most primary care physicians are actually board certified in a specialty like Family Medicine or Internal Medicine.  In the USA, medical training generally goes like this:   Bachelor's Degree (4 yrs) including science courses MD or DO Degree (4 yrs) Residency (3+ yrs) which is Post-Graduate training in a specialty after which you take an exam to be \"Board Certified\" in that specialty Some go on to do a Fellowship in a SUB-specialty, like Cardiology or Rheumatology (1+ yrs).  These also have individual Board Certifications.   Specialties include Family Medicine (all ages), Internal Medicine (adults), Pediatrics (kids), Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dermatology, Neurology, Radiology, General Surgery, Neurosurgery, etc - there are many.  Sub-specialties (fellowships) include Cardiology, Rheumatology, Endocrinology, etc.  Primary Care specialties by government funding definition include:   Family Medicine (all ages, sometimes including prenatal/delivery) (most common) Internal Medicine (adults only) (although most either go on to fellowships or work in inpatient hospital medicine) Pediatrics (kids only) (same as IM, many either go on to fellowships or work in inpatient hospital medicine) OB GYN  Psychiatry   (Note that since the scope of practice of OBGYN and Psychiatry are more narrowed in on certain aspects, they are not usually colloquially referred to as Primary Care, even if US govt funding qualifies them as such.)  The first year of all residencies are termed \"Intern Year.\"  For some specialties, you are required to complete a generic intern year of residency in a \"Transitional Year\" or \"Prelim Year\" program.  In all US states, you are required to complete at least 1 year of Post-Graduate training (PGY1) and pass the final level of your USMLE/COMLEX exams to get a Medical License.    It IS possible to either (1) just do that TY/prelim year or (2) quit residency after intern year (which is obviously frowned upon), pass the final \"step\" exam, obtain your medical license in a state that allows it, and go into practice.    In many countries, this is the level of training of a GP.  However, most of their training is geared towards that being the norm to practice as a GP, so it is not \"interrupted\" or \"incomplete.\" However, in the USA the norm is completing a residency, so this might be viewed as somewhat \"incomplete\" training.  Also, at least in the US, most clinical practices prefer to hire board certified physicians - OR GPs with at least 5-10 years of solid clinical experience.  Board certified physicians have 2+ more years of training and have proven themselves capable of passing a specialty-specific board certification.  But 5-10 years of experience also carries a lot of weight.  Therefore, the vast majority of Primary Care physicians in the USA have at least 3 years of Post-Graduate training in either Family Medicine, Internal Medicine, or Pediatrics.    There are plenty of primary care physicians with different training paths than the above who have been practicing for many years.  But for those who have graduated in the last couple decades, this is the typical situation.",
        "id": 2278,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the risks of vitiligo, and how should I keep myself safe?",
        "body": "There is no cure for vitiligo, but there are treatments that may reduce the discoloring in your skin and possibly  even restore skin color. The main treatments used by doctors are either restoring the skin to normal color, or bleaching the skin, so that all of the skin is an even color. They do these things in a number of ways, including topical treatments and some surgical treatments.1  There still might be some side-effects, though. Some people might suffer from psychological distress, but as you said, that doesn't affect you. There is also an increased risk for sunburn and even skin cancer when exposed to the sun. Vitiligo can also cause inflammation of the iris, causing you to have eye problems. There is also a chance of hearing problems. Lastly, as a side-effect of any treatments you might be receiving, you may get dry skin and feel itchy.2  To help prevent these side-effects (besides the last one) there are many things you can do other than getting treatments. The most important thing is to protect yourself from UV light. It is recommended that you use sunscreen with at least 30 SPF(Sun Protection Factor). Try to be in the shade whenever possible and wear clothing that will protect your skin from the sun (ie: long sleeve shirts, pants, hats, etc.). Covering up will help with most side-effects, especially the sunburn and the skin cancer, which you are a higher risk for than eye or hearing problems. Also, never get a tattoo. Getting a tattoo will cause more damage to your skin, which can make more patches of vitiligo to appear on your skin.3    [1] Vitiligo Treatments   [2] Mayo Clinic - Vitiligo Complications  [3] Mayo Clinic - Vitiligo Lifestyle and Home Remedies",
        "id": 39,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the interaction between alcohol and benzodiazepines additive or multiplicative?",
        "body": "The common saying that alcohol (ethyl alcohol in alcoholic beverages) and benzodiazepines shouldn't be consumed together is well-recommended considering that both compounds fall under the Central Nervous System (CNS) Depressant category. So they both augment (additive) the effect of depressing the CNS, which can lead to unconsciousness or even a coma. Also, both substances can be abused, which can lead to increasing (again, additive effect) damages in health (liver,kidney,mental state) and relationships.   In regards to your question of the synergistic/multiplicative effect, there have been pharmacological studies (See References for more information) studying the interactions between alcohol and psychiatric drugs (including benzodiazepines). Interestingly, the effect has some dependence on whether or not an individual is a chronic alcohol consumer.  From the paper:    So acute ethanol intake is correlated with decreased clearance of the benzodiazepine, which means it multiplies the effect by helping the benzodiazepine inhabit the body longer. The reverse effect can be seen for a chronic alcohol consumer.   A hint of the more detailed biochemical explanation: \"Highly bound drugs with low intrinsic hepatic clearance are among those most commonly reported to have their kinetics altered by ethanol (e.g. benzodiazepines, phenytoin, tolbutamide and warfarin).\"   Overall, great question!    TLDR:   Multiplicative: Yes (depends)   Additive: Yes    References:  Toxicology Paper on Drug Interactions: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2710.2003.00459.x/full  Quick Explanation of how Alcohol Effects Body: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_03/i_03_m/i_03_m_par/i_03_m_par_alcool.html  Quick Overview on CNS Depressants: http://alcoholrehab.com/drug-addiction/central-nervous-system-depressants/  In-depth Explanation on how Benzodiazepines Effect the Body: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3684331/",
        "id": 2122,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Food, recovered alcoholic and fallout",
        "body": "I am unaware of any medical study that indicates a drop of alcohol is sufficient to trigger a relapse on its own. Relapse is a complex phenomenon.  The quote you provide sounds like it comes from a \"12-step\" program or similar that considers alcohol as something that is incredibly powerful over addicts and must be completely avoided. This approach works for some but may not be necessary for everyone, and a proportion of people with an alcohol use disorder are able to eventually modify their behavior to drink moderately.  Cooking with alcoholic beverages does not actually remove all ethanol. That said, the amount consumed is unlikely to be sufficient to be detected if someone is unaware their food contains alcohol. Rather, any impact would be psychological. Someone sober who unknowingly ingests some food containing alcohol has not violated their sobriety in any meaningful way.  The most often described triggers for alcohol relapse (after initial withdrawal) involve situational or emotional triggers. Addictions to alcohol or other substances involve changes in brain circuitry that associate reward with those substances; these are similar to the networks involved in seeking food or other sorts of pleasure but are driven very strongly by drugs of abuse.  Situational triggers can include being in locations or with people that are associated with drinking: being in a bar, for example. Tasting a small quantity of alcohol could be indeed be a trigger for some people, but there is no reason to consider those small amounts to be any stronger as a cue than other situational cues. It is unlikely that any one event will trigger relapse on its own, rather, relapse is thought to involve combinations of factors that ultimately overwhelm coping strategies.  Urges to tempt or test sobriety are often associated with relapse, so if someone is tempted to 'cheat' their sobriety through seeking foods that contain alcohol or alcohol-related flavors they may be closer to relapse than someone who simply would prefer not to monitor whether food could contain some small non-intoxicating amount of ethanol.    Daley, D. C. (1987). Relapse prevention with substance abusers: Clinical issues and myths. Social Work, 32(2), 138-142.  Gr\u00fcsser, S. M., Wrase, J., Klein, S., Hermann, D., Smolka, M. N., Ruf, M., ... &amp; Heinz, A. (2004). Cue-induced activation of the striatum and medial prefrontal cortex is associated with subsequent relapse in abstinent alcoholics. Psychopharmacology, 175(3), 296-302.  Larimer, M. E., Palmer, R. S., &amp; Marlatt, G. A. (1999). Relapse prevention an overview of Marlatt's cognitive-behavioral model. Alcohol Research &amp; Health, 23(2), 151-151.  Marlatt, G. A. (1996). Taxonomy of high\u2010risk situations for alcohol relapse: evolution and development of a cognitive-behavioral model. Addiction, 91(12s1), 37-50.  Witkiewitz, K., Roos, C. R., Pearson, M. R., Hallgren, K. A., Maisto, S. A., Kirouac, M., ... &amp; Tonigan, J. S. (2016). How much is too much? Patterns of drinking during alcohol treatment and associations with post-treatment outcomes across three alcohol clinical trials. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, 78(1), 59-69.",
        "id": 2561,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any evidence that \"burning off tastebuds\" increases oral cancer risk?",
        "body": "I'll limit this to alcoholic mouthwash and capsaicin, the chief spiciness compound in chilis.  Alcoholic mouthwash  I am too much of a wuss to do spicy foods. However, when I read the \"burning off tastebuds\" in title of your question, what came to mind was the real reason why I use alcoholic mouthwash -- for that sensation that comes around after 30 seconds of swishing it around in your mouth. I wouldn't quite call it burning off your tastebuds, but it does feel like I've burned something.   In which case the use of alcoholic mouthwash is a risk factor for oral cancer. This interesting paper looked a genetic polymorphisms involved in alcohol metabolism as well:     Oral health, dental care and mouthwash associated with upper aerodigestive tract cancer risk in Europe: The ARCAGE study      Objective We aimed to assess the association of oral health (OH), dental care (DC) and mouthwash with upper-aerodigestive tract (UADT) cancer risk, and to examine the extent that enzymes involved in the metabolism of alcohol modify the effect of mouthwash.      Materials and methods The study included 1963 patients with incident cancer of the oral cavity, oropharynx, hypopharynx, larynx or esophagus and 1993 controls. Subjects were interviewed about their oral health and dental care behaviors (which were converted to scores of OH and DC respectively), as well as smoking, alcohol drinking, diet, occupations, medical conditions and socio-economic status. Blood samples were taken for genetic analyses. Mouthwash use was analyzed in relation to the presence of polymorphisms of alcohol-metabolizing genes known to be associated with UADT. Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95%-confidence intervals [CI] were estimated with multiple logistic regression models adjusting for multiple confounders.      Results Fully adjusted ORs of low versus high scores of DC and OH were 2.36[CI\u2005=\u20051.51\u20133.67] and 2.22[CI\u2005=\u20051.45\u20133.41], respectively, for all UADT sites combined. The OR for frequent use of mouthwash use (3 or more times/day) was 3.23[CI\u2005=\u20051.68\u20136.19]. The OR for the rare variant ADH7 (coding for fast ethanol metabolism) was lower in mouthwash-users (OR\u2005=\u20050.53[CI\u2005=\u20050.35\u20130.81]) as compared to never-users (OR\u2005=\u20050.97[CI\u2005=\u20050.73\u20131.29]) indicating effect modification (pheterogeneity\u2005=\u20050.065) while no relevant differences were observed between users and non-users for the variant alleles of ADH1B, ADH1C or ALDH2.      Conclusions Poor OH and DC seem to be independent risk factors for UADT because corresponding risk estimates remain substantially elevated after detailed adjustment for multiple confounders. Whether mouthwash use may entail some risk through the alcohol content in most formulations on the market remains to be fully clarified.   Capsaicin  There's quite a bit of research regarding anti-tumour properties with respect to other forms of cancer e.g. pancreatic cancer, but very little regarding possible risk in oral cancer.  There is an excerpt from A screening model for oral cancer using risk scores: development and validation that does state the following:     People who rated the spiciness of their diet as   six or more had higher odds (OR = 2.15) for devel-   oping oral cancer than those rating the spiciness as   \ufb01ve or less. This is a subjective measure, but it is an   easier method to collect information on the spici-   ness of food at a population level and in a hospital   setting. In India and other South Asian countries,   red chilli powder or red/green chillies are added   to increase the spiciness of food. These \ufb01ndings   support the results of other studies conducted in   India that showed red chillies in diet increases the   risk by two-three times for UADT cancers includ-   ing oral cancer (31). Similarly, a higher risk has   been observed for gall bladder (32), liver and gas-   tric cancers (33, 34) in other countries. Although   the association of spicy food with oral cancer could   be due to the carcinogenicity of capsaicin found in   chillies (35), it could be a marker for some underly-   ing dietary aspect in this population.    However, caution should be exercised when using some score on a questionnaire and attempting to correlate it with health outcomes. There is one study cited above that reports the following:     Role of diet in upper aerodigestive tract cancers      A case\u2010control interview study for assessing the role of dietary factors in selected cancers was undertaken in a hospital. Male patients from one community, with cancers of the oral cavity (n = 278), pharynx (n = 225), esophagus (n = 236), and larynx (n = 80) formed the case group. Patients diagnosedas not having cancer (n = 215) formed one control group, and a comparable sample of individuals from the general population (n = 177) formed another control group. All risks were adjusted for subjects\u2019 ages and habits of chewing and/or smoking tobacco, which are the two most important risk factors for cancers at these sites.      A protective effect was observed with the intake of vegetables (twofold risk in nondaily vs. daily consumers) and fish (two\u2010 to threefold risk in those who did not eat at least once a week vs. those who did), and to a certain extent with pulses and buttermilk, in comparison with either one or both control groups. Intake of vegetables and fish were also observed to be risk modifiers for those who chewed and/or smoked tobacco. Lower levels of fat consumption was associated with elevated risk levels.      The use of red chili powder emerged as a risk factor for all sites (two\u2010 to threefold risk with a dose\u2010response relationship) compared with population controls. Tea drinking was also observed to be a risk factor for esophageal cancers, and to a lesser extent, for pharyngeal cancers.   Unfortunately, it was published in 1986 and there doesn't seem to be any more literature on the topic.   But we might presume, sure, it's biologically plausible and there is some evidence that capsaicin increases the risk of oral cancer, while possibly reducing the risk of other cancers.",
        "id": 1306,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Salt as a treatment to gum inflammation",
        "body": "You should thank your wife 1 million times for the cure that she suggested for you.  The fact that the pain has gone, is probably related to the type of bacteria that caused the inflammation. Common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), and there are some types of bacteria that cannot tolerate high concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) (These bacteria are called : Non-halophilic bacteria), hence, salt is the perfect way to get rid of non-halophilic bacteria. In addition, I've been using salt-washing everytime I have toothache, and this works for me.     And my answer is YES, salt-washing is a good cure for gum   inflammation.   These articles dealing with such pain (Gum pain, toothache..) remedies, include SALT as a remedy :     1/ Treat Gum Disease With Homemade Remedies      2/ How to Reduce Pain of Gum Disease ",
        "id": 365,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do broken ribs not lead to more complications?",
        "body": "Ribs have an important role to play: they protect the internal organs of the chest from injury. They wouldn't be very good at it if something as minor as a break was likely to allow a rib to poke and puncture things.  The ribs act as a unit (they all move at the same time) and they offer a lot of protection to the heart, lungs, etc., because they are attached to each other and the muscles around them.  You say:     With a broken rib there is no practical way to immobilize it... This means that it could poke your lungs causing you to have a collapsed lung. It could also poke your heart... [etc.]    Look at the diagrams below, and imagine a fractured rib. A broken rib is not wild canon likely to do any of the above.  Note carefully the amazing amounts of connective tissues (fascia, muscles, tendons, and ligaments) that attach to the \"rib cage\", stabilizing it.    The ribs are stabilized externally by groups of muscle. These attach to tough fascia surrounding the ribs. Between the ribs are three separate groups of muscles running in three different directions (diagonally back to front; vertically top to bottom, and diagonally front to back) attaching securely each (section of each) rib to the one above and below it. Finally they are attached to the spine and the breastbone.    This is why rib fractures heal without splinting. The ribs aren't going anywhere; they basically stay put even when they are fractured.   The vast majority of rib fractures are non-displaced, followed by minimally displaced ribs. These heal in place (even with continued movement and activity) through the usual process of callus formation, because there's nowhere for the ribs to go. Eventually the callus becomes big enough to contain both fractured ends of the rib and reunion takes place.  Rib fractures might cause pheumothorax or hemothorax if the rib is struck with great and narrowly focused force: the end of a baseball bat swung full force, or being thrown (rarely simply falling) against an immovable projecting object. Even then, in most cases the rib is not repaired; if it is projecting into the pleural space, it is manipulated to be less so, and kept under observation until healed or no longer a danger.  Under certain circumstances, rib fractures must be surgically repaired; this is when enough multiple adjacent ribs are fractured at multiple places so that that a significant segment of the rib cage no longer functions as the rest of it does; this is called a flail chest. Since respiration is compromised, this has to be repaired.  One or two fractured ribs are rarely a cause for concern (as opposed to what caused them). Multiple rib fractures, especially adjacent, indicate greater level of trauma and must be treated differently because of underlying injury or the high risk of developing pneumonia or other complications:     The greater the number of fractured ribs, the higher the mortality and morbidity rates. Patients with isolated rib fractures should be hospitalized if the number of fractured ribs is three or more. We also advocate that elderly patients with six or more fractured ribs should be treated in intensive care units due to high morbidity and mortality.    Rib Fracture Repair: Indications, Technical Issues, and Future Directions A comprehensive analysis of traumatic rib fractures: morbidity, mortality and management",
        "id": 681,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would a regular ultrasound be able to differnciate a benign ovarian cyst from an ovarian tumor? Or is a Transvaginal ultrasound needed?",
        "body": "Your question contains several parts.     How is the process of the transvaginal ultrasound different than just   a regular ultrasound? I imagine it's inserted into the vagina? Is it   quite painful?   What you call a \"regular\" ultrasound is known in medical practice as an transabdominal ultrasound. It is a very common procedure, which, depending on the countries, may be done by physicians, nurses or radiology assistants. A transvaginal ultrasound consists of an ultrasound probe inserted (after ultrasound gel is applied on it) into the vaginal cavity. Patients undergoing this procedure describe it as non painful. It is the same sensation as when a speculum is inserted in the vagina to do a pap smear.     Would a regular ultrasound ordered by an OBGYN be able to   detect/differentiate typical benign ovarian cysts from an ovarian   tumor? Are there images that can show the different appearance of an ovarian cyst from an ovarian tumor?   Adnexal masses can be classified as:   Benign ovarian (polycystic ovaries, teratomas, functional cysts,...) Benign non-ovarian (paratubal cyst, hydrosalpinges,...) Primary malignant ovarian (carcinoma,...) Secondary malignant ovarian (ie metastasis)   The International Ovarian Tumor Analysis (IOTA) group has described 6 essential patterns which help differentiating benign masses (ie for example ovarian cysts in PCOS) or malignant masses using an ultrasound:   Is the cyst unilocular, multilocular, unilocular solid,...? How is the cystic content? Is it anechoic, haemorrhagic, mixed,...? Any wall irregularities? How is the vascularisation? Are there any shadows behind the lesions? Is there liquid in the peritoneal cavity (=ascites)?   Using these criteria might help differentiating benign masses with malignant masses. Here some examples:    Additionally, the IOTA group has even described some features and rules which should orient towards a benign or malignant cause:      If doubt persist, some indications in the personal history or other clinical examination (+/- biomarkers) might help providing additional evidence in favor of a benign or malignant cause. Finally, confirmation can only be done through histology.  Though, the IOTA rules are good performers in predicting the malignancy risk of ovarian masses as suggested by this large systematic review:  Kaijser et al. Presurgical diagnosis of adnexal tumours using mathematical models and scoring systems: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update (May/June 2014) 20 (3): 449-462. doi: 10.1093/humupd/dmt059     Is a transvaginal ultrasound needed in that case?   The IOTA rules are based on transvaginal ultrasound. Here also a summary of the recommendations from the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists regarding management of suspected ovarian masses in premenopausal women:     A pelvic ultrasound is the single most effective way of evaluating an   ovarian mass with transvaginal ultrasonography being preferable due to   its increased sensitivity over transabdominal ultrasound.   Additional information can be found here regarding ultrasound features of ovarian masses (open access): https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4277251/  Sources: - for the images and features description: https://www.bmus.org/static/uploads/resources/IOTA_Simple_Rules_-_Susanne_Johnson.pdf",
        "id": 1285,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there something like prosopagnosia (face blindness) for things that are not faces?",
        "body": "Agnosia refers to difficulty processing some type of sensory information. Prosopagnosia is just the particular one related to faces, there are many other agnosias caused mainly by brain injury to some specific part of neocortex. There are also aphasias which are difficulties specifically related to speech, or apraxia which is a specific deficit with regards to motor planning.  All of these conditions can be fairly specific (i.e., other functions are spared/normal), although because they are associated with brain injury they can also come together with more general cognitive or sensory deficits, because very specific lesions are not that common in a real world setting.  Note also that the term \"prosopagnosia\" is only related to the difficulty with faces; \"map memory\" difficulties are not related to prosopagnosia directly, but it is not unusual that someone has injury or damage to more than one brain region.",
        "id": 2669,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What to do about throat ulcers?",
        "body": "Although no one can diagnose your problem over the internet, this is not uncommon in a number of viral infections, for one example, Herpes Simplex virus (HSV.)  Usually people are exposed to HSV - the virus that causes cold sores - as children; in that case, little ulcers in the mouth and on the skin around the mouth are common.  In adults exposed to HSV for the first time, the throat is more commonly affected, but lesions can be anywhere. It is interesting that you mention chicken pox-like lesions on your face, because chicken pox is also caused by a virus in the same family, Herpes Varicella virus. Your doctor might do cultures for HSV - which will ultimately go away - and at least you will have an answer. At this point, anti-virals would be ineffective.  Another virus - also in the Herpesvirus family - which causes prolonged throat ulcers/lesions is the virus that caused Infectious Mononucleosis (in this case the virus is called Epstein-Barr virus. Facial lesions are not part of this illness however. Again, a blood test can be done to determine if this is the cause.  Finally, this is also consistent with \"Herpangina\" which is caused by a number of viruses including but not limited to the herpesvirus family.  No one can tell you what to do without knowing the root cause of the problem and your personal medical history. But your doctor should be able to give you a pain medication compatible with your personal medical condition.  Edited to add: I realized that in my diagnostic frame of mind, I didn't really answer your question. I guess I was trying to reassure you that this, too, shall pass soon enough, and no further treatment would necessarily help. However, to answer your question:  Always check with your doctor before following any advice derived from the internet.  The following assumes no allergies, that you are a youngish adult in excellent health generally.   Maalox and Benadryl does help temporarily. Alternatives are lidocaine to gargle and spit, or Cepacol (can be sprayed or can be slowly released in lozenge form). Do not use in combination or in excess. These medications are meant to give you enough relief to eat and stay hydrated.  Gargling with cool water or warm salt water (1 tsp salt in 2 cups warm water) may help, as might eating cold foods. But these things will be temporary, and as long as there is deeper tissue inflammation, it will still hurt to swallow.   You will probably get more significant relief with  a systemic medication, like acetaminophen or ibuprofen, For some, acetaminophen works better, for others, ibuprophen. Recently some doctors have recommend that you can take acetaminophen and ibuprofen at the same time because this has been shown to be as more effective at pain relief than either one alone. However, any drug should be taken only when the benefit outweighs the risk, and that applies much more so with combination drugs. All the usual precautions apply as well.   Note that some drugs are best avoided in some illnesses. Ask your doctor. That's why she's there.  Acute herpetic pharyngotonsillitis Infectious Mononucleosis Clinical Presentation Combining Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) with Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs: A Qualitative Systematic Review of Analgesic Efficacy for Acute Postoperative Pain",
        "id": 576,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the difference between \u201ccomorbidity\u201d and \u201cmultimorbidity\u201d?",
        "body": "Comorbidity describes the presence of one or more conditions beside another condition of interest. It can also refer to each of these accompanying conditions. For example:    Comorbidity (or comorbidities) of x usually include(s) y and z. In a study of patients with type 2 diabetes (the main in the study), common comorbidities may include obesity, hypertension, coronary artery disease, among others.   Multimorbidity, refers merely to coexistence of multiple (>=2) conditions, without specifying a main condition of interest. For example:   A patient with multi-morbidity has the conditions x, y, and z at the same time. A patient with coronary artery disease, obesity and hypertension is a patient with multimorbidity. S/he is likely to be on polypharmacy (taking multiple medications for those coexisting conditions). ",
        "id": 2525,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to keep my brain active and alert in natural always",
        "body": "For activity you need energy, try eating foods that contain polysaccharides. That's what  athletes eat before triathlon.  Reference : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate  Monosaccharides help for short time energy boost although they can turn into fats if not used. ",
        "id": 1666,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are stomach noises (without additional symptoms) a cause for worry?",
        "body": "Stomach rumbles, or to give them their proper name of boborygmus, are the movement of gas and fluid in the intestines. This is a normal thing. Most of the time they are not loud enough to be audible, but they can occasionally be heard without the aid of a stethoscope.   It can also occur with incomplete digestion causing excess gas, excess swallowing of air, or when your stomach is empty and you are hungry.  There are a few diseases that can cause rumbles, such as persistent diarrhea, celiac disease, Crohn's disease. I would not worry overmuch over the occasional noise, but if there seems to be a lot of it, and possibly accompanied by other symptoms such as excess flatulence, diarrhea, pain, I would have it checked out by a medical professional.",
        "id": 416,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Resistance of Bacteria to Antibiotics after fall-back",
        "body": "First of all, nothing is immune to anything, just resistant, and resisitance itself varies. If you develop a bacterial or viral disease, your body will develop antibodies against it. This makes you resistant to the bacteria or virus, but not immune. If you are exposed to a sufficient quantity of that same agent, you will develop the disease again. This is true for antibiotic-resistance, as well.So...when you take antibiotics for some bacterial disease, some small percentage of those bacteria may be naturally resistant to the bacterium simply because of genetic mutation, may have developed strategies that allow it to mutate in response to environmental stimuli, or have borrowed it from cross-breeding1. When you start taking the antibiotic, it kills off the non-resistant bacterial population first, which is generally the vast majority if it. Normally, you are prescribed a sufficient amount of antibiotic to kill off the whole bacterial population. The problem arises when people stop the antibiotic regimen because they're feeling fine and see no reason for taking the remaining prescription. This leaves behind the resistant bacteria. And if your immune system doesn't take care of the rest, you will redevelop the disease, and it will then be resistant the that antibiotic. Not only that, but you will then spread that antibiotic-resistant bacteria to others.Depending on the strength of the bacteria's resistance the disease may nor may not need to be treated with a different antibiotic, but most likely it will. If treated with the same antibiotic, the dosage and/or duration will need to be increased.Here's a decent article.Note: by mentioning viruses I do not mean to imply that antibiotics may be used to treat viral infections. Also, I omitted bacterial resistance developed by other means (e.g. farm animals, food sources) because it seemed beyond the OP's question.",
        "id": 1791,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will an increased dosage of Quetiapine increase somnolence?",
        "body": "Seroquel (quetiapine) is quite well known to cause perhaps the most sedation among all the drugs in the 'atypical antipsychotic' class of medication due to its strong histamine and alpha receptor antagonism.  In fact, although there is much controversy surrounding this, Seroquel is being prescribed more often as an 'off-label' treatment for insomnia due to the strong sedative effects of the drug. This is somewhat controversial due to the wide ranging effects of the drug and a possible alteration to REM sleep.  It certainly stands to reason that higher doses of a drug causes more side effects. This is generally termed 'dose-related' or 'dose-dependent' side effects.  Published information for quetiapine does reveal that somnolence is most likely dose-related, but it's not all that significant.  In a clinical trial for the drug for the treatment of schizophrenia in children aged 13-17, the prescribing information for Seroquel states:     Adverse events that were potentially dose-related with higher frequency in the 600 mg group compared to the 400 mg   group included somnolence (50% vs. 57%), nausea (6% vs. 10%) and tachycardia (6% vs. 9%).    Additionally, the prescribing information for Seroquel XR has the following chart:    So, it certainly does seem that higher doses of Seroquel do cause a higher incidence of somnolence, but it doesn't appear to be a huge difference between doses.",
        "id": 293,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "With orthotics, is there any objective way to know if your feet are being held in the right position?",
        "body": "I am not aware of any tests you can do, other than subjectively analyzing your gait for stability, joint pressure, and pain.  But I can guide you to your options.  The 3 primary medical professionals who deal with orthotics are    Orthotics departments associated with orthotists/physiatrists (MD or DO physician with specialties in musculoskeletal conditions) Podiatrists (a different type of doctor than any specialty of MD or DO) Physical therapists (usually not the ones prescribing but may make recommendations)   For what it's worth, I got mine via the orthotics department of a hospital system that's associated with an MD physiatrist office.",
        "id": 1852,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Tourrettes considered a condition requiring medication?",
        "body": "The severity of Tourette's varies from person to person and can range from mild, requiring no treatment, to severe, requiring medication and/or behavioral therapy. The tics that are the hallmark of Tourette's also change over time in frequency, type, and severity, so it is possible that someone with Tourette's might need medication at some times and not others. In fact, changes in the tics is a required component of a Tourette's diagnosis. For severe tics, there is also deep brain stimulation (DBS), which involves implanting a device in the brain to deliver targeted electrical stimulation to movement centers. However, DBS is still in early experimental stages so its safety and effectiveness aren't known at this time.  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tourette-syndrome/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350470",
        "id": 2435,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why medicine modelling is distributed on regular person's computers?",
        "body": "I don't know how readily available supercomputers are to researchers and universities but I would imagine that a big part of the answer to your question would be down to cost.  Supercomputers vs Distributed Computing Projects  Computer performance is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second), and in June 2018,\u00a0Summit, an IBM-built supercomputer now running at the Department of Energy\u2019s (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), captured the number one spot for the fastest computer performance at\u00a0122.3 petaFLOPS on the LINPACK benchmark where peta is 1015.  When compared to the home PCs, the fastest possible home PC processor at a cost of $2,000 provides approx. 1 teraFLOPS where tera is 1012.  For distributed computing projects, let's look at Folding@home.     The project uses the\u00a0idle processing resources\u00a0of thousands of\u00a0personal computers\u00a0owned by volunteers who have installed the software on their systems. Its main purpose is to determine the mechanisms of protein folding, which is the process by which\u00a0proteins\u00a0reach their\u00a0final three-dimensional structure, and to examine the causes of\u00a0protein misfolding. This is of significant academic interest with major implications for\u00a0medical research\u00a0into\u00a0Alzheimer's disease,\u00a0Huntington's disease, and many forms of\u00a0cancer, among other diseases. To a lesser extent, Folding@home also tries to\u00a0predict\u00a0a protein's\u00a0final structureand determine how other molecules may\u00a0interact\u00a0with it, which has applications in drug design. Folding@home is developed and operated by the Pande Laboratory at\u00a0Stanford University      [...]      Since its launch on October\u00a01, 2000, the Pande Lab has produced 200\u00a0scientific research papers\u00a0as a direct result of Folding@home [see https://foldingathome.org/papers-results]   Stats provided by Folding@home at https://stats.foldingathome.org/os state that their project provides a total performance of 47,344 Native teraFLOPS or 98,747 x86 teraFLOPS.    Note that these teraFLOPS values are from the software cores, not the peak values from CPU/GPU specs and these figures only just beat the performance of China's\u00a0Sunway TaihuLight in 2016 which was ranked the world's fastest with 93 petaFLOPS on the LINPACK benchmark (now the 2nd fastest supercomputer).  Cost  IBMs Summit Supercomputer cost $200 million to build and according to Wikipedia, the Sunway TaihuLight cost $273 million.  When you consider the computing performance provided by Folding@home is provided by volunteers (so the system is free), it is a no brainer that the computing power on offer should not be turned away.",
        "id": 2514,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does stress cause the frequent urge to urinate?",
        "body": "Stress and Urination  In some people stress can cause an increase in urination. The form of stress may be physical or emotional. Since the control of aldosterone is partly under the influence of the brain, any type of nervous stimulus or mental stress can affect its secretion.   When an individual has physical stress, there is increased release of the stress hormones, such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, glucagon and cortisol, all of which can affect urination.     Catecholamines - Direct and Indirect Renal Effects  Two of these \"fight or flight hormones\" - epinephrine and norepinephrine have direct and indirect effects on urine production. When these hormones act directly on the kidneys and the mean arterial pressure (MAP) remains constant.   The result is a decrease in urinary output.  Conversely, the indirect effects of these hormones increase MAP, resulting in increased urine output.     Aldosterone  It\u2019s role is to regulate blood pressure and sodium levels.  Water, sodium and aldosterone levels are all directly related.  When your body\u2019s aldosterone levels are high \u2013 so are your levels of sodium and water.  thus less is secreted. This reverse of this process also holds true.  Since the control of aldosterone is partly under the influence of the brain, any type of nervous stimulus can affect its secretion.     Cortisol and ADH  Under chronic stress this works slightly differently. First cortisol levels will increase.  This leads to decreased levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which results in increased urination. As stress levels remain high cortisol levels eventually drop. Your adrenal gland becomes unable to produce sufficient levels of aldosterone \u2013 which once again causes an increase in urination.     Sources https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/11116129/ http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/content/192/1/131 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3190050/",
        "id": 682,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there scientific evidence to support the need to eat every 3-4 hours?",
        "body": "It depends for which aspect of human health it should be \"best\". From nutritional perspective see this quote from When to eat and how often? in American Journal for Clinical Nutrition:     The effect of the timing of food intake on metabolism has been the subject of active investigation for >40 y. Indeed, whether it is \u201cbetter\u201d to eat many small meals a day is one of the questions most frequently posed by the lay public. Comparing the potential benefits of nibbling and of gorging has been the focus of much animal and human research, but no clear consensus has emerged (1-7). Simply put, the question of whether there is a health benefit from the consumption of multiple small meals will ultimately depend on how much energy is consumed, as opposed to how often or how regularly one eats.   Many interesting things about body weight, body composition, blood markers or metabolism can be found in that article from International Society of Sports Nutrition but its overall conclusion seems to be that:      (...) research to date examining the physiological effects of meal frequency in humans is somewhat limited. (...) Until more research is available in the physically active and athletic populations, definitive conclusions cannot be made.   But you may ask about another aspects of human health: tooth decay, insulin secretion, glucose level etc. Unfortunately, it seems that for every of this aspects you have to search scientific databases independently. This is complex matter and there may not be general answer. Also, there may be strengths and weaknesses to many different meal frequencies wihout any ideally good one.",
        "id": 1161,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does removal of the testicles affect life expectancy?",
        "body": "To answer this question properly is going to need a prospect double blinded controlled trial.  That is not going to happen in a normal world.  You can try looking at historical data, like the one referred to in this Huff Post article but that type of restrospective data is highly flawed.       their average non-eunuch contemporaries, who tended to live between 50.9 and 55.6 years.   So, the intact men were living short lives, much shorter than contemporary men suggesting that there was something in that ancient era that affected their health then.  But what's the relevance to modern society?",
        "id": 2416,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can metabolism raising help us become thinner?",
        "body": "Basal metabolic rate is essentially energy expenditure at rest, whereas metabolism is a general term for net anabolism and catabolism - however, often metabolism is used to refer to basal metabolism + activity energy expenditure.   There are lots of unsubstantiated product claims (i.e. scams) for weight loss. I have not found evidence for herbal teas raising metabolic rate either reliably or safely.  There is no medication that can be prescribed safely to raise metabolism either, unless there is an underlying deficit in certain hormones that need to be corrected, which would be determined via testing if symptoms suggest that.    The best known way to raise resting metabolic rate is to increase lean body mass.  This article discusses the association between low BMR and low muscle mass.",
        "id": 2449,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I Easily Gets Motion Sickness/Nausea/Vomit when riding a bus",
        "body": "Some ways which are said to decrease motion sickness include:   Try having ginger candies or ginger tea ginger If possible   stare at the horizon or anything that doesn't move(stationary). American academy regarding motion Don't see any sort of digital things or avoid reading books... Regarding books and nausea  Try chewing gums or  crackers which decrease your nausea by chewingPubmed regarding chewing Try inhaling  peppermint smell(if possible isopropyl alcohol similar to sanitizer smell...) Isopropyl but no evidence for peppermint Try getting a comfortable positions where you can stretch your legs Try taking in some fresh air   Foods that prevent nausea. Pubmed regarding ginger. ",
        "id": 1519,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Getting red spot after 3 days of Tb Skin test",
        "body": "First, tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium, not by a virus.  There are a number of different skin tests used for tuberculosis.  The common ones are the Mantoux test, the tine test, and the no-longer-used Heaf test.  All three of them indicate potential tuberculosis infection by measuring the presence and/or size of the firm raised area at the injection site after a certain amount of time; the NHS's instructions for administering the Mantoux test specifically call out itching of the injection site as normal, and state that any redness should be ignored when judging the results.",
        "id": 1798,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Increase in acne during weight loss. Is it normal?",
        "body": "Well unfortunately, without a lot more detail on the changes you've made to your diet and how you go about your exercise, it is impossible to exactly pin-point where the problem is, but here are some facts and pointers to help you out.  There are three main factors here:   Hormone levels Diet changes How you exercise   Hormone Levels  Normally, training alone doesn't cause significant increases in testosterone for there to be an effect on skin / acne, but if you are taking any supplements for this (like testosterone boosters), or happen to be going through puberty, then you may want to look into this with a doctor / dermatologist.   Diet Changes  There are a lot of foods that you may have implemented in your new diet that can be causing acne. Dairy, for example, has had plenty of studies going back and forth as to the effects it has on acne, with a nice amount claiming certain amounts of dairy can cause it.   For more information on dietary causes, please read this article full of information and advice. It will help you spot any new foods you may have introduced into your diet.  How you Exercise  Just like the dairy studies, plenty of people have gone back and forth with studies and evidence on sweating clogging up your pores.   The main principle behind this is that as you sweat, the sweat brings dirt and oils from the surface of your skin into your pores for them to get clogged.   This article gives more information on how sweat affects acne.  And from personal experience, sweating caused me to develop some acne when I started training, so if this is the cause of your acne, you need to look at a few things:   How soon after your exercise do you shower? Leaving the sweat on your face for a prolonged amount of time isn't recommended, and you should wash your face as soon as you finish. On the counter-side of this, do not wash your face too often, as dry skin can also give you skin issues / acne.  While exercising, make sure you are using a clean towel free of dirt to dry your face. Do not reuse towels before washing them between workouts. The dirt and oil left on a towel can be detrimental in preventing acne developing when you sweat.  When showering, try using an exfoliating face wash that will assist you in properly deep cleaning your pores after a workout. Any product you use should be tested first, and used sparingly.    For more info on face washing, please check out this page for good tips on how to, and also for further tips on products.  So in Conclusion:   Your acne can be caused by a plethora of changes you can be making to your body through hormones, diet, and exercise. But pinpointing the issue from the tips above and reading the cited material will help you make the changes needed to prevent it and finding the cause. ",
        "id": 188,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the relation between the sensation of being full and the ability to fall asleep?",
        "body": "   ...I don't think this is the same as the effect you get on thanksgiving.   Actually, it probably is, and soon some people will be able to get that same sleep-inducing effect in the form of a pill.  Your sleepiness after a meal is caused by the presence or absence decrease of peptides in your brain called orexins (aka hypocretins).  In 1998, two groups of researchers simultaneously discovered 2 small neuropeptide hormones that regulate, among other things, wakefulness and feeding behavior.   One group discovered them while searching for molecules that could bind to \"orphan\" receptors, that is, a brain receptor with an unknown \"binding\" molecule (called a ligand). They found that the prohormone prepro-orexin was found in a very small area of the hypothalamus which had been implicated in the regulation of feeding behavior and energy homeostasis; this suggested the possibility that the neuropeptides might be involved in the regulation of food intake. When administered into free-feeding rats' brains, one of these peptides (orexin A/hypocretin 1) stimulated food consumption in a dose-dependent manner (with attention to light and dark periods, i.e. the circadian rhythm), with a lower dose increasing rat feeding about 2-fold, and the higher dose inducing a 3+-fold increase in feeding compared to rats injected with a solution without the peptide (the other stimulated feeding to a lesser degree). The effect persisted for 4 hours. Furthermore, fasting rats produced more than twice as much orexins as rats feeding freely. For this reason, the molecules were names \"orexins\", after the Greek word orexis, which means \"appetite\". They speculated that the orexin-secreting neurons might somehow be modulated by glucose.  At the same time, another group of researchers using a completely different approach found that the same group of hypothalamic neurons were stimulated by a peptide hormone similar in composition to the gut hormone secretin. They identified the same prohormone and its two peptides, naming them hypocretins for \"hypothalamus\" and \"secretin\". They found that at least one of the peptides had a neuroexcitatory activity in specific areas of the brain (they mapped effects in the hypothalamic neurons, the posterior hypothalamus, the septal nuclei in the basal forebrain, the preoptic area, the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus, the central gray, the locus coeruleus, the colliculi, the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, and the nucleus of the solitary tract) suggesting that the peptides acted within the central nervous system as homeostatic regulators with a role in nutritional homeostasis.  Scientists have not decided on whether to call them orexins or hypocretins yet, so both are used. They are found in all vertebrates.    Mammalian orexin A sequences thus far identified (human, rat, mouse, pig, dog, sheep, and cow) are all identical, whereas the sequences of orexin B show some differences among species. From Orexin/Hypocretin: A Neuropeptide at the Interface of Sleep, Energy Homeostasis, and Reward System, Natsuko Tsujino and Takeshi Sakurai   In 1999, a group of scientists found that narcolepsy (a sleep disorder characterized by extreme daytime sleepiness) was caused by a lack of a hypocretin/orexin receptor 2 gene in certain dogs, therefore establishing that they play a very important part in the regulation of wakefulness.*  Since then, an enormous body of work has shown that orexins/hypocretins (O/H from here on in) are involved in the regulation of a wide range of behaviors, including wakefulness and vigilance (needed to find food), systems that regulate emotion and reward (including drug-seeking behavior when stressed and eating for pleasure - \"consumption beyond homeostatic needs\" - leading to obesity), and more.**  What does eating have to do with sleepiness?  Several studies report that the firing rates of O/H neurons are influenced by serum glucose, triglycerides and amino acids.   In English, and in your case: You are awake (O/H is being secreted by O/H neurons in your hypothalamus). You eat. Your serum glucose rises. The elevated glucose causes depolarization of inhibitory neurons that hyperpolarize O/H neurons decreasing the amount of O/H. released. Result: wakefulness decreases. (You can barely make it to your bed, in your case!)  What about Thanksgiving in a pill?  The US Food and Drug Administration recently approved suvorexant (Belsomra) for the treatment of chronic insomnia. The (prescription only) drug is an orexin receptor antagonist and is the first approved drug of this type. It blocks the effect of orexin in wakefulness (isn't science grand?) Unlike benzodiazepines and other hypnotics, rather than promoting sleep, suvorexant inactivates wakefulness, and rebound insomnia and withdrawal effects were not observed when suvorexant was discontinued after 3 months or 12 months of nightly use. It does have risks and side effects, but so far its safety profile looks pretty good.  Comparing these two papers - the first and second references - is a wonderful example of the completely different methods used by scientists to investigate unknowns and up with the same basic conclusion. Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior, Cell 92 (4): 573\u201385 The hypocretins: Hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95 (1): 322\u20137 The Sleep Disorder Canine Narcolepsy Is Caused by a Mutation in the Hypocretin (Orexin) Receptor 2 Gene The role of orexin in motivated behaviours A Nature Neuroscience Review The role of orexin-A in food motivation, reward-based feeding behavior and food-induced neuronal activation in rats *Human narcolepsy - caused by a destruction of O/H neurons - also is associated with metabolic abnormalities, including increased frequency of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and increased body mass index. **Chocolate is like a drug; a regular meal isn't. Didn't we all know that already? Hypothalamic Orexin Neurons Regulate Arousal According to Energy Balance in Mice Orexin/Hypocretin: A Neuropeptide at the Interface of Sleep, Energy Homeostasis, and Reward System  ",
        "id": 208,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to get a flu shot when living with an elderly person?",
        "body": "There are two types of flu vaccine - inactivated influenza vaccine (which uses 'killed' influenza virus) and live-attenuated vaccine (which uses a more mild virus that should be asymptomatic).  According to the CDC, among the contraindications for the live-attenuated vaccine is: \"Children aged &lt;2 years or adults aged \u226550 years\". This is likely because, as you mentioned, it's possible for you to shed said live virus and infect others, and while the attenuated flu strain should be harmless, it's not a great idea to test that on high risk groups.  The inactivated vaccine carries no such contraindication. It is however something you should certainly bring up with your medical professional.",
        "id": 484,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Quantify third-hand smoke exposure risk",
        "body": "The following are studies which indicate cancer risks from third hand tobacco smoke which to me seems non-ambiguous.  Sleiman, M., Logue, J. M., Luo, W., Pankow, J. F., Gundel, L. A., &amp; Destaillats, H. (2014). Inhalable constituents of thirdhand tobacco smoke: chemical characterization and health impact considerations.\u00a0Environmental science &amp; technology,\u00a048(22), 13093-13101. DOI: 10.1021/es5036333     Tobacco smoke residues lingering in the indoor environment, also termed thirdhand smoke (THS), can be a source of long-term exposure to harmful pollutants. THS composition is affected by chemical transformations and by air\u2013surface partitioning over time scales of minutes to months. This study identified and quantified airborne THS pollutants available for respiratory exposure, identified potential environmental tracers, and estimated health impacts to nonsmokers. In a ventilated 18m3 laboratory chamber, six cigarettes were machine-smoked, and levels of particulate matter (PM2.5) and 58 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were monitored during an aging period of 18h. Results were compared with field measurements taken in a smoker\u2019s home 8h after the last cigarette had been smoked. Initial chamber levels of individual VOCs in freshly emitted secondhand smoke (SHS) were in the range of 1\u2013300 \u03bcg m\u20133. The commonly used SHS tracers 3-ethenylpyridine (3-EP) and nicotine were no longer present in the gas phase after 2 h, likely due mostly to sorption to surfaces. By contrast, other VOCs persisted in the gas phase for at least 18 h, particularly furans, carbonyls, and nitriles. The concentration ratio of acetonitrile to 3-EP increased substantially with aging. This ratio may provide a useful metric for differentiating freshly emitted (SHS) from aged smoke (THS). Among the 29 VOCs detected in the smoker\u2019s home at moderate to high concentrations, 18 compounds were also detected in simultaneously sampled outdoor air, but acetonitrile, 2-methyl furan, and 2,5-dimethyl furan appeared to be specific to cigarette smoke. The levels of acrolein, methacrolein, and acrylonitrile exceeded concentrations considered harmful by the State of California. An initial exposure and impact assessment was conducted for a subset of pollutants by computing disability-adjusted life years lost, using available toxicological and epidemiological information. Exposure to PM2.5\u00a0contributed to more than 90% of the predicted harm. Acrolein, furan, acrylonitrile, and 1,3-butadiene were considered to be the most harmful VOCs. Depending on which criteria are used to establish the separation between SHS and THS, 5\u201360% of the predicted health damage could be attributed to THS exposure. Benefits and limitations of this approach are discussed.   Ram\u00edrez, N., \u00d6zel, M. Z., Lewis, A. C., Marc\u00e9, R. M., Borrull, F., &amp; Hamilton, J. F. (2014). Exposure to nitrosamines in thirdhand tobacco smoke increases cancer risk in non-smokers.\u00a0Environment international,\u00a071, 139-147. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.06.012     In this study, we estimate for the first time the potential cancer risk by age group through non-dietary ingestion and dermal exposure to carcinogen N-nitrosamines and tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) measured in house dust samples. Using a highly sensitive and selective analytical approach we have determined the presence of nicotine, eight N-nitrosamines and five tobacco-specific nitrosamines in forty-six settled dust samples from homes occupied by both smokers and non-smokers. Using observations of house dust composition, we have estimated the cancer risk by applying the most recent official toxicological information. Calculated cancer risks through exposure to the observed levels of TSNAs at an early life stage (1 to 6\u00a0years old) exceeded the upper-bound risk recommended by the USEPA in 77% of smokers' and 64% of non-smokers' homes. The maximum risk from exposure to all nitrosamines measured in a smoker occupied home was one excess cancer case per one thousand population exposed. ",
        "id": 2246,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "At what age (or what size) is safe to implement the Heimlich maneuver on a child if they are choking?",
        "body": "If someone is truly in need of the Heimlich manoeuvre, that means they are dying and cracked ribs are not a consideration in this case. The same goes for cracked ribs after CPR.  However... the Heimlich manoeuvre as such is far more than is required to dislodge a foreign body in a small child, so it's not used. Instead, you give back blows and chest thrusts, depending on the age and size of the child. (The same consideration applies to CPR, where you use a modified technique for chest compressions).  And here are the entire pediatric resuscitation guidelines: http://ercguidelines.elsevierresource.com/european-resuscitation-council-guidelines-resuscitation-2015-section-6-paediatric-life-support/fulltext",
        "id": 1345,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When do you stop Minocycline/Spirnolactone prior to start of Accutane?",
        "body": "This is a very interesting, yet tricky, question. The reason you must stop taking the minocycline is because of the interaction between tetracyclines (minocycline) and vitamin A (Retinoic acid) derivatives (isotretinoin/Accutane) causes a pseudotumor cerebri also known as increased intracranial pressure, which can be deadly.  Now when taking spironolactone and isotretinoin, I don't see a problem per se, as far as interactions go. However, maybe your doctor doesn't want you to endure any of spironolactone's side effects as it will be minimally effective in treating the acne by comparison to the isotretinoin.",
        "id": 1142,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lack of sex drive",
        "body": "See a doctor. Low libido (the medical term for sex drive) can have medical causes. Two examples among many potential causes are low testosterone or depression.   Also Sex therapy (a type of couples psychotherapy) is a type of counseling that is highly recommended in the medical/behavioral health field for couples with differences in sexuality that causes stress for one/other partner or both.  (This is in addition to - not a replacement for - seeking medical evaluation.) ",
        "id": 1810,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "prebiotics and probiotics dosage & can I have them regularly?",
        "body": "There are currently no studies catalogued in PubMed (the largest repository of medical articles) that cover probiotics and overdoses at the time of this answer. (Clicking that link will rerun the search. The one result that comes up is unrelated.)  Theoretically, there should be little to no danger from \"overdosing\" on probiotic as probiotics are supposed to represent a balance of microflora. The challenge is that our microbiome has been found to be correlated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, steatosis, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, depression, and other mental conditions. Edit: probiotics can also have profound effects on the skin as newer research is revealing.  As a result, it is not yet fully clear how changing our microbiome affects our mental state and health.   Companies like uBiome.com are attempting to answer that question now. ",
        "id": 249,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I use salt supplements if my sweat is bland?",
        "body": "We were taught in physiology that the way to know if you need salt supplementation is whether the salt tastes good or not. The potassium chloride in salt will taste bitter if you don't need it. I have not seen studies to support this - but it fits a general medical principle we observe in other medical conditions.  This general principle falls into the category of syndromes like pica which is commonly seen in pregnant patients who eat dirt or clay because they have an iron deficiency. Patients crave clay or dirt or other substances because of their deficiency. Patients are often too embarrassed to tell their doctor. In one case, we had a pregnant patient who the clinician noticed she seemed to want to mention something but wasn't. On further questioning, eventually she confessed. She was sneaking out at night to eat a cup of black dirt from her backyard every night. She didn't know why. The doctor said, \"oh, you have pica\", put her on iron pills and the craving went away.   In general, the body craves what it needs - and what it needs tastes good. ",
        "id": 268,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to accurately monitor hair loss?",
        "body": "Have someone take photos of the back of your head periodically. Date the photos.  (Carey's comment seemed good enough to make it an answer.)",
        "id": 2105,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can voluntarily hyperventilating cause cerebral hypoxia, and therefore brain cell death (brain damage)?",
        "body": "Essentially, yes you could hyperventilate to cause a subtle cerebral hypoxia (as also happens briefly during a faint), but once unconscious you would return to automatic breathing and the effects of the hyperventilation would reverse.  There is some interesting information in this article. Although it relates to hyperventilation as relevant to anaesthetics (e.g. induced hyperventilation is often used in neurosurgical procedures to reduce intracranial pressure) it provides a good overview as well.     Hyperventilation exerts... many effects upon the body relevant to anesthesia and the functioning of the brain.   Hyperentilation (increasing the rate of breathing) causes increased ventilation of the lungs and increased excretion of carbon dioxide (CO2). This leads to reduced CO2 pressure in the blood, and a change in acid-base balance (towards more alkalinity) and biochemisty. The end result can have significant physiological changes.  The effects of hyperventilation     Mental effects of hyperventilation are very mixed. People with hyperventilation commonly describe symptoms such as disturbed mentation, impaired concentration, poor memory, and hallucinations. Feelings of depersonalization are also common, where hyperventilating persons describe sensations of unreality, or feeling everything is confused and dream-like. Visual experiences such as blurred vision, tunnel vision, flashing lights, and seeing double also occur (Evans 2005, Lum 1987, Perkin 1986). Extreme hyperventilation causes loss of consciousness in 31% of people with hyperventilation disorder (Perkin 1986), is occasionally observed during experimental hyperventilation (Kety 1946), and in some pregnant women hyperventilating due to labor pains (Burden 1994). But this is not all. Hyperventilation can sometimes even cause brain death.   The article includes some detail of the biochemistry of these changes, if you are interested. Essentially cerebral blood flow reduces, and this can cause unconsiousness.  So while you could hyperventilate yourself into unconsciousness, the voluntary hyperventilation will of course then stop, with a return to normal tidal breathing which will eventually reverse the changes. In an otherwise healthy person, this is unlikely to do damage.  The situations in the article where hyperventilation causes cerebral hypoxia or damage were in anaesthetised people being mechanically hyperventilated, which is a very different situation.",
        "id": 2476,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can a marathon eater maintain their health?",
        "body": "This is a health site, so I'm only answering the part about health dangers of binge eating:  1. Weight gain   1 hamburger, plain, single patty, 86 g = 254 Calories 100 hamburgers = 25,400 Calories = enough for 10 days for a moderately active man. To maintain body weight, this means 1 day with 100 hamburgers and then 9 days of complete fast.   2. Health Consequences &amp; Medical Complications of Binge Eating Disorder (The Center of Eating Disorders)   High blood pressure High cholesterol levels Heart disease as a result of elevated triglyceride levels  Type II diabetes mellitus  Obstructive sleep apnea Edema (swelling)  Kidney disease Gall bladder disease Various forms of cancer  Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) Insomnia   3. Acute gastric dilatation in a patient with anorexia nervosa binge/purge subtype (PubMed, 2010)     Acute gastric dilatation is a rare complication of anorexia nervosa   binge/purge...Early diagnosis and intervention is critical since delay   may result in gastric necrosis, perforation, shock, and death. ",
        "id": 1264,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will my health insurance provider report my STD testing to my (policy holder) parents?",
        "body": "You need to ask the insurance company that question but the answer is probably yes. What they receive probably won't say what the test was. It will most likely just list the company that billed it plus something generic like \"laboratory.\"   Under US law the insurance company can't discuss what the bill was for with your parents without your written consent, but I'd say they're going to be curious and probably concerned when they see the bill so you're going to need an explanation. I can't imagine any lies that would be believable. If I were them I would think either you have a medical problem you're not telling us about or they were STD tests, and as a parent I'd much rather find out it was the latter. It's not unreasonable for a college student to seek STD testing.  One thing to consider is unless you're trying out for a role in a porn flick, do you really need a full battery of tests? While some STDs can be silent (eg, HIV), most come with symptoms, at least initially. ",
        "id": 1738,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Instrument facilitated leg lengthening?",
        "body": "Though adults can't grow anymore, as was explained by previous answers, cosmetic bone lengthening does exist. Simply explained, the surgeon breaks the bones and slowly extends the gap between the bone fragments as they heal. article  There is little scientific evidence about the risks of this procedure, as it rarely done in the western world. But beside the regular surgical risks of wound infections, there is the risk of infection of the materials and non-union of the bones. Nerves could be damaged by distention and the range-of-motion of the lengthened limb could be limited by complications. ",
        "id": 2266,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it necessary to take antibiotics after medical/dental treatment?",
        "body": "Prescription of an antibiotic by a doctor will be the outcome of weighing   the possible good effect it impart and possible side effects. That is, an antibiotic will be prescribed only if needed. In case of dental or gum infections antibiotics may be prescribed after proper oral examination.  If the conditions like bleeding gums need a dental prophylaxis or cleaning, it should be done without fail. That will remove the cause of infection that induced bleeding. In such cases taking antibiotics alone won't solve your problems. The approach should be to remove the cause or factor that caused the disease. These all will be done and approached properly by a good doctor.  So consult a doctor before taking antibiotics. Don't neglect the bleeding just because you feel like it's not affecting your overall health. A localised problem like gum bleeding can cause generalised health issues if neglected or if it is not taken care at the beginning.",
        "id": 1041,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pain after root canal treatment",
        "body": "Although a root canal removes the pulp from the tooth (and the nerve along with it), that doesn't make the tooth immune to infection and the resulting pain. If the tooth or crown is broken or cracked, that can provide a pathway for bacteria to reinfect the tissues beneath and surrounding the tooth, as shown in the image below:    As explained at the link:     New decay can expose the root canal filling material to bacteria, causing a new infection in the tooth.      A loose, cracked or broken crown or filling can expose the tooth to new infection.      A tooth sustains a fracture.   As you might imagine, the new infection at the base of the tooth could cause pain since the nerves surrounding the tooth remain intact. Obviously, only a dentist or endodontist can tell you if this is what happened and how it should be treated. Loss of the tooth is possible, especially if you delay care.",
        "id": 775,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What specialty can diagnose Ehlers-Danlos syndromes?",
        "body": "Ehlers-Danlos encorporates a spectrum of related connective tissue disorders, which are genetic, but it is not uncommon for some subtypes to be missed until the complications manifest more dramatically clinically - and that may not be until adulthood.  This may be by early arthritis, recurrent joint dislocation, vaginal prolapse, aortic root dilation or valve dysfunction, etc.  It is estimated the prevalence of EDS spectrum may be as high as 1 in 5000.  Rheumatology is generally the specialty most familiar with EDS, but there are certainly providers in other specialties who have specialized in EDS as well.  Also, it is not always necessary for a primary doctor to refer for diagnosis, as some types are diagnosed by clinical criteria.  If a provider is familiar with when genetic testing is indicated, and which genetic testing to order, it is not necessary for a specialist to do so.  For example, the criteria for hypermobility type EDS (hEDS) is clinical and can be done by a primary care doctor.  However, not all primary care doctors are as familiar with the criteria, and may need to pull up an algorithm.  The Ehlers Danlos Society has an amazing wealth of information, including this handout of recommended clinical criteria for hEDS that you can print out and bring with you to your doctor to help facilitate the discussion.  Because of the potential complications of EDS including hEDS, there are a number of preventive measures that are recommended for individuals with EDS based upon the subtype - such as an echo to rule out asymptomatic aortic root dilation or valvular dysfunction (which may be as prevalent as 6%), physical therapy and exercise counseling, counseling on injury prevention, anesthesia considerations, pregnancy risks, genetic reproductive counseling (as some types are autosomal dominant!), etc etc.  The EDS Society publishes a directory of medical professionals who have registered as being experts in EDS.  It is obviously not exhaustive, and I cannot vouch for its accuracy, but if you happen to be near one, this directory may be helpful.  References:   https://www.ehlers-danlos.com/ https://www.ehlers-danlos.com/heds-diagnostic-checklist/ https://www.ehlers-danlos.com/pdf/2017-FINAL-AJMG-PDFs/Castori_et_al-2017-American_Journal_of_Medical_Genetics_Part_C-_Seminars_in_Medical_Genetics.pdf https://www.dermnetnz.org/topics/ehlers-danlos-syndrome/ ",
        "id": 2515,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why avoid sunlight when sick?",
        "body": "First of all, one needs to know its body needs to maintain its internal temperature, which is about 37\u00b0 if I remember right. This is a process called homeostasis .  When you're sick, fever symptoms can occur, and your body heats up.   Now, if you're exposed to the sun too, you are causing a temperature elevation in your body.   More specifically, to answer to your secondary as to why staying in a hot interior is still better than direct exposition to sun, it's because your body temperature is regulated by contracting or dilating your external vessels (those who are close to the skin). When you are directly exposed to a heat source, the exposed zone is adapting by playing on dilatation or contraction (I can't remember which one for heat or cold) of the external vessels. Too much of this can cause malaise.  This is a part of human thermoregulation process.  Edit: As to references into the literature on heat exposure effects, there are quite a bit, here are some quotes :  Knochel 1974, review     -Heat exhaustion [...] due to predominant water depletion [...].      Symptoms (of hypertonic dehydration, ndlr) include fatigue, anxiety,      weakness [...].   -Examining the response of resting normal subjects      to hyperthermia [...] showed that elevation of skin temperature [...]      was associated with a rise of arterial blood temperature [...] up to      a 125% increase of cardiac output [...].   See also Hales 1998 for related physiology that could lead to heat stroke.   I also agree that, as some comments pointed out, normal sunlight exposure shouldn't normally cause malaise, but I was referring to hot sunlight exposure, which, with conjunction with fever, is prone to get the body to abnormally high temperature.",
        "id": 1004,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Time gap between preparation and consumption for a salad",
        "body": "Cutting and storing vegetables for an hour in the refrigerator would likely have only a negligible effect on their nutrient content. There could be a considerable change in the look and taste, though.   Quality Changes and Nutrient Retention in Fresh-Cut versus Whole Fruits during Storage, 2006 (Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry)     Fresh-cut pineapples, mangoes, cantaloupes, watermelons, strawberries,   and kiwifruits and whole fruits were stored for up to 9 days in   air at 5 \u00b0C.      Contrary to expectations, it was clear that minimal processing had   almost no effect on the main antioxidant [vitamins A, C and E, and   polyphenols] constituents. ",
        "id": 2225,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does bed type have an effect on sleep quality?",
        "body": "This seems like a common sense type of question (why don't you sleep on the floor when there's a sofa available, and why don't you sleep on a sofa when there's a comfortable bed available?), and it turns out it is.  According to a small study done recently in a sleep laboratory,     Information concerning the stages of sleep is one of the most important clues for determining the quality of a particular mattress. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of mattress type on sleep quality by measuring skin temperature, by using a subjective mattress rating system, and through the use of Polysomnogram (the recording of brain waves through electroencephalography, the generation of a video graphic record of eye movement, chin movements, and heart rhythm.) ...The percentages of wake after sleep onset and stage 1 sleep were lower when subjects slept on \u201ccomfortable\u201d mattresses. Subjective ratings of sleep quality paralleled recorded sleep data.   \"Comfortable\" is the key word here. How comfortable a mattress is depends on personal preferences, position of sleep (side sleepers vs back/stomach), presence/absence of low back pain, heat retention properties of mattress/bedding, etc.  While this would seem like an important area to study, there has been very little in the way of well-developed recent studies.    Most of the recent studies on mattress types are concerned with the prevention of SIDS.  Quantitative effects of mattress types (comfortable vs. uncomfortable) on sleep quality through polysomnography and skin temperature  ",
        "id": 82,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chewing Nicorette Gum for only 30 min",
        "body": "From Nicorette.com, the below shows its instructions.  Nicorette gum comes in two strengths - 2mg and 4mg. The following shows which one to use.  2 MG  If you smoke your first cigarette more than 30 minutes after waking up, use the 2 mg strength.  4 MG  If you smoke your first cigarette within 30 minutes of waking up, use the 4 mg strength.  HOW TO USE NICORETTE GUM  Just like any medicine, for Nicorette to do its job, you need to use it properly. Once you\u2019ve chosen a quit date, start using Nicorette Gum on your quit date. Follow the directions on the label. To improve your chances of success, be sure to use at least 9 pieces of Nicorette a day for the first six weeks of your quit. Don\u2019t eat or drink 15 minutes before or while you\u2019re chewing Nicorette. Stay with the full 12 week quit program to increase your chances of success. However, if you find that you need to use Nicorette longer than 12 weeks, the FDA has determined that is acceptable to do so in most cases. Talk to your doctor or health care provider if you feel the need to use Nicorette for longer than 12 weeks.  If you are using Nicorette while trying to quit smoking but slip up and have a cigarette, you should not stop using Nicorette. You should keep using it and keep trying to quit.  For other questions you may have on the nicorette gum, visit Nicorette's FAQs",
        "id": 1538,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects of eating too much salt",
        "body": "In short: Increased sodium intake may or may not result in water retention, but it does result in increased urination.  Let's say you are consuming 5 grams of salt per day during a certain period. Then, one day you increase salt intake to 10 grams per day. This may or may not result in water retention, which will develop fully within few days and become stable at a certain level, so on the end you will have, for example, 2 liters more water in your body than before.  Another thing is, that your body wants to maintain blood sodium at a certain level, so your kidneys will excrete the extra sodium. Since the kidneys can excrete sodium only together with a certain amount of water, you will also excrete more water (urine). Also, with increased salt intake you probably drink more water, which you will again need to excrete (urinate more).  In conclusion: After an increase of salt intake, water retention will occur as a single event developing to its highest level within few days and than stabilize. On the other hand, your kidneys will continuously excrete the extra sodium (accompanied by water), so you will urinate more during the entire period of your increased salt intake. This is how you can have water retention and increased urination at the same time.  About thirst. With increased salt intake, you usually become more thirsty, but some people have weak sense of thirst, so you might not be able to make reliable conclusions from thirst alone.",
        "id": 1463,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tested negative for TB and then tested positive for TB?",
        "body": "You don't specify which test was used to screen for TB, in this answer I will assume that Mantoux test was used.    You probably were vaccinated using Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin vaccine. Unfortunately this has been proven not to give an efficacious immunity against TB infection.  In this scenario there are two chances:   You actually were exposed to M.Tuberculosis. The Mantoux test is probably a false positive due to your vaccination if you are at low risk for TB infection or to other factors.   Being at low risk means an individual was not:   In contact with another person with infectious TB Born or has lived in a high TB prevalence country Continually exposed to populations where TB prevalence is high   In both cases I would personally advise you to contact a doctor to get a chest x-ray and a IGRA quantiferon blood test to further investigate. This is particularly advisable in your case having two different outcomes from serial testing which honestly could increase the possibility of latent TB.",
        "id": 1622,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the milk of a breastfeeding mother taking Ibuprofen make a baby sleepy?",
        "body": "As a general rule of thumb this concern for safe lactating (breast feeding) is of course entirely legitimate: Nonpharmacological approaches are always first-line treatment, and should also be used to complement any required drug treatment.   And the connection of ibuprofen and sleepiness may not be unfounded either: \"Unusual tiredness or weakness, sleepiness or unusual drowsiness (rare), and extreme fatigue (rare)\" are listed as possible side effect of ibuprofen.  This sounds scary unless one takes into account that these effects are listed as rare and:      As weak acids, NSAIDs [non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs] are excreted in small amounts into human breast milk with little risk for adverse effects in the suckling infant.   To get some hard numbers on this one might considers these:     Concentrations of ibuprofen in breast milk and serum were compared in 12 patients who had ingested one 400 mg tablet of ibuprofen every 6 hours over a 24-hour period for relief of post-cesarean section pain. Samples of breast milk and blood were obtained simultaneously over a 34-hour period beginning just prior to the first dose of ibuprofen. Gas-liquid chromatography assay methodology capable of detecting 1 \u03bcg/ml was used to determine concentrations of ibuprofen in serum and breast milk. Ibuprofen was present in the serum with a half-life of approximately 1.5 hours. No measurable amounts of ibuprofen were found in the samples of breast milk. The conclusion drawn is that, in lactating women who take up to 400 mg of ibuprofen every 6 hours, less than 1 mg of ibuprofen per day is excreted in breast milk.   And reach the following conclusions:     Because of its extremely low levels in breastmilk, short half-life and safe use in infants in doses much higher than those excreted in breastmilk, ibuprofen is a preferred choice as an analgesic or antiinflammatory agent in nursing mothers.   These conclusions are in generalised form:     According to our review, AMDs [anti-migraine drugs] safe during breastfeeding are as follows: low-dose acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), ibuprofen, sumatriptan, metoprolol, propranolol, verapamil, amitriptyline, escitalopram, paroxetine, sertraline, acetaminophen, caffeine, and metoclopramide. AMDs compatible with breastfeeding but warranting caution are as follows: diclofenac, ketoprofen, naproxen, most new triptans, topiramate, valproate, venlafaxine, and cyproheptadine. Finally, high-dose ASA, atenolol, nadolol, cinnarizine, flunarizine, ergotamine, methysergide, and pizotifen are contraindicated.   But what now about the sleepy baby at hand? Babies are just sleepy in general and after feeding especially:         My baby falls asleep while nursing. What can I do?   Newborns often fall asleep at the breast, especially after feeling satisfied from a good feeding.       This is completely normal:     Breastfeeding and sleep often overlap in the early weeks, when your baby spends more time asleep than awake. Dozing off mid-feed and waking for more milk a short time later is normal for newborns.    And this period will pass:     Each baby is unique. While some mothers worry that their baby isn\u2019t sleeping regularly enough during the early weeks and months, you may have concerns that your baby is too sleepy. Experience has shown, however, that most babies develop more of an established sleep pattern after the newborn period. Enjoy this special time with your baby.   Taken together this should read as: minimising drug intake is always a good idea, a sleepy baby is probably not a reason of big concern. If the infant seems highly unusual it is presumably still a good idea to present the case to a doctor.",
        "id": 1992,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Online doctor consultation?",
        "body": "Teladoc is one that is offered as a benefit from the company that I work for, when enrolling in their health insurance. I don't know what the price would be if you're not on a health insurance plan that covers them, but I can tell you that, for me, the copay for Teladoc is about 1/4 the copay of seeing a doctor in person, for the particular health insurance plan that I'm currently enrolled in.   I have no affiliation with the company, other than that they're offered as a benefit from the company I work for. I don't know if they offer service without a membership or not.  I've found there are other similar services, such as   https://www.doctorondemand.com/  or  https://www.mdlive.com/  The pharmacy Walgreens also lists the service, but they seem to use one of the previously mentioned services (MDLive): https://www.walgreens.com/topic/pharmacy/virtualdoctor.jsp  Hope that helps.",
        "id": 2393,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are big city residents healthier due to walking? (all else roughly equal)",
        "body": "If all other variables are constant then yes. In real life it depends. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3098122/",
        "id": 420,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any health risks associated with opening a microwave oven before it has finished?",
        "body": "There's nothing else to be released, because when microwave production is stopped the waves cease to exist.  From the FDA's FAQ about microwave safety:      systems that stop the production of microwaves the moment the latch is released or the door opened. In addition, a monitoring system stops oven operation in case one or both of the interlock systems fail. The noise that many ovens continue to make after the door is open is usually the fan. The noise does not mean that microwaves are being produced. There is no residual radiation remaining after microwave production has stopped. In this regard a microwave oven is much like an electric light that stops glowing when it is turned off.   Provided that your microwave meets regulations regarding the double locking mechanism, more radiation is leaked when the door is closed and the microwave is on than when the door is opened and the microwave is off.",
        "id": 779,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Assessing the risk of heart attacks and similar conditions",
        "body": "Following were independent risk factors found in the large Interheart study (http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2804%2917018-9/abstract):   1. Smoking 2. Diabetes 3. High blood lipid levels 4. High blood pressure 5. Abdominal obesity 6. Psychosocial stress 7. Lack of regular physical exercise 8. Lack of regular fruits and vegetable intake   There was also evidence for a protective effect of regular alcohol intake but it was not protective after adjusting for all other risk factors (http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/489738#vp_2 - Table shows confidence intervals overlap value of 1 indicating non-significance).  Though each of the above factors confer different degree of risk and for each factor, its severity (for example, number of cigarettes smoked) also affects the risk, a simple counting of the factors present would reflect a person's risk for atherosclerotic vascular diseases like heart attack, stroke and sudden death. Though formal scoring systems may be more accurate, they have the disadvantage of being complex, difficult to derive and tendency to become redundant when newer risk factors are found. ",
        "id": 848,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What do bags under the eyes mean, and what causes them?",
        "body": "To the best of our knowledge, it just happens to some people and it's harmless.      With aging, the tissues around your eyes, including some of the muscles supporting your eyelids, weaken. Normal fat that helps support the eyes can then move into the lower eyelids, causing the lids to appear puffy. Fluid also may accumulate in the space below your eyes, adding to the swelling.   Unless there are additional symptoms, like itching or redness of the eye, there is no cause for concern. Some things can make it worse, like hot weather, and some things can make it look worse on some people, like people with very light skin.   The medical expression is \"mild periorbital swelling\", by the way. Searching for it in medical databases will mostly lead to getting information on the rare cases where it was a symptom of a serious illness, though.   Sources:  Mayo Clinic",
        "id": 141,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Myelin regeneration in Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (Children)",
        "body": "Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an inflammatory disorder, which often follows an infection or a vaccination. It is the most frequent demyelinating disorder of the CNS in children.   In case of an infectious aetiology, some epidemiological studies suggest that ADEM is more frequently associated with upper respiratory tract infections in countries with significant advances in infectious disease control, whereas in poor or developed countries, ADEM often occurs after childhood infections such as measles. Below a table with a list of the possible aetiologies for ADEM (from Garg et al).    Current evidence suggest that ADEM results from a transient autoimmune reaction against myelin or other autoantigens which occur through a phenomenon of molecular mimicry or activation of autoreactive T cells.  Your question     Does myelin fully regenerate after a demyelization disease such as   ADEM (Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis)? Does myelin always get   damaged after an ADEM?   I have found two studies focusing on clinical outcome in children with ADEM:  1. According to this study 1 conducted among 39 patients with median age at onset of 8 years:     Of 39 children with 12 months' follow-up, 71 % recovered completely.   Thirteen (33 %) children had relapses. Patients who had more than one   relapse (n = 4) presented with new symptoms at each attack. Treatment   with high-dose methylprednisolone was associated with complete   recovery, and tapering over more than 3 weeks, with a lower rate of   relapses. MRI lesions could persist even in asymptomatic patients; in   particular, periventricular lesions tended to disappear later than   others.   2. According to this study 2 including 14 children with a follow up of one and a half year:     10(71%) children had total remission of symptoms within one week of   starting steroids. 4(29%) children had residual symptoms at the end of   steroid therapy. The children were followed up for a variable period   from two months to three and a half years. Most of the cases made   uneventful recovery.   You can find additional information in the complete report for each of the study.  Sources:   Garg RK et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Postgrad Med J 2003;79:11-17 doi:10.1136/pmj.79.927.11 Jayakrishnan MP, Krishnakumar P. Clinical profile of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children. Journal of Pediatric Neurosciences. 2010;5(2):111-114. Anlar B et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children: outcome and prognosis. Neuropediatrics. 2003 Aug;34(4):194-9.   Edit (after additional information was submitted by the OP)  Probably yes, or at least that full remyelination has not completely finished. Concerning your question about the potential of remyelination: There isn't much information available on ADEM and remyelination, but at it shares some common features in terms of pathogenesis with multiple sclerosis (MS), let's take some evidence concerning remyelination in MS:  We know that the treatment of MS aims at two things (1,2):   Prevent further damages by modulating the inflammatory processes. This is normally achieved with immunomodulatory therapies. Repair the demyelination which resulted from the pathological inflammatory process by stimulation remyelination, ie the regeneration of new myelin sheats.   While the first has showed some interesting results thanks to growing number of immunomodulatory therapies on the market (among which glucocorticoids, which are also used in ADEM treatment), the second has still to be proven.   Although some immunomodulatory therapies might indirectly stimulate remyelination, current therapies directly targeting regeneration of myelin sheats have yet to be proven. Furthermore, the presence of axon degeneration despite immunomodulatory therapies, suggest that axon integrity and protection may occur through mechanisms independent of inflammation (3,4).  Huang et al provide a good summary of current approach for remyelination (5):     The principal source of new remyelinating cells is an abundant and   widely distributed population of cells in the adult CNS traditionally   called oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). In the adult CNS, these   cells are both self-renewing and multipotent, having been observed to   give rise to certain neurons, astrocytes (albeit rarely), and Schwann   cells, as well as oligodendrocytes\u00a0in vivo, and so can reasonably be   regarded as a type of adult neural stem cell. The response to   demyelination causes OPCs to become activated, a morphological change   accompanied by upregulation of genes not normally expressed in the   resting state. Activated OPCs proliferate, migrate and rapidly fill up   the demyelinated lesions at a density that far exceeds that in normal   tissue. To complete the remyelination process, the cells exit the cell   cycle and differentiate into myelin sheath-forming oligodendrocytes,   which is a complex process involving axon engagement, ensheathment and   formation of compacted myelin.   The article by Huang et al also provides a good review (it is open access) on the current pharmacological targets for remyelination as well as the barriers of remyelination (among which age, probably explaining while cases of ADEM in the adults show a worse outcome that cases in children).  Hope this brings some clarification!  Sources:   Martino G, Franklin RJM, Baron van Evercooren A, Kerr D, Group SC. Stem cell transplantation in multiple sclerosis: current status and  future prospects.\u00a0Nat Rev Neurol.\u00a02010;6:247\u2013255.doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2010.35. Franklin RJM, ffrench-Constant C. Stem cell treatments and multiple sclerosis.\u00a0BMJ.\u00a02010;340:986\u2013985. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c1387 Coles AJ, Wing MG, Molyneux P, et al. Monoclonal antibody treatment exposes three mechanisms underlying the clinical course of multiple sclerosis.\u00a0Ann Neurol.\u00a01999;46:296\u2013304. doi: 10.1002/1531-8249(199909)46:3&lt;296::AID-ANA4>3.0.CO;2-#. Dutta R, Trapp BD. Pathogenesis of axonal and neuronal damage in multiple sclerosis.\u00a0Neurology.2007;68(22 suppl 3):S22\u2013S31. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000275229.13012.32. Huang JK, Fancy SPJ, Zhao C, Rowitch DH, ffrench-Constant C, Franklin RJM. Myelin Regeneration in Multiple Sclerosis: Targeting Endogenous Stem Cells.\u00a0Neurotherapeutics. 2011;8(4):650-658. doi:10.1007/s13311-011-0065-x. ",
        "id": 1121,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Charcoal Toothpaste/Powder Whiten a Slight Fracture-Line on a Tooth?",
        "body": "Being an very mild abrasive charcoal is indeed used since ancient times to clean teeth. This behaviour is seen among the natives of Africa and Digitalia even now.  Examples for recent use in Africa: Oral health related behaviors among adult Tanzanians: a national pathfinder survey. and   Oral health practices among pregnant women in North Eastern Nigeria.  Cleaning teeth in this way is possible. Cleaning teeth in this way is not very effective, especially not for \"whitening\":     Charcoal and charcoal-based dentifrices: A literature review:   The authors' literature search identified 118 potentially eligible articles. Thirteen studies reported brushing the teeth with raw charcoal or soot; however, none of these studies met the inclusion criteria. Two studies offered nonspecific caries reductions, 3 studies reported deleterious outcomes (increased caries, enamel abrasion, nonquantified negative impact), and 1 study indicated only that brushing with raw charcoal had no adverse effects on oral hygiene. Seven other studies reported only on the use of charcoal for oral hygiene. Internet advertisements included unsubstantiated therapeutic claims-such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and oral detoxification, as well as potentially misleading product assertions. One-third of the charcoal dentifrices contained bentonite clay, and 1 contained betel leaves.   Conclusions:   The results of this literature review showed insufficient clinical and laboratory data to substantiate the safety and efficacy claims of charcoal and charcoal-based dentifrices. Larger-scale and well-designed studies are needed to establish conclusive evidence.   Practical Implications:   Dental clinicians should advise their patients to be cautious when using charcoal and charcoal-based dentifrices with unproven claims of efficacy and safety.   No product sold over the internet for this purpose is both safe and effective. A professional dentist has some tools, abrasives, and chemicals or even artificial veneers that will be vastly superior. Some of those might even be just temporary (for photo shoots).  One important point regarding the perceived efficacy of coal toothpaste is: compared to what you see before brushing and during brushing your teeth will look much cleaner than before or during. That is because they have been brushed and are cleaner than before brushing and compared to the mess the coal produces they are even whiter to the eye afterwards. The actual colour of your clean teeth will not change by this. Main effect is psychological \u2013\u00a0and that is largely in your brain \u2013 with little benefit to anyone else looking at these teeth without knowing.",
        "id": 2068,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can someone not working in the pharmacologic industry help find a solution for a medical problem without donating money and without waiting?",
        "body": "Research studies can be simple or complicated, depending on many factors including the nature of the thing that you are investigating, the history of discovery in that field (what knowledge you're working from or springboarding off of), materials required, whether it is in vivo or in vitro, whether animals or humans must be involved as test subjects, etc etc etc.  The traditional paths are going through school to get a science or medical degree of some sort.  You don't have to be a PhD or MD to do research, you can do quite a lot with an undergrad degree.  But usually the principal investigators in research studies are either PhDs or MDs.  There are ways to apply to be involved in research without a degree, as an assistant or lab technician, depending on the research.  If you can imagine how much research has been done on all 3 of those areas, you'd see that you'd need to do a lot of literature review as guidance and to inform you whether you're repeating failed experiments or going down the wrong direction, and a bunch of other things.  Outside of science, you could enter the field via public health.  Or epidemiology/statistics.  Coming completely from outside of the science field OR academic fields, and wanting to contribute is a lot less well-traveled path.  Innovators may be able to make huge leaps in research, but they still require a frame of knowledge to do so.  But if you have money, you can do a lot by supporting research proposals that you like, researchers that you like, or even opening a lab and setting your own standards - but we are talking about a ton of money there.  Note there are always regulatory bodies to ensure quality and safety that you have to follow.    Without education or money or political sway, you can get involved in professional groups (or grass roots) advocacy to improve the medical field and research.  There are efforts to try to get journals made open access rather than paid, efforts to control prescription costs, efforts to establish more open databases of information, etc.   Lastly, you could be a subject participant in clinical research trials yourself.  There are many out there seeking participants in discovering new medications.  Read about what they're studying so you know what you're contributing to.  Beyond these answers, there isn't a lot more opportunity I can come up with.  I love the enthusiasm, idealism, and concept of being able to drop in and help!  But usually for meaningful contributions in research, it usually takes quite a bit of work.  Quite a bit.",
        "id": 1857,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Treadmill test versus nuclear stress test for evaluation of angina",
        "body": "Cardiac stress tests measure the heart's ability to respond to external stress. This stress can be applied by physical stimulation (treadmill or stationary bike) while hooked up to an EKG to monitor blood pressure, pulse, and heart rhythm, or pharmacological stimulation can be used (using a drug to stress the heart, example: adenosine).  Either type of stress can be used regardless of the imaging technique:   Patients can be stressed physically and imaged with nuclear medicine Patients can be stressed with medication and imaged with nuclear medicine Patients can be stressed physically and imaged with an echocardiogram (non-nuclear) Patients can be stressed with medication and imaged with and echocardiogram (non-nuclear)   This is not a complete list, just an example of how nuclear medicine may or may not be used  Imaging of the heart can be done with PET, CMR, SPECT, or an echo cardiogram (ultrasound imaging of the heart). With most techniques a before stress and after stress image will usually be taken.  PET (positron emission tomography) and SPECT (Single-photon emission computed tomography) are both considered nuclear imaging techniques and use ionizing radiation. CMR (cardiac magnetic resonance imaging) and echo cardiogram do not use ionizing radiation.  An article from the European Society of Cardiology e-journal addresses the decision making process of which method to use:     available non-invasive modalities for diagnosis of SCAD differ distinctly in terms of diagnostic accuracies, predictive values, and costs.   And:     In patients with clinically suspected SCAD, three key question need to be answered to determine patient suitability for non-invasive testing, type of stress (exercise vs. pharmacologic), and functional vs. anatomic testing endpoint:   1.What is the clinical PTP?    2.Can the patient exercise adequately?    3.Are there specific conditions precluding ECG interpretation, or patient characteristics (e.g., body habitus, comorbidities, or current medications) limiting the performance or interpretability of available imaging modalities? Local availability and expertise, radiation exposure, and the need for concomitant assessment of hemodynamics or valvular disease are also important factors affecting appropriate test selection in a given individual   The exhaustive list can be found in the article which is linked above.  Wikipedia's article  is also a, less technical, general overview of the subject.  Thanks to everyone in the comments for the suggestions and helpful criticism. This is one of my first posts so I really appreciate the feedback!",
        "id": 503,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the mechanism of action of Alphosol dandruff treatment?",
        "body": "I can offer only partial answer to your question, and that is on how this shampoo works.  From The Electronic Medicines Compendium:     Mechanism of action      Coal tars suppress DNA synthesis in hyperplastic skin inhibiting mitotic activity protein synthesis and cell reproduction.      Coal tar      Coal tar decreases epidermal proliferation and dermal infiltration and thus promotes a return to normal keratinisation. Coal tar has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antipruritic, keratolytic, keratoplastic and vascoconstrictive effects.   From the same source, on the correct use:     The hair should be wetted and sufficient Alphosyl '2 in 1' Shampoo applied to produce an abundant lather. The scalp and adjacent areas should be vigorously massaged with the fingertips. The hair should be then thoroughly rinsed and the procedure repeated. Taking both of these shampoo applications into consideration, the total leave on time for the shampoo should be 3 \u2013 5 minutes.      Alphosyl '2 in 1' Shampoo should be used once or twice weekly for the treatment of scalp disorders   Other studies support the claim of its efficacy.  Highland formulary has some recommendations on how to use this shampoo in management of psoriasis (page 260):     Scalp      application of lukewarm olive oil to scalp, leave at least 30 minutes to soften scale and washout with tar-based shampoo (Alphosyl 2 in 1\u00ae or Capasal\u00ae).   As for why it stopped working - I haven't found any studies on this. The SPC of Alphosyl, however, does state that it should be used for 4 weeks, and if the use is longer than that it should be supervised by a physician. So, if nobody else provides an answer, perhaps it would be best to talk to your physician about changing your routine or the treatment. It is often a matter of trial and error to determine what would work in an individual patient. ",
        "id": 470,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "4-Hour Body caloric intake",
        "body": "http://examine.com says it best:      What should I eat for weight loss?        Eat less. Different diets can make this easier, so pick whichever one   best fits your lifestyle. Ultimately, you need to reduce your caloric   intake     What's the deal with low carb diets?  Low-carb dieting is a \"trick\" that allows people to stop eating so much sugar and carbohydrates (flours and starches and pastas) which greatly reduces caloric intake without jeopardizing vitamin, protein or essential oils (fats) losses. Most processed carbohydrate sources are not nutrient-dense foods and are not ideal, unless you are trying to store more energy for more significant periods of exertion (e.g. marathon, distance bicycling or days of long hiking).  Carbohydrates are not what makes people fat.   Calories matter most. However, low-carb diets have been shown to improve fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels, cholesterol levels, blood triglycerides, preserve muscle mass during weight loss, and other health markers.  Low-carb dieting has side benefits for ultra-endurance athletes (increase in intramuscular triglycerides), but can negatively impact high intensity strength training by reducing muscle glycogen and forcing the body to convert protein into glucose, rather than use it for muscle building.  There is no best diet plan. There are many paths to maintaining a good diet and losing weight. The important thing to understand is that people are different in their tastes and lifestyles but not in their body metabolisms by any large degree. Resting body metabolism between extreme athletes and unfit people vary by less than 5% which means it has virtually no impact on how much you can eat or burn in daily decisions. You should be prepared to experiment and find what works for you so that you can maintain a diet that avoids an excess of calories over your lifetime however actively you choose to live.  In the end, the \"best diet\" is the one that you will stick to.",
        "id": 984,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does oral consumption of animal cancer cells increase your chance of getting cancer?",
        "body": "For any reasonable risk, the answer is no.  Virtually all tumors are non-transmissible under normal (non-laboratory) circumstances (three exceptions, discussed below, none in humans), so you could not possibly get the cancer the animal had.  However some cancers arise because of environmental factors which may still be present in the animal.  For example, an animal exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) would be at a higher risk of developing cancer, and PCBs also tend to stay around in the animal for some time.  It is at least possible that environmental exposure which gave the animal cancer is still around to increase the risk to you.  In general, this is probably a pretty low risk from any one instance of eating a tumorous animal.  However if you were to eat animals which were routinely contaminated with something carcinogenic, it could become a problem.    A similar story could be told about oncoviruses, that is viruses which can cause tumors or cancer.  However all the oncoviruses known to date are restricted to humans.  Further, if there were an hitherto unknown oncovirus which caused the tumor in the animal and still could cause an infection and neoplasm in humans, it would have to survive cooking and consumption.  This route seems improbable.  The least probable route would be a directly transmissible tumor.  There are two such tumors known: Tasmanian devil facial tumor disease and canine transmissible venereal tumor.  A third variety was discovered this year (Metzger 2015), which is found in clams.  None affects humans.  Further, the chances of such a disease being able to transmit across species seems very improbable.  Finally, food preparation is almost certain to kill off the tumor cells.  In summary, it is very improbable that eating an animal which had a neoplasm would pose any risk.",
        "id": 485,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it safe to use magnesium hydroxide as an anti-perspirant?",
        "body": "While official government recommendations seem to indicate a very low risk:     Toxicological Risks of Selected Flame-Retardant Chemicals. (National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on Flame-Retardant Chemicals.   Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2000.)      TOXICOKINETICS      Absorption:   Dermal   No information was found on the dermal absorption of Mg(OH)2 in humans or experimental animals.      HAZARD IDENTIFICATION      The toxicology database on Mg(OH)2 is sparse. Therefore, the subcommittee decided that this review should also include toxicity data on magnesium salts that are expected to dissociate in stomach acid to Mg2+ cations. These include MgCl2, magnesium lactate, and magnesium citrate.      Dermal Exposure:   No studies were found on the toxic effects of Mg(OH)2 following dermal exposure.   this is for the use case flame retardant. Consulting a cosmetics database it says:     MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE   Health Concerns of the Ingredient:          Overall Hazard low to moderate      moderate use restrictions   enhances skin absorption         Concern   Violation of industry recommendations             Restricted in cosmetics; use, concentration, or manufacturing restrictions    Avoid or minimize skin exposure: recommendation from industry safety panel (Cosmetic Ingredient Review, CIR) (only for products for use on skin)           Determined safe for use in cosmetics, subject to concentration or use limitations - Safe for use in cosmetics with some qualifications    That seems to indicate that if that ingredient is found in a commercial formulation the overall risk this substance alone represents seems to be very low. Potential interplay with other ingredients needs to accounted for. Using this in homemade ointments needs some precautions. Using this in the long term and at higher concentrations is not recommended. While beneficial in the sense that as an absorbent it reduces excess moisture to a degree, this substance is also alkaline (pH 10.5), human skin is slightly acidic, and it needs to be. MgOH raises the pH. That is not good. ",
        "id": 1718,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the natural and healthy ways to increase blood sugar?",
        "body": "There seems to be some misunderstanding here, so this is going to be a long answer.   Our body is very, very good at regulating several physical and chemical parameters inside itself 1. he most well known is the temperature: it does not matter if the air temperature is -50 Celsius or +50 Celsius, it will do its best to keep you between 36.5 and 37 Celsius, and will mostly succeed at that, with amazing precision, unless you get exposed for a long time to temperatures which are either too hot or too cold for its capabilities to adapt.    The system for regulating blood sugar is similarly complicated. The body is actively trying to keep the blood sugar at a level which it \"believes\" is best for it, and unless its regulation mechanism is badly broken, it's succeeding at that, at least in the long term. Short term upward spikes and downward spikes do happen in the healthy human, if you are either eating or using up sugar at a rate too quick for the body to compensate.   There is a theory that eating too much glucose and other simple sugars can break this regulation system. The reason: they cause upward spikes when they are eaten, because they can be transformed into blood sugar very quickly, quicker than the body can stabilize the level of blood sugar. The body then goes into \"alarm! too high blood sugar!\" mode, and mobilizes whatever it can to reduce the blood sugar before it causes problems. That overreaction gets the spike down soon, but the high hormone levels stay, such that you now get a downward spike in blood sugar.   The supporters of the \"this is unhealthy\" side of the debate (note that the matter is not yet settled in the scientific community, although I'm under the impression that it has been gaining ground lately) say that first, this creates hunger pangs (because when your blood sugar falls, one of the body's mechanisms to get it back up is to create the feeling of hunger, so you supply it with more food) and leads to overeating, and second, frequently straining the blood sugar regulation system will make it less effective over time, because it's overworked, and also because the body gets less sensitive to its signals. This leads to metabolic syndrome and later, diabetes type 2, such that the body can no longer keep the blood sugar at the level it wants it to be.   The gist of it is: The reason why table sugar is considered unhealthy is that eating it raises blood sugar. Consequently, any other food which raises the blood sugar is just as healthy/unhealthy as table sugar.   Now you can say that your friend seems to need her blood sugar raised, so for her, eating a food which raises it is not unhealthy. This is indeed logical, but in that case, then sugar is not unhealthy for her either. If she wants to try to raise her blood sugar with food, then pure glucose is indeed the best she can do, followed closely by table sugar.     That being said, if I were her, I would not try messing with my blood sugar levels through food. Her sugar regulating system is either working well, or malfunctioning. If it is working well, then there is nothing she should be doing about it, despite it not fitting some norm. If it is malfunctioning, then she must have some serious underlying condition, and she should seek diagnosis and treatment for it instead of eating sugar (which is unlikely to help for timeframes over several minutes to an hour anyway). If she mistrusts her general physician's competence in that matter, she should visit an endocrinologist. If she has no symptoms from the low blood sugar and trusts him that there is no cause to worry, she should keep everything as it is, instead of trying to override her hormones by gorging on glucose, or any other food which raises the blood sugar level.    There are two cases that I know of where she can have too low blood sugar measured besides this value being the right one for her or her having a hormonal disturbance/diabetes. First, if she exercises too much, or after too long a time without eating (or drinking sweetened drinks), she can cause a downward spike in an otherwise healthy body. It will go away soon by itself. Second, if she is on a ketogenic diet (only fat and proteins, no carbohydrates at all), her blood sugar will plummet permanently. The solution there is to go back to normal food - unless there is medical indication for the ketogenic diet, such as epilepsy, in which case a health professional should decide whether the side effects are worth continuing it. ",
        "id": 162,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Reason behind testing blood when someone is suffering from Common cold and fever?",
        "body": "There are differences between individual clinicians' ways of approaching things, and regional ones as well, so I can't speak for every clinician.  But respiratory infections are one of the most common reasons why someone comes into primary care or urgent care, and there are common approaches.  When someone comes in with cold symptoms, many factors that are taken  into consideration.  Based on those factors, clinician might order lab tests or might not.  The reason is that the differential diagnosis of respiratory infections is broad.    Many viruses like the cold and flu Pneumonia (primary bacterial or superimposed after viral infection) Bronchitis Bacteria like strep throat or sinus infection Allergies Chemical irritation   Pneumonia and sinus infections (and very rarely blood infections or meningitis) are possible after a viral infection because the mucus from the cold sitting in the sinuses/lungs are a place bacteria like to grow in.  Those are usually the only times antibiotics are worthwhile.  You mentioned symptoms \"I have a cold.\"  Those aren't symptoms. Symptoms are   cough (dry or productive of sputum) runny nose sore throat hoarse voice headache body aches fevers or chills fatigue bleeding nasal congestion weakness lightheadedness nausea/vomiting   The constellation of symptoms and timeline are the primary things that tell us WHAT the infection is.  Adding vital signs (temp, blood pressure, pulse) and a physical exam, often we don't even need labs/tests.  But when they do, labs/tests they might get are:   Nasopharyngeal swab if they suspect flu and want to be certain, or a viral panel for rhinovirus etc Throat swab / culture for suspicion of strep throat Chest XRay if there's evidence of pneumonia (which is not as common as you think just because you cough a lot) Complete blood count to check your white blood cells.  This is usually high when you have any kind of infection, but the differential can clue you in to whether it's bacterial or viral (another topic of discussion).  This isn't always done unless you are concerned for a serious infection like severe pneumonia, as the fact the WBCs are high doesn't add much to the picture. If there's an underlying disease making the respiratory infection more risky, like COPD, asthma, lung diseases, etc, they may want to check other blood tests. If highly suspected maybe blood tests to check for uncommon things like genetic conditions, HIV.  Or mono.   Usually the only reason they would do a test is if it would change management of the condition.  Often, there's no point determining which virus it is, you'd manage it the same, except early intervention in flu, severe infections, or young kids.  An elevated WBC doesn't tell you much except \"likely infection\" which you already know by the clinical symptoms.  Etc.  Note, ESR and CRP have low role in respiratory infections generally, unless we're looking at sepsis from pneumonia/sinus infection, and then you'd usually add lactate and trend those.",
        "id": 1858,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are contraception effectiveness percentages per-user or per-use?",
        "body": "Neither.  The percentages given are the percentage of couples using that method who will conceive over a year. So if 100 people use that 98% method, 2 will get pregnant each year.   Here is a page from the National Health Service in the UK that explains this as well as providing some numbers for some methods.",
        "id": 2722,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do some foods with high calories not fill you up?",
        "body": "Satiety is not, and never was, a measure of the calories you have eaten. You feel sated when a certain type of neurons fire in your brain. These neurons are triggered by 1) impulses incoming from the enteric nerve network (motor neurons which partake in peristalsis) and 2) a number of hormones, including GLP1, orexins, cholestokynin and the leptin/ghrelin pair. It is however not yet entirely clear if we know all hormones involved, and what mechanisms determine the release of these hormones.   In two words, it is a very complex matter, and we don't know what exactly creates a feeling of hunger or satiety, but we know it's not something simple as the amount of calories, or the amount of food measured by weight, or the amount of food measured by volume.   Source: Kandel \"Principles of neural science\", plus a Coursera course on diabetes",
        "id": 701,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does paste of Licorice root, Burdock root and Dandelion root reverses Hairfall?",
        "body": "Licorice root which is also called Mulethi in Hindi is excellent for reducing hair fall. One of the main reasons of hair fall is inadequate diet and infections on the scalp skin. Licorice as an anti-bacterial agent which cures the infections on scalp like eczema. Dandelion root is also known for reducing hair fall.   I have personally not used Licorice or Dandelion but I have used Bringraj Juice and a few other medicines, and a self-prepared ayurvedic shampoo to reduce hair fall. If you are interested below is the recipe that I use which has miraculously reduced my hairfall to a great extent  Purchase shikakai, reetha and amla powders and mix them in equal quantities (100gm). Add 50gm of Methi seeds powder to the mixture. Store it in a container. It wont go bad. Now take a tablespoon of this mixture and add a very small amount of water in it to make a thick paste. Leave it for at least 3 - 4 hours before bath. Use this as a hair mask and wash it off after 10 minutes. Avoid getting this in your eyes while bathing because shikakai powder can really irritate the eyes.",
        "id": 1476,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hydrating before a fast day",
        "body": "OK, so this seems to be a 24 hour fast.  Salt (sodium) and glycerol, after drinking water, prolong the time in which the water is excreted from the body, but they both work only for few hours.   The idea of hyperhydration to delay dehydration sounds interesting for marathon runners (in order to avoid the need to drink during the race), but according to American College of Sports Medicine, only few hours after hyperhydration, you will likely lose the excessive water.     Attempting to hyperhydrate with fluids that expand of the extra- and   intracellular spaces (e.g., water and glycerol solutions) will greatly   increase the risk of having to void during competition...   Glycerol can also have side effects, such as diarrhea.  I am not aware of any nutrient, supplement or food that would keep the water in your body in any meaningful manner in a 24-hour fasting scenario.  The effect of fasting is that you feel the lack of benefit of food. The resulting hunger can then remind you of things, other than food, that are important for you. Resisting from food alone (while drinking water) can already have this effect. Hyperhydration before fasting would cancel the effect of resisting from water, so what's the point of this, anyway.  Saying that, I am not promoting or suggesting anyone to resist from drinking water for any amount of time, because it could be potentially health- or even life-threatening.  If one has to survive for 24 hours without water and food, the means to avoid dehydration can be:   Keep yourself well hydrated before fasting. Avoid alcohol and caffeine before fasting because they can promote the excretion of water through the urine. Avoid/limit anything what promotes sweating, such as exercise, exposure to sun and excessive clothing. ",
        "id": 1943,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are pros and cons of different approaches to aborting ventricular tachycardia?",
        "body": "Please see the following society guidelines first:  The 2006 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association/European Society of Cardiology (ACC/AHA/ESC) guidelines:     \u25cfThere is evidence and/or general agreement supporting RF ablation in   patients with symptomatic idiopathic VT that is drug-refractory, or in   such patients who are intolerant of drugs or do not desire long-term   drug therapy.      \u25cfThe weight of evidence and/or opinion supports the use of beta   blockers and/or calcium channel blockers for the treatment of   symptomatic idiopathic VT.      \u25cfThe weight of evidence and/or opinion supports the use of class IC   antiarrhythmic drugs as an alternative to or in combination with beta   blockers and/or calcium channel blockers for the treatment of   symptomatic idiopathic VT that arises from the RVOT. Subsequently, the   2009 European Heart Rhythm Association/Heart Rhythm Society (EHRA/HRS)   expert consensus statement recommended catheter ablation in the   following patients with idiopathic VT and without structural heart   disease [86]:         Severely symptomatic patients with monomorphic VT.    Monomorphic VT in patients in whom antiarrhythmic drugs are not   effective, not tolerated, or not desired.     Patients with recurrent sustained polymorphic VT and VF (electrical storm) that is refractory to antiarrhythmic therapy when   there is a suspected trigger that can be targeted for ablation      Medical (non-interventional/ablative) management is what is recommended-- especially verapamil or a beta blocker as they are easy to take (pills), and have a pretty nice side effect profile.  You can easily find the adverse effects online but they would primarily have to do with heart rate and blood pressure and those are easily monitored.  Ablation is a procedure a cardiology electrophysiologist would do in the \"cath lab.\"  This would be in conjunction with an \"EP Study\" which is an electrophysiology study of the heart to try to find the culprit location that starts the arrythmia.  Ablation is sometimes used (see above) in medical-refractory cases.  You can consider amiodarone or other antiarrythmics but they have more side effects.  Amiodarone is known to have a very long half life and a long list of side effects which require chronic monitoring (thyroid issues, lung issues, etc.) which is why they are not really first line usually in these cases though can be added on to the first line agents mentioned above.  As an aside:   Cardioversion, per the roots of the word, is changing/turning the direction of the heart--> You can think of this as changing the rhythm. Defibrillation is a subset of cardioversion where it is done without any synchronization in cases of ventricular fibrillation.  Defibrillation = Asynchronous cardioversion Many medical providers use the term cardioversion in cases of only supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia (in this case usually synchronous) - Cardioversion, as it is changing the rhythm of the heart (electrical or chemical), includes defibrillation but usually is used as a term specific to supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia as defibrillation is more specific when cardioversion is used in ventricular fibrillation. ",
        "id": 45,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are most normal human beings capable of controlling laughter?",
        "body": "Yes, it's possible to control your laughter. There are several methods of controlling your laughter or laughing without anyone being hurt in the process. Such as    Think of something sad and depressing: Although this can be unpleasant, it usually takes care of the uncontrollable urge to laugh. If sadness doesn't work, fear is also extremely effective. Think of a scene from a horror movie you just saw or a car accident. This is physically proven to work because the adrenaline (the fear hormone) released from your brain when you have these thoughts will block out the endorphins (the happiness or laughing hormone). It may take some practice to convince yourself enough of the fear, but once you have mastered it, it's very effective. Force yourself to turn your laugh into a cry: if the occasion is something sad such as a funeral. Some people sound like they are laughing before they cry.  \u2022If it gets really bad, hold your nose and cover your mouth with that hand. Then people can't see your grin, and you can laugh as hard as you wish inside yourself. You may start shaking, but that's okay, it can be covered as crying. Try not to let any sound out, but if you do ease up by accident, it sounds much like a sneeze or a strange snort. Pretend to pick your teeth: Open your mouth wide and pretend to pick away at something stuck. Not only does it totally hide your smile, you also clean your teeth at the same time! Be careful though because the face made is funny enough to make others start laughing when they see what you're up to.   http://m.wikihow.com/Stop-Laughing-at-Inappropriate-Times",
        "id": 1400,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does unfiltered coffee raise cholesterol",
        "body": "Some of the oils in coffee (terpenes, in particular kahweol and cafestol) are believed to be the source of its effect on cholesterol.[1, 2, 3, 4]  There are two ways to cut down on intake of cholesterol-influencing terpenes:   Switch to filtered coffee.  The terpenes are mostly retained in the paper filter instead of going into your drink. At the same time, cut down on the cream and sugar, as you already noted ;) Quit drinking coffee completely. Even filtered coffee still has some terpenes present, and therefore can still impact cholesterol levels. Filtered coffee is a significant improvement \u2014 \"serum cholesterol raising effect of unfiltered coffee ... is reduced by about 80% in filtered coffee\"[4] \u2014 but if you're being very rigorous about watching your dietary cholesterol intake, it may be time to quit.     For further reading, some sources are below. The fourth (Strandhagen and Thelle 2003) has a number of additional studies in its introduction.   Coffee and Cholesterol: Does your daily morning jolt boost the risk of heart disease? (NBC News) Does Coffee Raise Cholesterol? (Dr. Andrew Weil) van Dusseldorp et al. Cholesterol-raising factor from boiled coffee does not pass a paper filter. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 1991 May-Jun;11(3):586-93 E Strandhagen and D S Thelle. Filtered coffee raises serum cholesterol: results from a controlled study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2003) 57, 1164\u20131168. ",
        "id": 668,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Liver for iron deficiency anemia",
        "body": "In short: Animal liver may not be a suitable source of iron to treat anemia in pregnancy.  The upper tolerable intake for vitamin A --the amount that should not cause any side effects in an adult women and no birth defects in a baby--, is 10,000 IU per day, which can come from 4.8 oz or 135 g of pork liver.  This amount of pork liver can contain 24 mg iron, which is less than the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for iron (27 mg/day) and less than commonly prescribed doses of iron supplements (>100 mg/day), so it is unlikely to improve anemia in a reasonable time.  (Sources: Vitamin A, Iron)  P.S. NOTE, that beef liver can contain much more vitamin A and much less iron, so it is even less suitable.  P.P.S. One serving of beef spleen contains twice as much iron than pork liver and practically no vitamin A (NutritionData).",
        "id": 2020,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Normal life with heavy weights?",
        "body": "If you build this up gradually, then you're more likely to succeed, although it may still be above the limit that your body can tolerate in the long term. In general, exercise stresses the body, but the body then responds to that by making itself stronger not just to meet the extra demand but to actually exceed this (provided the exercise routine isn't too strenuous). If you do bodyweight exercises like these with weighted clothing then it is actually possible that with the extra weight you'll actually feel lighter than you felt before you started wearing weighted clothing due to increased muscle mass, at least up to some maximum weight. At some point, it will become too much for your body to sustain.",
        "id": 1626,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How contagious is glandular fever?",
        "body": "Saliva is the main route of exposure, so kissing, sharing utensils, etc. should be avoided. Casual contact such as handshaking and sitting near them aren't much of a risk unless they're coughing or sneezing on you.  http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Glandular-fever/Pages/Introduction.aspx     This virus is found in the saliva of infected people and can be spread   through:         kissing \u2013 glandular fever is often referred to as the \"kissing    disease\"   exposure to coughs and sneezes   sharing eating and drinking utensils, such as cups, glasses and    unwashed cutlery         EBV may be found in the saliva of someone who has had glandular fever   for several months after their symptoms pass, and some people may   continue to have the virus in their saliva on and off for years.      If you have EBV, it's a good idea to take steps to avoid infecting   others while you are ill, such as not kissing other people, but   there's no need no need to avoid all contact with others as the   chances of passing on the infection are generally low.   Note that the virus can also be spread by other body fluids, so more intimate contact with an infected person should be avoided.  http://www.cdc.gov/epstein-barr/about-ebv.html     EBV spreads most commonly through bodily fluids, especially saliva.   However, EBV can also spread through blood and semen during sexual   contact, blood transfusions, and organ transplantations. ",
        "id": 956,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to combat muscular atrophy while in coma?",
        "body": "Of course you could combat muscular degeneration.   What you could do is    Massage (Higher protein intake by infusion) (Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) (Steroids)   But it's an intervention that's not essential for life and probably dangerous so this isn't practical.",
        "id": 1023,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are we putting on our faces!?! Why don't we have an agency like the FDA approving/monitoring the safety of cosmetics?",
        "body": "Cosmetics sold in China are subject to control by administrative licensing under the \u201cSupervising Rules of Cosmetics Hygiene\u201d regulations published by the Ministry of Health of the People\u2019s Republic of China (MOH) and the \u201cRules for Acceptance of Application to Cosmetics Administrative License\u201d published by the State Food and Drug Administration (SFDA).  http://www.intertek.com/cosmetics/exporting-to-china/",
        "id": 1393,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tooth filling over an already decayed region?",
        "body": "Surprisingly, it might not always be necessary,   However, to make one thing clear, if we are talking about caries, the tooth is not merely decayed, it is infected by bacteria.      Dental decay is due to the irreversible solubilization of tooth mineral by acid produced by certain bacteria that adhere to the tooth surface in bacterial communities known as dental plaque.   Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease (chapter of \"Medical Microbiology\")   There are multiple studies on what happens if not all of the infection is removed prior to tooth filling. For example The monitoring of deep caries lesions after incomplete dentine caries removal: results after 14\u201318\u00a0months     Interference in environmental conditions by partial dentine caries removal and tooth sealing arrests lesion progression, suggesting that complete dentine caries removal is not essential to control caries progression.   This suggests that as soon as the tooth is sealed, the infection doesn't spread deeper. One meta study reached the conclusion:     Based on reviewed studies, incomplete caries removal seems advantageous compared with complete excavation, especially in proximity to the pulp. However, evidence levels are currently insufficient for definitive conclusions because of high risk of bias within studies.   Incomplete Caries Removal: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis  However, until this proves to be a very clear benefit with good evidence, the recommendation will be to remove the complete infection, for fear of it spreading deeper under the filling and/or the tooth getting weaker. Especially for not very deep infections, removing it all may be simpler and need less follow-up. ",
        "id": 325,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does syrup actually last?",
        "body": "You didn't say what type of syrup, so I'll assume a typical syrup like maple. According to stilltasty.com, it's good for one year if refrigerated and indefinitely if frozen.    Stilltasty uses government food safety guidelines as its criteria, so it tends to be very conservative. I have a bottle of maple syrup that was opened over a year ago and I intend to keep it and finish the bottle even if it takes another year, and it is not refrigerated. It's kept in a pantry at room temperature. Since bacteria don't grow readily in heavy sugar solutions, bacterial contamination is almost never an issue with syrups, jellies, etc. Sometimes the sugars will separate out, but you can fix that by simply warming the syrup in a microwave or hot water. The sugar crystals will re-dissolve. Mold can sometimes get established, but that's plainly visible and you should toss anything with mold in it.  So, basically, government guidelines say throw that 2014 syrup away immediately. I, however, would eat it without worry.  EDIT: In response to a question in comments, I've added this link:  https://biology.stackexchange.com/a/42810/4729",
        "id": 1319,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hitler's physician Morrel prescribed a drug that contained e. coli -- was this unusual in those days?",
        "body": "During the First World War many German soldiers on the Western Front suffered from  dysentry. The physician Alfred Nissle compared sick and healthy soldiers and figured that the intestinal bacteria were significantly different. Reasoning that perhaps the bacteria from the healthy soldiers might contribute to healing the sick, he isolated a strain called Escherichia coli Nissle 1917.  U Sonnenborn: \"Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917-from bench to bedside and back: history of a special Escherichia coli strain with probiotic properties.\", FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2016 Oct;363(19). pii: fnw212. Epub 2016 Sep 11.    The idea is exactly the same as with modern probiotics, like yoghurt drinks etc, and in fact the original strain is still on the market with its original marketing name: Mutaflor (historical summary (PDF) from the company website). I don't know whether this long history of cultivation might be responsible for its relative weakness now for that purpose (Eg \"Thus, E. coli Nissle 1917 does not have the capacity to compete effectively with MDREC in the bowel of elderly patients.\")   During the war it proved effective and in case of this special treatment of a certain guy, it seems that \"the patient\" was satisfied and convinced enough to let Morrell go on to prescribe or just administer him the known full arsenal of polytoxicomania.  Since the beginning of the century quite a few researchers played with the idea of using bacteria for therapeutic effects, not in the least because Metchnikoff published a book bout The prolongation of life; optimistic studies in 1908. But I'd say that the doctors at the time were mostly entrenched in a line of thought from Semmelweis to Koch and Pasteur, namely that bacteria \"are evil\", and therefore the very idea of using them as therapy as a form of heresy. The exact effects, and whether they are beneficial or what, are still under debate today. (Example from 1992). So, while the product was on the market with good track record, its use wasn't as widespread as modern formulations are now.    It is quite difficult to judge the reasoning and motivation Morrell had at the time. The 'medication' was not entirely unusual, being produced not in a private backyard lab but a proper facility, but even most of his contemporaries considered him a quack. So it is entirely within probable possibilities that 'his reasons' were invalid (\"A new miracle cure, I swear!\")",
        "id": 2632,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do you end up high on the Bristol stool scale when you are hungover?",
        "body": "The stool at the top of the image of Bristol stool scale looks as separate hard lumps (Type 1), which means there's a lack of water in it, which can be due to:   Drinking insufficient amount of water while drinking alcohol Eating foods low in fiber (meat, dairy products, chips, white bread, cookies, chocolate, fast food...), which is common during drinking sessions    It's fiber, mainly insoluble fiber, that absorbs water and makes the stool bulky (\"normal\"). Examples of foods high in insoluble fiber are whole grain bread, green leafy vegetables, legumes and fruits.    However, excessive alcohol drinking more likely results in loose stools (Type 6 or 7 in Bristol stool scale), which is a known symptom of a hangover.   It can be alcohol itself or something other in the drink that can irritate the bowel. Or it can be a mixture of drinks and foods that you are not used to or do not really go together...",
        "id": 2422,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the downsides of hypnosurgery (vs. using traditional anaesthetics)?",
        "body": "   Tefikow, S., J. Barth, S. Maichrowitz, A. Beelmann, B. Strauss, and J. Rosendahl. \"Efficacy of Hypnosis in Adults Undergoing Surgery or Medical Procedures: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.\" Clinical Psychology Review 33.5 (2013): 623-36. Web.    Here's a peer reviewed meta analysis that also found hypnosis to be beneficial during surgery when compared with standard care.  However, most of the studies they cite aren't very large and there definitely needs to be more study in this area before any conclusions can be drawn; positive or negative. Some logistical downsides I can think of would be:   Different methods of hypnosis being used can complicate studies Surgeons not being willing to perform surgery without anesthetics (To my knowledge) Hypnotists are not regulated or required to comply with any standards of practice If a patient is not fully sedated under anesthesia the dosage can be altered to achieve the appropriate degree of sedation, this cannot be done as objectively with hypnosis The use of anesthetics in the general population is better studied and documented than hypnosis, therefore surgical guidelines will favor anesthesia ",
        "id": 643,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Indications for surgery for Haglund's heel?",
        "body": "Haglund's syndrome is defined as soft tissue and bony abnormalities in the retrocalcaneal region such as retrocalcaneal bursitis, superficial tendo Achilles bursitis, and thickening and/or inflammation of the Achilles tendon. Patients with Haglund's syndrome show a prominent bony contour of the posterior calcaneus.  Below an MRI showing typical Haglund's syndrome abnormalities (the white part just under the Achilis tendon and the bony projection of the calcaneus):    Several studies have investigated the best management option for patients with Haglund's syndrome. The open access review by Sofka et al provides a good overview:  Here some facts regarding conservative treatment:     Conservative treatment options include reassessment of the footwear   the patient is currently wearing, the use of heel inserts, and oral   anti-inflammatory medication. The effects of heel elevation on the   relationship between the calcaneal bursal projection and the Achilles   tendon and retrocalcaenal bursa have been described. Although the   size of the calcaneal bursal projection remains the same when the heel   is elevated, the plantar calcaneal pitch angle decreases and shifts   the osseous calcaneal bursal projection away from the retrocalcaneal   soft tissues, decreasing friction and irritation   Here some facts regarding surgical treatment:     Surgical treatment options, including retrocalcaneal decompression and   calcaneal ostectomy or osteotomy, have varying results.   Inadequate bone resection can lead to recurrence of symptoms, with   other postsurgical complications potentially including scar formation   with nerve entrapment, weakening or rupture of the Achilles tendon,   and nonunion of the calcaneal osteotomy.   Sources:  Sofka CM, Adler RS, Positano R, Pavlov H, Luchs JS. Haglund\u2019s Syndrome: Diagnosis and Treatment Using Sonography. HSS Journal. 2006;2(1):27-29. doi:10.1007/s11420-005-0129-8.  http://radiopaedia.org/cases/haglund-syndrome-5 for the MRI image",
        "id": 1179,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can/In what way does Vortioxetine/Brintellix treat ADHD?",
        "body": "First, a correction. ADHD is NOT caused by a dopamine deficiency. It is way more complex than that, but i won't go into detail here. The best treatments for ADHD alter dopamine activity (and they are very effective), but that doesn't mean the cause for ADHD is a dopamine deficiency.  So the question is how vortioxetine can help in ADHD. Well, the short answer is that one major part of ADHD (the \"look-a-squirrel-forget-what-you-were-doing part\") is working memory. Vortioxetine has been shown to have positive effects on working memory, at least in depressed patients. It wouldn't be too far out to assume it could have similar effects for ADHD-patients.  The long answer is that different neurotransmitter systems are interconnected, so that increasing signaling in one can increase or decrease signaling in another. It gets even more complex when you add receptor subtypes to the picture. Serotonin has 14 receptor subtypes that we know of, with different roles and effects. Then add that the same neurotransmitter on the same receptor has different functions depending on where it is located in the body or brain. Now you have a nice, complex picture.  Vortioxetine activates 5-HT1A (serotonin 1A), which increases dopamine signaling in the prefrontal cortex and deactivates 5-HT1B, which also increases dopamine signaling in the PFC (same neurotransmitter, same location, different receptor, opposite effect). It also deactivates 5-HT3 and 5-HT7, both of which have effects that strengthen signaling in the PFC (through the serotonin, noradrenalin and glutamate systems). All of these effects could be relevant for improving ADHD-symptoms.  So that's how it could help in ADHD.",
        "id": 439,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will regular consumption of Probiotics cause side effects?",
        "body": "If we consider that the numbers of bacteria far exceed that of human cells then you will realise that bacteria are not necessarily harmful.  Addictions require some type of immediate positive reinforcement eg. through opioid receptors or cannabinoid receptors and since probiotic organisms are usually mixed in with food, this seems highly unlikely to cause an addiction.  Furthermore, probiotics have been taken in one form or another for millennia; their use is not new, and they often have beneficial effect on human health.     It became clear that intestinal microflora had metabolic functions, such as fermenting indigestible dietary residues and endogenous mucus, saving of energy, production of vitamin K, and absorption of ions (O\u2019Sullivan et al., 1992). Probiotics have roles in epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation, and the development and the homeostasis of the immune system (Cammarota et al., 2009). Probiotics are not an invention but existed in our traditional foods such as beverages, salty fishes, yogurt, different types of cheeses and so on since olden times (Amara, 2012). Such food structures contain different types of useful bacteria. It might be that the first real use of food containing Probiotics was fermented milk (Hosono, 1992). Humans learned that fermented milk has a good taste. Later they learned how to convert it into cheese, yogurt and so on (Metchnikoff and Mitchell, 1910; Metchnikoff, 2004; Amara, 2012). Before the discovery of the microscope, humans knew how to prepare different types of milk products with different tastes and structures (Amara, 2012). This is a result of the action of different microbial reactions induced by different microbes (Bourdichon et al., 2012).    https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1319016413000819",
        "id": 2224,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there detrimental health effects to drinking old tea?",
        "body": "Black tea can last almost forever. Health related detriments are potentially present already in fresh leaves. Risks added by storing tea for too long are first and foremost: taste deterioration. This is especially true if it was stored improperly, that is with spices and other material that emits odours that are then captured by the tea. That is of course all moot if it was stored somewhere moist. Molds growing on it should be of some concern. Since it is black tea that will be prepared with boiling water :this will kill most of the microorganisms present on the leaves, since they never had a chance to thrive on dry material.   Trust your eyes, your nose and your taste buds.  If you think it looks gross now, or tastes way off, don't drink it. Otherwise don't worry.  How long does tea last?:     How long does packaged tea last? Unopened, packaged tea can last a year beyond any \"best by\" date stamped on the package. Does tea expire? Tea will eventually lose flavor, but dry leaves will last a very long time. The shelf life of tea depends on a variety of factors, such as the best before date, the preparation method and how it was stored.   The Shelf Life of Black Tea:     Black tea is fully fermented, and it has a longer shelf life than green tea. Generally, the shelf life of black tea in bulk is about 18 months, while bagged tea is 24 months. Tins or aluminum foil bags for black tea can be stored for about 3 years, and paper bag is for 2 years.   Food Storage - How Long Can You Keep... Tea Bags, Commercially Packaged \u2014 Unopened Or Opened        How long do tea bags last? The precise answer depends to a large extent on storage conditions \u2014 to maximize the shelf life of tea bags (including black, green, herbal and oolong), store in a cool, dark cupboard, away from direct heat or sunlight.   How long do tea bags last at room temperature? Properly stored, tea bags will generally stay at best quality for about 18 to 24 months.   To maximize the shelf life of tea bags, and to better retain flavor and potency, store in airtight containers.   Are tea bags safe to use after the \"expiration\" date on the package? Yes, provided they are properly stored and the package is undamaged \u2014 commercially packaged tea bags will typically carry a \"Best By,\" \"Best if Used By,\" \"Best Before,\" or \"Best When Used By\" date but this is not a safety date, it is the manufacturer's estimate of how long the tea bags will remain at peak quality.   Do tea bags ever spoil? No, commercially packaged tea bags do not spoil, but will start to lose potency and flavor over time \u2014 the storage time shown is for best quality only.   Should you store tea bags in the refrigerator or freezer? Storing tea bags in the fridge or freezer is not recommended, since condensation can result, which will harm the taste and flavor of the tea.   How can you tell if tea bags are still good? To test whether tea bags are still good, brew a cup of tea for at least 3 to 5 minutes - if the aroma is weak and the flavor is not obvious, the tea bags should be replaced.      Does tea lose its health benefits if it\u2019s been stored a long time? And is it better to use loose tea or tea bags?     While fresh may be best for enjoying many types of teas, that\u2019s not always the case. Some pu\u2019er teas from China are considered to improve in taste with storage, much like a fine wine. In fact, the degradation and oxidation of catechins during storage of pu\u2019er teas result in the formation of new phytochemicals, which have come to be highly valued by tea drinkers for their rich, earthy taste and probiotic health properties.   Related on Cooking.SE (Seasoned Advice): My tea bags are expired, can I still use them?",
        "id": 1987,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What steps can I take to prevent a seizure from occurring?",
        "body": "I have found following peer-reviewed paper which provides a review of the nonpharmaceutic conservative interventions for the prevention of seizures:  Wolf P. The role of nonpharmaceutic conservative interventions in the treatment and secondary prevention of epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2002;43 Suppl 9:2-5. 1  It says (I have kept the essential parts):     The first step is the identification of factors facilitating the   occurrence of seizures. In the second step, strategies to control   these factors are developed. Most common are disturbances of the   sleep-wake cycle, especially reduction of sleep. Patients should   follow a regular sleep schedule with deviations of not >2 h. Sometimes   a sleep calendar is helpful. Night shifts are not compatible with   seizure prevention in these cases. (...) Other nonspecific   facilitators of seizures include uncontrolled use of alcohol and   extraordinary stress. Patients must learn how to cope with stressful   events.   It also provides some preventive measures for specific types of epilepsies:     In reflex epilepsies, specific precipitants of seizures are the   targets of interventions. Thus, most patients with primary reading   epilepsy begin to have, with prolonged reading, perioral reflex   myoclonias, which enable them to stop reading and thus to avoid a GTC   seizure. In photosensitive patients, seizures are often precipitated   by television. These can be avoided by viewing from a distance and   using a remote control, small screens in a well-lit room, and   preferably with a 100-Hz line shift. Environmental flicker stimulation   often comes unexpectedly, and it is advisable that the patients always   wear sunglasses in brightly lighted surroundings. Polarized glasses   seem to be more protective than plain sunglasses. If the patient has   only photically induced seizures, treatment by specific prevention   alone may be sufficient, but if spontaneous seizures also occur, drugs   must be given in addition.   Hope this helps!",
        "id": 125,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does ingesting nicotinamide riboside (NR) supplements have a deleterious effect on tendons?",
        "body": "There is no data to suggest that is the case.  The placebo controlled safety study https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-017-0016-9 found no differences in musculoskeletal adverse side effects between active and control groups.",
        "id": 2200,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Teeth with removed nerves. Possible remineralization?",
        "body": "It depends on which part of tooth has the decay, if it is in enamel it can be remineralized because of this process doesn't need pulp tissue despite of the dentin decay which needs the pulp tissue to do that.  I mean enamel decay needs outer resources for reminerlization and dentin ones need pulp to do the process.",
        "id": 1966,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Medical imaging - image quality?",
        "body": "Here are some resources and books you can use but before that check out FDA ,radiologyeducation.com, virginia.edu , emory.edu and sprawls.org i think they can pretty much give you the information you want.  For fundamental information and physic of radiography ( which i think is the answer to your question) :  Principles of Radiographic Imaging: An Art and a Science  Review of Radiologic Physics  The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging  Fundamentals of Medical Imaging Principles Radiographic Imaging Science  Radiology Fundamentals  Radiobiology for the Radiologist  For MRI i recommend :  MRI in Practice  For PET scan :  Basics of PET Imaging: Physics, Chemistry, and Regulations  CT scan :  Computed Tomography for Technologists  Step by Step Ct Scan  Fundamentals of Body Ct  If you need other sources you can see bookdepository and amazon I hope that i helped.",
        "id": 574,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there high chances of long term complications from having TB?",
        "body": "There are complications involved with TB itself and with the treatment.   The TB itself is likely to resolve (assuming it isn't resistant which it should have been tested for). Thus no complications caused by TB should occur which would be damage to structures in the neck or elsewhere affected by TB and disease if TB had spread across the body.   The treatment has a number of side effects. These include   The oral contraceptive might not work Can damage your liver and eyes. For this reason your liver and eyes are tested before treatment and during treatment Rash Vomit Numbness   If any of these occur, she should see a doctor. And honestly, she should discuss which complications she might face with a doctor.",
        "id": 244,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Natural Remedies For Lower Muscarine?",
        "body": "Background  Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, or\u00a0mAChRs, are\u00a0acetylcholine receptors\u00a0that form\u00a0G protein-coupled receptor complexes\u00a0in the\u00a0cell membranes\u00a0of certain\u00a0neurons (Eglen, 2006)\u00a0and other\u00a0cells. They play several roles, including acting as the main end-receptor stimulated by\u00a0acetylcholine\u00a0released from postganglionic fibers\u00a0in the\u00a0parasympathetic nervous system.  Ligands\u00a0targeting the mAChR that are currently approved for clinical use include non-selective antagonists for the treatment of\u00a0Parkinson's disease,\u00a0atropine\u00a0(to dilate the\u00a0pupil for medical examinations), scopolamine (used to prevent\u00a0motion sickness), and\u00a0ipratropium\u00a0(used in the treatment of\u00a0COPD).  With regard to antipsychotics mentioned in the question's image source (Correll, 2008), Olanzapine and clozapine produce robust increases in hippocampal acetylcholine release during acetylcholinesterase inhibition, while other antipsychotics, including thioridazine, have only small effects (Johnson, et al. 2005). Since thioridazine binds with similar high affinities to muscarinic receptors as olanzapine and clozapine, muscarinic autoreceptor blockade was ruled out as a primary mechanism (Shirazi-Southall, et al. 2002). This study compared in vitro binding affinities and functional activities of olanzapine, clozapine, thioridazine, ziprasidone, risperidone, chlorpromazine and scopolamine at muscarinic M2 receptors with their in vivo potencies to increase acetylcholine release in the rat hippocampus.  To your question (how do you prevent insomnia with natural remedies when stopping these medications)  Stopping Antipsychotics  The main thing to consider, especially when talking about stopping antipsychotic medications, is that insomnia can be the least of the problems.  As indicated in the image you posted, stopping them can have withdrawal symptoms which include psychotic episodes, anxiety, and Extrapyramidal Symptoms (EPS).  Stopping these medications should only be done under the guidance of your doctor.  Stopping other medications  Whatever the medication is you are stopping, if you suffer from insomnia as a withdrawal symptom, you should speak to your doctor who can advise on the best course of action.  References  Correll, C. U. (2008). Assessing and maximizing the safety and tolerability of antipsychotics used in the treatment of children and adolescents.\u00a0The Journal of clinical psychiatry,\u00a069, 26-36. pmid: 18533766  Eglen, R. M. (2006). Muscarinic receptor subtypes in neuronal and non-neuronal cholinergic function.\u00a0Autonomic &amp; Autacoid Pharmacology.\u00a026(3), 219-33. doi: 10.1111/j.1474-8673.2006.00368.x  Johnson, D. E., Nedza, F. M., Spracklin, D. K., Ward, K. M., Schmidt, A. W., Iredale, P. A., ... &amp; Rollema, H. (2005). The role of muscarinic receptor antagonism in antipsychotic-induced hippocampal acetylcholine release.\u00a0European journal of pharmacology,\u00a0506(3), 209-219. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.11.015  Shirazi-Southall, S., Rodriguez, D. E., &amp; Nomikos, G. G. (2002). Effects of typical and atypical antipsychotics and receptor selective compounds on acetylcholine efflux in the hippocampus of the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(5), 583-594. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00400-6",
        "id": 2438,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can I manage the symptom of forgetfulness in a patient with dementia?",
        "body": "You can use pictures of the patients family with captions saying who they are and their relationship to the individual.  If they are still able (but forgetful) in the kitchen put pictures on the cupboard fronts to show what is in them. If they can't get the right order of a task e.g puts water in the teacup and then switches on the kettle. Try putting together a storyboard of the task; 1 Put water in the kettle 2 Switch the kettle on. 3 Take Mug from cupboard and so on.  If you are in the UK the Alzheimer's Society has information and Resources to help. No doubt similar information exists in other countries.  A friend of my father-in-law would forget to take her medication - so a dosage box was obtained that could be programmed to open the section for today at the appropriate time the tablet should be taken. Of course they can still forget what the opening of the dosage box means for them, if no one is with them.  If they are forgetting their husband or wife they can get distressed by that partner getting frustrated by the fact they are not remembering who the patient is married to. As hard as it is, just keep calm and cool and keep saying each time I'm Fred\\Bill\\Mary (insert name here) your husband\\wife.",
        "id": 274,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possible side effects of TENS",
        "body": "Although I couldn\u2019t find evidence-based literature concerning your specific use of TENS, I will try to give your some clarifications concerning your question:  First, what is TENS: Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS) is the application of electrical current through electrodes placed on the skin. Varying frequencies can be applied, from low (&lt; 10 Hz) to high (> 50 Hz). Depending the intensity used, the patients feels from a strong but comfortable sensation to motor contraction (sensory intensity of TENS vs motor intensity of TENS). The most frequent use of TENS is in pain control, but other approaches have been described in the literature (cognitive improvement, blood pressure control, etc...).  The mechanisms of action of TENS is complex and depends on the localisation of the TENS stimulation. For example, it has been shown that in pain control, TENS activates so called \u201csmall diameter fiber\u201ds that lead to an inhibition of pain facilitatory pathways from the central nervous system.  TENS effects are mediated by many neurotransmitters such as serotonin, acetylcholine. Additionally, TENS also activate opioid receptors, explaining its role in pain control and noradrenaline receptors, suggesting its role in blood pressure control.  Your question     Does a TENS units work by permanently numbing nerve receptors?   The effect of TENS on nerve fibers is dependent on several factors, principally the pulse amplitude and the pulse duration used. Your question doesn\u2019t provide information on how you applied TENS. Experience from pain control studies have shown that activation of large diameter fibres by high frequency TENS leads to more profound and longer lasting inhibition of central pain transmission. Also, the effect of TENS may decline with time due to a phenomen of habituation. These evidences suggest that TENS modulates (either in short term or long term) the function and activity of fiber receptors.  I couldn\u2019t find an example in the literature concerning your specific use of TENS, but it is possible that repeated TENS might have altered neurotransmission of some fibers.  The glans penis is innvervated by the dorsal nerve of the penis. Depending on your location of the TENS, it may be possible that some of these fibers have been \u201coverstimulated\u201d by TENS, leading to the symptoms you are describing.  Your statement     TENS increases blood flow   I found a study (See in \"Sources) that showed that TENS induces a vasodilatator effect on its stimulation site. Interestingly, a trial has been launched in 2016 with the aim to investigate the effect of TENS on arterial stiffness and blood pressure in indivduals with hypertension. So the currently rather sparse evidence regarding TENS and vasodilatator effect has to be confirmed.  Your statement     Doxazosin is associated with sexual dysfunction   As you have already suggested, sexual side effects is often reported in patients under antihypertensive drugs. Interestingly, in one study investigating the effect of five antihypertensive drugs (acebutolol, amlodipine maleate, chlorthalidone, doxazosin maleate, or enalapril maleate) on sexual function, doxazosine was associated with the lowest incidence of sexual dysfunction. Nevertheless, it is possible that the symptoms you experience may also be linked to doxazosine.  Overall, it is difficult to categorise the symptoms you are describing. From the above points, a mixed aetiology (both the use of TENS and the side effects of doxazine) cannot be excluded. One approach would be to discuss it with your family doctor. If you take doxazosine as an antihypertensive drug, maybe a switch of antihypertensive drug can help unveiling the role of doxazosine in the symptoms you have described.  Sources:   Vilela-Martin JF, Giollo-Junior LT, Chiappa GR, et al. Effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) on arterial stiffness and blood pressure in resistant hypertensive individuals: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2016;17:168. Yang CC, Bradley WE. Neuroanatomy of the penile portion of the human dorsal nerve of the penis. British journal of urology. 1998. Volume 82, Number 1: Pages 109-113 Johnson M. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation: Mechanisms, Clinical Application and Evidence. Reviews in Pain. 2007;1(1):7-11. ",
        "id": 1064,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "B12 deficiency and insomnia",
        "body": "Vitamin B12 is involved in the synthesis of melatonin, a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland in mammals and helps to regulate the circadian rhythm and therefore sleep. Thus a B12 deficiency could result in sleep disturbance.   Source:   Peuhkuri, Katri, Nora Sihvola, and Riitta Korpela. \"Dietary factors and fluctuating levels of melatonin.\" Food &amp; nutrition research 56.1 (2012): 17252. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3402070  This provides a theoretical basis for the treatment of sleep disorders with B12, however the evidence base for the efficacy of such treatment is very small, consisting mainly of low-quality epidemiological studies (case reports). The only well-designed study I could find was by Okawa el at (1997) which did not find any treatment effect:  Okawa M, Takahashi K, Egashira K, et al. Vitamin B12 treatment for delayed sleep phase syndrome: a multi-center double-blind study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1997;51:275\u20139.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4582061",
        "id": 1244,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is cross-resistance against lice?",
        "body": "They're saying that a head lice infestation might provoke the immune system into more effectively resisting body lice infestations. ",
        "id": 1730,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Looking for studies about how blood pressure changes are perceived by our brain",
        "body": "This study published in 2014 provides an excellent review of the physiological mechanisms of cerebral blood flow regulation (open access):  Willie CK et al. Integrative regulation of human brain blood flow. J Physiol. 2014 Mar 1;592(5):841-59. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.268953.  Their list of references includes a very exhaustive list of studies conducted on this topic.  This study provides a figure which actually gives a good overview of the mechanisms of CBF regulation:    Here a small extract of the legend:  First, they give a small description of the brain vasculature     The central figure depicts the cerebrovasculature, comprised of two   pairs of large arteries that branch from the sublavian arteries, i.e.   the internal carotid arteries (ICAs) that carry \u223c70% of total cerebral   blood flow (CBF) and the vertebral arteries (VAs) that distribute \u223c30%   of total CBF to the brainstem, cerebellum and occipital cortex. The   internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteriess anastomose to form   the circle of Willis before branching out into the main intracerebral   arteries that ramify extensively en route to the brain surface. At the   surface, the vessels form a dense network of highly vasoactive   arterioles within the pia mater before they penetrate into the cortex   (inlay II).   Then they explain the role of intracranial pressure in the regulation of CBF     The driving pressure in this system is the cerebral perfusion pressure   (CPP) that is determined by the difference between mean arterial   pressure (MAP) and intracranial pressure (ICP), in conditions where   central venous pressure (CVP) is lower than ICP. In these conditions,   MAP approximates CPP. As a result of the enclosed nature of the skull,   ICP acts as a Starling resistor for cerebral venous outflow, a   mechanism that is likely to be of greater importance with marked   elevations in ICP or CVP, or both.   Cerebral arteries are the main actors in maintaining brain perfusion and react to changes in blood gases and to changes in perfusion pressure. Similarly, the pial vessels respond to changes in CPP, arterial partial pressures of O2 and CO2. Inlay III of their figure provides a good overview of the plial changes in response to blood gas alterations.",
        "id": 1181,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is high blood pressure ever a symptom attributable solely to dehydration?",
        "body": "Dehydration usually would result in hypotension (low blood pressure) and reflex tachycardia (rapid pulse) due to decreased circulating blood volume.  But depending on several factors, including the sympathetic reflex, transient elevated blood pressure might be seen.   However, hypertension is not diagnosed based on a single value, but repeated elevated values over time.  It is a different pathology than a temporary sympathetic reflex, and generally this is not fixed by rehydration.    Good hydration is an important part of good dietary practices that are the foundation for treatment of hypertension. However, diuretics (which reduce fluids) are also often used to treat hypertension.  There is a complex fluid balance involved, and it depends on a lot of factors.  For any individual's application of these topics, see a physician.  Good resources:   Nisha Charkoudian, John R Halliwill, Barbara J Morgan, John H Eisenach, and Michael J Joyner: \"Influences of hydration on post-exercise cardiovascular control in humans\", J Physiol. 2003 Oct 15; 552(Pt 2): 635\u2013644. Published online 2003 Aug 8. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2003.048629 PMCID: PMC2343381, PMID: 14561843 American Heart Association: \"Low Blood Pressure - When Blood Pressure Is Too Low\", 2009.  ",
        "id": 2678,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I hear ultrasounds?",
        "body": "It is likely you are not hearing the ultrasound itself (typical frequencies are upwards of 1 MHz, far beyond what the human hearing system is capable of detecting).  You are probably hearing coil whine from the electronics -- switched-mode power supplies in particular tend to operate towards the upper end of the hearing range, and the intensity of this sound changes as the power consumption does (eg. when the imaging system goes from \"idle\" to \"active\").",
        "id": 128,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to do laundry to kill and prevent athlete's foot fungus?",
        "body": "A scholarly report discusses the matter  Several years ago, a scholarly report was published. The report's \"Appendix A\" discusses, among other things, how to clean your laundry if there's a risk that it may be somewhat contagious.  The advice given  The report advises:   Whenever you do laundry, add some activated oxygen bleach (AOB).   Notes: You can use standalone AOB, or a detergent with AOB included. This link discusses your options. In the US, Tide powder is one good choice. Certain products are probably not good disinfectants, including Tide liquid, Tide pods, and OxiClean.  If possible, also do laundry at 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C).   Note: This may shrink and/or destroy certain items. (Source.) Read their care labels.  Use the regular cycle. Don't enable \"quick wash\", \"water saving\", or any other environmentally-friendly options. Make sure each item goes through the rinse and spin cycles at least twice. Preferably three times. It's best to wash items belonging to the infected family member in separate loads from everyone else's laundry. If you can also dry the items in sunlight, this is an extra bonus. The report also gives other advice; please see here.   Water temperature  In some countries (including the US and certain others), if you want to wash clothing at 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C), there's a problem.  An article on the Bottom Line Inc. website states that, in these countries,     household water heaters typically are set to 120 \u00b0F [50 \u00b0C] to minimize the risk of scalding.   The article suggests three possible workarounds.   One (dangerous) workaround would be to raise your water heater's temperature to 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C). But this is a dangerously-high setting. (Source.) It may also be illegal in your jurisdiction. (Source.) Water at 120 \u00b0F (50 \u00b0C) takes 5-10 minutes to cause a third-degree burn; but water at 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C) takes just 3-5 seconds. (Source.) Third-degree burns sometimes kill people. (Source.) Maybe I should email the Bottom Line Inc. and suggest that they revise their article. Another workaround might be to pour a kettleful of boiling water into your top-loading washer shortly before it's finished filling. A third workaround is to use a washing machine with a water-temperature-boosting feature, \"such as the Whirlpool Front-Load Washer with Deep-Clean Steam, model #WFW86HEBW, which can get the water up to 150 \u00b0F [65 \u00b0C]\". ",
        "id": 553,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is a terminal or chronic illness? What is the difference between the two?",
        "body": "Erm, the term chronic illness in itself isn't unambiguous, in the scientific literature it is used in different ways:     The academic literature is not immune to the same kind of terminology   variation. Differences in how \u201cchronic disease\u201d is used are largely   dependent on the data used for the research and the discipline of the   lead authors (i.e., public health and sociology). [...] The   implication of a non-uniform use of the term is that a detailed read   of each study is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions regarding   interventions necessary to reduce chronic disease burden for the   individual and society.      Popular Internet sources used by the general public to gather medical   information use the terms \u201cchronic disease\u201d or \u201cchronic condition\u201d to   mean slightly different things. For example, MedicineNet describes a   chronic disease as,         one lasting 3\u2009months or more, by the definition of the U.S. National   Center for Health Statistics. Chronic diseases generally cannot be   prevented by vaccines or cured by medication, nor do they just   disappear.         According to Wikipedia a chronic condition is,         a human health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise   long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time. The   term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for   more than three months. Common chronic diseases include arthritis,   asthma, cancer, COPD, diabetes and viral diseases such as hepatitis C   and HIV/AIDS.         Finally, the World Health Organization states that chronic diseases,         are not passed from person to person. They are of long duration and   generally slow progression. The four main types\u2009\u2026\u2009are cardiovascular   diseases (like heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic respiratory   diseases (such as chronic obstructed pulmonary disease and asthma) and   diabetes.         The CDC\u2019s Chronic Disease Overview omits chronic respiratory   conditions, such as COPD and asthma, and makes no mention of duration   of the disease or symptoms. MedicineNet\u2019s definition does not list   specific diseases, but does include the phrase \u201ccannot be cured by   medication.\u201d Similar to MedicineNet, Wikipedia uses the 3-month time   span as a marker, but does list specific diseases, including HIV. The   WHO\u2019s definition would eliminate HIV as a chronic disease as the virus   is \u201cpassed from person to person.\u201d      The variation in meaning is amplified when viewed in an international   context. For example, the Australian Institute for Health and Welfare   includes the following as common features of chronic disease:         complex causality, with multiple factors leading to their onset    a long   development period, for which there may be no symptoms    a prolonged   course of illness, perhaps leading to other health complications   associated functional impairment or disability.         Source: Bernell, Stefany and Howard, Steven. Use Your Words Carefully: What Is a Chronic Disease?. frontiers in Public Health, 2016,4,159. doi:  10.3389/fpubh.2016.00159    Summarising, an illness is usually considered to be chronic when it is    long-lasting (3 months is used often)  not simple to be cured  a complex causality     A terminal illness on the other hand is an illness that can not be cured and is expecting to lead to the imminent death of the patient (NHS.uk).   Diseases exist that are both chronic and terminal, multiple sclerosis as an example. Chronic diseases can turn into terminal diseases if the progress to a state where they will inadvertently lead to death. HIV is one common example of a chronic disease that can become terminal.  ",
        "id": 2283,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do nicotine lozenges cause wrinkles?",
        "body": "Skin wrinkles are generally caused by a breakdown of the collagen framework within the skin.     Collagen is a key part of your skin's structure. It forms a network of fibers within your skin that acts like a framework.      In young skin, the collagen framework is intact and the skin remains moisturized and elastic. Over time, the support structure weakens and the skin loses its elasticity. The skin begins to lose its tone as the collagen support wears down.   Wrinkles and other signs of skin ageing can be influenced by habits and behaviours during a person's life. Avoiding some risk factors for premature skin ageing can help keep skin looking younger for longer.  As well as smoking causing premature skin aging,     Wrinkles at the corners of the eyes (crow's feet) or between the eyebrows (frown lines) are thought to be caused by small muscle contractions. Over a lifetime, habitual facial expressions like frowning, smiling or squinting leave their mark on our skin.   The first link states that     Using your facial muscles -- smiling, frowning, or squinting, for instance -- is part of expressing yourself. That's normal, but it does stress the collagen in your skin. Over time, that stress adds up and contributes to facial lines and wrinkles.   If your lips are pursed whilst you are consuming the lozenge, then over time, wrinkles will form just like they would with other facial movements",
        "id": 391,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the dispersion of woman's ovulation day around the mean value which is 14th day?",
        "body": "Dispersion is roughly 12 days  This study found that only 10% of those with a regular cycle of 28 days had ovulation in the 14th day, dispersion was from day 10 up to day 22. In this study, only 69 out of 696 cycles were regular.     Ovulation occurred as early as the eighth day and as late as the 60th day of the menstrual cycle. \u200bFigure1 shows the distribution of fertile days, generated by the smoothed distribution of ovulation days. Overall, an estimated 2% of women were in their fertile window by the fourth day of their cycle and 17% by the seventh day (based on 213 women). This percentage peaked on days 12 and 13, when 54% of women were in their fertile window. If ovulation was delayed, women reached their fertile days much later. Among women who reached the fifth week of their cycle, 4-6% were in their fertile window.      Current clinical guidelines about a woman's potentially fertile days have been based on two assumptions\u2014that ovulation occurs 14 days before the next menses and that women are fertile for several days before and after ovulation. It follows that in the usual menstrual cycle lasting 28 days, the fertile days would fall between days 10 and 17.15 The assumptions are, however, outdated. Firstly, only a small percentage of women ovulate exactly 14 days before the onset of menses. This is true even for women whose cycles are usually 28 days long. Among the 69 cycles for 28 days in our study, ovulation occurred 14 days before the next menses in only 10%. Time from ovulation to next menses ranged from 7 to 19 days (days 10 to 22 of the menstrual cycle). Thus, the fertile window can occur much earlier or later in the cycle than clinical guidelines suggest. On average, at least 10% of women with regular cycles were in their fertile window on any given day of their cycle between days 6 and 21. The timing of the fertile window is even less predictable for women with less regular cycles, which includes adolescents and women in their perimenopause.    The timing of the \u201cfertile window\u201d in the menstrual cycle: day specific estimates from a prospective study BMJ. 2000 Nov 18; 321(7271): 1259\u20131262. PMCID: PMC27529 Allen J Wilcox, branch chief, David Dunson, investigator,and Donna Day Baird, senior investigator     This website by Dr. med. Elisabeth Raith-Paula provides the following graphic, which seems to be inline with the above cited study.    Image Taken From: Raith E., Frank P., Freundl G. (1994) Wie korrelieren die Zeichen und Symptome der periodischen Fruchtbarkeit zur Ovulation und untereinander?. In: Nat\u00fcrliche Familienplanung heute. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg; https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-22209-6_7",
        "id": 2014,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why am I feeling too weak that can\u2019t stand up after seeing new syllabus before two days of exam?",
        "body": "It is safest to be evaluated by a medical professional. The rules of HealthSE don't permit personal health advice questions. If you are still experiencing symptoms - as above, get seen urgently or phone for help.",
        "id": 1805,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Human Circadian Rythym, can we live a 36 hour day, or for that matter, a 48 hour day?",
        "body": "A few studies have been published concerning this topic. For example this one: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1330995/ To my knowledge they all had somewhat similar results:     Seven solitary subjects, and two groups of four, spent from 5 to 13   days in an isolation unit without knowledge of time. Three solitary   subjects and one group of four adopted fairly regular activity habits   with a period of 25-27 h; one subject adopted a period of 30 h, and   one of 27 h initially, decreasing to 24-25 h after a few days. One   group of four awoke roughly every 24 h, after a sleep which was   alternately about 8 h, or about 4 h and believed by the subjects to be   an afternoon siesta. Two solitary subjects alternated sleeps of about   8 or 16 h, separated by 24 h of activity.   So while your 'optimal' rhythm might be somewhere around 25 hours of activity in one circadian cycle, there are severe social implications to consider living in 'another timezone' than everybody else in your community. Concerning the second part of your question and then sleep for over 16 hours, there are studies, which show that for an average adult the optimal amout of sleep lies between 7-9 hours. However, the test subjects in these studies are usually just awake for around 15 hours. So, I do not think that anybody can give you a responsible advice on this matter.  Also, to my knowledge, there is no reasonable amount of evidence for long-term effects such a changed circadian cycle might have on one's health.",
        "id": 944,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How feasible is the discovery of the organ \u201einterstitium\u201c (opposed to it just being interstitial space)?",
        "body": "Short answer The authors explicitly mention to have found a component of tissues, not an organ.    Background The authors make no mention of an 'organ'. Here's an excerpt from the Discussion section of the linked paper:      In sum, while typical descriptions of the interstitium suggest spaces between cells, we describe macroscopically visible spaces within tissues \u2013 dynamically compressible and distensible sinuses through which interstitial fuid fows around the body.    It's all about semantics: they say 'macroscopically visible spaces within tissues'. So they speak on a sub-tissue scale. Now the following figure shows the layers of organzation in an organism, which has significance to your question. It shows that organs are made our of tissues. In turn, the authors of the article are explicitly talking about interstitial spaces within tissues, and they do not claim to have found an organ anywhere in the paper. Instead, the authors claim to have stumbled upon  interstitial found within tissues, so indeed at a sub-tissue level.    Fig. 1. Layers of organization. source: Encyclopedia Lubopitko ",
        "id": 2234,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Studies on the efficacy of CBD to fight connective tissue inflammation",
        "body": "What you\u2019ve heard is rooted in fact. CBD has well-known and well-characterized anti-inflammatory effects. [1,2]   It also has demonstrable chondrogenic effects:     This review discusses the role of the cannabinoid system in cartilage tissue and endeavors to establish if targeting the cannabinoid system has potential in mesenchymal stem cell based tissue-engineered cartilage repair strategies. The review discusses the potential of cannabinoids to protect against the degradation of cartilage in inflamed arthritic joints and the influence of cannabinoids on the chondrocyte precursors, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). We provide experimental evidence to show that activation of the cannabinoid system enhances the survival, migration and chondrogenic differentiation of MSCs, which are three major tenets behind the success of a cell-based tissue-engineered cartilage repair strategy. These findings highlight the potential for cannabinoids to provide a dual function by acting as anti-inflammatory agents as well as regulators of MSC biology in order to enhance tissue engineering strategies aimed at cartilage repair. [3]   Recent research has also shown that CBD decreases MMP9 (an enzyme that degrades extracellular matrix proteins in the body) expression and activity, which would also contribute to a protective effect on your connective tissue. [4]",
        "id": 2703,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "For a purpose of a clinical study, what is considered to be a cardiovascular death?",
        "body": "Cardiovascular death is a general term meaning death caused by anything involving the heart or blood vessels. I can't find and don't think there exists a formal definition. Aside from stroke and MI, the major examples would be:   Sudden cardiac arrest  Pulmonary embolism Congestive heart failure Lethal arrhythmias Aortic dissection Myocardial rupture Cardiac tamponade ",
        "id": 1648,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When doing static (traditional \"lean and hold\" type of stretching), how long should we hold the stretch?",
        "body": "The general consensus on the internet and among various physical trainers is that static stretching in 20-30 second segments is sufficient to increase range of motion (ROM) in a muscle. This is corroborated by two studies (Very similar in nature, conducted by the same people), where one study showed that there was no difference when time was increased from 30 to 60 seconds and performed multiple times per day, and another that showed no gains when solely increasing from 30-60 seconds per stretch.  However, if your goal is to increase flexibility, then you may want to also look at adding proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) type stretching once or twice a week. The most basic form of this is to get into a stretch, and then isometrically contract (joint/muscle stay static, rather than moving) against the stretch. This is, however, an advanced stretching technique and should only be done after proper instruction. This study showed that PNF stretching also was the only one that produced performance enhancement.  Ballistic stretching (lean and bounce) type stretching has been much maligned, and is still contraindicated because of the tendency towards producing injury. (It tends to activate the stretch reflex in muscles and produce tears/strains). However, there is some indication that it may aid in jumping type performances.  TL;DR  Dynamic stretching before workouts (active movement that mimics the motions of the sport), and static stretching after (30 seconds, and I personally do a stretch and hold, relax, repeat even deeper type of cycle for each muscle) produce some of your best gains for the typical everyday person. PNF can get even greater gains if needed. However, it has not been proven yet (Despite claims) that any type of stretching produces better injury prevention or reduces muscle soreness after workouts. Also, static stretching before performance has been shown to negatively impact performance.",
        "id": 292,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Knowing the root/cause of one's hypothyroidism? How to know if it's Hashimotos-Disease?",
        "body": "I am answering this almost two years after it was asked, but I hope an answer can still be useful!  Hashimoto\u2019s Disease  You are correct that Hashimoto\u2019s disease (also known as Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis) is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in those aged over six. In younger children hypothyroidism is most often congenital. So yes, you almost certainly have hypothyroidism due to Hashimoto\u2019s disease.  Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis is an autoimmune disease. This means that something triggers the immune system to produce antibodies that cross-react with normal parts of the body. People with Hashimoto\u2019s disease can have antibodies in the blood to various components of the thyroid gland. The most common are anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibodies. You may have had a blood test for this and you could certainly ask your family doctor or endocrinologist. Either way, the treatment is similar to other causes; namely replacement of thyroid hormones with levothyroxine.  Autoimmune disease in general  The origins of autoimmune disease seem to be a complex mix of genetic and environmental factors and possibly pathogens. Much autoimmune disease is due to various forms of immune hypersensitivity. Specifically, Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis is an example of type 4 hypersensitivity (along with coeliac disease and multiple sclerosis), while type 1 causes most allergies and anaphylaxis.  A good example is autoimmune disease after infection by Group A streptococcus bacteria (a common cause of throat infections, skin infections, scarlet fever etc). In some people, the antibodies that the body makes against streptococcus will cross-react with other body tissues and damage them, causing a number of conditions:    Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease (type 2 hypersensitivity) Glomerulonephritis (type 3 hypersensitivity) Guttate psoriasis Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS)   See this paper for more information about autoimmunity after streptococcal infection. This is an example of type 3 hypersensitivity.  Other Points  Various autoimmune diseases are associated with one another. Having one can make another more likely. For example, there is a link between type 1 diabetes and autoimmune hypothyroidism. You mention that you may have lupus, which is also autoimmune.   You also mention fibromyalgia. Currently, fibromyalgia is not thought to be an autoimmune condition. Proposals of an autoimmune cause have not yielded evidence of this in research. It is likely to result from a complex interplay of internal and external factors with neurochemisty and neurophysiological processes. There is some overlap in symptoms, but this is not surprising as pain, stiffness, fatigue and low energy are some of the most common symptoms there are and can have many causes.  I see from another question of yours that you had a bad experience with a general practitioner taking the very outdated view that fibromyalgia is not a real condition! It most certainly is real, even if not well understood yet, and can cause a lot of suffering. Whatever the underlying cause turns out to be (there may be several), it does not have to have an autoimmune origin to be real! :)",
        "id": 1344,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If a man occasionally wakes up after five hours of sleep, is it safe for him to take melatonin even though the night is almost over?",
        "body": "According to research published in the British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and cited below, the serum half-life of immediate release melatonin ranges from 0.54 to 0.67 hours. Assuming you take the melatonin at least 3 hours before you plan to get up, you will have covered around 4 half-lives at the minimum, which would result in a serum level of 6.25% of your peak level. At levels that low, any sleepiness you feel would be mostly due to having just woken up, and not any residual effects of the melatonin. The study also mentions that slow release preparations can keep serum levels high for 5-7 hours, so I would not recommend driving/working after taking one of those.  Aldhous M, Franey C, Wright J, Arendt J. Plasma concentrations of melatonin in man following oral absorption of different preparations. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 1985;19(4):517-521.",
        "id": 963,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Top medications to treat symptoms of Lupus?",
        "body": "Your question is difficult to answer (but still interesting) because lupus is a highly heterogeneous condition which can present various symptoms and organ involvement. Choice of therapy will be tailored on the patient symptoms and his disease activity and severity.  Here a broad overview of the current management strategies of lupus:   The most frequent used of therapy in lupus patients (with any degree of disease activity) should be hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine (which are actually antimalarial drugs). These two drugs are associated with symptoms relief and reduction of lupus flares, thrombotic events and organe damage. Other therapies can be used, depending on the severity of the disease and the activity such as NSAID, prednison (short term therapy) or steroid-sparing immunosuppressive therapy such as azathioprine or methotrexate.   Recently, rituximab, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine and rituximab have been increasing used as long term therapy in lupus patients.  Finally, depending on the organ system involved, additionally strategies can be used. I don't know your case and why Lyrica (=pregabalin) or Cymbalta (=duloxetine) have been suggested by your physician. Some studies suggest that both pregabalin and duloxetine can be used as second line treatment in arthritis-related pain.  All above mentioned treatment should be started by a health professional as most of them need close monitoring and blood/radiological tests before some of these drugs are started.  I would suggest following website, which contains very useful information for patients with lupus: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/systemic-lupus-erythematosus-sle-beyond-the-basics  Sources:   van Laar et al. Pain treatment in arthritis related pain: Beyond NSAIDs. Open Rheumatol J. 2012. 6: 320-330 Wallace DF. Overview of the management and prognosis of systemic lupus erythrematosus in adults. Uptodate. 07.2016 ",
        "id": 1170,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does choice of drink affect severity of hangovers?",
        "body": "We were taught in medical school that the single biggest contributor to hangovers is dehydration. The degree of dehydration is caused by the percent concentration of ETOH/ethanol which is a diuretic (i.e. it makes you take many trips to restroom.)  Dehydration from drinking causes a drop in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) pressure. This is why a hangover headache is worse when you sit up or stand up. Your brain has less fluid support and is almost \"dangling\" on its suspensory supports. (This is an overstatement.)   Thus the effect of a hangover is almost purely correlated to the percent alcohol you are consuming rather than the class.  At the risk of increasing drinking - this also suggests the number one way to avoid a hangover: fluid and salt. If you just drink water, your body cannot hold onto it. If you drink fluid with salt (i.e. gatorade, broth, or similar) - your headache will be substantially diminished because you will counteract the dehydration.   That said - alcohol is also toxic to the brain and liver. That's why your liver can hurt after drinking. If we draw LFTs lab tests on you, your liver enzymes will actually be elevated! (Michael Crichton, the author of Jurassic Park actually did that when he was a medical student at Harvard. You can read about it in his book Travels.) The liver damage is why people get scarred cirrhotic livers. You actually lose brain neurons every time you drink. Unfortunately...that part of the damage is not reversed with Gatorade and may account for some of the headache.",
        "id": 756,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Primary bladder neck obstruction treatment or cure",
        "body": "Unfortunately, there is not much that can be done other than what you have mentioned.   The present guidelines for the management would include watchful waiting, medical (alpha blockers) or surgical (trans urethral bladder neck incision or resection). However, the present literature lack significant amount of randomized controlled trials that would provide reliable evidence regarding the efficacy of these treatment options. Existing reports provide contradicting results as well. Even though there are success stories of complete cure by the trans urethral bladder neck resection, this still remains to be a topic where further exploration needs to be done regarding the natural history of the disease, and possible treatment modalities.   References : Primary Bladder Neck Obstruction in Men and Women",
        "id": 183,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the evidence show that handshakes during an office visit are safe?",
        "body": "There are arguments made that handshakes in healthcare settings are not safe; for example see Sklansky et al 2014.  Some of the issues increasing the risk include noncompliance with hand-washing protocols (by both healthcare workers and patients) and pathogens that are less susceptible to hand sanitizers.  A fist bump with a glove coated in E coli transferred only about 10% of the bacteria as a handshake (Mela &amp; Whitworth, 2014). Fist bumping produced fewer bacterial colonies than handshakes in a hospital environment where someone with clean hands walked around either fist-bumping or hand-shaking and then wiped their hand on a culture plate (Ghareeb et al, 2013). However, both of these studies looked at potentially infectious bacteria present: neither addressed actual infections in actual patients.  Problems with banning the handshake in favor of fist bumps may be reduced attention to hygiene (which would blunt the effect) and impacts on how patients view their physicians: they might see a fist bump as less professional and no physical social greeting might reduce trust (Reilly et al 2016).  However, as reviewed in Reilly et al, the evidence in favor of banning handshakes is a bit...shaky. Clearly handshakes are not perfectly safe, but neither is anything. I did not find any research nor is any cited in any of these papers that directly quantifies the risk to patients from handshakes (only that it is not zero), nor any that put it in context of all the other risks of pathogen spread in the environment, nor any that shows an impact on actual infections after a handshake-reducing intervention. You would have an (approximately?) 100% reduction in risk of shark attack if you didn't swim in the ocean, but by itself that is not a great argument to stay out of the water.    Ghareeb, P. A., Bourlai, T., Dutton, W., &amp; McClellan, W. T. (2013). Reducing pathogen transmission in a hospital setting. Handshake verses fist bump: a pilot study. Journal of Hospital Infection, 85(4), 321-323.  Mela, S., &amp; Whitworth, D. E. (2014). The fist bump: A more hygienic alternative to the handshake. American Journal of Infection Control, 42(8), 916-917.  Reilly, J., Currie, K., &amp; Madeo, M. (2016). Are you serious? From fist bumping to hand hygiene: Considering culture, context and complexity in infection prevention intervention research. Journal of infection prevention, 17(1), 29-33.  Sklansky, M., Nadkarni, N., &amp; Ramirez-Avila, L. (2014). Banning the handshake from the health care setting. JAMA, 311(24), 2477-2478.",
        "id": 2684,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mental disorders - where to go?",
        "body": "National Alliance for Mental Illness - NAMI (Main Line, PA) quotes an article from SAMHSA:     Therapy is a collaborative process, so finding the right match-someone with whom you have a sense of rapport-is critical. After you find someone, keep in mind that therapy is work and sometimes can be painful. However, it also can be rewarding and life changing.   In essence, therapy takes time and patience. However, you can (and should) monitor your progress. If you don't feel that you are getting the help you need, you can talk about this to your therapist. This is a great advantage of getting help in person over getting help over the internet: therapy can and should be customised to your needs. For a therapist to do that, they need your help. The best way to help them and your self is to communicate your concerns. However, people are different - both doctors and patients. If after a while you don't think that there is any improvement, you should feel free to look for another therapist.  When looking for a therapist you should feel free to ask questions. Aside from asking for credentials and fees, Mayo Clinic staff article (also quoted by NAMI) recommends asking about your therapist's:      ... treatment approach and philosophy, to make sure it suits your style and needs.Whether they specialize in certain disorders or age groups. Some, for instance, work only with adolescents. Others specialize in eating disorders or substance abuse.   A therapist who specialises in your type of problems is more likely to have the necessary experience to help you. Also, since therapy is a sensitive process, finding someone you feel comfortable working with can aid the therapy process.   The important thing is not to give up on therapy and seeking professional help. For tips on finding a therapist that suits you, you might have a look at these:  How to Find a Therapist - from WebMD  Finding a Mental Health Professional - from NAMI  Choosing the Right Mental Health Professional - NAMI, PA",
        "id": 1757,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is chicken treated with sodium triphosphate classified as processed meat?",
        "body": "According the WHO (the organization that keeps a great list with everything that's definitely carcinogenic):      \"Processed meat refers to meat that has been transformed through   salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance   flavour or improve preservation. Most processed meats contain pork or   beef, but processed meats may also contain other red meats, poultry,   offal, or meat by-products such as blood.\"   All the way down there's also a point about the manner of preservation     \"24. Different preservation methods could result in the formation of   carcinogens (e.g. N-nitroso compounds), but whether and how much this   contributes to the cancer risk is unknown.\"   The WHO doesn't go this far, but based on compounds in some processed meat that are carcinogenic by itself (smoke and N-nitroso compounds), I'd assume a large part of the carcinogenic risk of processed meat can be explained by the presence of these compounds.   The sodium triphosphate that's in your chicken is technically a preservative. However, sodium triphosphate preserves the meat by retaining water, slowing down the drying process.   Sodium triphosphate itself is perfectly safe, I think the limits on the quantity that you can add are present mainly because it can be used to cheaply increase the weight of meat/fish. It's also GRAS (generally recognized as safe) by the FDA. ",
        "id": 1256,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the term used for stronger heart beats at average bpm?",
        "body": "Yes, palpitations is the correct term. Another term for it is ectopic beats, which includes the sensation of skipped or irregular beats and occasional forceful beats. If the beats are a regular rhythm but consistent and forceful, they're more likely due to systolic hypertension and generally wouldn't be called palpitations (though calling them that wouldn't be wrong per se).  Another interesting cause is what's known as water hammer pulse, but that's a very different pattern and doesn't seem to be what you're describing.",
        "id": 402,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What check is done to diagnose GERD?",
        "body": "GERD is usually diagnosed based on history and signs and symptoms. If you complained of frequent heartburn or told your doctor you often take antacids, it's possible he based it on that. Confirming GERD can involve the following tests:  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gerd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20361959   Upper endoscopy. Your doctor inserts a thin, flexible tube equipped with a light and camera (endoscope) down your throat, to examine the inside of your esophagus and stomach. Test results can often be normal when reflux is present, but an endoscopy may detect inflammation of the esophagus (esophagitis) or other complications. An endoscopy can also be used to collect a sample of tissue (biopsy) to be tested for complications such as Barrett's esophagus. Ambulatory acid (pH) probe test. A monitor is placed in your esophagus to identify when, and for how long, stomach acid regurgitates there. The monitor connects to a small computer that you wear around your waist or with a strap over your shoulder. The monitor might be a thin, flexible tube (catheter) that's threaded through your nose into your esophagus, or a clip that's placed in your esophagus during an endoscopy and that gets passed into your stool after about two days. Esophageal manometry. This test measures the rhythmic muscle contractions in your esophagus when you swallow. Esophageal manometry also measures the coordination and force exerted by the muscles of your esophagus. X-ray of your upper digestive system. X-rays are taken after you drink a chalky liquid that coats and fills the inside lining of your digestive tract. The coating allows your doctor to see a silhouette of your esophagus, stomach and upper intestine. You may also be asked to swallow a barium pill that can help diagnose a narrowing of the esophagus that may interfere with swallowing. ",
        "id": 2507,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are arsenic levels in poultry a health concern?",
        "body": "Roxarsone has been banned by the FDA and in the EU, so if you live in either of them it's safe to assume that there was none of it in your turkey.  Additionally, not all arsenic compounds are equally toxic. Arsenate salts are the most toxic, whereas other ones like arsenobetaine (which is commonly found on fish) are completely inoccuous. In the case of roxarsone and related compounds the concern would be that its metabolism would break them down to release arsenates, but I couldn't find evidence that this actually happens through normal metabolism. ",
        "id": 1396,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which foods are good for fat-burning?",
        "body": "As far as I know, there are no foods that burn fat in any significant amount (Mayo Clinic).  To burn fat, a food would need to have \"negative calories,\" which means less calories than the calories needed to digest that food. Theoretically this is possible, for example, water has zero calories and the process of water drinking and absorption requires some energy, so you would burn some calories just by drinking water. But the amount of calories burnt this way is so small that it does not have any practical meaning.  You may want to think how to decrease food craving:   Try to eat less quick carbs (plain white flour products, potatoes, white rice and sugars - soda, fruit juices) and more foods with insoluble dietary fiber (whole-grain bread and non-starchy vegetables). Avoiding anything sweet completely can greatly help prevent food craving. Try to avoid/limit calorie-dense foods: cheese, chocolate, oils, nuts.   In short: Try foods that are not sweet, not calorie dense and have some insoluble fiber.",
        "id": 1265,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are all salts equally bad for you?",
        "body": "Terminology in Context  It is important to distinguish between technical or scientific usage of terminology and popular usage of terminology in the 'lay' literature.  When physicians, news articles, etc, refer to \"salt\" in dietary contexts, they are almost always referring to common salt also known as table salt and consisting of sodium chloride, NaCl, rather than referring to the chemical term \"salt\".  In most contexts, they are also intending to refer primarily to the sodium content of table salt, rather than the entire species NaCl, simply because NaCl is the primary dietary source of sodium ions for a typical human. They are also likely referring to the average overintake of sodium in a common diet: high sodium carries risks, but taking zero sodium would also be deadly: sodium is a very necessary ion in human biology.  Other Salts  \"Salts\" in general are an incredibly broad class of chemicals, and some of them can be quite toxic. Potassium cyanide, for example, is a salt - it is quite lethal for you to ingest once it turns to hydrogen cyanide in the stomach.  In a dietary context, a salt like potassium chloride could be seen as less harmful than sodium chloride, because it is not going to have the same impact on blood pressure and because potassium is more often too low in typical diets - but it won't taste exactly like sodium chloride.  The meaning of 'bad for you' is context-dependent  However, on a toxicity/poison level, potassium chloride (LD50=2.5 g/kg) is slightly more deadly than sodium chloride (LD50=3.75 g/kg) administered orally, and much more deadly intravenously. Potassium chloride is the final drug administered in some lethal injection protocols: high blood potassium concentrations, higher than you would obtain through normal consumption of potassium in food, stops muscle and nervous activity, including that of the heart.  In summary, if you are going to ingest a whole lot of something right this moment, or especially if you are injecting something into an IV, you would be safer with sodium chloride than potassium chloride. On the other hand, it is likely that a lifetime diet that is somewhat higher than recommended in sodium chloride is going to be far more dangerous than a lifetime diet that is somewhat higher than recommended in potassium chloride.  Back to sodium...  As far as the harm of sodium itself, it doesn't matter much what ions you ingest sodium with: sodium chloride versus sodium bicarbonate contributes an equivalent amount of sodium to your diet if you adjust for the difference in molecular weight (that is, the mass of the bicarbonate ion is bigger than the mass of the chloride ion, so it takes more sodium bicarbonate to get the same amount of sodium).  In most pharmaceutical applications, though, the sodium content is simply not meaningful in a dietary context.",
        "id": 2326,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fish bone stuck in my throat",
        "body": "Homeopathy remedies have no physiological effect (http://www.howdoeshomeopathywork.com).   A homeopathic consultation along with the associated ritual of prescription etc may have a psychological or placebo effect.   As far as the fish bone goes, chances are what you\u2019re feeling is a scratch with associated inflammation which will go away in a few days (the perfect situation for a homeopathic remedy to \u201cwork\u201d- a self limiting condition), but the only way to know for sure is to have someone competent have a look. ",
        "id": 2104,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Risks for VBAC vs repeat Cesarean",
        "body": "This question is difficult to answer because risk discussions are individualized.  Instead of answering, I will point you to reliable resources to guide your discussion with your OB.    One great source of pooled evidence is UpToDate. I would also recommend reading articles from ACOG and AAFP, professional organizations that are going to be impartial as opposed to agenda-driven topical websites.  BUT the ultimate risks/benefits discussion and ultimate decision MUST be held between you and your provider. We cannot provide that for you.  I would recommend reading up through reputable websites like these, then taking the information and your questions to your OB GYN and tell them you are having trouble understanding.  If they are unable to explain something like that to you, perhaps it is best for you to find a different OB GYN who can connect better with you.   UpToDate VBAC ACOG VBAC AAFP VBAC ",
        "id": 2523,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effect of Blood donation needles on skin",
        "body": " Larger needles aren't used to draw blood faster in general. They are used to avoid hemolysis. 16-18 gauge needles:      A large needle (16 to 17 gauge) is used to minimize shearing   forces that may physically damage red blood cells as they flow through   the needle   What maybe used to speed up the process is:     Sqeezing your fists Tourniquets or blood pressure cuffs   Larger needles are used to stop harm from occuring to the blood cells. Some companies however do not use them due to cost and availabilty since they may be nonprofit. Some other occurences are:     Needle Sizes     during blood donation a 18 gauge needle is common. If a patient has   small or fragile veins, the plebotomist often elects to use a small   gauge needle.   Depressions in your arm from needle sticks  You may still experience pain. It sometimes depends on the person drawing experience level. ",
        "id": 866,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to differentially diagnose continuing sciatic pain given this existing information?",
        "body": "DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS  Differential diagnosis in an adult man with a unilateral pain in the gluteal area lasting for over a year and not worsening, without a history of trauma, infection or inflammatory arthritis or other conditions (an incomplete list):   Degenerative disc disease (DDD) with bulging or herniating disc(s) pressing upon the spinal nerve root(s) in the lower back (lumbosacral radiculopathy)   Often runs in families; can be caused by acute or repetitive injury Pain triggers: coughing, bending and certain other moves Pain relievers: walking, lying down (not always) Other common symptoms: tingling, numbness, leg weakness In most cases heals/improves on its own in weeks/months  Hip conditions with pain radiating to the gluteal area Piriformis syndrome   Caused by repetitive running, climbing stairs, sitting Pain is typically worse during sitting (\"sitting intolerance\")  Ischial bursitis   Caused by prolonged sitting Pain worse during sitting  Sacroiliac joint dysfunction (sacroiliitis)   Pain in the hip and buttock Worse during prolonged standing or running  Spinal tumor   Pain can persist during the night  Postherpetic neuralgia - inflammation of the nerve (neuritis) due to Herpes zoster infection   Typically (but not always) preceded by burning rash Constant burning pain lasting for months/years    DIAGNOSTIC PROCESS  1) History  A doctor will likely ask detailed questions about the pain location, its triggers and relievers (coughing, sitting, walking, lying down).  2) Physical examination (examples of tests)   Straight leg raise (Lasegue) test: pain triggered by the leg raise speaks for a pinched nerve in the lower back (lumbosacral radiculopathy) Provocative tests for piriformis (deep gluteal) syndrome   3) Investigations   Blood tests to exclude inflammatory conditions (specific antibodies in ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis, sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein...) X-ray is often the first imaging investigation, which can detect broken vertebra, decreased space between vertebra (suggesting degenerative disc disease) and gross changes (spurs, deformities) due to inflammation CT or MRI of the lower spine or the hip is done when a problem with the discs or hip joint is suspected. There is no specific investigation for piriformis syndrome   NOTE: This is not a complete differential diagnosis of sciatica-like pain; it is a list of causes adjusted to the \"case.\" The list of 18 causes linked from the question is grossly repetitive.",
        "id": 2720,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it normal for a lady to experience blood after intercourse a month after her hymen was broken?",
        "body": "No it is not normal. She should have an examination. The usual cause of this is a friable (bleeds easily) cervix. It is not dangerous, but needs to be evaluated. I am a gynecologist.  If the cervix is infected, it may bleed even with gentle intercourse. An examination would find any worrisome areas on not only the cervix but anywhere else in the vagina or labia. This could be as simple as a benign exposure of fragile tissue on the cervix, to a benign cervical polyp, to vaginal cancer even though that is rare in a young woman",
        "id": 1104,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "One meal a day - meal planning",
        "body": "Individual Results Vary   Some people only eat food 30 points or lower on the Insulin Index.  Low carb, medium protein, high fat.  This is usually where the ketosis plays in, but is usually only necessary for people with a high carb addiction, and they should taper down very slowly. Other people are vegan and might do the above or the below. While others need high carbs for some reason.   It is usually wise to talk with your doctor or a nutritionist before changing anything radically.",
        "id": 1500,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Effects caused by staying near the mobile network towers",
        "body": "Many countries have done studies that seem to indicate short-term exposure to the radiation does not increase risk of cancer.   (German) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16443797 (Danish) http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/98/23/1707.abstract (Swedish) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15746469 (US) http://www.cancer.gov/newscenter/newsfromnci/2012/GliomaCellPhoneUse   However, some countries are still uncertain about this, and have requested companies move their towers away from people by at least 100 meters.  An Italian court even acknowledged a \"causal\" link: http://www.prlog.org/12004383-italian-supreme-court-rules-cell-phones-can-cause-cancer.html but this has been deeply criticized by public health leaders in places like the US.  For the most part, there hasn't been substantial evidence to say that the towers cause harm to humans more than 100 meters away. Particularly in the case of short-distance exposure, there hasn't been much data because many times base stations are not turned off during maintenance, but the power being sent through to the antennas is cut off, so that the workers do not have to work near live antennas, but a study over around 50 years of people exposed to Radio Frequency (RF) waves indicates no significant negative consequences. In the conclusion the author notes a well-worded disclaimer:     The controversy about cell phones and cancer is likely to   continue either until clear-cut evidence of a hazard is established or   until the public (including politicians, businessmen, lawyers and   journalists) concludes that there is little likelihood of a real and   significant hazard. Perhaps the greatest contribution that scientists   can make to this debate is to help educate the public (and other   scientists) about the uncertain nature of risk assessment, and about the   breadth of disciplines and rigor of analysis that must be brought to   bear if high-quality risk assessment is to be accomplished.   Comes from the following article (same one, two different links): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10319725?dopt=AbstractPlus http://www.jstor.org/stable/3580028?origin=crossref&amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents  There have been studies done on animals with respect to RF exposure with possible consequences that you can read about on wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone_radiation_and_health#cite_note-95  but when we're talking about these levels of radiation, you would have to be extremely close for an extended period of time, which is why we haven't yet found results in humans. For the most part, we don't stay close enough to have measurable results and those who do take precautions and avoid long-term exposure.",
        "id": 58,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How would I know whether I am lactose-intolerant? Are there any tests?",
        "body": "This page from the NIH has a lot of relevant information about lactose intolerance.  There are several standard diagnostic tests for lactose intolerance, but your physician might ask you to try eliminating dairy from your diet before you receive any of those tests. If avoiding lactose alleviates your symptoms, you've potentially treated your primary lactose intolerance successfully. If you feel somewhat better but still experience classic GI problems (bloating, diarrhea), you might be lactose intolerant secondary to a different illness like Crohn's disease or celiac disease. Keep in mind, lactose intolerance is caused by the lack of an enzyme (lactase) in your body, so lactose can't be digested \u2013 a milk allergy is your body generating an immune response to certain milk proteins, but doesn't suggest any enzymatic deficit.  Usually, your physician will perform a hydrogen breath test to confirm a lactose intolerance diagnosis. When you're missing the lactase enzyme, you can't digest lactose (which means you can't absorb lactose, since it's \"too big\" pre-digestion \u2013 this and energy release are the goals of catabolism). This results in lactose sitting around post-consumption (there are no enzymes available to cleave it for transport), where it starts to ferment in your gut microbiota. Bacterial digestion like this makes degradation products like methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen (this is where the name \"hydrogen breath test\" comes from), and we can measure these gases as they rise to escape from your GI tract. A basic schematic:    Some people don't exhibit conventional responses to the hydrogen breath test, so a methane breath test or combination test might be more reliable. Alternatively, fecal pH tests can be used to show GI irregularities like lactose intolerance (malabsorption makes your stool acidic). More invasive techniques like blood glucose monitoring or even intestinal biopsy for disaccharidase quantitation can be employed, although the general patient population is well-suited for noninvasive tests like those that require only spent breath or stool and pH paper.",
        "id": 2383,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "A healthy gluten- and lactose-free diets for a teenager",
        "body": "No exact diets here, but just some reasoning why to eat or avoid something.    In a gluten-free diet, you need to avoid wheat and its varieties, rye, barley, triticale, malt, beer, brewer's yeast, breaded meats and commercial foods with added gluten. Here's a detailed list of foods to avoid.  What you can eat:   Cereals: rice, corn, oats, buckwheat and others that are not on the avoid list Vegetables, legumes, fruits and nuts Meat and fish, non-breaded (some packaged products may contain gluten) Eggs Dairy     If you are lactose intolerant, your diet usually does not need to be 100% \"lactose-free\" but just \"low-lactose,\" with avoiding milk, ice cream and yogurts; hard cheeses and butter should be OK (NIDDK.nih.gov). Here's an extensive list of foods to avoid, but this is only for someone with severe lactose intolerance.    Currently, many health experts recommend to limit:   Foods with added sugars: most carbonated drinks, ice-tea, energy drinks (but also fruit juices), sweets and desserts (PubMed), becuse they may stimulate food craving and thus unhealthy weight gain Salt intake (Heart.org), because excessive sodium can contribute to high blood pressure and artery damage  Red meat and processed meat, such as in fast food (PubMed), which are possibly associated with some chronic diseases Foods with trans fats, which have \"partially-hydrogenated oil\" on the label, for example, certain cakes, biscuits, crackers, French-fries and frozen foods (Cleveland Clinic), which can raise blood cholesterol levels   They also recommend to include enough fiber from foods, such as whole-grain cereals, fruits, vegetables and legumes, because it can help maintain intestinal health (PubMed).    For the end:   Listen to your gut (literally). Eat what you find out is good for you, for your study, work and sleep. Maintain a health body weight. Someone with bowel problems can get a lot of insight if get checked for common conditions, such as celiac disease, lactose intolerance, fructose malabsorption and food allergies. ",
        "id": 2340,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do doctors decide on the duration of an antibiotic regimen?",
        "body": "Aside from relying on their extensive training, physicians have therapeutic guidelines based on scientific studies at their disposal. These guidelines are usually issued by a national medical authority for a given disease, syndrome etc.   Specifically, for antibiotics, a clinician has to take into account several factors:   Which bacteria caused the infection? How severe is the infection? Which antibiotic is used? How is the patient responding to therapy? What are the characteristics of the individual patient (age, immune system status etc.)   For example:   The recommendations on treating community acquired pneumonia show how guidelines differ among countries, but also that all guidelines link the type of bacteria to the duration of therapy. Another factor is patient's response to therapy (as seen in the guidelines in Canada and the US).     Source: File TM. Clinical Efficacy of Newer Agents in Short-Duration Therapy for Community-Acquired Pneumonia. Clinical Infectious Diseases.2004;39(Supplement_3):S159-S164  2a. Specifically, for otitis media in children The Royal Children's Hospital Melburne suggest an algorithm which takes into account the child's response to therapy.   2b. For the same indication, in the US he severity of symptoms and child's age are taken into account. American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines recommend:      The optimal duration of therapy for patients with AOM is uncertain; the usual 10-day course of therapy was derived from the duration of treatment of streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis. Several studies favor standard 10-day therapy over shorter courses for children younger than 2 years. [162,190\u2013194] Thus, for children younger than 2 years and children with severe symptoms, a standard 10-day course is recommended. A 7-day course of oral antibiotic appears to be equally effective in children 2 to 5 years of age with mild or moderate AOM. For children 6 years and older with mild to moderate symptoms, a 5- to 7-day course is adequate treatment.   Source:  Lieberthal AS, Carroll AE, Chonmaitree T et al. The Diagnosis and Management of Acute Otitis Media. Pediatrics.2013;131(3):e964-998",
        "id": 1585,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do I know I slipped a disc?",
        "body": "A herniated (slipped) disc in the neck (cervical) spine causes pain in the neck, between the shoulder blades and often radiates down one arm. Placing a hand on the affected side on top of the head often relieves the pain. Applying pressure on top of the head often aggravates the pain in the arm (Spurling's test - video, 1 min).  A herniated disc in the lower back (lumbar) spine causes pain in the lower back, which often radiates down across the buttocks and into the thigh. Raising an extended leg to a certain level (straight leg raising test, video, 20 sec) triggers pain in the buttocks. The pain is worse during sitting or lying and relieved by walking.  A herniated disc in the chest (thoracic) spine is very rare.  Muscular pain is by far the most common cause of back pain, either due to bad posture, repeating chronic injuries or acute injury.  A herniated disc can be detected by an MRI. ",
        "id": 1524,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do belts/bands that vibrate make you lose weight?",
        "body": "There hasn't been any conclusive clinical studies that have found that vibrating belts, or any vibration exercise for that matter, can definitely help promote weight loss. Sadly, most studies have been done on full body vibration training, so some of the references I point to may not be specifically about vibration belts, but the mechanisms of each method are basically the same.  A review of several studies1 on vibration exercise in general, including the use of vibration belts, found that vibration exercise was not very efficient in burning fat. It wasn't found to be very good at promoting weight loss or changing the body composition at all (ie: building muscle). One study did show possible signs that vibration exercise and vibration belts can burn fat, but overall, the rate at which fat is burned at when using a vibration belt or other form of vibration exercise is low. There are some possible benefits of vibration exercise, such as higher oxygen intake. This review did not provide fully conclusive results, though.  Another review of many studies on whole-body vibration training2 found similar results, though they did point more in the favor of vibration exercise having benefits. The review states in its conclusion that:     [Whole-body vibration training] appears to be associated with three pathways involved in weight loss: inhibition of adipogenesis and reduction of fat mass, increased energy expenditure, and increase in muscle mass. After analysing the literature, none of the results for the proposed pathways are consistent, and indeed are often contradictory.   This review shows more positive results than the other review I mentioned that vibration training may promote weight loss, especially when used in conjunction with other exercises meant to help you lose weight. Vibration exercise does appear to be safe, though, so it can be used with a weight loss diet and exercises to help promote weight loss. Though this review was about whole-body vibration training, vibration belts work in a similar fashion, so it is likely that vibration belts may produce similar results.    1: Is vibration exercise a useful addition to a weight management program?  2: Whole-body vibration training as complement to programs aimed at weight loss",
        "id": 229,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My leg sometimes feels non-existent after I wake up",
        "body": "Very probably not.(1)  This sounds like an issue with nerves (especially a pinched nerve) that makes your Brain unable to \"proper\" communicate with your leg, hence the jelly-like feeling. However, I would expect your leg to feel numb or \"pins and needle\" pain. Not feeling your leg in the morning seems normal to me (i.e. paresthesia), but falling because you don't have control over your leg seems rather serious. If this does not go away, or if you do feel either pain or numbness in your extremities, I would highly advise you to consult a doctor.  (1): I can't rule it out with 100% certainty as I neither am a professional neurologist nor can I examine you thoroughly, but with very high chance sleeping habits are not important. If you are however convinced to be suffering from paresthesia every morning, this might be cause by a weird sleeping position which is applying a lot of pressure to your nerves.",
        "id": 1562,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I go to the occupational therapist or the physical therapist if I have a tendinopathy in the USA?",
        "body": "You should probably go to a physical therapist. Physicals therapists are more specialized in that they will treat the actual injury and its source.   \"Occupational therapy (OT) addresses patients' impairments and functional limitations with the purpose of increasing their capability to complete activities of daily living (ADLs).\" Occupational therapy is more for helping people get on with their everyday life, usually when you have a permanent disabilities, such as an amputated limb. They help people do things such as bath and cook independently.   \"Physical therapy (PT) is a health profession that focuses on the movement of the human body. Physical therapists (PTs) and physical therapy assistants (PTAs) treat patients of all ages with physical impairments and functional limitations as a result of a medical condition or injury.\" Physical therapy is more for injuries that can be fixed (not 100% of the time, but close to it). This fits what you need, so the better option would be to go to a physical therapist.    The Difference Between Occupational and Physical Therapy",
        "id": 9,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is fortifying nutrients in food dangerous?",
        "body": "You do not need to make health-related conclusions from how the marketers behave or what they say.  They give you the choice to buy either a fortified or non-fortified food, so they can earn from you in each case.  Fortified foods are for those who believe they can benefit from an extra amount of a certain nutrient. People who believe that \"natural is the best\" might more likely chose non-fortified foods.  There is an evidence, for example, that iodized salt can decrease the incidence of goiter in areas with little iodine in the soil. Also, according to one 2007 study from Bangladesh:     mandatory mass iodination of table salt consumption in a hyper-endemic   iodine deficient area is safe and does not cause any side effect.   To know if fortified foods have any side effects, you would need to search from nutrient to nutrient, consider different amounts and forms, etc.",
        "id": 2355,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do I get bloated stomach when in office but not at home?",
        "body": "Eating less or more doesn't necessarily reduce or add to bloating. It could be the types of food that you are eating.  Dairy, grains, and legumes are common culprits. See link below for a good explanation.  Source: http://www.healthline.com/nutrition/13-foods-that-cause-bloating",
        "id": 1752,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is mint oil an effective remedy for headaches?",
        "body": "tl;dr  Peppermint oil combined with ethanol may be useful when applied topically for tension headaches.  Details  A review (Kligler) found two studies that looked at peppermint oil when combined with ethanol for the treatment of tension headache. They rated the evidence a \"B\" for \"inconsistent  or  limited-quality  patient-oriented  evidence\"  In my own search I only found the same two studies listed in the review. The studies were placebo controlled, double blinded, and random crossover in design, so can be considered good quality experimental design, but they were limited in the number of subjects (one studied 32 patients and the other 41 patients). They did find that the topical application of peppermint oil and ethanol reduced headache severity.  These studies only considered tension type headaches, so the results may not be applicable to other types of headaches.  References  Gobel  H,  Schmidt  G,  Soyka  D.  Effect  of  peppermint  and  eucalyptus  oil  preparations  on  neurophysiological  and  experimental  algesimetric  headache  parameters.  Cephalalgia 1994;14:228-34.  Gobel  H,  Fresenius  J,  Heinze  A,  Dworschak  M,  Soyka  D.   Effectiveness   of   oleum   menthae   piperitae   and  paracetamol in therapy of headache of the tension type  [German]. Nervenarzt 1996;67:672-81.  Kligler, Benjamin and Sapna Chaudhary. Peppermint Oil. American Family Physician. Volume 75, Number 7; April 1, 2007",
        "id": 105,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the current scientific consensus in the amount and quality of protein to consume for bodybuilding?",
        "body": "Most of the recommendations that I see on the internet are in the 1g-1.5g per kg of bodyweight, not per pound. However, there is no real specific \"You must eat this\" number for protein that is correct for everyone.   The basic recommendation currently in the US is 56g per day for the average sedentary man or woman, based on a 70kg body weight. As you exercise, that requirement goes up. However, based on your own age, body makeup, type of activity, it will vary some.   This study compared leucine and nitrogen balance in both sedentary and strength athletes, using a range from .8 to 1.8 (rounded) g/kg of protein, and tested the nitrogen balance. The low end of the scale was sufficient for sedentary, while the mid-high levels were sufficient for strength athletes.  This study on endurance athletes suggests that for low-moderate training levels, the sedentary protein consumption was adequate, provided that carbohydrate levels were high enough. For high training levels, then higher protein intake was indicated.  For the long term, many of the problems that can occur may or may not be related to the protein, but also to the excess fats and the quality of the protein. Here is a good writeup on a review of self reported problems in an Atkins type diet (High protein/fat, low carb).  At 160g/day, you are at a level that I would consider sufficient for around a 220 lb man that is actively engaged in strength training (You do say you are bulking). Since you also state that your primary source is protein powder, I would be more concerned about possible heavy metal contamination, or some of the side effects of whey protein (gout, kidney stones) in the absence of adequate hydration. There have been also some reports of feminization (gynecomastia, loss of sex drive) in males that consume excess soy protein/products, but there have not been any definitive studies in that area that I am aware of. Whenever possible, get your protein from real food and you will be much better off.  Side note: There is also some concern regarding aspartame in protein drinks/powders, which breaks down in the body to formaldehyde and formic acid, but again, no definitive studies that I have seen yet.",
        "id": 680,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long is stored tap water safe to be around (not drink)?",
        "body": "Water stored in jugs that are never opened could contain a dozen lethal diseases and as long as you left the jugs tightly closed they would be harmless. The danger comes when water containing Legionnaires bacteria is aerosolized, such as in a shower.  So just leave the jugs closed and you can leave that water in there for years. If you really want to be certain, add a few drops of bleach to each jug. That will kill all the bacteria in the jug and as long as it remains sealed it should say that way virtually forever.",
        "id": 1330,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Itchy Shins! Footwear or Shin Splints?",
        "body": "Shin splints is dull, burning or throbbing pain (not itch) on the inner (medial) side of the shin in one or both legs. It appears at a certain time after onset of an exercise and typically resolves quickly (within 15 minutes) after stopping exercise. Only in severe cases, it can persist during rest.  Shin splints do not appear as a long-term consequence of frequent knocking to the shins, but as an acute response to vibration stress, like during running.  Socks or tightly laced shoes can cause itch, either because of tightness, in which case some swelling would be visible, or because of irritation by the fabric.",
        "id": 843,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name for an underdeveloped MCP joint in the thumb?",
        "body": "I think you are referring to thumb hypoplasia. Or more specifically thumb hypoplasia Type II. It restricts the movement of the thumb. It is a congenital disorder. The cause is still unknown, maybe some genetic deformalities.     Type II is characterized by a tight web space between the thumb and index finger which restricts movement, poor thenar muscles and an unstable middle joint of the thumb metacarpophalangeal joint. This unstable thumb is best treated with reconstruction of the mentioned structures. [From: Wikipedia]   Further reading:   Thumb Hypoplasia, Lohrasb Sayadi, BS, Mustafa Chopan, BS, and Donald Laub, MD  Thumb hypoplasia: current concepts, Michael Tonkin Surgical reconstruction of congenital thumb hypoplasia, Michael Tonkin  Diagnosis and treatment of congenital thumb hypoplasia. Plancher KD, et al. Hand Clin. 1998. ",
        "id": 1788,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Newer drugs useful for acute heart failure",
        "body": "I checked myself and found following agents are useful:    diuretics (for example frusemide, torsemide): to reduce fluid accumulation in lungs and other parts of body. Other agents such as thiazide and metolazone may be added if response is not adequate. morphine: reduces anxiety, distress and diverts blood away from lungs by dilating peripheral blood vessels, especially veins. oxygen: should be given only if hypoxia is there; otherwise it can cause vasoconstriction and may be deleterious. vasodiators: e.g. nitroglycerin (or isosorbide dinitrate), nitroprusside, nesiritide. Used if blood pressure is not low. inotropes: e.g. dobutamine, milrinone, levosimendan. Used if blood pressure is low. vasopressors: e.g. dopamine, norepinephrine: only if blood pressure is low and not responding to inotropes. low molecular weight heparin e.g. enoxaparin: to reduce risk of deep vein thrombosis   As patient stabilizes, agents known to be useful in long term treatment of chronic heart failure are added:   ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors (e.g. enalapril, ramipril) or ARBs (angiotensin receptor blockers) (e.g. losartan, telmisartan) Aldosterone antagonist: e.g. spironolactone, eplerenone Beta-blockers Digoxin: especially useful if patients with atrial fibrillation Ivabradine: useful in a subset of patients with chronic heart failure. Valsartan/sacubitril combination: recently approved; shown to have better response than ACE-inhibitors in a large study.   These agents have been shown to provide survival benefit in long term to patients with heart failure.  References:  ACCF/AHA practice guidelines: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/128/16/e240.extract  ESC guidelines: http://www.escardio.org/Guidelines-&amp;-Education/Clinical-Practice-Guidelines/Acute-and-Chronic-Heart-Failure  NICE guidelines: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg108",
        "id": 489,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much vitamin C last in orange juice?",
        "body": "Question: How much vitamin C is actually present in a glass of orange juice, taking into account could have been passed months since harvesting-squeezing-bottling to drinking?  The nutrition label of the bottled juice should tell what is in the bottled juice after harvesting-squeezing-bottling. USDA.gov has evaluated the amount of vitamin C in many brands of orange juices, which can make you believe they evaluated the actual bottled orange juices from the shelves in stores.  After putting the orange juice on a shelf (According to ScienceDirect):     In general, degradation of vitamin C is a function of time.   In this study they concluded it is time, room temperature, exposure to light and the addition of sugar that can affect the amount of vitamin C in fruit juices:     ...were stored for 28 days at 37 \u00b0C. After 14 days of storage,   ascorbic acid was completely degraded...      ...retention of L-ascorbic acid is greatly affected by the storage   temperature (4\u201350 \u00b0C).   As a side note, here's a chart from NutritionData that tells how freezing, drying, cooking and reheating affect the amount of vitamin C in a food.  Here's one study about vitamin C degradation in milk, just to show that you really need a lot of data to make final conclusions:      The use of a 3-layered opaque bottle was associated with complete   oxidation of vitamin C after 1 month of storage, whereas in the   6-layered opaque bottle, which has an oxygen barrier, the vitamin C   content slowly decreased to reach 25% of the initial concentration   after 4 months of storage. ",
        "id": 2477,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Drug to prevent sexual desire?",
        "body": "Sexual function is human biology. It is complex with aspects that are psychological + neurological + hormonal + vascular + etc.  It's all interwoven.    Therefore, beyond chemical castration* (which as mentioned above is a harsh and drastic measure), the answer is no - at least not reliably, as decreased libido is only a potential side effect of some medications.  Some examples include antipsychotics, antiepileptics, antihypertensives.  Most adverse sexual side effects of medications are actually just physical, such as inability to orgasm or have a full erection - WITHOUT decreasing desire.  Therefore they are not clinically indicated for intentionally decreasing libido.  Even if you found someone to prescribe it, you would have to then deal with the unwanted effects of those medications' primary mechanism of action, and other potential side effects.   Also, as a correction to your comment, Viagra doesn't increase sex drive, it increases erectile tumescence with arousal.        I do not have a formal reference for the below, it is from a lecture on sexual health by a faculty clinical psychologist:  A person CAN address the psychological aspects of sexual behaviors that they find distressing.  The PsyD pointed out that for those who feel distress about masturbation behaviors, including in relationship settings, it is often not the act of masturbation that yields distress, it is what the person engages in during the act - e.g. pornography or ego-dystonic fantasies - and those are alterable behaviors.  This is actually a common issue that psychologists/sex therapists see and know how to address.  I advise seeking professional guidance for approaching this in a psychologically healthy way, as distress over sexuality can adversely impact healthy future sexual relationships.    *This Wikipedia explanation is actually better than other medical sites I found that aren't behind pay walls",
        "id": 2018,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much weight can a person safely lose on a backpacking trip?",
        "body": "health.stackexchange.com would be better fit.  Your minimum healthy weight is not dependent on city versus outdoors. Your body is not aware the calorie deficit was caused by a hike.    The body is very good at storing and using fat. That is what body fat is designed to do.   I am not a Dr. but if you got home without severe symptoms you did not harm yourself.  Symptoms of starvation include: diarrhea, anemia, loss of muscle mass.  If you went into loss of muscle mass your body would have told you big time and you would have had a very hard time finishing.  Lose some body fat is the most efficient way to carry calories.    Even on a medical supervised extreme diets they go up to 1 lb a day.  Pro fighters move two weight classes and still perform.  Look at Connor McGregor at 145 (where I think he still holds the belt).  He fought Diaz at 168.  Even training for a fight a pro can lose up to 1 lb a day and still train hard.  For a number you should see a Dr. The Internet cannot tell you that. Even a Dr. is going have a hard time with a number. They will be more interested in symptoms of starvation.",
        "id": 1247,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why aren't there any competitors in the market for epi-pens?",
        "body": "The Ludwig von Mises Institute (Economy Institute) has recently written an article about the lack of EpiPen Competitiors. It provides a good summary:     EpiPen is sold by Mylan, and the price for a pack of two has increased   from about $100 in 2007 to over $600 as of May 2016. (...) With the   FDA, patents, and cozy insurance relationships, Mylan has been able to   steadily increase the price of EpiPens without significant market   repercussions.      Epinephrine is extremely cheap\u2014just a few cents per dose. The   complications come from producing the easy auto-injecting devices.   Mylan \u201cowns\u201d their auto-injector device design, so competitors must   find work-arounds in their devices to deliver the epinephrine into the   patient\u2019s body.      A French pharmaceutical company offered an electronic device that   actually talks people through the steps of administering the drug, but   it was recalled because of concerns about it delivering the required   dose. Just this year, Teva Pharmaceutical\u2019s attempt at bringing a   generic epinephrine injector to market in the US was blocked by the   FDA. Adrenaclick and Twinject were unable to get insurance companies   on board and so discontinued their injectors in 2012.      Adrenaclick has since come back, but it is still not covered by many   insurance plans, and the FDA has made it illegal for pharmacies to   substitute Adrenaclick as a generic alternative to EpiPen. Another   company tried to sidestep the whole auto-injector patent barrier by   offering prefilled syringes, but the FDA has stalled them, too.   https://mises.org/blog/lack-epipen-competitors-fdas-fault  Here another source in the NY Times which provides some insights too:  http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/25/business/mylan-raised-epipens-price-before-the-expected-arrival-of-a-generic.html?_r=0",
        "id": 1178,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do all hand sanitizers contribute to antibacterial resistance?",
        "body": "The safest hand sanitizer from the perspective of reducing antibiotic resistance is the alcohol-based sanitizer. It's effective against a wide variety of microorganisms.   Remember, though, that hand sanitizers don't remove dirt and chemicals from your skin, and all of the ingredients in hand sanitizers are left to fully absorb into your skin. Alcohol makes the skin a bit more permeable to chemicals, so the current recommendation in hospital workers is to wash with soap and water after a few uses of hand sanitizer. (See the first reference for the rest of us.)  Hand sanitizers should primarily be used only as an optional follow-up to traditional hand washing with soap and water, except in situations where soap and water are not available. In those instances, use of an alcohol-based sanitizer is better than nothing at all. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer are about equal in their ability to remove or kill germs on hands, shown in many studies including one small one involving influenza:     Hand hygiene with soap and water or alcohol-based hand rub is highly effective in reducing influenza A virus on human hands, although soap and water is the most effective intervention.   Soap and water eliminated more virus than the three alcohol-based hand rubs, although the difference between these strategies was not great.  While in theory this remains possible, research so far has not found evidence that use of triclosan leads to bacterial resistance.      The [FDA] said there is no evidence to date suggesting that triclosan is hazardous to humans, but several studies have found that triclosan can contribute to the development of bacterial resistance (Aiello AE et al. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45[suppl 2]:S137-S147). In addition, animal studies have found that the chemical can interfere with thyroid function (Paul KB et al. Toxicol Sci. 2010;113[2]:367-379).    Pediatricians are recommending that it be avoided in homes with children. It has become almost ubiquitous in the environment, so it should probably be avoided in hand-cleansers, as most of it ends up not on out hands, but in our water supply, etc.  The evidence is a only a bit clearer for quaternary ammonium compounds (such as benzalkonium chloride) because of a bacterial genetic element called an integron:     In recent decades, various genetic mechanisms involved in the spread of resistance genes among bacteria have been identified. Integrons \u2013 genetic elements that acquire, exchange, and express genes embedded within gene cassettes (GC) \u2013 are one of these mechanisms. ...Initially studied mainly in the clinical setting for their involvement in antibiotic resistance, their role in the environment is now an increasing focus of attention.    There is some evidence that QAC's may cause a selection pressure for bacteria carrying antibiotic resistance integrons:     Class 1 integrons are genetic elements that carry antibiotic and quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) resistance genes that confer resistance to detergents and biocides. ...We show that prevalence of class 1 integrons is higher in bacteria exposed to detergents and/or antibiotic residues...      Resistance toward QACs is widespread among a diverse range of microorganisms... Development of resistance in both pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria has been related to application in human medicine and the food industry. QACs in cosmetic products will inevitably come into intimate contact with the skin or mucosal linings in the mouth and thus are likely to add to the selection pressure toward more QAC-resistant microorganisms among the skin or mouth flora.   Hand Hygiene and Hand Sanitizers good overview Integron Involvement in Environmental Spread of Antibiotic Resistance Impacts of anthropogenic activity on the ecology of class 1 integrons and integron-associated genes in the environment Efficacy of Soap and Water and Alcohol-Based Hand-Rub Preparations against Live H1N1 Influenza Virus on the Hands of Human Volunteers Does the wide use of quaternary ammonium compounds enhance the selection and spread of antimicrobial resistance and thus threaten our health?",
        "id": 43,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Hernia repair with a mesh",
        "body": "Hernia has a chance of recurring. That's why they use mesh to strengthen the wall and prevent recurrence of hernia.   \"The incidence of recurrent hernia after primary repair of a groin hernia varies from 1% in specialized centers to 30% in general surveys. During the premesh era, it was estimated that primary inguinal\u00a0hernia repairs had a 10%\u201330% recurrence rate and that the rate was 35% for recurrent hernia repairs\"  Source:  Recurrence after groin hernia repair-revisited  Sri VengadeshGopal AchuthanWarrier   https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1743919113000873",
        "id": 2474,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are prions only misfolded, or mutated as well?",
        "body": "It's a little unclear what you mean by \"protein with other atoms added to it\"   -- are you referring to a prion protein that's become mutated by a genetic polymorphism, or a non-prion protein that has been become misfolded and whether this misfolding now makes it a prion?   Either way, I believe that the answer is the same. My understanding is as follows:  Prions can have a normal or abnormal conformation  A prion is a 30\u00adkD cytoplasmic protein of a specific type that's normally present in neurons. The term prion can either be used to refer to the normal protein, or one with the misfold. The nuances are as follows:   Prion proteins (PrP) normally exist in an \u03b1\u00ad-helix\u00ad-containing isoform (PrP^c).  The PrP can undergo a conformational change to an abnormal \u03b2\u00ad-pleated sheet isoform (PrP^sc, for scrapie).  This conformational change makes it resistant to digestion with proteases.  Prion disease will manifest as the PrP^Sc accumulates.   However, when people refer to prions, they usually mean the misfolded PrP^Sc conformation, which causes prion disease.  Mutations increase the likelihood of a conformational changes  There's a good section in Robbins and Cotran relating to how mutations in the prion can trigger spontaneous conformational changes:     The  conformational change resulting in PrPsc may occur    spontaneously at an extremely low rate (resulting in    sporadic cases) or at a higher rate if various mutations    are present in PrPc, such as occurs in familial forms of    Creutzfeldt\u00adJakob disease (CJD) and in Gerstmann\u00ad   Str\u00e4ussler\u00adScheinker syndrome (GSS) and fatal familial    insomnia (FFI).    These conformational changes will in turn cause more conformational changes in a self-propagating manner:     PrPsc, independent of the means by which    it originates, then facilitates, in a cooperative fashion, the    conversion of other PrPc molecules to PrPsc molecules. It is    this propagation of PrPsc that accounts for the transmissible    nature of prion diseases. This capacity for a protein in an    abnormal conformation to induce similar structural change    in other molecules as a self=\u00adpropagating process has recently    been demonstrated for many of the aggregating proteins    associated with traditional neurodegenerative diseases.      Regarding mutations:     The gene encoding PrP, termed PRNP, shows a high degree of conservation across species. A variety of muta\u00adtions in PRNP have been found to underlie familial forms of prion diseases. In addition, a polymorphism at codon 129 that encodes either methionine (Met) or valine (Val) influences development of the disease: individuals who are homozygous for either Met or Val are overrepresented among cases of CJD compared with the general popula\u00adtion, implying that heterozygosity at codon 129 is protec\u00adtive against development of the disease. The same protective effect of heterozygosity at codon 129 is observed for iatrogenic CJD (mostly cases that followed exposure to naturally derived pituitary hormone replacement).   So to be clear, any mutations that are relevant to the matter of prions are those that make a prion in a normal conformation switch to an abnormal one.  So in answer to the question...  Prion protein refers to a specific type of protein that can exist in a normal or abnormal conformation. If a random protein had atoms added to it and it became misfolded, it wouldn't become a prion.  However, polymorphisms and mutations in the prion protein can make it more susceptible to switching. So if the addition of atoms that you speak of happened to a prion and this resulted in such a switch, it would instantiate prion disease.     That is, my understanding was that the term \"prion\" is used for a protein    that is different from a normal protein only by virtue of its folding.   What you're referring to can more accurately be parsed as follows:  The term prion disease is used to refer to a a abnormal prion that is different from a normal prion by virtue of its folding. ",
        "id": 2371,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can caffeine cause nausea?",
        "body": "There are some conflicting results concerning the effect of caffeine on nausea.  One study 1 reported that caffeine withdrawal is associated with nausea and vomiting which might suggest that caffeine might reduce nausea.  However, two years ago, a study 2 was conducted in postoperative care to reduce nausea and vomiting after general anesthesia by administrating caffeine. Interestingly, patients in the caffeine group experienced more nausea than patients who received customary antiemetic prophylaxix. This would suggest a potential pro-emetic contribution of caffeine.  So, current evidence regarding the effect of caffeine on nausea is sparse (and somehow conflicting) and further studies are needed to investigate the effect of caffeine on nausea.  Edit (regarding the possible cellular mechanisms of caffeine causing nausea)  I haven't found any study investigating the effect of caffeine on nausea (ie the area postrema). The last study conducted in the postoperative care (and showed that caffeine increased postoperative nausea) did not suggest any pathway or mechanism either. So further work is needed to investigate this possible association.",
        "id": 1197,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Sensitization and Energy Crisis in Myofascial Pain Syndrome",
        "body": "A chain of events that leads to release of sensitizing substances, according to Dry needling \u2014 peripheral and central considerations (PubMed Central, 2011):        ...muscle pain would cause spasm of the same muscle, and in turn would   cause more pain leading to more spasms.   Sustained contractures of taut bands cause local ischemia and hypoxia in the core of trigger points. (This would result from contracted muscles that compress the blood vessels and thus oxygen   supply to the muscles - according to your diagram.)   Low oxygen levels lead to a significant drop in pH.   A low pH...triggers the release of several nociceptive [sensitizing]   substances, such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP),   adenosine triphosphate (ATP), bradykinin (BK), serotonin (5-HT),   prostaglandins (PGs), potassium, and protons.      Another source mentions histamine as another senzitizing substance.  NOTE: All of the above is merely a hypothesis, so any conclusions drawn from this could be misleading.",
        "id": 1477,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does one absorb more nutrients from juices than the whole fruit?",
        "body": "This might be true for some substances and false for others. For example, might be true for beta-carotene:     Soluble fiber may inhibit \u00df-carotene absorption; therefore, consumption of juice may increase plasma \u00df-carotene concentrations more than whole fruits/vegetables in free-living populations.   Although,     (...) most of this research was conducted in laboratory-based settings.   Source: \"Associations of soluble fiber, whole fruits/vegetables, and juice with plasma Beta-carotene concentrations in a free-living population of breast cancer survivors.\" (2012)  But lack of fiber may not be good for pectin:     Apples are rich in polyphenols and pectin, two potentially bioactive constituents; however, these constituents segregate differently during processing into juice products and clear juice is free of pectin and other cell wall components. We conclude that the fibre component is necessary for the cholesterol-lowering effect of apples in healthy humans and that clear apple juice may not be a suitable surrogate for the whole fruit in nutritional recommendations.   Source: \"Intake of whole apples or clear apple juice has contrasting effects on plasma lipids in healthy volunteers.\"",
        "id": 659,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "I want to repair my digestive system",
        "body": "8 months is a long time, so should see a doctor. Write down everything you have noticed that has changed (e.g. you may be losing weight, you may have heart palpitations, you may be eating a lot more or your appetite may be a lot less than what it used to be, etc. etc.). Then go to the doctor and mention everything that has changed. The doctor will likely ask a lot of questions, but if you have thought about your symptoms in advance then you are more likely to give the right answer. A potential problem is that when complaints have existed for long, you may get used to certain things causing you to give a wrong answer relating to changes in your body. ",
        "id": 389,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does walking after eating really help with gas and constipation?",
        "body": "This '05 study found a positive effect from exercise. Here middle aged (>45y) subjects with chronic idiopathic constipation had their Rome symptoms (straining, hard stools, and incomplete evacuation) improved by a 30 min cardio workout and 11 minute home programe.   On the other hand, this '98 study found there was little or no positive effect on patients with the same diagnosis, this study however, was smaller and of shorter duration.  However, I could find no study in favor (or against) of exercise helping occasional constipation. It is in the nature of this condition hard to gather subject for a controlled study, and we can assume the clinical support will stay at anecdotal level for some time being.  As exercise a lot of other benefits, it should in worst case be a harmless recommendation. Best case there is some effect that is not yet clinically documented.",
        "id": 421,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is exceeding the recommended time for ice application detrimental (delay healing) for soft tissue injuries?",
        "body": "Of course. Icing helps by numbing the pain sensation, thereby providing relief. If iced continuously it would lead to tissue damage with exact same effect of exposing your skin to below freezing temps. Frost bite but from within.  Tried to ELI5 as much as possible. Hope it helps.",
        "id": 1983,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are elevated platelet levels (yet, still anemic) a symptom of endometriosis? Connection?",
        "body": "Depending on the laboratories, the upper limit for thrombocytes count varies between 350,000 to 450,000/microL (350 to 450 x 109 /L).  Thrombocytosis refers to the condition where the thrombocyte count is above this upper limit. There are different categories for thrombocytosis: reactive thrombocytosis, autonomous thrombocytosis (in the presence of a myeloproliferative or myelodysplasic disorder) and essential thrombocytosis (a type of myeloproliferative disease).  Here a non exhaustive list of the causes of thrombocytosis:   Nonmalignant hematologic conditions (acute blood loss, iron deficiency anemia, acute hemolytic anemia) Malignant conditions Acute and chronic inflammatory conditions (Rheumatologic disorders, vasculitides, inflammatory bowel diseases) Infections (chronic infections, acute viral or bacterial infections) Reaction to medications (glucocorticoids) Tissue damage (myocardial infarction, acute pancreatitis, burns)   I haven't found a direct link between endometriosis and thrombocytosis. However, acute bleeding (which can occur in endometriosis) and resulting iron deficiency anemia (which you suggest you have) are both causes for thrombocytosis.  Sources: Tefferi A. Approach to the patient with thrombocytosis. Uptodate. August 2016",
        "id": 1229,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Benzene derivatives in tap water?",
        "body": "Less bad than benzene itself.  The reason for this is that the alkyl groups on toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene can all be metabolized to carboxylic acids by the liver rather than oxidizing the ring directly, which creates a phenol. Metabolism of benzene to phenol increases its toxicity (to the liver).  Of the cases listed I would expect cooking with the water to cause the least exposure to the dissolved hydrocarbons. The reason for this is that they are volatile with steam, so that boiling the water would cause the listed hydrocarbons to be quickly removed in the steam. By the same token, bathing with the water may cause significant exposure to the hydrocarbon as it evaporates into the air in the shower.",
        "id": 266,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why has the number of medication errors increased by 463% between 2010 and 2016 in the US?",
        "body": "The USA Today article you linked to provides two potential explanations:     The FDA said the spike is because of improvements made to its reporting system over the last two years. Pharmacy industry experts believe the numbers also reflect more people are filling more prescriptions than ever.   The first explanation seems quite plausible, as it's unlikely that the error rate would increase organically that fast in six years.",
        "id": 1721,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it okay to make a child drink alcohol when they have a cold?",
        "body": "The right amount is none. Not at all. Don't do it. Don't even consider it.  There have been multiple studies on alcohol and brain development, quite a few of them on teens, as they are one of the higher risk groups. All of these show significant impacts on brain and social development. There are fewer on the young child (non infant) as they are not considered a risk group. More studies in that area look at the effect of the adults consumption around them.  However, studies such as this one on postnatal rats show that even a single day of alcohol exposure is enough to affect brain weight and development in the postnatal period. This study also suggests that once the brain is formed, and going through differentiation (The process by which cells become specialized for their various functions) alcohol has a greater impact than when it is forming in utero.  In short, children should not be given alcohol for any reason. There are now warnings about such medications as cough syrups to not use them for any children under 4, as well as warnings about alcohol in formulas for older kids. I encourage you to read the labels, and choose non alcohol formulas if you do choose to administer cough syrup.",
        "id": 177,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it that some medicines \"may\" cause a side effect?",
        "body": "A medication may have different effects and side effects in different individuals and even in the same individual at different times.  The difference in the effects can be due to:   A different dose or form of a medication Taking a medication at different times of the day or with/without food, in the standing/lying position... Body weight Personal [genetic] susceptibility, age, sex and general state of health Interaction with other drugs Expectation/information about the effects (placebo effect)   The effectiveness of diphenhydramine may greatly depend on the type and severity of allergy.  Having or not having dizziness after taking diphenhydramine may depend on eventual co-factors, such as lack of sleep, tiredness, psychological state (depression, anxiety...), dehydration and alcohol drinking.  A bit of this is described on Medical News Today.",
        "id": 2307,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which medical imaging procedures allow to see a tendon's extracellular matrix?",
        "body": "The pictures you posted are simply light microscopy of tissue (and prepared quite well).  For a source, just look at the illustrations to Wikipedia's histopathology article and see for yourself what this type of picture looks like. Even if you could get a non-invasive imaging from a patient with that resolution (and I don't know of any which can do that, not even a 7 Tesla MRI), it won't look similar enough to be compared to the pictures from your post.  You'd need a biopsy of the tendon to get these images, and given how slow tendons are in healing, and that we are presumably dealing with an already damaged tendon, punching a piece out of it just to take a look is probably not a good clinical decision. Also, I don't know how easy or hard it is to get the tissue prepared in this quality in medical practice, I have seen such slides mostly in the context of research biology.   To make the answer complete: There are light microscope types which can be used in vivo, but they are certainly not yet ready for commercial use, not even in reasearch, much less in a clinical setting. And again, you're not really getting the same type of picture with them. So they are not a practical solution for what you want. ",
        "id": 688,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How would a newborn infant reflexively breathing react to rescue breaths administered correctly after birth?",
        "body": "If the cord is the only reason that prevents the baby to start breathing spontaneously and the baby is otherwise healthy then the situation could resolve as you assumed.   Two breaths could suffice, because they are needed only to initiate natural breathing and not to overcome any underlying disorder. Various resuscitation guideliness recommend 2 or 5 breaths and 30 chest compressions (nationwidechildrens.org), but in your scenario, compressions are not likely necessary.  The baby should start to breathe and cry within seconds thereafter (resus.org.uk). Crying can be loud from the start, as usually. The mucus may not be a problem; some doctors advise against suctioning babies at birth, anyway (PubMed, 2104). The baby could cough, but not necessary.   After starting breathing, the baby's color will change from blue/gray to pink within seconds, which can be very impressive (nzrc.org.nz).  This information is also from my observation of delayed onset of breathing after birth in a baby with a cleft palate.",
        "id": 2686,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can carbonated water produce addiction in humans?",
        "body": "Humans get addicted to alcohol, caffeine or sugar in these drinks. Not CO2! That's just not possible. CO2 it's just very hazardous in high concentrations (see health effects of CO2). In carbonated drinks the concentration is low though.  What is the carbon dioxide content of a soda can or bottle?   Carbonated water itself might not be addictive, but if you feel something is wrong with your health please see a doctor.    Health effects of CO2:  headaches, dizziness, restlessness, a tingling or pins or needles feeling, difficulty breathing, sweating, tiredness, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, coma, asphyxia, and convulsions.  Sources:  toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/chemicals.php?id=6 www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/chemical/carbondioxide.htm  ",
        "id": 1766,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How important foam mattresses for you health?",
        "body": "I tried a Tempur mattress for a couple of years. I have no back problems. I found it too hot and didn't like the feeling of sleeping in a depression.  In future I will stick to a good quality mattress with a high spring-count. ",
        "id": 1461,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to communicate and apologise for a medical error",
        "body": "You are right to feel empathy about the situation, and it is good to express empathy to our patients.  I applaud you for not letting that get beaten out of you by the difficult training our system puts us through.  Keeping the human element in medicine is important not only to our patients but to ourselves and the culture of medicine.  And you are right to seek guidance.  GME offices usually prep residents in orientation for how to approach this; it is unfortunate that yours did not.  It is important to remember that what you say really does matter, both psychologically and legally.  Talk with your faculty about how they recommend you approach it, and I would specifically seek out the attending with whom you precepted the patient.  Remember, it was their patient too. If you do not feel comfortable talking with that attending because of their personality or attitude, turn to your residency director or faculty advisor - that's what they are there for.  There is also going to be a legal consultant for the hospital, and you can ask them advice as well.    But one important distinction is whether you truly made an error, or whether you are experiencing empathy about an unfortunate case of an atypical presentation falling through the cracks of standards of practice.  Both are types of errors, but they are distinct, and have very different implications.  I'm assuming you feel like you missed diagnosing the SAH when they were under your care, but I also assume that you practiced medicine using usual standards of practice while they were in the ED - e.g. following standard algorithms for when to order head CT after a fall, etc.   The sensitivity of those tools are not 100%, but they are often the best tool we have when weighing the risks associated with blasting someone's brain with CT radiation against the likelihood that this particular headache is actually a brain bleed.   At a population level, think of the brain cancers from unnecessary CTs these algorithms are preventing by not scanning every headache or bumped head.  The decision for an individual case is not easy, which is why these algorithms exist.  Consider what really happened, not just with the knowledge of the ultimate result.  Hindsight is always 20/20.    And again, don't do this on your own.  Plus you can recommend to your residency director to hold a didactics session on communicating medical errors; he/she could invite the legal team to discuss it with the residents.  It is an important professionalism topic that should be part of your training.  Some websites with good reading on how to approach discussing errors:   https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/760546 https://acpinternist.org/archives/2014/06/errors.htm https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662285/ ",
        "id": 2531,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does having too much sugary things cause headaches?",
        "body": "Our body needs sugar (carbohydrates) where most of our energy comes from. When you eat sugar, it's converted into glucose and carried in the blood to different parts including brain.  If you eat too much sugar, it can cause \u2018reactive hypoglycaemia\u2019 when your sudden rise of blood-glucose can trigger an over-production of insulin which in turn makes the blood-glucose levels fall too low. As result of excessive insulin release your brain is not receiving enough glucose and the symptoms could include headache and migraine.  Source: Migraine Fact Sheets at Migraine Trust  To prevent sugar/glucose crash from happening, you should limit your sugar intake (e.g. by eating smaller portions). Also exercising regularly increases sugar uptake which decrease excessive insulin release.",
        "id": 90,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "The Common Cold - what does the name refer to?",
        "body": "The thing to recognize is that until the past century, they didn't know that a cold was a virus, but may well have associated it more with actual effects caused by the cold.  Indeed, this line at Wikipedia agrees with that:  The name \"cold\" came into use in the 16th century, due to the similarity between its symptoms and those of exposure to cold weather.  And it references this listing at Etymology Online supporting this thinking.  So it's neither based upon the fact the cold can help you catch the virus, as your mom suggests, nor the feelings during the cold.  Instead, it was an archaic belief that the cold made the disease itself.  As to your question on whether cold can help encourage the common cold, this Blog from Harvard appears to goes into great detail on the related question for the flu.  They mention the theory that altered human habits in winter very much benefit communicability; we are less active, stay inside more, and have school and large indoor holiday gatherings.  But the summary also references studies investigating direct impacts of temperature.  There were indications that the flu spreads well at any temperature... if the air is dry.  But it only does well in moist air if it is cold.  So it's not all about the temperature, but the moisture/temperature combination.  The blog does mention that there were some oddities to this thinking, though (in tropical locations, they get the flu the worst when it is rainy and slightly cooler). So a bit of confusion on some points, but additional studies did show that the flu survives in the air better at cooler temperature.  However, the big answer directly to your question is      Palese tested the immune systems of the animals to find out if the   immune system functions poorly at low temperatures and low humidity,   but he found no difference in innate immunity among the guinea pigs.   So, long story short, studies on the flu suggest that the temperature doesn't weaken your body (though certainly it seems likely it would if you were exposed for extreme periods of time!), but that it does offer some conditions which help the germs survive better.",
        "id": 1561,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Anodized aluminum, skin contact, and health risks",
        "body": "What is anodized aluminum?     Anodizing is an electrolytic passivation process used to increase the   thickness of the natural oxide layer on the surface of metal parts.   - Wikipedia   So, it's a layer of aluminum oxide. But since pure aluminum is soft, your watch would most likely be made of an alloy. Some of the most common metal added to aluminum alloys are Si, Fe, Cu,  Mn, Mg, Cr, Zn, V,  Ti, Bi, Ga, Pb, and Zr. But since the concentrations of these metals are minuscule, we won't account for their presence in the alloy.    Absorbability?  Aluminum oral intake from dietary sources is usually greater than aluminum absorbed in the skin     ...about 2.5% of the aluminum typically absorbed by the gut from food over the same time period.   - A preliminary study of the dermal absorption of aluminum from antiperspirants using aluminium-26.      Topical Toxicity?     ALUMINIUM OXIDE  Used as a component of paints and varnishes and in the manufacture of alloys, ceramics, glass, electrical insulators and resistors.  **Toxicity**  Significant toxicity has been reported only following **chronic occupational inhalation**.  Topical - Aluminium contact sensitivity has been described but is extremely rare       InChem - Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations     Inhalational and Oral Toxicity?     Aluminium bioavailability from occupational inhalation exposure is ~   2% whereas oral aluminium bioavailability from water has been reported   to be 0.1 to 0.4%      Increased oral aluminium absorption has been suggested in Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) and Down\u2019s subjects. Oral aluminium bioavailability from the diet has been estimated to be ~ 0.1 to 0.3%, based on daily aluminium intake and urinary elimination.      -HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT FOR ALUMINIUM, ALUMINIUM OXIDE, AND ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE     Summary   -HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT FOR ALUMINIUM, ALUMINIUM OXIDE, AND ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE    Answer?  Your anodized aluminum watch is safe to wear. Not unless you have a rare allergy to aluminum.    P.S.  Read the HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT FOR ALUMINIUM, ALUMINIUM OXIDE, AND ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE. It's all there.",
        "id": 330,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to mesure body temperature correctly?",
        "body": "Altogether, digital thermometers are known to be very inaccurate.2. If you want the most accurate reading, a fever should be measured rectally, not axillary (in the armpit)1.  So therefore, different limits apply to axillary temperature measurements:     In patients older than 1 month, the mean difference (SD) between the   rectal and axillary temperatures was 1.04\u00b0C (0.45\u00b0C); thus, the   axillary temperature was adjusted by adding 1\u00b0C, and no adjusted   axillary temperature differed from the rectal temperature by more than   1\u00b0C.      Comparison of Rectal, Axillary, and Forehead Temperatures, Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med   The basal body temperature varies from 36.5 up to 37.5 degrees celsius according to Elsevier, 20173. Studies from 2008 allow values of &lt;= 38.3 degrees.4.In your case, your first reading was 37.7 basal temperature (not really sick), and the second 38.0 (maybe slightly sick).   Both values aren't accurate for medical differential diagnosis (axillary measurements, and varying quite a lot), but body temperature really doesn't tell you a lot anyway. If you feel sick, consider yourself sick. I personally probably have above 37 degrees axillary in the morning after a cozy sleep, and unless I feel sick, I wouldn't consider myself sick if my temperature is 0.3 above guidelines and I lack other symptoms of any sickness.    1: S. T. ZengeyaI. Blumenthal, Modern electronic and chemical thermometers used in the axilla are inaccurate, European Journal of Pediatrics  2: An investigation into the accuracy of different types of thermometers, Nursing Times  3: Luxem, J\u00fcrgen; Runggaldier, Klaus: Rettungsdienst RS/RH, Elsevier. 2017. German book for the paramedic education  4: Laupland, B. Fever in the critically ill medical patient., 2008.  See also:  Temperature Measurement for Patients with Fever, US Pharmacists, 2008.",
        "id": 2249,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there time limits on when epidurals can be administered?",
        "body": "It is a medical related question, not hospitally related and depends on how the birth is planned.  This is because epidural is just an anesthesia where the drugs are injected directly into the epidural space. The time lenght of the anesthesia is determined by the type of drug used, which have different half life and so different time of action.  ref: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072751/",
        "id": 2410,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why White Blood cells are that important in defining infections",
        "body": "White blood cells are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. When there is an infection, the body makes more white blood cells to fight of the infection. When there is a suspicion of an infection, the doctor will look at the WBC count (together with the CRP count, another sign of infection) to see how likely it is that there is an infection. If necessary, this can help aid in the decision to prescribe antibiotics.  When there is a too low count of WBCs the body is at risk of infections. The immune system will not function fully. This can be potentially lifethreatening if the WBC count is very low. For example, this is what happens in HIV or due to chemotherapy.  However, a high WBC count is not always functional. Sometimes a high WBC count is caused by other things, such as bone tumors or leukemia.  More information can be found here.",
        "id": 1816,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the reasons for developing the wrinkles in the eyes? Is sun exposure an important cause?",
        "body": "Skin wrinkles are generally caused by a breakdown of the collagen framework within the skin.     Collagen is a key part of your skin's structure. It forms a network of fibers within your skin that acts like a framework.      In young skin, the collagen framework is intact and the skin remains moisturized and elastic. Over time, the support structure weakens and the skin loses its elasticity. The skin begins to lose its tone as the collagen support wears down.   Wrinkles and other signs of skin ageing can be influenced by habits and behaviours during a person's life. Avoiding some risk factors for premature skin ageing can help keep skin looking younger for longer.  As well as smoking causing premature skin aging,     Wrinkles at the corners of the eyes (crow's feet) or between the eyebrows (frown lines) are thought to be caused by small muscle contractions. Over a lifetime, habitual facial expressions like frowning, smiling or squinting leave their mark on our skin.   The first link states that     Using your facial muscles -- smiling, frowning, or squinting, for instance -- is part of expressing yourself. That's normal, but it does stress the collagen in your skin. Over time, that stress adds up and contributes to facial lines and wrinkles. ",
        "id": 1790,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to be allergic to corn but not popcorn?",
        "body": "Essentially this depends on which specific protein a person is allergic too. There will be a lot of crossover in plants so closely related as to be different subspecies of the same species, but some proteins may be unique.  Following your example of corn, this is taken from an interesting 2012 paper on the Molecular Features of Maize Allergens and their Implications in Human Health:     Detailed biochemical knowledge of maize allergy is lacking. There are several unanswered questions including the symptoms and mechanisms involved in maize allergenic reactions, its prevalence in adults and children, the implicated allergen molecules and the clinical cross-sensitization. Therefore, diagnostic tests and maize allergy management constitute a field of great interest. Currently, maize allergen proteins are classified into 20 different families, displaying diverse structures and functions. They are responsible for many IgE cross-reactions between unrelated pollen and plant food allergen sources. The most relevant maize allergen molecules belong to the Expansin and the Ole e 1 superfamilies, the panallergen Profilin, and the Lipid Transfer Proteins (LTPs), i.e. Zea m 14, the major maize allergen.   This is clearly a complex area, with ongoing research.  You mention sweet corn vs popping corn, which are different subspecies of Zea mays. Interestingly, sweet corn is sweet because of a recessive mutation that reduces the conversion of sugar to starch.  Heating a food can denature proteins, reducing their bio activity. It is possible that the act of popping corn might reduce allergenicity somewhat.  In a Review of Food Processing and Allergenicity, peanuts, tree nuts, cows' milk, hens' eggs, soy, wheat and mustard were reviewed. It was found that:   Processing may influence, but does not abolish, the allergenic potential of proteins. Reduction of allergenicity by fermentation and hydrolysis are the best characterised.   Cross-reactivity  There is also cross-reactivity, in which allergy to one protein results in an allergy to another similar protein in a completely different species (e.g. apples and birch pollen). This results in types of allergy like oral allergy syndrome.  All allergies are mediated by an immune system dysfunction known as type 1 hypersensitivity. Other types of hypersensitivity are responsible for other reactions and autoimmune conditions.",
        "id": 2436,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Ways to reverse a cavity before it goes rotten?",
        "body": "Mainly with fluoridated toothpaste and sugar restriction. See   http://www.ada.org/en/member-center/oral-health-topics/dental-sealants http://www.ada.org/en/public-programs/advocating-for-the-public/fluoride-and-fluoridation/fluoride-clinical-guidelines https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20831358    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10343087 ",
        "id": 1724,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are flashing bike lights likely to cause a seizure?",
        "body": "Note: Part of this answer comes from personal experience. Judge as you wish.  I have a condition similar to epilepsy, that has caused me to experience a number of seizures over time (ranging from simple partial seizures to full convulsive tonic-clonic seizures, also called \"grand mal\" seizures). This means that over the past few years, I have taken numerous tests, including EEGs.  The basic principles of an electroencephalograph (EEG) test (also sometimes called an electroencephalogram) are well-known and can be looked up with ease. However, they do have specific parts designed to test specific potential triggers - you don't simply lie down in a darkened room for half an hour with wires strapped to your head.  One of these trigger tests involves a strobe light. The patient, lying in a darkened room, is instructed to close their eyes, if they have not already been doing so as per the instructions of the doctor, nurse, or technician in charge. A small light - sometimes jokingly referred to as a \"bug light\" - is then placed over the patient's eyes, at a distance of about one foot. It is a compound device, consisting of many small LEDs.  The person in charge then begins the test, which goes like so:   The light flashes on and off for about ten seconds fairly quickly. There is a ten second pause. The light flashes again for ten seconds, at a quicker speed. There is a ten second pause.   This pattern repeats for some time, with the flashing getting quicker and quicker. It doesn't take long until it is impossible for the patient to tell whether the light is blinking or continuously shining, and even through closed eyelids, it is extremely bright. I've been told to not open my eyes during the test, as it could blind me. I don't know whether or not this is true, but I'm not keen to test it out any time soon.  In someone with photosensitive epilepsy, this light might trigger some sort of seizure - of any strength - or at least increased brain activity. While this has never happened to me, it does happen to people.  I wouldn't compare the experience to looking at bicycle lights like the ones you name, and for a few reasons:   The bicycle lights are nowhere near as bright as the \"bug light\". The bicycle lights do not flash as quickly as the EEG light does. The Epilepsy Society notes that     Between 3-30 hertz (flashes per second) are the common rates to trigger seizures but this varies from person to person. While some people are sensitive at frequencies up to 60 hertz, sensitivity under 3 hertz is not common.   This Epilepsy Action pamphlet gives slightly different ranges. The EEG light takes up a much larger portion of a person's field of vision than do bicycle lights, because . . . . . . the bicycle lights are typically much farther away that one foot. If you're closer than one foot to a bicycle, you're probably too close. Again, the Epilepsy Society says that this could be a problem if the light completely dominates your field of vision:     Flashing bicycle lights or other LED lights [could cause a seizure], if this creates a high enough flash rate against a dark background, and if the effect fills your vision.   The Epilepsy Action pamphlet confirms this - if you're too close.   However, people with photosensitive epilepsy can have seizures when faced with lights less intense than the strobe lights I've been confronted with during EEGs (see the links). Those of us without photosensitive epilepsy should be fine; those with it might not.  The bottom line? Yes, it's possible - under certain conditions. There have been some outcries over this - see this article, for example - which has led to some changes. However, these cases occur when the lights are flashing pretty quickly - I haven't been able to find out average rates for bike lights, so any information there would be awesome - and when the person with epilepsy is relatively close to the lights. You don't necessarily have to be one foot away, but being a sensible distance from the bike would reduce the risk.",
        "id": 311,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many different dialects of sign-language are there? And braille for the blind? Is it a different system for each language?",
        "body": "This question sounds more appropriate for the Linguistics SE. I'll answer it here anyhow.  ASL is based on French Sign Language, the first sign language teacher came from France. AFAIK, the Franch sign language formed spontaneously as soon as there were cities and communities of deaf children. When there is no sign language, but other people who are deaf, the children will spontaneously begin to sign and create a new language. Abroad, many countries got their first language from teacher from the US, so for example Philippine's Sign Language is based on ASL.   These languages have almost no relationship to the speaking communities language. ASL's grammar is more similar to Chinese than to English. But what about fingerspell? Yes, that is one way that English can be encode with your hands. Attempting to write English with your hands is mind-numbingly slow. To communicate at a normal rate, you have to use strategies that prevent 1:1 compatibility with English. This doesn't stop well wishing amateurs from suggesting some sort of \"manual English\", SEE (Signed Exact English) is one current contender for a \"English-fied\" sign language.  Regarding dialects of ASL, there are a certain number of Deaf schools. Community differences in signing vary by which school you attended. One famous example is the many regionally different ways to sign Pizza in ASL.  Braille on the otherhand is English. The blind can hear and speak English just fine. So their community is the English speaking community &amp; can read it just fine. For the Deaf community, where ASL is their first language, often they don't learn English as well. This creates a massive cultural war between those who want to force English on the Deaf (at the expense of ASL) and those who favor bilingualism. AFAIK, no one is advocating ASL-only, the Deaf need to deal with the hearing community all the time and it's uncontroversially valuable to be able to understand English, the more fluent the better.",
        "id": 1374,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does protein lower the glycemic load? Please explain",
        "body": "Plain and simple yes. Exact ratio I don't know if it's conclusive however here is a study with their opinion on the ratio http://m.jn.nutrition.org/content/136/10/2506.full",
        "id": 973,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to get rid of fungus from toe nail damage?",
        "body": "Your best and most efficient method in \"curing\" this situation is to seek professional attention from a podiatrist or dermatologist (webmd.com).  Particularly if you are still experiencing some pain after time has passed from the original injury, along with the fungal reaction, this may be an indicator of a more serious underlying issue.          Your doctor may try one thing or a combination:      A topical cream that goes directly on the nail     An antifungal prescription pill     Removing the damaged area of the nail or skin  In some cases, you might need to have the nail removed completely with surgery.           http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/ss/slideshow-toenail-fungus      I previously had a toenail fungal infection and tried home remedies, mostly including some sort of hot water foot soak, especially as the infection had spread to the surrounding skin:   white vinegar  Isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol epsom salt baking soda   Ultimately, it was determined the entire nail had to be removed.  This procedure was performed at a Podiatrist's office with a local anesthetic injection, and I was walking out - pain free - 15 minutes later.  The new nail took some time to grow in ...but grew in healthy, straight, and blemish-free!  Thankfully it was covered by my medical insurance; even with the co-pay, it was well worth the price of admission!  Hope this is helpful!",
        "id": 978,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any physical benefits to acne? Does the oil keep skin from wrinkling & sagging in the future? Can it prevent razor-burn & dandruff now?",
        "body": "According to this study 1 those of us with oily skin may have less forehead wrinkles.",
        "id": 1280,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How effective is Oseltamivir when given before symptoms of flu appear?",
        "body": "As soon as a virus is replicating effective antiviral drugs can hamper or even prevent its progression.  This principle is used for Pre-exposure prophylaxis, and more like in this case in question in Post-exposure prophylaxis.  With something like Oseltamivir it should work similarly.     Clinical Question: How effective are oseltamivir and zanamivir at decreasing post-exposure transmission of influenza? (Tools for Practice, December 5, 2016)   Bottom Line: For institutionalized seniors, six weeks of oseltamivir or 14 days of zanamivir or will prevent one additional influenza case in every 25-27 treated. For every 7-8 households given post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), one household will avoid anyone developing influenza.      Resistant influenza A viruses in children treated with oseltamivir: descriptive study. (Lancet, 2004)   Oseltamivir-resistant mutants in children being treated for influenza with oseltamivir arise more frequently than previously reported. Furthermore, children can be a source of viral transmission, even after 5 days of treatment with oseltamivir.   The current position of the RKI still recommends the use of this substance 48 hours after the appearance of the first actual symptoms and goes on to recommend its usage if the progression is thought to be severe.  But there is a huge catch in general with this substance specifically:     Cochrane team comments on the ECDC draft advice on oseltamivir:   Criticising misinterpretation in the draft \u201cExpert Opinion\u201d (MedCheck (April 2016, Vol. 2, No. 4))      As ECDC advice and expert opinion on neuraminidase inhibitor have many limitations including misunderstanding of the most important findings of our systematic review, meta-analysis and discussions.    We strongly recommend that our Cochrane review be re-read.    Findings from epidemiological studies should be taken into account.    Findings from basic sciences are also important to understand the mechanism of efficacy and harm from neuraminidase inhibitors:    Inhibition of host\u2019s neuraminidase followed by impaired functions of various cell such as immune, metabolic, renal, cardiac and neuronal cells by neuraminidase inhibitors is closely related not only to the symptom relief but also many adverse effects on various organs.    Central nervous system depressing and stimulating actions of oseltamivir but not zanamivir may be closely related to abnormal behaviours and sudden death from respiratory failure after oseltamivir use.      Finally, we find it strange that a public body would dismiss the findings of our Cochrane review and align its conclusions with a pharmaceutically-sponsored meta-analysis for which neither protocol nor assessment of risk of bias seems to exist.   There is an effect observed for this drug but how reliable these findings are remains elusive: \"Prophylaxis trials showed that oseltamivir and zanamivir reduced the risk of symptomatic influenza in individuals and households. There was no evidence of an effect on asymptomatic influenza or on non-influenza, influenza-like illness, but trial conduct problems prevent any definitive conclusion.\"  Some examples for serious problems in the 'research' conducted:     Oseltamivir and zanamivir have limited effect on symptoms and do not reduce hospitalisation or serious complications of influenza (Evidence Based Medicine December 2014, 19, 6)   The authors identified 20 CTRs of oseltamivir with 9623 participants, and 26 CTRs of zanamivir with 14 628 participants; many of these studies were never published. The exhaustive review of regulatory documents uncovered some important and previously unknown threats to validity of these clinical trials. For example, in 11 of 20 oseltamivir trials, the placebo and active drug capsules were not identical, while ascertainment and reporting of complications and hospitalisations was inconsistent or incomplete in many trials, and participants who did not complete the trials did not receive any of the $300 payment for participation, a failure which constitutes an ethical breach.   Regarding symptom duration, they found only a modest reduction in symptom duration (0.6 days for zanamivir and 0.7 days for oseltamivir), less than that described in the published reports. Oseltamivir did not reduce the likelihood of hospitalisation (risk difference (RD)=0.07%, 95% CI \u22120.78% to 0.44%), an outcome not reported in the zanamivir trials.   No difference was found in the likelihood of serious complications with either drug. While a small reduction in the likelihood of pneumonia was seen in six studies with 2316 patients (RD=1.0%, 95% CI 0.2% to 1.49%), the diagnosis was not radiographically confirmed, was inconsist- ently defined and relied on self-report by the patient or physician, mediated by the trialists. Nausea (RD=3.7%, 95% CI 0.9% to 7.4%) and vomiting (RD=4.6%, 95% CI 2.4% to 7.6%) were more common in adults receiving oseltamivir. This was also seen in children with oseltamivir, but not with zanamivir. Both drugs were found to be effective for prophylaxis of influenza, with a number needed to treat of 33 for oseltamivir and 51 for zanamivir.   The publication bias displayed here alone should be grounds to seriously doubt the findings in relation to this drugs over all.     Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in adults and children (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD008965. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008965.pub4.)   Oseltamivir and zanamivir have small, non-specific effects on reducing the time to alleviation of influenza symptoms in adults, but not in asthmatic children. Using either drug as prophylaxis reduces the risk of developing symptomatic influenza. Treatment trials with oseltamivir or zanamivir do not settle the question of whether the complications of influenza (such as pneumonia) are reduced, because of a lack of diagnostic definitions. The use of oseltamivir increases the risk of adverse effects, such as nausea, vomiting, psychiatric effects and renal events in adults and vomiting in children. The lower bioavailability may explain the lower toxicity of zanamivir compared to oseltamivir. The balance between benefits and harms should be considered when making decisions about use of both NIs for either the prophylaxis or treatment of influenza. The influenza virus-specific mechanism of action proposed by the producers does not fit the clinical evidence.   There are some known problems regarding the general efficacy of this drugs, which are the result of improper conduct in science and marketing on behalf of the manufacturer:     Oseltamivir: over 15 years of data retention and systematic stonewalling (Prescrire International February 2016/Volume 25 n\u00b0 168 \u2022 Page 55)   In summary. Over a 15-year period, Roche, the company that markets Tamiflu\u00b0, has hampered independent analysis of the assessment data on oseltamivir in the treatment of influenza. Worse yet, drug regulators and international organisations have been complicit in this data retention.   These 15 years of stonewalling represent a lost opportunity for patients and the medical community, while providing the company with an unfair advantage after successfully bringing oseltamivir to the market on the basis of unverified data. Yet, despite the widespread belief in the efficacy of oseltamivir, cleverly orchestrated by the company and other organisations, including some regulatory and health authorities, a number of independent teams were not convinced and instead went on a hunt for missing data. What they discovered was that the available trial results were neither complete nor clinically relevant and pro- vided only weak evidence. Furthermore, they revealed that the company had not provided the information theoretically required to obtain marketing authorisation.   From the company\u2019s point of view, this deception was a success. Once health authorities and health professionals had been convinced that oseltamivir was effective on influenza, each new assessment that came to a dissenting or unfavourable conclusion could be countered by publication of a new company-funded analysis. This widely used strategy is called a \u201cpublication plan\u201d (17).   Conclusion  Given the above reasoning a working drug, an effective drug will prevent outbreaks of symptoms as described. But Oseltamivir seems to be not very efficacious in this regard. The small effect, if any, this drug may present seems to be in relation to the side effects more in the not worth it drawer than anything else.",
        "id": 2113,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Affect of raw and diluted sodium on human",
        "body": "If you take 5 grams of salt without water, your kidneys will excrete the excessive sodium in order to maintain normal blood sodium levels. Since the kidneys can excrete sodium only together with water, you will also lose some water, which will probably lead into a slightly negative water balance.  If you take 5 grams of salt with 1 liter of water, your kidneys will excrete both the excessive sodium and water, but this will result in less negative water balance than taking salt alone.  If you continue to take excessive amount of sodium for several days, your body will adjust in the way that it will start to retain more water than before to help maintain normal blood sodium levels (NIH.gov).   In conclusion, you do not need to overthink what will happen after intake of different combinations of sodium and water. It is good to know that excessive sodium intake results in water retention, which, usually, does not have any health benefits.",
        "id": 1822,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can genital herpes be transmitted even with a condom?",
        "body": "HSV-2 can be spread by skin-to-skin contact, so a condom offers limited protection.  https://www.cdc.gov/std/herpes/stdfact-herpes.htm     Also, herpes virus can be released (shed) from areas of the skin that   do not have a visible herpes sore. For these reasons, condoms may not   fully protect you from getting herpes. ",
        "id": 2042,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is saliva safe as a sexual lubricant for male masturbation?",
        "body": "Saliva is safe to apply to the sexual organs.  While it is true that the mouth contains lots of micro-organisms, the same varieties are also commonly thrive elsewhere in the body, and are all harmless against a normally functioning immune system.  Saliva also contains antibacterials, has skin-like acidity, and acts as a pH buffer.  The only concern is that it may also contain anything that has recently been in your mouth.  For example, using saliva as a sexual lubricant may be risky if you\u2014   have a topical infection around your mouth or lips, or have recently licked a location of such an infection, have recently eaten a food that can irritate sensitive skin or mucous membranes (e.g. vinegar, salt, or anything abrasive), or have recently kissed or had oral sex with anyone who might have a sexually transmissible illness.   In cases that you're unsure, other water-based lubricants sold in supermarkets and pharmacies are a safe alternative.",
        "id": 1310,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do artificial sweeteners increase risk of diabetes or hyperinsulinemia?",
        "body": "Findings  There is a strong link between the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB), obesity, and Type 2 diabetes, recognized by multiple studies, for example this survey (1).  This article (2) compares the consumption of SSBs with that of artificially sweetened beverages, and finds SSBs significantly worse. The study, however, is only a 10-week study.  This article (3) shows that one dose of sucralose does not cause insulin production.  This article (4) tends to show that ongoing use of artificial sweeteners does not control weight, but it is not conclusive evidence that it causes an increase in weight (self-selection issue).  This article (5), however, discusses a cohort where higher consumption of diet soda is associated with a significant increase of the risk of metabolic syndrome and the development of T2 diabetes. It is not, however, a smoking gun, because it does not prove causality but association (there could be self-selection: people at risk for metabolic syndrome may tend to drink more diet soda).  Conclusion  I would say that there is weak evidence of an association between the consumption of artificial sweeteners and diabetes risk. There is also some evidence that using artificial sweeteners is better than SSBs. On the whole, it seems to me that evidence is mixed at this stage.   For myself, I will continue -- carefully -- to use artificial sweeteners (sucralose in my case), but I will keep an eye on additional evidence when it comes up.    References  1: Malik, Vasanti S., and Frank B. Hu. \"Fructose and cardiometabolic health: what the evidence from sugar-sweetened beverages tells us.\" Journal of the American College of Cardiology 66.14 (2015): 1615-1624.  2: Raben, Anne, et al. \"Increased postprandial glycaemia, insulinemia, and lipidemia after 10 weeks\u2019 sucrose-rich diet compared to an artificially sweetened diet: a randomised controlled trial.\" Food &amp; nutrition research 55.1 (2011): 5961.   3: Ma, Jing, et al. \"Effect of the artificial sweetener, sucralose, on gastric emptying and incretin hormone release in healthy subjects.\" American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 296.4 (2009): G735-G739.  4: Stellman, Steven D., and Lawrence Garfinkel. \"Artificial sweetener use and one-year weight change among women.\" Preventive medicine 15.2 (1986): 195-202.  5: Nettleton, Jennifer A., et al. \"Diet soda intake and risk of incident metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA).\" Diabetes care 32.4 (2009): 688-694.",
        "id": 1729,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Ritilian, or other AD/HD medication, abuse increase college students ability to study?",
        "body": "   Bagot, K. S. and Kaminer, Y. (2014), Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review. Addiction, 109: 547\u2013557. doi:10.1111/add.12460   Briefly glanced at this study today  Short answer is: Generally yes, most youth studied showed an increase in performance in measured tasks during this study.  Longer answer: This is a review of current literature, not an individual study. It only reviewed 14 studies most of which had fairly small population sizes. Many of the studies focused on different medications/dosages and assessed performance in different ways. There's no easy way to assess total mental \"improvement\" with these medications; you have to have certain tasks that you can quantify. So while these medications may help in some areas (reaction time, logical reasoning, attention based tasks) they might not provide any benefit in others (critical thinking, articulating thoughts, imagination).   So, to me, it depends on the person and the task, not just medication vs no medication.",
        "id": 774,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many lives an organ donor with brain death who is otherwise healthy can save on average?",
        "body": "Organ donation and utilization in the USA   States about 3.6 organs are gathered from every deceased donor   Organdonor.gov says a organ donor can save up to 8 lives and Mayo Clinic says you can save or improve up to 50 lives. Some sites say you can save over 50 and even a 100 though.  liveonny.org     One organ donor can save up to eight lives. The same donor can also   save or improve the lives of up to 50 people by donating tissues and   eyes.    However, most deceased organ donors are brain dead about 5% have experienced cardiac arrest though. This does not affect the amount of organs donated usually, both donors give around the same amount. As for possible rejection of organs any patient with a donated organ could do that, there are some people who may have greater risk, but usually everyone needs to take meds to be safe from this.   Survival rates:   Kidney:       About 98 percent of people who receive a living-donor kidney   transplant live for at least one year after their transplant surgery.   About 90 percent live for at least five years. About 94 percent of   adults who receive a deceased-donor kidney transplant live for at   least one year after their transplant surgery. About 82 percent live   for at least five years.    Liver:  The 3 year survival rate was 78% and the 71% survival rate was for 5 years. list of survival up to 10 years. I would have added the list, but it's very big as it includes all organs.  ",
        "id": 1000,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Coagulation problems in blue babies",
        "body": "I checked and found following coagulation problems may occur in patients with congenital cyanotic heart diseases (commonest example tetralogy of Fallot):  Thrombotic episodes may occur due to:   Hyperviscocity due to markedly elevated haematocrit (red cell mass), which in turn occurs due to chronic hypoxia and cyanosis Iron deficiency leading to spherical shape and reduced deformability of red blood cells   Bleeding episodes can occur due to:   Low platelet count (thrombocytopenia) Acquired Von Willebrand syndrome Vitamin K deficiency leading to coagulation factor deficiency   Hence patients with congenital cyanotic heart disease are at risk of both bleeding (from example from lungs- hemoptysis) and thrombosis (e.g. in brain vessels- stroke). Both above problems are more common in patients with severe hypoxia and cyanosis.   Above abnormalities can be treated using following modalities:   Platelet transfusion Fresh frozen plasma / coagulation factor concentrates Iron replacement if iron deficiency is documented. Serum ferritin is most sensitive test to document iron stores. Reduced mean corpuscular volume (MCV) indicates microcytosis due to iron deficiency anemia. Vitamin K replacement Temporary improvement occurs with phlebotomy (blood letting) combined with volume replacement using isotonic fluids. Palliative surgical procedures like Blalock-Taussig shunt improves hypoxia by increasing pulmonary (lung) blood flow and reduces most of above abnormalities.   However, unwarranted iron supplementation or vitamin K replacement may lead to thrombotic episodes.  References:  http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-workup  http://archsurg.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=565545  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12486661  http://www.jpma.org.pk/full_article_text.php?article_id=4303",
        "id": 499,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When my gums are swollen, flossing a lot reduces and fixes up my gums. Why?",
        "body": "Although there is limited scientific evidence for flossing, it unquestionably does physically remove plaque between teeth, which cannot be removed with the bristles of a toothbrush. If it is not removed, the plaque in turn can cause gingivitis and ultimatly periodontitis (formation of pockets).  To answere your question weather there are other contributing factors :   Flossing possibly stimulates the gums physicaly, and makes them become firmer, but currently there is very little in the way of evidence for that. Another possibility is that by flossing regularly, you also use simultaneously other means of cleaning teeth, such as regular teeth brushing and mouth rinces)   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24353078 (limited scientific evidence)",
        "id": 1044,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the most modern strategy for treating middle ear infections in children?",
        "body": "Thank you for this most interesting question. Happy to have a fresh look on these things.  The main question is if you give or do not give medication, mainly antibiotics, steroids, antihistamines or painkillers.  Luckily there is a cochrane [1] review of studies, I think the best answer is already in just sharing the conclusion:     Authors\u2019 conclusions:   This review reveals that antibiotics have no early effect on pain, a slight effect on pain in the days following and only a modest effecton the number of children with tympanic perforations, contralateral otitis episodes and abnormal tympanometry findings at two tofour weeks and at six to eight weeks compared with placebo in children with AOM. In high-income countries, most cases of AOMspontaneously remit without complications. The benefits of antibiotics must be weighed against the possible harms: for every 14 childrentreated with antibiotics one child experienced an adverse event (such as vomiting, diarrhoea or rash) that would not have occurred ifantibiotics were withheld. Therefore clinical management should emphasise advice about adequate analgesia and the limited role forantibiotics. Antibiotics are most useful in children under twoyears of age with bilateral AOM, or with both AOM and otorrhoea. Formost other children with mild disease in high-income countries,an expectant observational approach seems justified   To be honest, Antibiotics need to be strictly reserved to really serious cases, everything else is non evidence bad practice.   I also like to highlight a review more concentrated on otitis media with effusion (fluid behind the ear drum) [2] - have a look at table 6 on page 9). Please remember it is targeted at the otitis media with effusion, still there are some really nice findings in it.  They also check on steroids and antihistamines, these are also out and are in no current guideline I know of mentioned at all. Also antiviral medication, as mentioned by you, is just something that is highly questionable in all cases and have a very limited use - for sure they are straightforward useless in infections of the ear (No Data for that, but given the limited use in general I think that is a fair assumption).  Draining is done to relief pain by draining effusion and there are in the second study some guidelines when to do it (page 33)  In [3] there is mentioned that ear drops are not studied yet, so there is no way to tell if they are working. Also they refer to nose sprays that they are having no effect on the length of the infection and outcome, but may make the feeling better if they have a blocked nose.  So in general the summary is:  -Give painkillers -Surgical could be done in more severe cases -Give antibiotics only if really neccessary as the risks outweight the benefit -Anything helping the patient to feel good is in general okay but does not change outcome  [1] https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000219.pub4/epdf/full Venekamp RP, Sanders SL, Glasziou PP, Del Mar CB, Rovers MM.Antibiotics for acute otitis media in children.Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews2015, Issue 6. Art. No.: CD000219.DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000219.pub4  [2] http://www.rcot.org/pdf/ClinicalPracticeGuideline-OtitisMediawithEffusion(Update)-27-06-59.pdf  Otolaryngology\u2013 Head and Neck Surgery 2016, Vol. 154(1S) S1\u2013S41 ! American Academy of Otolaryngology\u2014Head and Neck Surgery Foundation 2016 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0194599815623467  [3] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279380/",
        "id": 2650,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Interested in how these particular supplements work together",
        "body": "SE Health is not meant for personal advice. Only your doctor can answer this question based on an evaluation of your medical conditions, medications, allergies, and physical exam.    What I can do is guide you toward the right resources.  Make a list of these things you are on, a list of your medical history, a list of medication or food reactions you've had in the past, and what you wrote in the question.  Take it with you to the doctor.  Because of the supplements you take and diagnosis of Leaky Gut, I would recommend a doctor who practices functional medicine or a doctor of naturopathy - at least in the USA.  I know for a fact that most MD/DO training does not cover very many alternative medications and supplements.  Part of the reason is that there is limited evidence about some of them, part is that they are not always regulated or safe, and part is that the pharmaceutical industry tends to dominate what is taught in med school (they generate the most evidence through extensive research that costs big $$).    Treatments of ANY kind range in evidence of effectiveness from 0 to extremely strong, depending on what quality research is able to show us. There IS evidence for safety and efficacy of many alt meds/supplements, but I am not an expert in which resources those are.    That is why I point you to one of those specialists who DO use those resources regularly.  I have met and listened to a number of very knowledgeable and evidence-based doctors of naturopathy and functional medicine doctors, but that does not mean that all of them practice strongly evidence-based medicine. I recommend that you request that the doctor provide you with the resources that support their recommendations so that you can read further and educate yourself on them.  Medication interaction checkers exist online, but there are a couple caveats.  One, they might not be accurate with supplements (or even have them listed).  Two, there is no way to input your medical history.  If you have damaged your liver drinking, for example, your liver enzymes may not work right and medications can build up or behave differently.  This is why you need a doctor to talk with you for your individual case.  Good luck with your learning process.  It is good that you are asking these questions about safety and your health!  It's just not the right way to ask questions on Health SE.",
        "id": 1821,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the pH of La Croix?",
        "body": "Some vendors publish the pH values for the products they sell (examples in this answer). But that seems to be only the case if their product really stands out to the competition with high pH levels. Simple carbonated water (de-ionised) can have quite a low pH but other factors come into play for the acidity of the finished item.   This brand's website has a section on this:     What is the PH balance of LaCroix waters?      The pH level of LaCroix varies by flavor and is less acidic than traditional soft drinks, 100% juice and juice drinks, and other typical beverages without the calories! If there are any concerns about your acidity consumption, please consult your physician.      Dr. Matthew Messina, a dentist and spokesperson for the American Dental Association, told MUNCHIES, a website and digital video channel, that \u201cthe health risks of sugarless, naturally carbonated waters like La Croix and Perrier are nowhere near those of sugary sodas, despite their textural similarities. There is no scientific evidence that sparkling waters are any more dangerous or damaging to the teeth than regular water.\u201d   Real answer: \"What the hell, we won't tell!\"  Of course, the real pH depends not only on the other salts in the water but on what exactly is used for flavouring it. If it is citric acid for example, and all too often it is, then chances for a drink low in acidity dwindle fast.     This Is Why You Should Stop Drinking LaCroix    Flavored waters \u2014 yes, including La Croix \u2014 are eroding your teeth (2017)   It is really a pity and disgrace that \"sparkling water\" often refers to acidified flavoured sparkling water. Regarding dental health these are quite different.     **Why flavored waters are bad for your teeth ** (2017)   Carbonating that (which is adding carbonic acid) lowers its pH to about 5. (Happily, that is well in the tooth-safe zone, so you can go ahead and drink your plain sparkling water without worry.) The trouble starts when flavors are added, and the citric acid commonly used in bottled flavored waters is considered especially insidious because besides lowering pH it also may remove calcium from the teeth. A 2016 report published in the Journal of the American Dental Association found that un-carbonated flavored waters such as grape, lemon or strawberry Dasani had a pH of 3, only somewhat better than RC Cola and Coca-Cola, which were among the most acidic tested, at 2.32 and 2.37 respectively (and which are close to the pH 2.25 of pure lemon juice). On its website, the brand Hint says the pH of its waters range from 3.5 to 4.   Not only single expert opinions support this view. Some studies that support the      Investigation of mineral waters and soft drinks in relation to dental erosion. (2001)      The erosive potential of flavoured sparkling water drinks (2007)   Conclusions:\u2002 Flavoured sparkling waters should be considered as potentially erosive, and preventive advice on their consumption should recognize them as potentially acidic drinks rather than water with flavouring.      Mean hydroxyapatite dissolution and standard deviation, expressed as the theoretical mass of phosphate (\u03bcg) present in 1.5 mL of test solution, both after the immediate opening of the test liquid and after 30 min of exposure of the carbonated water to air. Each value is based on the average of 10 replicate samples.   That has to be put into perspective. Even citric acid is not the devil. The pH is not everything. Amount of drink you consume and exposure time to your teeth are much more meaningful and harder to measure but better controllable than this easy to measure but harder to control number that is pH.      The effects of beverages on plaque acidogenicity after a sugary challenge (2013)   Companies adding needlessly such superfluous ingredients like citric or other acids to \"sparkling water\" should be held responsible for diluting the meaning of that term and sued if they continue to sell this with a misleading claim like \"healthy\", since all around these flavoured waters are apparently not tooth friendly.  Not drinking them might be one sane option.   Insisting to ingest might warrant the following precautionary measures:   Copied from the Chicago Tribune article:        Don't use it as your primary hydration     Minimize time exposure   Drink it with a meal or snack   Don't be a swisher      The company does not release pH levels for its products. Given the question's interest in lime, lemon it is quite reasonable to assume a significant amount of citric acid used or the \"flavour\". This will bring down the pH-level to significantly lower than real, unflavoured water.  If it does not contain citric acid or similar compounds under the label of so-called \"flavour\" then another indicator is the fact that it does not contain any sodium. The less minerals such a water contains, the more pronounced the resulting pH from the added carbonic acid. Let me be bold and cast an educated guess: the pH level will be well below 4.  For comparison some of these \"water\" drinks were classified as such:     The pH of beverages in the United States (2015):   This comprehensive pH assessment of commercially available beverages in the United States found that most are potentially erosive to the dentition.        Erosive ___________________________________ pH   Activ Water Power Strawberry Kiwi _____________ 3.38   Clear American (flavored water) Kiwi Strawberry __ 3.70   Skinny Water Acai Grape Blueberry ____________ 3.81   Sobe Life Water Acai Fruit Punch ______________ 3.22   Vitamin Water Connect Black Cherry-Lime _______ 2.96   As long as the company decides to keep silent about the ingredients and the FDA continues to allow them this practice:     What's actually in this stuff? And why is it so incredibly addicting?      Part of the problem is that there's actually no way to know for sure what gives this very subtly flavored drink its ambiguous \"essence.\" Look at a LaCroix can and you'll see it has no artificial sweeteners, no calories, no sodium, no nothing. The only two ingredients are carbonated water and natural flavor, which means almost nothing. Carbonated water is water with CO2 in it. Sure, it creates a little carbonic acid in the drink, which some folks have said could harm your teeth, but so long as you're healthy your saliva easily neutralizes those acids. It's the second ingredient\u2014natural flavor\u2014that holds the key to LaCroix's allure.      According to the FDA, natural flavor can be anything that adds flavor to a product so long as it comes directly from a plant or animal source. That's a pretty wide range, but it's further muddled by the fact that natural flavors can be made up of more than one ingredient\u2014including artificial ingredients that help preserve the flavor or help it mix well with the other ingredients. \"You see 'natural flavor' on a label and it's really a black box of secrecy in terms of what's being added to that product,\" says David Andrews, a chemist from the Environmental Working Group.      Just like their artificial counterparts, natural flavors are complex chemical formulas invented by food companies and a small handful of flavor houses around the world. The FDA lets companies call these formulas natural even if they have synthetic solvents or preservatives because it classifies those filler ingredients as \"incidental additives,\" which usually come in trace amounts and get a pass from ingredient disclosure laws.      Before you start panic-counting the gallons of LaCroix you've consumed in the last two days alone, know that National Beverage, the obscure Florida-based company that owns LaCroix, claims that it doesn't add anything artificial to its flavors. Instead, they use \"natural essence oils ... extracted from the named fruit used in each of our LaCroix flavors,\" a company spokeswoman said in an email.      The skinny on sparkling water: Does it erode teeth?   Is Carbonated Water Bad for Your Teeth? (Has some further measurements on pH levels.)  ",
        "id": 1814,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will there never be a cure for cancer?",
        "body": "Your question contains a number of over simplifications. Cancer isn't one disease. That's not an \"excuse\", it's a fact that was painfully learned by researchers who rolled up their sleeves to \"cure cancer\" and realized they had it wrong.  Second, \"poisons\" (I presume you mean chemotherapy) are not the only treatment. You ignored not only surgery and radiation, which work for some people, but immunotherapy, which is producing some astonishing results for some particular cancers (not just where they started to grow, but their genetics, affect whether immunotherapy will work.) This 2014 article talks about the research in that area and what has been learned. For melanoma, even stage 4 metastatic melanoma, projected survival time has gone from a small number of months to a decade or more, possibly to regaining the natural lifespan. One interesting sentence fragment:     the availability of novel immunotherapies could potentially result in cancer turning into a controllable chronic disease in a considerable proportion of patients.   And the field has moved dramatically even since that paper was published.  I suggest reading this Scientific American article about what the phrase \"cure cancer\" involves. Yes, there are still a lot of people dying of cancer - I've been to my share of funerals - but there are plenty living with it and eventually dying of something else. ",
        "id": 1839,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the cause(s) of fibromyalgia?",
        "body": "I have had a pain management course a couple of years ago - this was my research topic. As you pointed out the reasons are still unknown, also the treatment is basically aimed at treating symptoms an managing life with pain. This might be interesting to read if you are interested in this procedure called multimodal pain therapy [1] The tender points are still the way of diagnosing FM.  The best english Version I found is so far about FM is the NHS website [2] who have lined up all suspected contributing factors quite nicely (and was just recently updated):  Abnormal pain messages -For unknown reason the receptors react differently to pain and the threshold of identifying pain and \"just\" normal sensations is going down  Chemical imbalance -Serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine are unusual low in fibromyalgia patients - please note, especially this is not something that can be assumed safely as a cause, it could very well also be a result from being constantly in pain.  Sleep problems -That originally was assumed as a result of Fibromyalgia, but today we also see it as a possible risk factor. As mentioned above a clear cause and effect connection is not easy to establish  Genetics -Some genetic prevalence is found, but since FM is very seldom, that also is not easy to prove.   Trigger - As you mentioned psychical stress is one of the things that is quoted, but also Injuries, infections, surgery and even giving birth.  I myself have seen around 10 FM patients, in my very limited personal experience most of them were post Injury/Surgery, some post viral infection and one was completely without any of the expected triggers and \"just\" had a depression The studies often point also at other risk factors like smoking, unfortunately the same thing applies as before, due to small numbers and retrospective studies cause and effect are not clearly separable.   [1] https://www.americannursetoday.com/multimodal-multidisciplinary-therapy-pain-management/ [2]https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/fibromyalgia/causes/",
        "id": 2649,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Toxicity of nicotine vs potassium cyanide",
        "body": "Most medical literature reports a similar level of toxicity between nicotine and cyanide - 50 mg for cyanide and 60 mg for nicotine as lethal doses.  However, there is controversy over the true lethal dose for nicotine (but not for cyanide). An article by Dr. Mayer in Archives of Toxicology postulates that the true lethal dose for nicotine is 10 times higher than 60mg or 600mg.    http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3880486/",
        "id": 1026,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long can vestibular neuritis last?",
        "body": "There are four different types of labyrinthitis (or  vestibular neuritis):   mastoiditis usually caused by untreatedOtitis Media, middle ear infection lueslabyrinthitis usually caused by a luetic pleurisy or meningitis. mengingogene labyrinthitis. usually caused by meningococcal diseases viral labyrinthitis. usually caused by viral infections   The latter is the most common type of labyrinthitis. Assuming steroids means antibiotics, mengingogene labyrinthitis seems to be your case. If steroids means something like Aciclovir or other virostatic agents, you are suffering from a viral labyrinthitis.  No matter the cause, 2 months of pain and vertigo is too much  2 months of taking drugs is a lot as well (depending on the drugs you are taking) and should be discussed with your doctor. Don\u2019t hesitate, take your last results with you, and visit a doctor of your choice.     Further reading (German only): DocCheck Flexikon",
        "id": 1957,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to celebrate christmas with MS?",
        "body": "In short: Changes in diet have not been proven to help mitigate MS, but there are special diet recommendations for patients on glucocorticoid therapy (solu-medrol belongs to this group).    There have been hypotheses on various diets increasing the risk of MS, however, there is no strong scientific evidence that would confirm this. At best, the results from controlled studies were inconsistent.   There was a large prospective study on two cohorts of women (92,422 with 14 year follow-up and 95,389 with 4 years follow-up), which has shown:     In these two large cohorts of women, we found no evidence that higher intake of saturated fat or lower intakes of polyunsaturated fat and fish omega-3 fatty acids were associated with an increased risk of MS. Intakes of dairy products, fish, red meats, poultry, and processed meats were also unrelated to risk of MS.      Because of the prospective design, recall or selection biases are unlikely in this study, and the high follow-up rates minimize the concern that differential follow-up rates have effected our results. The estimates of total fat and specific types of fat derived from the dietary questionnaires used in this study reasonably reflect long-term intakes of study subjects   (15\u201318). The fact that they have predicted risk of coronary heart disease in the NHS (31) further supports their validity.    However, many doctors do recommend a special diet when on glucocorticoid  therapy. Influence on electrolyte and sugar metabolism has been established with these medicines, as well as increased energy intake. The recommended diet is usually low in calories, fat and simple carbohydrates (no sugar I'm afraid or as little as possible), rich in protein; also low sodium and foods rich in potassium, calcium and vitamin D are recommended.   These nutritional strategies serve to prevent or mitigate potential metabolic side effects of corticosteroids. That being said, it is still a point of debate whether these are applied only in chronic systemic application of glucocorticoids or should they also be included in pulse therapy (short-term, high doses, the sort that you described).  Ultimately, the recommendations on diet should come from your doctor, and you should ask as many questions as you wish. Sometimes this sort of news comes as a bit of a shock, and it is good to have a family member with you and to write down the recommendations - when there is a lot to process it is easy to forget a crucial piece of information. Whatever you do, make sure to take your therapy as prescribed, as with corticosteroids, depending on how long you take them, it might be dangerous to abruptly stop - your doctor will know if this applies to your case.     Ref:    Dietary Fat in Relation to Risk of Multiple Sclerosis among Two Large Cohorts of Women Glucocorticoid Therapy and Cushing Syndrome Treatment &amp; Management Effects of glucocorticoids on energy metabolism and food intake in humans ",
        "id": 1440,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Clinical death experience and sleep paralysis experience the same? did anyone die due to sleep paralysis?",
        "body": "This is a complicated question. As far as I understand this it is about comparing near death experiences and sleep paralysis. (Commonly, I would regard in this context \"clinical death\" as real death. A really final stage of life from where there is no coming back by definition \u2013 and for example Jesus is not recorded to have said much about this experience afterwards. Other instances of people 'coming back' seem even less trustworthy anecdotes.)  What is near death experience (NDE)?     According to the NDE-scale a near-death-experience includes a few, or   several, of the following 16 elements:         Time speeds up or slows down.   Thought-processes speed up.   A return of scenes from the past.   A sudden insight, or understanding.   A feeling of peace or pleasantness.   A feeling of happiness, or joy.   A sense of harmony or unity with the universe.   Confrontation with a brilliant light.   The senses feel more vivid.   An awareness of things going on elsewhere, as if by extrasensory perception (ESP).   Experiencing scenes from the future.   A feeling of being separated from the body.   Experiencing a different, unearthly world.   Encountering a mystical being or presence, or hearing an unidentifiable voice.   Seeing deceased or religious spirits.   Coming to a border, or point of no return.      Joy, peace and happiness seem to be in direct contradiction with what is commonly said about sleep paralysis:   What is sleep paralysis (SP)?     Sleep paralysis is a relatively common but under-researched phenomenon. While the causes are unknown, a number of studies have investigated potential risk factors. [\u2026]   Sleep paralysis involves a period of time at either sleep onset or upon awakening from sleep during which voluntary muscle movements are inhibited. Ocular and respiratory movements remain unaltered and perception of the immediate environment is clear. These episodes are frequently associated with a variety of hallucinations, such as a sense of an evil presence (known as intruder hallucinations), pressure felt on the chest (incubus hallucinations), and illusory feelings of movement (vestibular-motor (V-M) hallucinations). Sleep paralysis is a global phenomenon, with terms for sleep paralysis existing in over 100 cultures. In many places, sleep paralysis experiences are interwoven with a culture\u2019s folklore. Episodes of sleep paralysis have been suggested as an explanation for supposed paranormal phenomena such as witchcraft, demonic assault, and space alien abduction. Fear and distress are typically associated with episodes, though feelings of bliss are sometimes reported.   That seems to be a much complicated issue: near universal neurological and psychological experiences are reported with wildly differing language. It is debatable how much of this is cultural influence of what is talked about afterwards or cultural difference of what is actually experienced.  But the one thing in common for NDE and SP is the so called out-of-body experience.     Sleep Paralysis, \"The Ghostly Bedroom Intruder\" and Out-of-Body Experiences: The Role of Mirror Neurons.   This interaction involves a convergence of inputs in the right SPL, and their target zones in V5. Not surprisingly, damage to the prefrontal cortex sometimes results in echopraxia \u2014 i.e., miming what somebody near is doing. Analogously, the massive deafferentation of sensory input during SP would lead to a similar disinhibition of the MNS and its propensity to project its body into another individual \u2014 if you are a chimp \u2014 or another virtual body, if you are a human. A disturbance of these interactions would lead to the more florid manifestations of an alien abductor, bedroom intruder, or mysterious other \u2014 seen so frequently during SP. In addition, we suggest that OBEs during SP, likewise result from the massive deafferentation that occurs during REM sleep paralysis. These ideas could be explored using neuroimaging, to examine the selective activation of brain regions associated with mirror neuron activity, when the individual is hallucinating an intruder or having an OBE during SP.   The overlap for this is sometimes striking:     Other noteworthy influence factors are certain circumstances that arise during operations.  These include so-called anaesthesia awareness. Patients do not feel any pain, but for a short time \u2014 seconds or minutes \u2014 they are in fact awake.  This short time feels to them as if it were an eternity. So after the operation, they can tell astonished clinical staff about details of the operation, such as what the surgeons were talking about. If in addition out-of-body experiences are induced by medication, we can picture to ourselves how a patient might talk about this afterwards: he might well say that he had come out of his body and observed what was going on in the operating room.  Theoretically, in such a situation, the out-of-body experience could also be explained by saying that the anaesthetic did not work completely, so that the patient was awake but did not feel his own body. This is an association which resembles sleep paralysis. Such anaesthesia awareness is a relatively frequent phenomenon, occurring in one out of every 1,000 cases of narcosis. Worse are conditions in which the experience of pain is not completely switched off. This happens in three out of every 10,000 narcoses. Consider a typical hospital in the German city of Leipzig with 1,700 patient beds and 43,000 patients annually. Statistically, 320 operations are conducted every week! Now we can much better imagine how often such things occur. The chances of experiencing anaesthesia awareness are rather high.  Thus, iatrogenic near-death experiences are highly probable in patients who undergo an operation.&lt;(1), p 99.>   There are certainly beliefs out there, that draw a direct connection:     The Night-mare, Traditional Hmong Culture, and Sudden Death (Sudden Death and the Night-mare: Is There a Connection?)   Thanks to the many Hmong men and women with whom I spoke, the logic of the Hmong explanation for the role of dab tsog in the sudden nocturnal deaths was now clear to me.   Although it was its resonance with the night-mare that first drew me to the topic of SUNDS, part of me wished that there was no connection\u2014that the syn- drome could be attributed to causes entirely recognizable within the biomedical model and that would not, through a cultural vector, provide yet another opportunity for some to view the Hmong immigrants as exotic and alien. The traumatic recent history of the Hmong refugees (that led to their resettling in the United States) soon revealed a biocultural connection that was previously obscured by historical and geographical distance. I will now turn to this relationship to show how Hmong explanations of lethal dab tsog attacks can simultaneously be understood from a biomedical perspective.  &lt;(3) p 94\u2013116.>    That last citation is followed with \"The Night-mare and the Nocebo \u2013 Beliefs That Harm\" (emphasis added).  Summary  There is an overlap in the descriptions of both phenomena, but this is rather small. This suggests that they are not the same but seem to share certain pathways on the biological level and certain expectations on the cultural level. It is unlikely that someone who is \"just\" having a sleep paralysis really dies from that alone \u2013 it is nevertheless a distressful experience that might amplify underlying conditions \u2013 and if nocebo adds to that this might not be entirely harmless.  Fortunately, sleep paralysis seems to be a lot more treatable than death.   References   Birk Engmann: \"Near-Death Experiences: Heavenly Insight or Human Illusion?\", Springer: Cham, Heidelberg , 2014. John Martin Fischer, Benjamin Mitchell-Yellin. \"Near-death experiences : understanding visions of the afterlife\", Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2016.     Shelley R. Adler: \"Sleep Paralysis: Night-mares, Nocebos, and the Mind-Body Connection\", Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, London, 2011. Louis Proud: \"Dark Intrusions: An Investigation Into the Paranormal Nature of Sleep Paralysis Experiences\", Anomalist Books: San Antonio, New York, 2009.  ",
        "id": 1981,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Advanced lung cancer spreading areas",
        "body": "First, what are metastases? The exact definition of metastases is more and more debated in the last decades (for an excellent review see the review by Welch, 2006), mainly because the advances in cancer research have permitted to unveil new characteristics (genetical, biochemical, surface membrane expression,...) of metastasic cells.   According to Welch, metastases can be defined as     The dissemination of neoplastic cells to discontiguous nearby or   distant secondary (or higher order) sites where they proliferate to   form an extravascular mass of incompletely differentiated cells.   Metastatic process is dependent on three major conditions:    malignant cells need to adhere to the basement membrane local proteolysis (=breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids) of the membrane is necessary malignant cells need to pass through the rent in the membrane and the extracellular matrix.   Once these malignant cells are in the circulation, they have to repeat the above mentioned steps at a remote site. Additionally, in order to survive in a foreign tissue, they need to find a \"hospitable niche\", where they must avoid detection by host defences and warrant blood supply by inducing the growth of new blood vessels.   As you see, the metastatic process is complex and depends on several factors. The rate-limiting step in the metastatic process is the ability for tumor cells to survive and expand in a novel microenvironment. Not all cells have this faculty (so called \u201cmetastatic phenotype\u201d) and current evidence suggest that probably only small fraction of tumor cells have this capacity.   Studies have shown that chemokine receptors play a role in the metastatic capacity of a malignant cell. Also, recently, some candidate metastasis-suppressor genes, whose loss of function was associated with metastasis have been identified. Further studies are ongoing in order to understand the genetic and molecular pathways underlying the metastatic process.  So as suggested in one of the comment, the metastic process (and therefore spreading areas) in lung cancer (but also in other type of cancer) is dependent on the malignant cells and on their genotype/phenotype.  Sources:   Welch DR. Do we need to redefine a cancer metastasis and staging definitions? Breast disease. 2006;26:3-12. Kakinuma T1, Hwang ST. Chemokines, chemokine receptors, and cancer metastasis J Leukoc Biol April 2006 79:639-651 Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson J, Loscalzo J. eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012.p 681 ",
        "id": 1055,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Has anyone sucessfully gained weight?",
        "body": "1. You gain weight by consuming more calories than you spend (National Heart, Blood and Lung Institute).  2. If you just consume more calories and you do not start with resistance training, you will convert most of the excessive calories into the body fat rather into bigger muscles, so you will appear fatter (skinny fat) and not \"bigger,\" more muscular, stronger or better looking (Nutrition.gov).  3. Your maximal muscle mass is genetically determined (PubMed)     Skeletal muscle is a highly heritable quantitative trait, with   heritability estimates ranging 30\u201385% for muscle strength and 50\u201380%   for lean mass.   You can increase your muscle mass to a certain point with resistance training but not beyond what your genetics allows you.  4. According to European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (the content available only here), there is no cause-effect relationship between whey protein consumption and muscle mass gain, strength or endurance.",
        "id": 1250,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to know whether phrase A causes less stress on my vocal cords than phrase B?",
        "body": "You produce sound by flowing air through your vocal folds and making them oscillate. More oscillations produce a higher sound frequency, while less oscillations produce a lower sound frequency.   You can also alter the shape of your folds and mouth to produce different sounds and words.   The above taken into consideration, I'd choose words that cost the least amount of effort to produce.   Frequencies: Low frequencies put less strain (less oscillations) on the folds, however you might need more air flow (lung pressure) to create the volume required for the speech recognition.   Sounds: As far as the altering of the shape of your mouth and vowels goes, I think eventually a certain type of repetitive strain injury could occur depending on often you use the words.  Also consider this: if your mouth is closed at rest, try to pronounce: \"up\". Now try the same starting with your mouth opened. In the former case you first need to open your mouth, while in the latter you can start by flowing air.   Look closely at the amount of effort you have to put into producing a certain word. Depending on your 'natural voice' (having a certain frequency), your lung capacity and your resting position you should decide what feels most comfortable.  Regarding \"touch\" and \"click\" -  The 'ou' in touch tends to have lower frequencies than the 'ick' in click.  Also to connect the 'c' to the 'l' in click you have to move the tip of your tongue to touch right behind your teeth in your upper jaw, whereas this is already the starting position for the 't' in touch.",
        "id": 62,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wound precautions in public facilities?",
        "body": "As a rule of thumb:   anywhere that blood is coming out, you should be assuming that pathogens can be transferred in.  In this situation I would smear with antibiotic ointment and wrap with sterile gauze every day (and after every shower) until the cracking-and-bleeding-with-motion stops.",
        "id": 12,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is magnesium citrate the laxative a liquid and the supplement is a pill or powder?",
        "body": "Magnesium (Mg) citrate is Mg citrate no matter how it's formulated. The manufacturer takes pure Mg citrate (which is a powder) and either adds it to the liquid or compresses it into a pill. Same stuff either way. I don't know what else is in the liquid, but whatever it is it's only there for taste, appearance, etc.  From personal experience I can tell you there's no need to dissolve the tablets in water or anything like that. Mg citrate is a laxative no matter how it's formulated, so just match the amount of Mg in the tablets to the amount of Mg in a dose of the liquid and you should achieve the same results.",
        "id": 1152,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pills as an alternativ for fruits",
        "body": "The recommendation to stop eating lemon and limes to prevent tooth decay is likely due to their acid content.   The primary nutritional benefits of citrus fruits are mainly vitamin C (ascorbic acid), though many other useful nutrients are also provided.  Luckily, it appears that according to research the bio-availability of \"artificial\" vitamin C is not markedly reduced, and so supplements can be used.  There are other nutrients that fruits, though not only citrus, provides that may be unhealthy to cut completely out of your diet.  \"Phytochemicals\" are a collection of plant-based chemicals that may have a multitude of benefits to health, but are not standard vitamins.  Dietary fiber is also an important component of your diet that can often be provided by fruits, citrus or otherwise.  In summary, taking supplements of at least vitamin C is shown to be able to replace real citrus fruit intake for that nutrient, but there may be other nutrients that you should introduce through other foods (legumes and animal proteins are a good source of folate, as well as fortified grains) or through another supplement.  There are also several low acid fruits that may be helpful while reducing tooth decay, assuming you brush after to reduce sugar left for mouth bacteria.",
        "id": 1590,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do Benadryl and Loratadine contain the same active ingredient?",
        "body": "No, they do not contain the same active ingredient. Benadryl (trade name) is also known as diphenhydramine (generic name); loratidine (generic name) is also known as Claritin (trade name). Both drugs are primarily antihistamines and primarily active antagonists at the H1 subtype of histamine receptor. It is this property that makes them effective for treatment of allergies.   The difference between the two medications is that diphenhydramine is a first generation or \u201cnon-selective\u201d antihistamine. The term \u201cnon-selective\u201d refers to these drugs' activity at a variety of receptors other than H1 - primarily, acetylcholine receptors. This can lead to more anticholinergic side effects such as dry mouth, urinary retention, etc. First generation antihistamines are also highly lipophilic, which means they cross the blood-brain barrier and have central nervous system activity. It is this property which makes them quite sedating (primarily due to activity at CNS histamine receptors).  Second generation antihistamines were designed to avoid some of the side effects of first generation agents. They are more specific for the H1 receptor and are mostly lipophobic, meaning they poorly penetrate the blood-brain barrier, resulting in fewer CNS effects. For more information about antihistamines, this Drug Class Review is quite informative.   Is one better than the other for hay fever?   Probably not. It\u2019s just a matter of dose that determines how much anti-histamine activity each provides. The trouble is that many people will find the side effects of diphenhydramine and other non-selective agents to be dose-limiting, in which case practically it may not be as effective.  Should they be taken together (staggered or otherwise)?  I see no clear benefit to this. Again, their activity against hay fever is mediated by the same receptor. As such, they will just have additive effects. Taking twice as much of one or the other would similarly increase activity against hay fever and/or to contribute to untoward side effects. So it\u2019s \u201cOK\u201d to take them together in the same way that it\u2019s \u201cOK\u201d to take twice as much of either one.   In general, I see little reason to use diphenhydramine for allergic indications unless there is a desire for the sedative properties. Loratadine and other second generation agents have overtaken it in usefulness in this area.",
        "id": 36,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How soon can you know if you will have twins, triplets and can one increase this chance?",
        "body": "First of all, just to be clear: IVF-associated twinning and \u201ctripletting\u201d are most commonly of the dizygotic (\u201cfraternal\u201d) variety. You appear to be asking about monozygotic (\u201cidentical\u201d) twinning given the reference to \u201csplitting the egg.\u201d  I will provide a brief overview of both.  Types of multiple conceptions and relationship to IVF  Dizygotic (\"fraternal\") twins (and higher multiples) occur because more than one egg is fertilized. This is very common during the in vitro process because the ovaries are stimulated using medications, as opposed to the normal menstrual cycle where usually only one egg is release. Because multiple birth pregnancies have considerably higher rates of both maternal and fetal complications,1  IVF centers and mothers together have to make a decision weighing the risk of multiple embryo transfer with the benefits of improved probability of successful live birth. In some countries, there are laws against transferring more than one embryo, but in the United States this varies by center, and overall about 35 percent of IVF pregnancies are twins, with 7-8 % being triplets.2   Monozygotic (\"identical\") twins occur because an early embryo divides after fertilization. This results in two embryos with identical DNA (hence the terminology and phenotype - \u201cidentical\u201d). These have also been shown to be more common in IVF pregnancies, although the degree of over-representation is considerably less marked compared to the situation with dizygotes. The mechanism is also less clear.   Is this desirable? Monozygotic twins (and higher multiples) have markedly increased rates of every pattern of fetal and perinatal mortality, overall between four and seven times the rate compared to singletons.3 This may be in part due to the fact that the process of splitting is itself a \u201cdeformity\u201d of sorts that tends to cluster with other deformities. It is also the case that monozygotic multiple births at times share, to varies degrees, portions of the placental sac (mono-chorionic and at times also mono-amniotic). Mono-amniotic are susceptible to umbilical cord entanglement, which can lead to serious complications. Those that do not share an amniotic sac (mono-chorionic, di-amniotic) are susceptible to something called Twin-twin Transfusion Syndrome wherein blood is shunted from one twin to the other via vascular connections between the placentas. This can lead to severe anemia of the \u201cdonor\u201d twin and polycythemia (overload of red blood cells) in the \u201crecipient\u201d, both of which carry complications.3   You asked:      can (we) ask the IVF clinic to split the eggs before insertion?   Your goal appears to to increase the chance of monozygotic twinning.  Although it has been shown3  that certain factors do increase this chance (advanced maternal age and some technical considerations during the fertilization step), because of the above considerations about complications during monozygotic multiple embryo pregnancies, this is considered an undesirable outcome during IVF. As such, IVF centers are unlikely to do anything likely to increase this chance.   Seoud MA, Toner JP, Kruithoff C, Muasher SJ. Outcome of twin, triplet, and quadruplet in vitro fertilization pregnancies: the Norfolk experience. Fertil Steril. 1992 Apr;57(4):825-34. http://www.yalescientific.org/2012/05/the-more-the-merrier-limiting-the-number-of-embryo-implantations/ Abusheikha N, Salha O, Sharma V, Brinsden P. Hum Reprod Update. Monozygotic twinning and IVF/ICSI treatment: a report of 11 cases and review of literature. 2000 Jul-Aug;6(4):396-403. ",
        "id": 351,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Baby vs. Butterfly Needle",
        "body": "There's no such thing as a baby needle. That's just a term somebody made up to describe a small needle. The diameter of needles is measured in Birmingham gauge. The smallest needles commonly made are 34 gauge, which has an outside diameter of .1842 mm. Compare that to 18 gauge, the size typically used to draw blood samples. A 34 gauge needle is almost 7 times smaller than an 18 gauge, which is 1.270 mm in diameter.   A butterfly needle is another name for a winged infusion set, or a \"scalp vein\" needle. It's called that because it has tabs attached to it that look somewhat like butterfly wings. It has nothing to do with the size, although butterfly needles usually are a smaller gauge.",
        "id": 2600,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can ultrasound gel be used as an internal lube?",
        "body": "It is not recommended to reuse opened gel bottles for internal use due to the risks of infection. Ultrasound gels for internal use should be sterile unopened gel packets. And there was a series of cases who developed infections from one manufacturers gel. 1  You can of course make your own ultrasound gel which from the ingredients looks very safe.   Mix 2 teaspoons of guar gum with 1-2 teaspoons of salt. (The amount of salt isn't vitally important since it is just added to keep the guar gum from clumping. Using slightly less than a teaspoon of salt per 2 cups makes a gel with which is isotonic, which would be ideal for use near eyes or other mucus membranes or on open wounds). Boil two cups of water. Slowly sprinkle the guar gum/salt mixture into the boiling water while stirring vigorously with a fork or whisk. Boil for about 1-2 minutes until thick and well mixed. Cool before using. Save lives.   http://whyisamericanhealthcaresoexpensive.blogspot.com/2013/02/how-to-make-your-own-ultrasound-gel.html?m=1   https://www.itnonline.com/content/fda-bacteria-found-generic-ultrasound-gel-poses-infection-risk ",
        "id": 2242,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difficulty extracting blood",
        "body": "Getting needles into veins successfully and without damaging them is a difficult skill, and like most skills it has many factors influencing it, not the least of which is experience. With some people it's very easy. For example, athletes with minimal body fat and large, bulging veins are usually trivially easy, but the obese are usually difficult because their veins are hidden under layers of fat. And children and infants are another story altogether.   Possible reasons why that nurse had a hard time:   You have small veins Your veins are anatomically deeper than normal You are overweight You are elderly and have fragile veins Vein calcification You have low blood pressure, making your veins small and hard to find Dehydration You have dark skin, making them hard to see The nurse had little experience The nurse had plenty of experience but just sucks at it   Sorry about that last entry but it's a possibility. I've trained a lot of medics to start IVs and the fact is some people just don't have the aptitude for it and never get good at it no matter how much they practice.",
        "id": 1336,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are some natural remedies for lowering blood sugar besides diet and exercise?",
        "body": "You seem to be on a great track. I think you're doing all the right things.  Regarding cinnamon pills: I have indeed read studies regarding cinnamon curbs blood sugar by lowering insulin resistance. Just be aware that it is a warming herb/spice so if you are someone that finds themselves just a bit too hot all the time, this will exacerbate that.  Lastly, here are some other natural remedies that could work, with some support from science:   Coptis extract (called Huang Lian in Chinese): Lengthy studies have shown that Coptis extract has antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties and protect against diabetes, heart disease, and some forms of cancer very well. (source: [US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health) Gynostemma Pentaphyllum Herbal Tea: Gynostemma has been shown in a study to decrease insulin resistance significantly (Source: US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health)    Note: I work with a new shop that addresses health concerns, including diabetes: rootandspring.com and I'm also one of the authors for rootandspring.com, which believes and carries in both these products. ",
        "id": 320,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Low voltage exposure",
        "body": "There is an adage in electrical safety that \"It is not the voltage that kills you, it is the current\". This was investigated at Skeptics.SE. A review of literature regarding electrocution suggests 0.06 A to 0.07 A is fatal. That said, because of Ohm's law, voltage does play a role. Ohm's law says that V=IR, where V is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance.  This analysis measured R for the human body under various conditions (dry, damp, and with a metal ring) and calculated the various voltages needed to get lethal currents based on 17 mA across the chest being lethal. With clean dry skin you would need a voltage of 20 kV while with damp skin you need 340 V to kill you. If you are in contact with metal (e.g., wearing a ring), lethal currents can be generated at as low as 17 V. Even in the worst case scenario of a foot immersed in a conductive liquid with a total resistance of 100 Ohm, would mean that you would require 1.7 V to get a lethal current.  With a 2V, 30 mA, AC power supply, under the right (or wrong) conditions, you could deliver an immediately lethal shock in excess of 17 mA across the chest. If we assume 100 Ohm is the lowest possible resistance, despite the 30 mA source, we are limited to 20 mA at 2 V. The exact impact of 20 mA will depend on the frequency of the source (AC and DC are different and 60 Hz AC is different from 10 kHz AC). With 20 mA at 60 Hz, you would probably lose voluntary muscle control and have pain (possibly sever) and would probably begin experiencing difficulty breathing.",
        "id": 235,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I stop, Obssessive Compulsive",
        "body": "Well it's not a clinically relevant OCD if this behavior don't mess with your daily activities or doesn't take away too much time of your day. Many people have OCD-like behavior at some point of their lives.  I would recommend to watch for stressful situations that could trigger this kind of thoughts.  If this thoughts get worse or don't eventually go away you can always ask to your doctor.",
        "id": 1574,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What safety precautions should I take after spilling isopropyl alcohol?",
        "body": "About all you can do is ventilate the room and wait for it to evaporate, which shouldn't take long. It's hard to say exactly how long without knowing the type of carpet, ambient temperature, relative humidity, etc, but I would expect a few hours, not days.   Although isopropyl alcohol evaporates quickly, keep in mind that a 50% solution is 50% water, so your carpet may remain damp even after you no longer smell the alcohol.  According to the MSDS for isopropyl alcohol, the primary hazard is fire. The vapors are combustible so avoid smoking and open flames in the room. However, 200 ml is not a large amount, and the 50% water will greatly reduce its flammability. Opening windows and letting the room air out should be sufficient to avoid fire danger.  Although the MSDS says it's a mild inhalation and contact hazard, keep in mind that the MSDS refers to 100% isopropyl alcohol. 200 ml of 50% alcohol spilled in a room should present no particular health hazards, although I would open windows and keep pets and small children out of the room until you can no longer smell it.",
        "id": 501,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Relationship between sleep deprivation and itchiness",
        "body": "Experimental sleep deprivation has been shown to cause psychotic symptomatology.  Although not explicitly mentioned, one might suppose that itching might develop as a psychotic symptom but other than supposition it is hard to  imagine any other mechanism as to why sleep deprivation might cause pain, of which itching is one form of.  The recognised causes of nocturnal pruritus include  Dermatological     Atopic dermatitis Psoriasis  Chronic idiopathic urticaria  Infestations (scabies, bedbugs, pediculosis, pinworms)  Lichen planus  Lichen simplex chronicus Prurigo nodularis   Non-Dermatological     Liver disease  Chronic kidney disease  Hematopoietic disorders Neurological (e.g., brachioradial pruritus) Psychological (delusional ideations, depression, schizophrenia, stress)  Substance abuse Advanced age (senile) pruritus  Restless legs syndrome   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4813276/",
        "id": 2226,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which of these vegetables are less bloating?",
        "body": "A common cause of bloating is consumption of high amount of soluble fiber, which is fermentable by normal intestinal bacteria, which produce gas. From your list, Brussels's sprouts and avocado have more soluble fiber than kale, spinach and cabbage.  Other examples of foods high in soluble fiber (potentially bloating):   Legumes: beans, peas, lentils Fruits: figs, eggplant, apples, pears Cereals: barley, oats, rye Artichokes Sweet potatoes   Source: Nutrientsreview.com  Individuals with fructose malabsorption (which is relatively common) can experience bloating after eating foods that contain more fructose that glucose (apples, pears, honey, beverages sweetened by HFCS, commercial foods with added \"fructo-oligosccarrcharids (FOS),\" inulin or sugar alcohols (sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol...).  Source: Uwhealth.org",
        "id": 2374,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is only the height of the spleen concerning?",
        "body": "According to this, height is not the only criteria for determining if a spleen is enlarged.  ",
        "id": 768,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "BPA in reciepts (cashier)",
        "body": "Short answer, no one knows.     By now tests have found the chemical in more than 90% of Americans. But the risks of BPA contamination are still in dispute. One reason: Studies have produced conflicting or inconclusive results, in part because alterations in the endocrine system can be subtle and hard to pin down. Another is a deep rift between academic scientists and regulators about which kinds of studies are best for shaping government oversight of chemicals. 1   The increased exposure as a teller is likely from handling thermal receipt paper, and there's a suggestion that sweating might increase clearance from the body. 2  http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/02/bpa-safety-war-battle-over-evidence  https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jeph/2012/185731/",
        "id": 2238,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Foods that are salty but not fatty",
        "body": "Salty foods are generally either carby (chips/crisps, fries/chips, popcorn) or proteiny (meat, cheese, nuts.) Most carby snacks have no way to make the salt stick without the fat. Air popped popcorn, for example, the salt just falls off.  Ditto microwave or oven crisps. You can reduce the fat and change the fat and that may help. For example oven-baked potato wedges with just a little oil. Air popped popcorn with a tiny drizzle of butter. They sell low fat crackers that are salty but apparently they are high in sugar.  You'll have better luck going the protein route. For those who eat meat, lean meat most certainly exists. I make my own jerky, which is very salty and satisfying. There are also low- and no-fat sliced meats (chicken, turkey, ham) though these need to be kept cool and can't just be pulled out of your pocket for a nibble on the bus. I have seen dried sausages, pepperoni-style, in a snack size and a low-fat variant.  If you have the ability to prepare a little, a salt-lover in my family loves to dip spring onions (green onions - the long thin things that are white at one end and green at the other) in salt a bite at a time.   If you have a home dehydrator, try beet chips: slice beet(root) very thin, lay out on dehydrator trays, sprinkle a pinch of sea salt on each (the juices will make it stick / soak in) and then dry them. I really enjoy these and they are fat-free. Once made, they keep for ages and can be taken with you for an on-the-go snack.",
        "id": 1719,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the difference between inflammation and irritation?",
        "body": "The following is derived from my education (MD).  In the medical field, inflammation has a specific meaning even though its use is broad.  Whenever you see a word ending with -itis, the suffix represents inflammation.  Inflammation is a response from your body to some kind of trigger (such as infection, trauma, against yourself (autoimmune), et cetera).  Inflammation is defined usually to have the \"4 -or's\" which are the following:   Rubor - redness Dolor - pain Tumor - increase in size (swelling) Calor - heat   These are caused by the inflammatory response which heavily includes immune cells.  Irritation is not a medically well defined word.  We use it to mean something is just responding to a trigger.  We use it often to describe inflammation in layman's terms.  It is not something you can look too much into.  Any dictionary definition will do.  The connotation is usually negative (so it is a bad thing in general).",
        "id": 509,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why didn't smallpox develop resistance to its vaccine?",
        "body": "To answer this question, first it might be useful to talk about how a vaccine actually works: basically, through introducing dead or relatively harmless (attenuated) versions of a virus or bacteria (or more recently, synthetic virus-like particles meant to mimic the outside of a virus), you induce a reaction by your immune system to defend itself.  As your immune system remembers pathogens it's encountered before based usually on a protein encountered on the outside of the virus or bacteria (an antigen), when it encounters the real deal, it can defend itself.  Which means the ability for a vaccine to work depends entirely on your body's ability to recognize the vaccine you were given and the pathogen you encounter as \"the same\".  This, in turn, is a function of how fast the virus evolves. Some viruses, like influenza, have genomes that are very conducive to swapping between strains. This is known as antigenic shift. Other viruses, like HIV, have relatively rapid evolution brought on by methods of copying their genomes that are \"sloppy\" or error prone. This is sometimes called antigenic drift (influenza does this as well).  Both of these mechanisms make it likely that, over time, the difference between the vaccine and the virus is such that your body will no longer recognize one as the other.  In contrast to RNA viruses like HIV and influenza, viruses that have their genomes stored as double stranded DNA, like smallpox, have much lower error rates, which means antigenic drift is less of a problem, and it's not prone to antigenic shift. This means that a vaccine developed against it wasn't made ineffective by the virus evolving such that it didn't provoke an immune response (known as antigenic escape).  This stability made smallpox an excellent target for a vaccine, and the lack of stability is why developing a long-lasting vaccine against influenza and HIV is so difficult.",
        "id": 305,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "For how long drowsiness and intoxication last with Tramadol 50mg",
        "body": "Side-effects of medicines (such as drowsiness with tramadol) should be reported to and managed by the patient's healthcare team - in the best case by the doctor who prescribed the medicine, but you can also contact your pharmacist or in severe and urgent cases the ER or poisoning control centre.     To answer the theoretical part of your question:  Martindale, Extrapharmacopoeia (34th edition) states that half-life following oral administration for tramadol is 6 hours - that is, in most people the concentration should reduce by half after six hours. Apart from this and the initial dose, we lack a lot of data. Therefore, we would have to simplify the possible calculations making very, very rough approximations that:   the medicine is taken without other medication the medicine is absorbed instantaneously (note that this can never truly be the case, even though literature data states that it is \"readily\" absorbed, following oral administration)   In these circumstances, after n elimination half-times, there would be 0.5^n parts of medicine left in the body. That is, after 5 elimination times, i.e. 30 hours, there should be about 3.125% of the dose left. Given the roughness of our assumptions it would probably be a bit more (but we can't know how much). With this piece of information we should ask ourselves - is this remaining dose sufficient to cause drowsiness. For that, we would need tramadol's therapeutic index, which I can't find.  The theory gets more complex because there are two other active substances involved: codeine and paracetamol. Metabolism and subsequent elimination can be slowed down since metabolic pathways of these tree substances overlap. What's more, codeine can cause dose-dependent drowsiness itself (although in combination preparations doses are usually lower, we can't completely exclude possible synergistic effects with tramadol). In the end, every person can have slightly different physiology.     My point is: even though there are many ways to calculate the kinetics of a medication in a body, there is a lot of (experimental) data that we would need and a lot of factors influence the processes affecting the medicines' movement through the body and its effects. This is why, in practice, decisions are made based on the clinical presentation of the patient (and in very severe cases some lab tests) - your mother's doctor (or, if necessary, as @DoctorWhom suggested poison control centre) will know if they should do something and what. For example, your mother's doctor may decide to switch the medication combination or alter the dose.  There is really no way to tell based solely on theoretical assumptions. The data you can find on the internet is also very rough and most likely assumes that tramadol was the only medication taken (which wasn't the case here).    If you'd like to have a look at some equations, here's a reference:  Soraya Dhillon and Kiren Gill: Basic pharmacokinetics",
        "id": 1898,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which chemicals or drugs cause retrograde amnesia?",
        "body": "First, let's define retrograde amnesia carefully. You'll find many sources listing drugs that cause retrograde amnesia but they're using the term incorrectly.  From http://www.human-memory.net/disorders_retrograde.html:     Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where someone is unable to   recall events that occurred before the development of the amnesia,   even though they may be able to encode and memorize new things that   occur after the onset.   With that definition in mind, I don't think drugs exist that cause retrograde amnesia for the past few days, much less years. Some drugs will create retrograde amnesia for memories formed minutes before administration, but not much longer than that. This is believed to be because they interfere with the memory formation process, which is still incomplete when the drug is taken.  Long term alcohol abuse can cause retrograde amnesia, but that's due to the brain damage it causes after long-term abuse. No single binge, even a long one, will cause retrograde amnesia if the abuse is short-lived.  There are animal experiments that have produced retrograde amnesia by administering agents directly to the brain, but that's not something a doctor can give you. They may lead to such drugs in the future, but they're not available yet.  There are several drugs that can prevent new memories from being formed such as alcohol, benzodiazepines, and anesthesia agents such as propofol, but they all work by preventing new memories from being formed while under influence of the drug. They don't wipe out memories formed before the drug was taken and therefore can't be said to cause retrograde amnesia.  So, basically, true retrograde amnesia is usually due to brain damage from agents such as dementia, trauma, stroke, infection, prolonged seizures, and long-term substance abuse. There are no drugs a doctor can give you that will accomplish this.",
        "id": 796,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What can you learn from the parts of the name of a drug?",
        "body": "Stems and affixes tell you the class of drug (and sometimes other properties). Drugs in the same class work in a very similar way, so therefore you can tell what other drugs it's related to.  This is a massive list: https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/jsp/drugportal/DrugNameGenericStems.jsp  Usually it's the suffix that tells you the most. For example:   lisinopril, benazepril, enalapril, ramipril are ACE-Inhibitors (commonly used for blood pressure) penicillin, methicillin, amoxicillin, ticarcillin are beta-lactam antibiotics. fluoxetine, paroxetine, duloxetine, venlafaxine, sertraline  are SSRI antidepressants (selective serotonin uptake inhibitors).   In fact, sometimes we refer to classes by their stem.   Her LDL cholesterol is high, she should be on a \"statin.\" (Class of HMG Co-A Reductase Inhibitors like simvastatin, atorvastatin)   From your list:   -tinib = Tyrosine kinase inhibitors -fenib = B-Raf enzyme inhibitors -mab = monoclonal antibody   \"-ZUmab\" means humanized, and \"-XImab\" means chimeric    These and related drugs are in the realm of chemotherapy and anti-inflammatory medications.  Also, -mabs are really neat. They are antibodies (just like your body makes to recognize infections and start an immune attack), which are designed to lock onto one extremely specific thing, then cause an effect right at that spot.  For example, it's been the frontier in cancer chemotherapy, as you can sometimes target to kill just the bad cells in certain cancers.  Also in autoimmune diseases, they are used instead of steroids that cause effects all over the body.  They're hard to produce and expensive, and not without side effects, but have lots of potential!",
        "id": 1224,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there any other probabilities for an O blood typed kid other than O & O parents?",
        "body": "If a child has blood type O, it means both his alleles are recessive (since A and B are dominant over O); one of them he gets from their mother, and the other one from their father. That means that the father must have at least one recessive allele that he transfers to the offspring; so the possibilities of the father's genotype are OO, AO or BO.  As for the Rh inheritance, it is pretty much the same: positive allele is dominant over negative. So in order for somebody's phenotype to be expressed as positive, the child only needs one positive allele. We only know that the mother is Rh+, so likewise her genotype is either Pos/Pos or Pos/Neg. Therefore she either donates her Pos allele to the offspring - in this case, it absolutely does not matter what the child receives from his father; or she transfers her Neg - here, the child has to get a Pos from his father, which leaves the father with possible genotypes Pos/Pos or Pos/Neg.  Some pretty accurate additional info at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_blood_group_system",
        "id": 2592,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What type of food (herb, root) helps with sleep?",
        "body": "As an insomniac, I've looked into this myself, and found the following to be natural sleep-inducing foods (in no particular order):    Cherries -- The tarter, the better. They have melatonin!! And they are great for desert.  Chamomile Tea -- apparently it contains the chemical glycine, which helps relax muscles and nerves.  Honey -- the natural sugar of honey helps the insulin levels to raise quickly so the tryptophan (the chemical in Turkey that makes people sleepy after a Thanksgiving meal) can enter the brain easier and help you fall asleep! Plus... it goes well with the Chammomile Tea!  Almonds -- have lots of magnesium in it, and magnesium contributes to quality sleep. Also, try warm almond milk...  Walnuts -- Like cherries, walnuts, also are chalk full of melatonin.  Oatmeal -- Oats also have melatonin in them, but it also has B-6 in it which makes you relax as well. 2 components!    Here's a few websites:   16 foods that help you sleep: http://www.rd.com/health/beauty/foods-that-help-you-sleep/   9 foods that help you sleep better: http://www.prevention.com/food/foods-better-sleep   10 Foods that Make you Sleepy &amp; 10 Foods that Keep you up: http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/health/diet-nutrition/g796/sleep-inducing-foods/?slide=6     **Unlike Prince, I have not found tomatoes good for sleep. I finds tomatoes or tomato based foods to be too acidic for bed time and it gives me acid-reflux. But I guess it all depends on you and your body!    Good Night! ",
        "id": 1287,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Management of nail biting",
        "body": "You've actually asked two question: methods of cessation and length of nail recovery.There are several sources on the web that describe nail biting (NB) cessations methods, but many of them seem rather incomplete, unreliable, of from questionable sources (e.g. Prevention, Shape). I believe this article on NIH describes the many factors that contribute to the habit. The conlusion:It seems that one possible reason for the lack of success in management of NB by approaches such as wearing nails, coating them with unpleasant substances, and repeated prompting of the children to stop NB is the lack of consideration of NB as a symptom of a more complicated condition. Nail biting is not an isolated symptom. It can be one symptom from a cluster of symptoms, all of which as well as the motivation behind NB should be evaluated, assessed and managed. Randomized controlled clinical trials are required to make evidence-based pharmacologic protocols for the treatment of NB behavior available. seems to be a decent summation of the problem.As to your second question, \"...how long does it take before the fingertip to regain a normal appearance?\" I really can't find any reliable sources, so I'll have to provide my own experience. (I realize this is not sufficient for many readers. I'm sorry.) If you've bitten your nails beyond the fingertip, the remaining skin will regrow into the space once occupied by the nails, thus filling in what was once the nailbed. If this has happened and you cease the habit, the outside edges of your nails will grow into that skin, becoming ingrown, and the main, central portion of the nail will press down on that skin, thus causing some discomfort/pain. Also, since you will no longer have a nailbed, there will be nothing for the new nail growth to attach to.FWIW, these conclusions seem so obvious as to not really require reference.In my case, I have to trim my nails short. When they start to grow into the skin, they become quite painful, and since they're not attached to a nailbed, they easily snag on just about anything. Saying I wish I had never bitten my nails seems like a pretty obvious statement.Edit: please note edit above in italics.",
        "id": 2237,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it not possible to get HIV by touching a contaminated surface?",
        "body": "There is a similar question from biology section(https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/15712/how-do-viruses-or-bacteria-survive-outside-the-body-long-enough-to-spread) but your question focuses more on the pathophysiology.  There will be several factors affecting it's ability to 'infect'. One is the virus' ability to survive outside a host cell, viruses aren't technically alive hence they can't be killed, only inactivated. If your skin is exposed to a viral protein of an inactivated virus, it will no longer be capable of injecting the said proteins inside the cell. Inactivated virus is also a method of vaccination.  Another factor would be the amount of pathogen required to cause an active infection. Some viruses would need 1 and some hundreds to cause a disease.  Source: One Virus Particle Is Enough To Cause Infectious Disease  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090313150254.htm  Viral inactivation  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_processing",
        "id": 2450,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What diseases can ginseng supplement treat?",
        "body": "First, it is important to realize that there are two main types of ginseng in wide use: Asian ginseng and American ginseng. The Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center has information on both types.  Uses of Asian Ginseng   Treating angina, a form of chest pain Treating diabetes Treating HIV/AIDS Stimulate the immune system Treating sexual dysfunction Improving strength/stamina   Research does not strongly support the effectiveness of most of these uses, with the possible exception of immune stimulation and diabetes treatment, though neither effect may be substantial.1  Uses of American Ginseng   Improving athletic performance Preventing/treating cancer Treating diabetes Stimulating the immune system Increasing strength/stamina   Again, American ginseng succeeds a little in the same areas as its Asian counterpart, but completely fails to improve athletic performance or treat cancer.2  I highly recommend going through the list of references given on each page. Most are specific, but some are good overviews, including Vogler et al. (1999). Additionally, note that both MSKCC pages point out that ginseng can have many negative side effects, so use of it may be detrimental.  In answer to your specific request for an exercise/musculoskeletal condition, the response is that no, ginseng has not been shown to be helpful in these respects. There is no data to show that it can boost athletic performance, as I mentioned above.    1 Similar claims have also been made for Indian ginseng. Note, however, that it belongs to a completely different family from that of Asian and American ginseng, and should not really be considered a ginseng.  2 This overview states otherwise, but data is slim. Note also the long list of potential side effects of ginseng given there (See also Posadzki (2013)).",
        "id": 821,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How can a significant increase in survival not be interpreted as a significant decrease in mortality?",
        "body": "In the paper it says     Survival      Overall survival at day 180, as shown in\u00a0Figure 3, was 42.9% (n = 24/56) vs 37.5% (n = 21/56) for terlipressin and placebo, respectively (P\u00a0= .839).   That is a small 5% (n = 3/56) difference in survival rates.     Transplant-free survival up to day 180 also was similar in both groups. For patients who did not undergo liver transplantation, 7 patients (13%) in the terlipressin group and 5 patients (9%) in the placebo group survived to day 180. The causes of death for the 32 terlipressin patients and 35 placebo patients who died up to day 180 were hepatic failure/cirrhosis (15 terlipressin vs 15 placebo), HRS/renal failure (3 terlipressin vs 10 placebo), respiratory disorder (5 terlipressin vs 4 placebo), multiorgan failure (6 terlipressin vs 2 placebo), infections/systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) (7 terlipressin vs 2 placebo), gastrointestinal hemorrhage (0 terlipressin vs 3 placebo), cardiac event (0 terlipressin vs 2 placebo), and unspecified (1 in each group).   The key point which is also in the discussion section is that terlipressin does not affect the underlying liver disease and therefore transplant is still required for survival.  Terlipressin extends life for a while for a small proportion of people but doesn't completely stop mortality.     Overall survival in both treatment groups was higher than in previously reported studies, primarily because of the fact that more than 30% of patients underwent liver transplantation. There were no significant differences in survival between those receiving terlipressin or placebo. As noted by previous investigators, terlipressin does not affect the underlying severe liver disease and therefore was not expected to have a major effect on survival. ",
        "id": 2346,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Put a finger in it? When is it appropriate to stop a bleed with your finger?",
        "body": "Putting your fingers in a wound is going to inflict severe pain on the casualty.  There are ways you can apply direct pressure on an arterial wound, even if it is on the upper thigh.  It is possible to apply pressure to any sort of external bleeding, and sticking your finger inside an arterial wound is not really going to help. The casualty might survive the bleeding but then die because of blood poisoning/severe infections later on which can be introduced by inserting objects such as a finger. You should never do this.  It is known that a tourniquet can be used to stem the flow of blood but this too can cause more harm than not. If left on too long it can kill the limb and lead to the need for amputation due to lack of blood supply to the extremities.  If there's an object in the wound  If there\u2019s an object in there, don\u2019t pull it out, because it may be acting as a plug reducing the bleeding. Instead, leave it in and apply pressure either side of it with a pad (such as a clean cloth) or fingers, until a sterile dressing is available.  In which case, again apply the sterile dressing around the object. Don't apply pressure to the object.  If there's no object in the wound  Follow the steps below for treating severe bleeding.   Press it: apply direct pressure to the wound Call 999/112 for emergency help (call 911 in the US) Firmly secure dressing with a bandage Treat for shock Raise and Support the injured part   Sources:  St. John Ambulance British Red Cross",
        "id": 2244,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Nasal congestion or fever as a mechanism to combat infection",
        "body": "FEVER  There is still no final agreement among experts about the treatment of fever, but recently some of them lean toward not treating it unless it's life-threatening.   Fever: suppress or let it ride? (PubMed, 2015):     There are two basic fields of thought: (I) fever should be suppressed   because its metabolic costs outweigh its potential physiologic benefit   in an already stressed host; vs. (II) fever is a protective adaptive   response that should be allowed to run its course under most   circumstances. The latter approach, sometime referred to as the \u201clet   it ride\u201d philosophy, has been supported by several recent randomized   controlled trials.   The result of one of such trials Acetaminophen for Fever in Critically Ill Patients with Suspected Infection (PubMed, 2015) was:     Early administration of acetaminophen to treat fever due to probable   infection did not affect the number of ICU [Intensive Care Unit]-free   days.   The conclusion of another review Fever management: Evidence vs current practice (PubMed, 2012):     The accumulated data now suggest that fever has a protective role in   promoting host defence against infection, rather than being a passive   by-product.   NASAL CONGESTION  Does nasal congestion prevent the spread of microbes through the body?  In nasal infection, the microbes multiply in the nasal mucosa from where they can spread via airways to other parts of the respiratory system or via the blood to the entire body. At the time of infection, there are likely many more microbes in the nasal mucosa then in the outside air, so nasal congestion probably does not significantly protect from further infection.",
        "id": 2675,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Acne underneath skin",
        "body": "Currently, the only real way to \"get rid of acne once and for all\" is through the use of the prescription medication isotretinoin. It works to reduce sebum production and thusly decreases the incidence of new spots.  Warning: It's a serious medication with serious side effects -- for me most notably it was severely dry skin on every inch of my body. I've also personally done 2 rounds, as the dosage on the first go was not high enough to achieve desired (permanent) effects. Having said that, after the second course of treatment my skin improved dramatically and I only get a rare tiny pimple or two each month. It was (and can be) life-changing.  Do your resarch and speak with a doctor about options available to you specific to your personal skin situation.",
        "id": 1346,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you know if you're pregnant while on birth control?",
        "body": "You know by getting a pregnancy test. It can be a home test you buy in a pharmacy or you can visit a doctor or clinic.   No, it is not possible to feel symptoms of pregnancy mere hours after sex. It takes a week or two for the first signs to appear. A missed period is usually the first detectable sign.",
        "id": 1084,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Difference in Size of male and female ribcage",
        "body": "are their rib cages the same size?  No. The female ribcage, in addition to having a smaller volume than the male ribcage, has a proportionally narrower superior half and a proportionally wider inferior part. The shape of ribcages of women and children leans towards what older literature refers to as the thorax inspiratorius - that is, it resembles the shape assumed during inspiration (it's rounder and more convex), whereas the male and the geriatric ribcage is closer to the thorax exspiratorius.  how much different are they?  One study with a small sample size estimated that the volume of adult female lungs as typically 10\u201312% lower than that of males. If you're interested in actual thoracic dimensions in centimeters, please refer to table 2 of this article. Keep in mind, however, that you're looking at a study with a small sample size.  why are they different?  The study linked above speculates that the purpose of this particular example of sexual dimorphism is to accommodate large abdominal volume displacements as in pregnancy. Of course, there could be myriads of other coexisting reasons for it - in males, the extra volume could come in handy during oxygen-expensive activities such as hunting (incidentally, the average female RBC count is roughly 90% of the male RBC count). A robust ribcage also permits the attachment of stronger pectoral muscles. I would always suggest to consider sexual selection when looking for reasons for sexual dimorphism - the paradigm of \"men with wide upper body and narrow lower body good, women with narrow upper body and wide lower body good\" is as ubiquitous as restroom signs and the shape differences referred to in the second sentence of the first paragraph seem to fit it perfectly.  Adam Bochenek, Anatomia Cz\u0142owieka I, p 291 (source in Polish)",
        "id": 2110,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to deal with overhydration?",
        "body": "Treatment is usually fluid restriction, treating underlying problem and diuretics or other medication for fluid and electrolyte imbalance, so you could do a fluid restriction at home. However, the causes of overhydration usually are renal, heart or liver problems, hormonal disorders and increased fluid intake. So you can't just treat all that, when your unsure of the diagnosis. That said it is also known as water poisoning and water intoxication for a reason. Symptoms can be:  Mild:      nausea and vomiting headache changes in mental state (confusion or   disorientation)   Or severe:      muscle weakness, spasms or cramps seizures, unconsciousness,  coma   If severe symptoms occur and the overhydration is caused by a underlying condition you will need to see a doctor. It is best to see a doctor right off if you suspect anything, because diagnosis comes from urine and blood test, physical examination and patient history. Also, the treatment for a underlying condition may need more care than you can receive at home. ",
        "id": 988,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do tubes help treat ear infections?",
        "body": "Ear tubes do many things to help ear infections. The most important things they do are draining the ear of fluid and ventilating the ear. Overall, this will help your child hear better. The tubes also stop fluid from building up behind the ear drum, which should help prevent the ear infections.  Stuff to watch out for  There is always the possibility of ear infections coming back after the 6-12 months that the tubes will be in. There is also a minor chance of hearing loss because of scarring of the ear drum. The tube can become blocked, stopping it from working. To help prevent these complications, you will have to routinely visit the doctor for a systems check.    WebMD - Tubes for Ear Infections   Ear Tubes ",
        "id": 11,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "My doctor says he's not qualified to prescribe HRT",
        "body": "Many primary care practitioners have not received training in the evaluation and treatment of patients who are transitioning.     I went to my doctor's office to be prescribed to HRT medications, but my doctor said he's not qualified to prescribe it. Is that possible?    Yes, it's possible in that he may not believe he's qualified to prescribe HRT for a transitioning female. Treating transitioning females hormonally is not a common occurrence, and doctors are allowed to refuse to treat conditions they're unfamiliar or (medically) uncomfortable with.     Transsexual patients often have difficulty finding care because many physicians are not comfortable prescribing appropriate hormone regimens. Management of hormones for transsexual patients is not difficult, and these medications are safer than many therapies routinely prescribed by the primary care physician. The diagnosis of gender identity disorder (GID) must be established by an experienced mental health professional prior to consideration for hormonal management.   Once this has been done, a specialist can easily communicate the treatment regimen to be followed, but it's really up to the individual physician to do so. Most will. Some won't. In that case, a reasonable physician will refer to a colleague who does do so.  There should not be any financial repercussions for you.   Clinical Update: Medical Care of Transsexual Patients",
        "id": 231,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long a phonocardiography (PCG) should be for diagnosis?",
        "body": "There is no fixed lenght for PCG. Usually is made paired with an ECG, in order to correlate electro and mechanic activity to sound activity.  Sounds in this case, come from the valves (1st and 2nd tone), so looking at a complete cardiac cicle it should be clear if the subject has a particular severe condition.  In the case the condition is not severe, more cardiac cycles can be useful, but the decision to record for minutes or seconds is personal. Usually longer records are made to take more data to analyze, but if you have a patology, you have it in quite every cardiac cycle.  In addition to this, nowadays, a PCG is less used as a time, because a simple auscultation can show you the same result as a PCG. It is useful for storing data during long time.    Ref.  I've not many references, but only my personal experience. You can check any cardiologic and diagnosys book. If I find relevant references, I'll edit the post.",
        "id": 1628,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Low Carb Diet Causing Peripheral Neuropathy Symptoms",
        "body": "The main causes of nutrition-related peripheral neuropathy are deficiencies of vitamins B1 (thiamin), B3 (niacin), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folate) and B12 (cobalamin) (Emedicine). In carnivores, vitamin B1 and B9 deficiencies would be the most likely causes, since these two vitamins are found mainly in plant foods.  None of the carbohydrates are essential nutrients, so a low-carbohydrate diet by itself should not cause peripheral neuropathy. Google search for \"low-carb diet\" \"peripheral neuropathy\" yields close to zero relevant results, so vitamin deficiencies related to such diet also do not seem to be common.  Potassium deficiency--which should not be caused by a low carb diet--can also cause tingling (and weakness and cramps), but not burning pain.  Some people mention tingling associated with ketosis (shortly after going low-carb) but not pain.  The main risk factors for nutritional neuropathy in carnivore individuals are alcoholism, very poor diet, intestinal malabsorption disorders and taking drugs, such as isoniazid, hydralazine, etc. (Emedicine).  What to do? To go to a doctor, who will likely perform a neurological examination and, if necessary, order the blood tests for vitamins, etc.",
        "id": 1030,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is hydrothorax considered as edema?",
        "body": "According to various dictionaries, edema includes the accumulation of the fluid in the cells, between the cells (interstitial space) and in the body cavities, so, yes, hydrothorax could be considered a subtype of edema.  TheFreeDictionary:     edema the accumulation of excess fluid in a fluid compartment.   Formerly called dropsy and hydrops. This accumulation can occur in the   cells (cellular edema), in the intercellular spaces within tissues   (interstitial edema), or in potential spaces within the body. Edema   may also be classified by location, such as pulmonary edema or brain   edema; types found in certain locations have specific names, such as   ascites (peritoneal cavity), hydrothorax (pleural cavity), or   hydropericardium (pericardial sac).   Merriam-Webster:     Edema - an abnormal infiltration and excess accumulation of serous   fluid in connective tissue or in a serous cavity   But, in a real world, a doctor will not likely use the term edema for fluid in a body cavity.  The term lung edema is exclusively used for the fluid in the lung tissue (parenchyma) and the term hydrtothorax or pleural effusion for the fluid in the pleural space. In this case, calling hydrothorax edema would be totally confusing, even if it may be formally correct.",
        "id": 2296,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Synthroid : 30 minutes to 1 hour before meal. What if person waits more than 1 hour",
        "body": "It is directed that way due to the impact of having food in your stomach. It requires an empty stomach for adequate absorption of the drug. Waiting the 30 mins - 1 hour means that there's enough time for the drug to begin being absorbed before the food dilutes this. It also requires waiting at least three to four hours before taking any supplements that contain iron or calcium, calcium-fortified juice, or cow\u2019s milk, which can be difficult.  It is possible to take Synthroid at night time, there is some concern that there will still be food from dinner, although most patients haven't eaten a lot just before going to bed anyway.   Studies have been done that have shown an improvement in thyroid hormone levels if taken at bedtime compared to in the morning.The key with Synthroid is taking it regularly and consistently, if night time suits him better that is an okay option.   Reference: Bolk, Nienke MD; et. al. \"Effects of Evening vs Morning Levothyroxine Intake: A Randomized Double-blind Crossover Trial.\" Archives of Internal Medicine. 2010;170(22):1996-2003.",
        "id": 1806,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lithium side effects (kidney)",
        "body": "The Impact Of Long-Term Lithium Treatment On Renal Function In An Outpatient Population     Lithium is known to affect renal concentrating ability, and   lithium-induced polyuria is not uncommon, estimated to affect   approximately 20% of patients, but this is rarely clinically   significant. It is less clear, however, whether or not the protracted   use of lithium can cause progressive deterioration in renal function,   culminating in renal failure   How can I avoid kidney damage due to lithium?        Avoid levels of lithium that are toxic   Check blood levels of lithium to see if you are taking the lowest amount that still works for you   Check creatinine every year. Get medical help if your creatinine level stays above 1.6 mg/dl.   If possible, take lithium once a day.      Some of these are interventions that your health care provider would utilize. So make sure you follow up with your healthcare provider.   Lithium Nephropathy     Evidence of chronic renal disease is an indication for discontinuation   of the drug being administered and for consideration of alternative   medications for treatment of the patient's psychiatric disorder.   Treatments:   Polyuria --> Thiazide Diuretics &amp; NSAIDs  Hypovolemia --> Parenteral Fluids  Dialysis may be indicated  The ICU may be indicated",
        "id": 605,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any way to prevent lightheadedness when getting up?",
        "body": "Everyone gets dizzy to some degree when they get up suddenly from a supine position (laying down) or even sitting. When significant, this is called orthostatic hypotension. The most common cause in a 'normal' person is because the veins in your legs hold more blood proportionally lying down than when standing and walking. When you suddenly stand, the blood returning to your heart in insufficient to supply your brain momentarily (i.e. your cardiac output decreases.) The answer is, indeed, getting up slowly.   In addition, keeping well hydrated may help; Since in a supine position the venous capacitance is high, move the muscles in your legs - all of them from your toes up - to increase blood return to the heart. Start by pointing toes (entire foot) down then up a few times, rotate your ankles, stretch your legs, bend your knees, squeeze your knees together, push them apart against resistance, etc. If you're on your back, roll over once or twice and back again. Then see if all that helped.  If this only happens in the morning, keep water by your bed and drink a couple of glasses of water (about 16 oz) before getting up (ideally up to 30 minutes before), and elevate the head of your bed.  Get enough exercise.  There are a lot of medical causes of dizziness on standing as well. Because of your age and how long this has been going on, one would need to do a few tests to see if your nervous system is slow to respond to sudden changes in cardiac output (this is called autonomic dysfunction).  If this is bothersome enough, a more in-depth evaluation should be done. Only a good exam by a doctor can tell if it is significant enough to warrant further investigation. If you're unhappy with your doctor's approach, get a second opinion.  Above all, take @DoctorWhom's advice in her comment.  the paper below discusses some scary things. Please keep in mind that due to your age, you're unlikely to have many of these conditions.  Preventing and treating orthostatic hypotension: As easy as A, B, C",
        "id": 1928,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Refrigeration for peptides",
        "body": "As I've said in the comments it depends on the specific product, so I can't really give a straight yes or no answer. But I'll give a few examples, and I hope that will help.  Peptides that are already in a liquid form (as a suspension or a solution) are meant to be refrigerated between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius (i.e. 35 and 46 degrees Fahrenheit). They must not be frozen or they will lose their activity (it is not your question, but while we're at it this might be different for powders).   Most of these formulations can be kept at room temperature for a certain amount of time (usually 2-4 weeks), but they must be protected from sunlight.  Here are some examples:  NovoRapid - insulin aspartat solution (SmPC section 6):     During use or when carried as a spare:   The product must be stored for a maximum of 4 weeks. Store below 30\u00b0C.       Before opening: Store in a refrigerator (2\u00b0C - 8\u00b0C). Do not freeze.   Insulatard - human insulin suspension (SmPC section 6):     During use or when carried as a spare: The product can be stored for a maximum of 4 weeks. Store below 25\u00b0C.      Before opening:Store in a refrigerator (2\u00b0C \u2013 8\u00b0C). Do not freeze.    Rebif - interferon beta solution (SmPC section 6):     Store in a refrigerator (2\u00b0C \u2013 8\u00b0C) away from the cooling element. Do not freeze. Store the cartridge in the original package in order to protect from light.      The device (RebiSmart or RebiSlide) containing a pre-filled cartridge of Rebif must be stored in the device storage box in a refrigerator (2\u00b0C \u2013 8\u00b0C).      For the purpose of ambulatory use, the patient may remove Rebif from the refrigerator and store it not above 25\u00b0C for one single period of up to 14 days. Rebif must then be returned to the refrigerator and used before the expiry date.   Norditropin - somatotropin solution (manufacturer's user assistance website) and Patient Information Leaflet:     Keep the NordiPen 5 (with the Norditropin cartridge 5 mg/1.5 mL inside)    EITHER refrigerated (2-8\u00b0C/36-46\u00b0F) for 4 weeks OR store not above 25\u00b0C (77\u00b0F) for 3 weeks. Do not freeze.   BUT I also found an example where prolonged storage outside of the refrigerator is not mentioned, also for a somatotropin product:     After the first use the cartridge should remain in the pen and has to be kept in a refrigerator at 2\u00b0 to 8\u00b0C (36\u00b0 to 46\u00b0F) for a maximum of 28 days (see Table 11).     To sum it up, the reliable source for proper storage of a pharmaceutical product is the manufacturer. They are the ones who tested the stability under various storage conditions and had to share these information with the regulatory body - which is a second reliable source for this type of information. You should be able to obtain the patient information leaflet from your heath care provider (e.g. a pharmacist) or from the internet for a specific product. Or you should be able to obtain the Summary of Product Characteristics from the regulatory body (FDA, EMeA or a national medicines agency) by contacting them or from their website. Ultimately you can contact the manufacturer's representative office and inquire about proper storage conditions and shelf-life for a specific product in question.",
        "id": 873,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is proper capacity of adult non-rebreather masks?",
        "body": "Ah, but they can and do. A non-rebreather (NRB) mask with 100% O2 flowing at 12-15 L/min will provide about 90% O2 concentration to an adult. This is true even for the largest adult in severe respiratory distress.  There are a couple of reasons for this. First, the 3 liters figure you cited is the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). Here are two definitions you need to consider:  http://faculty.etsu.edu/currie/respvolumes.htm     Resting Tidal Volume (VT):  This is the volume of air taken into the   lungs when you inhale. Tidal volume increases with exercise or   activity.      Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):  Total lung capacity minus the   volume of air in the lung at the end of a normal inspiration.  This   means that we have a reserve volume that we can tap into as tidal   volume increases with exercise or activity.   Average capacities are 500 mL for VT and 3000 mL for IRV.  Note that the IRV is the volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled. It's not something anyone normally does except during extreme exertion (eg, athletics) or when directed in a breathing test. So the 3 liters you cite isn't the amount of air someone normally inhales; the TV of 500 mL is much more typical, meaning the bag provides two full breaths of reserve and the flow of 12-15 L/min O2 completely refills that bag every 3-4 seconds.  So a 1 mL reservoir bag being fed by O2 flowing at 15 mL/min is in fact more than adequate to supply 90% O2 concentrations to even a large adult in extreme respiratory distress. It can and will raise their SpO2 significantly in a short period of time if their cardio-pulmonary system is capable of absorbing and delivering it (which may not be the case if they're in need of such measures, but that's another issue).   Note that a NRB only works with a patient who is breathing adequately on their own. If a patient isn't breathing, or isn't breathing adequately, the next step up is a bag valve mask.    A BVM allows a medical provider to mechanically breath for the patient. The tubing you see coiled up next to the reservoir would be attached to an O2 source delivering 100% O2 at 12-15 L/min and then the provider would squeeze the bag at a normal breathing rate, forcing O2 into the patient's lungs. With this device O2 can be forced into the lungs of a non-breathing patient, or assisted into the lungs of a patient too sick or too weak to breath normally on their own.  Generally, once a BVM has been employed the next step will be tracheal intubation.     As the diagram shows, a plastic tube is inserted into the patient's trachea and then a BVM or mechanical respirator is attached to the other end. A source of O2 is also attached. Once intubated, 100% O2 can be supplied to the patient at any volume desired. And once a mechanical ventilator is attached, much finer control of O2 concentration, volume, and other parameters are possible.   Not shown in the diagram is the small balloon on the tube at the end inserted into the trachea. Once the tube is in place, that balloon is inflated, which holds the tube in place and completely seals the trachea from anything entering or leaving except via the tube. In this way, the patient is also protected by the tube from aspirating vomit, blood, broken teeth, or whatever else might be present in the throat.   Edit:  The OP stated in the comments that he can deflate the reservoir by donning a NRB with a 25 L/min flow of air and then doing strenuous exercises. Specifically:     I put the NRB on and I'm sucking the full bag down in less than half a   breath, after which I'm fighting the safety valve and mask seal to get   enough air.   Two things explain this. First, he's a healthy person able to do vigorous exercises and then inhale fully to his full lung capacity. Sick people who need supplemental O2 rarely fit that description. In many cases they literally cannot fully fill their lungs with a breath no matter how hard they try, and they are often in distress, which leads to very rapid, shallow respirations.   Second, he was breathing plain air, which is 21% O2. A patient on a NRB will be breathing supplemental O2 at a concentration of about 90%. In other words, every breath the OP took contained 1/5th as much oxygen as the breaths a patient would be taking. I think that if the OP repeated his experiment using 100% O2 instead of plain air, he would get very different results and wouldn't find himself struggling to get enough air.",
        "id": 836,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much water weight is it normal to lose while sleeping?",
        "body": "This is much easier to measure than to calculate.  After urinating and before going to bed, weigh yourself. After getting up, urinating and having a bowel movement (bm is mostly water) weigh yourself in the same clothes. The difference in weight is mainly due to water loss (urine loss, sweating and insensible perspiration); this will be likely ~0.5 kg or more, mostly depending on how much you sweat.  The amount of water lost by breathing is about the same as the amount of metabolic water produced in your body in the same time (NAP.edu). ",
        "id": 1962,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long a certain food takes for making intestinal gas?",
        "body": "The average bowel transit time - the time needed for a food to travel from mouth to stool - in a healthy person is probably around 12-14 hours. Source: MedlinePlus  When a certain food or nutrient (lactose, fructose) irritates the bowel, the bowel transit time can be much shorter and it could very well be just 2-3 hours. But abdominal pain, gas or loose stools in IBS can appear even faster than that concluded from the bowel transit time, for example as soon as 15 minutes after a meal. This is because the stool and gas you excrete does not come from your last meal but more likely from your previous meals.  It is gastrocolic reflex that causes the movements of your large intestine, when the food reaches your stomach. This is why breakfast helps to have a bowel movement in the morning.  EDIT:  Apples and mangoes are high in \"net fructose,\" which means they contain more fructose than glucose. When a person has less symptoms after removing foods high in net fructose from the diet, it means he can have fructose malabsorption (FM), which is described in detail here here.  Foods high in net fructose (to avoid in FM): apples, pears, mangoes, agave, watermelon, honey, beverages sweetened by high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), carambola, feijoa, nance, guava, grapes (for more detailed list see the link above).  Additionally, a person with FM can have gas and loose stools after eating foods high in sorbitol and other sugar alcohols (polyols), such as xylitol, maltitol or mannitol, which can be found in \"sugar-free\" chewing gum, certain low-calorie drinks, prunes, grapes, sweet cherries, apricots and peaches.  Additionally, a person with FM can get gas after eating foods high in fructooligosaccharides (FOS): Jerusalem artichokes, red onions and bananas.  NOTE, that not all foods high in fructose should be avoided, but only foods high in \"net fructose\" (described in the above link).  If a person who has fructose malabsorption as the only or main gastrointestinal problem, eliminates foods with nutrients marked in bold above, he should see an obvious improvement within 48 hours and more improvement within a week. After improvement, a person can try to introduce certain less suspicious foods back (but only one food in 48 hours to be able to identify eventual symptoms).  A person who has FM, often has a slight problem in absorbing lactose due to temporary lactose intolerance, so it can help if he avoids milk, curd, yogurt, ice cream (cheese and butter should be fine).  Elimination of all nutrients mentioned above at once is called a low-FODMAP diet.  So, when someone thinks he has FM, he can start with a low-fructose diet or a bit more thorough low-FODMAP diet.  People who have FM often think they have IBS. If one wants to be officially diagnosed, he can ask a gastroenterologist to perform a \"hydrogen breath test with fructose.\" The condition is usually life-long.  Fructose malabsorption should not be confused with a rare hereditary fructose intolerance (HFI), which can cause much more severe symptoms after consumption of even minute amounts of fructose.  Disclaimer: I did not diagnosed anyone here with FM, but this post can help people who have IBS-like symptoms (gas, loose stools, vague abdominal pains).  Similar conditions:   Food allergies usually cause itching and tingling around the mouth within few minutes of ingestion. An allergologist can make a diagnosis on the basis of the skin test. Intestinal parasites can cause various abdominal symptoms. A gastroenterologist can make a diagnosis from a stool test. ",
        "id": 1230,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Blood donor restrictions (Mad Cow Disease) in Australia/France for people who lived in Britain, is it justified?",
        "body": "Blood donor restrictiction aims at preventing the transmission of the variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (also known as Mad Cow Disease for a layperson), which is a prion disease that leads to irreversible neurodegeneration. Affected patients present with neurological and psychiatric symptoms and eventually die.  Here some historical background to understand the rational behind the blood donor restrictions:  The first description of the vCJD in human occured in 1996 and was quickly followed by more than 22 others mainly in the UK. Clinical symtoms varied from the previously known sporadic/familial/genetic Creutzfeld-Jakob diseases leading to the definition of a variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Additionally as most cases reported followed an epidemy of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (the animal variant of the disease), a direct link between the diseases (and an animal-human transmission) was made.  The issues and the rational for blood donor restrictions:    Approximately 50,000 infected cattle are estimated to have entered the human food chain at least five cases of transfusion transmission of vCJD have been reported in the UK The limits of 1980 and 1996 have been chosen because the first descriptions of the BSE have been reported in the 80's. After 1996, due to strict governmental regulations (such as the prohibition on ruminant-derived proteins in feeds for all animals and poultry and the banning of consumption of animals over the age of 30 months) a significant decline in BSE cases was noted, limiting the possibility of an animal-human transmission. the current prevalence of vCJD in the originally affected countries is unknown and hence makes it difficult to decide on the best approach. In the UK population some studies have suggested that it might be between 120 to 237 per million inhabitants but those values are highly debated (some suggesting it might be lower) the incubation period of vCJD is long to very long (several years to decades) so people who are infected might be asymptomatic at the time they donate blood.   Blood donor restrictions vary between countries, some beeing more restrictive than others according to their respective public health policy.  Sources: Brown GH. Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. UpToDate. Sept 2016. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/variant-creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/print?source=see_link&amp;sectionName=Relationship%20with%20BSE&amp;anchor=H3",
        "id": 1261,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "TReatment for open blisters",
        "body": "An open blister should be treated as a wound because the skin is open.   There is something called second skin or hydrocolloid dressing that is ideal because it mimics most of the function of the outer skin. Unfortunately it is expensive. It is often used for open blisters on feet during a walking event when the walker want to continue walking (before taping the foot). See this youtube video for an example.  The full treatment is (according to the dutch red cross):  - Wash hands  - Wear gloves  - Clean wound area  - Use a disenfectance, beware of allergies  - Apply the second skin (must overlap at least 1cm on healthy skin.  - Remove gloves (some people can tape with gloves, most can't)  - Tape the area.  - Apply some talcum powder so the tape won't stick to socks.  - Wash hands again.  Taping is a skill that takes practice. It must be smooth and has a 33/50% overlap. A good method is to measure a piece of tape, first attach the center and gently strike the tape outwards.   If you don't have second skin (or you don't want to use it) you can use normal wound dressing but you have some risk that this sticks to the wound. So I won't reccomend it.",
        "id": 1134,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What ingredient or substance makes paan addictive?",
        "body": "The traditional mixture of paan is a combination of products or substances.  Paan is most often prepared by using the betel nut (or Arcea nut), from the plant Areca catechu, chopped up and rolled into a portion using the leaves of the plant Piper betele, a plant from the pepper family. This can be further \"enhanced\" by adding tobacco, lime or any number of flavour or extraction amplifiers.   The main psychoactive ingredient of this preparation \u2013 of only betel nut and betel pepper leaf \u2013 then comes from the alkaloids found in the betel nut.  The strongest effects are found in the alkaloid arecoline. Its structure is similar to nicotine and it also acts similarly on acetylcholine receptors, which are found throughout the whole body. But arecoline is different in its actions compared to nicotine:     Arecoline is the primary active ingredient responsible for the central nervous system effects of the areca nut. Arecoline has been compared to nicotine; however, nicotine acts primarily on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Arecoline is known to be a partial agonist of muscarinic acetylcholine M1, M2, M3 receptors and M4, which is believed to be the primary cause of its parasympathetic effects (such as pupillary constriction, bronchial constriction, etc.).    That means when used as a stimulant this combination is lends its spectrum of effects less to tobacco smoke but a bit more to the fly agaric side, while ebing substance wise very similar to nicotine in its addictiveness.  Using this stimulant habitually is indeed not advised. Not even advocates of \"natural remedies\" find much use for this:     Betel nut has been suggested as a treatment for many conditions. However, there is not enough scientific evidence to support the use of betel nut for any medical condition. Although betel nut is chewed recreationally, chewing or ingesting betel nut may cause many serious adverse effects, including cancer, effects on the heart and death. Betel nut should be avoided in pregnant or breast-feeding women and in children. Consult a health care professional immediately if you have any side effects.    Intellihealth, (Natural Standard and Harvard Medical School: Betel Nut (Areca catechu)      The leaf of the betel pepper has some effects on its own:     The medicinal components are primarily associated with the nut and betel quid. The nuts contain at least 9 structurally related pyridine alkaloids, including arecoline, arecaidine, arecaine, arecolidine, guvacine, isoguvacine, guvacoline, and coniine. However, the most common is the parasympathetic stimulant alkaloid arecoline. The total alkaloid content can reach 0.45%.   The methyl esters of arecoline and guvacoline are hydrolyzed in the presence of alkali to the respective acids, arecaidine and guvacine. The hydrolysis is catalyzed by lime, which is added to the quid. Arecoline most likely is present in the nut as a salt of tannic acid, and the lime facilitates the release of the base from the salt.   Components of the betel quid, most likely from P. betel and not betel nuts, contain about 1% of a volatile oil, chalbetol, chavicol, cadinene, allylpyrocatechol, and safrole.       CNS Effects   Clinical data   Studies evaluating the effects of betel nut chewing suggest that a variety of the chemical compounds found in areca may exert activity. Arecoline demonstrates parasympathomimetic action on muscarinic and nicotinic receptors; arecaidine and guvacine act as gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake inhibitors, while phenolic compounds in the leaf stimulate the release of catecholamines.  Electroencephalograph changes have been observed, with alpha and beta wave activity increased and theta decreased. Increases in plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline have been observed among betel nut chewers.       In 65 patients with schizophrenia, a decrease in positive symptoms as measured by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale was observed among men who were high-consumption betel nut chewers (more than 7.5 whole betel nuts/day). No significant relationships existed between betel chewing and positive or negative symptoms among women.  The muscarinic cholinomimetic action of the alkaloids may be responsible for this effect, but a mechanism of action has not been determined.       Cardiovascular effects   Animal data   Betel nuts contain a tannin with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity in vitro. The activity of this tannin was shown to be comparable with captopril in an older experiment in rats.       Clinical data   An acute cardiovascular response (hypertension and increased cardiac rate) to betel nut occurs in new chewers, but abates with chronic use. A review of this data and further study suggests this effect has a genetic dependency. A clinical application for this effect is unlikely considering the increased risk of cardiovascular disease associated with areca nut consumption.   drugs.com: Betel Nut   Also compare to: NS Chu: \"Neurological aspects of areca and betel chewing\", Addict Biol. 2002 Jan; Vol 7, No 1, p 111\u20134.  Adding to the purely biological aspects of paan chewing are some others factors that are affecting the addictiveness:     Medicinal Properties, Sign of Beauty, Availability at ceremonies, Cultural identifier, Peer pressure, Social acceptance   Kelle L Murphy &amp;Thaddeus A Herzog: \"Sociocultural Factors that Affect Chewing Behaviors among Betel Nut Chewers and Ex-Chewers on Guam\", Hawaii J Med Public Health. 2015 Dec; 74(12): 406\u2013411. ",
        "id": 2255,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What diet/foods decrease IGF-1 and increase IGFBP-1?",
        "body": "My son's pediatric endocriniologist recommended a low-carb diet for increasing his insulin sensitivity (=reducing his insulin resistance).  This is apparently not totally mainstream (yet), though, because his pediatrician, who was otherwise very up on recent developments and research, did not know about the low carb diet, and had trouble understanding it.  I personally have not read much scientific literature about this -- my personal focus was more on implementing the specialist's recommendations at my house -- but here are a couple of references that might get you started if you are interested in following up:  http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa022637#t=article  Bray, G. A. (2005). Is there something special about low-carbohydrate diets? Annals of Internal Medicine, 142(6), 469-70.   We found that a low carb diet, paired with metformin treatment and attention to regular, moderate exercise, has helped my insulin resistant son increase his IGFBP-1 lab results, lose weight in a slow, sustainable way, and then keep his BMI for age out of the obese zone.  It has also helped him experience less   cravings  headaches  nausea  problems with energy level and concentration   The rest of the family, who are not genetically related and have no insulin resistance, benefited mildly from the low carb diet as well, especially in terms of better concentration in the afternoon.  Note about my son's experience with exercise: He has always been a boy who got a lot of enjoyment from both organized sports as well as just plain running around, riding his bike, and showing off his strength by carrying around heavy things.  I was surprised how much it helped in the early months of his treatment to avoid exercise that involved short, intense spurts, and religiously walk 20-30 minutes every day (as recommended by the specialist).  He was 9 when we were given the diagnosis and he is now 13.  Since there is not just one approach to \"low carb diet\", I will share what we have worked out.  The specific approach to a low carb diet we use:   no high fructose corn syrup no candy no sweet baked goods (except for birthdays, and then we use special flours, such as almond meal) high fiber bread, maximum one slice per meal 100% whole grain pasta (I buy the kind that tastes like cardboard, hence one doesn't want to eat very much of it) complex carbohydrates such as brown rice and potatoes in small servings fruit limited to two servings per day; fresh and whole (requires chewing) offer salads several times per week we don't limit fats or protein we aim for a good proportion of protein to carb ratio at each meal or snack we all follow the same diet with the child no fruit juices -- beverages are water, whole milk, and homemade, flavored bubble water (examples of flavorings: lime juice or pure cranberry juice) raw baby carrots or large carrots often used as a snack, sometimes with hummus   When he hit a plateau after about three months, we temporarily substituted pizza sauce for catsup.  That did the trick.  He got unstuck, lost a couple more pounds over the next month, and hit his target.  We were eventually able to go back to catsup (no high fructose corn syrup) in moderation.",
        "id": 1219,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does \"2/2\" mean in a patient note?",
        "body": "Right Diagnoses. Com  It means secondary to.   From your question:     Patient has respiratory weakness secondary to multiple sclerosis   If you are looking for a more credible source, this site mentions that it means \"secondary to.\"   Meded.uscd.edu also mentions its meaning. ",
        "id": 853,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Red colors food and impact on stool colors",
        "body": "According to the Mayo Clinic, the following can turn your stool red:      Red food coloring, beets, cranberries, tomato juice or soup, red   gelatin or drink mixes.   A quick google search for \"pomegranate red stool\" shows several anecdotal results, but nothing that looks like a reputable source.  Anyone who is concerned about blood in their stool should see a doctor. However, if the red color consistently appears to be linked to dietary intake (stool is only red after eating pomegranates, for example), then the chances of having a bleed are low.  The test to see if there is blood in the stool is very quick and easy and can be done by a primary care doctor or in the emergency room, or even at home. It involves a rectal exam, followed by using a small amount of reagent to test the stool.",
        "id": 2141,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Taking Benadryl after Claritin",
        "body": "Benadryl (aka diphenhydramine) is strongly anticholinergic1. That means it blocks acetylcholine activity in the body's cells. It does this by binding with the cells' acetylcholine receptors, which just about all cells have. These drugs have been linked to dementia2 in older people. Among the H1-blocking antihistamines (loratadine [Claritin], cetirizine [Zyrtec], and fexofenadine [Allegra]), loratadine is generally considered the weakest and cetirizine the strongest3. When I first developed hay fever symptoms after I stopped smoking, my then doctor put me on loratidine and Flonase. I no longer use loratidine, as I've found cetirizine to be more effective. However, I still use Flonase at night. It's available over the counter now, and I can get it at Costco for less than my co-pay was when it was a prescription drug. ",
        "id": 1690,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Definition of a (food) calorie and burning food calories",
        "body": "This thread explains the concept of calories well:     Calories are energy. When you digest food, you are breaking down the bonds between each particle, releasing energy that is taken by the body to do work.      From a mathematical standpoint, 1 Calorie = 1 Kilo calorie (scientific energy) = 1000 calories (notice the lowercase) = 4184 joules.   (See also: Wikipedia: Food Energy and ACS: Weighing in on Calories)  Water doesn't have any chemical bonds for your body to break down, so you're correct in that water doesn't have any calories. (USDA: Water has 0 calories.)  Your body does burn calories to bring any cold things you consume up to body temperature. For example, if you eat an ice cube, your body burns energy to melt it:     If one considers that the human body must provide the heat necessary to melt them (around 6 kJ/mol, or 0.079 kcal/g if one substitutes for the molar weight of water) and to bring this (now liquid) water to the average temperature of the body (around 310 K or 37 degrees Celsius), at the average energetic cost of about 0.0755 kJ/mol/K or 0.001 kcal/g/K (constant pressure specific heat of water, source: NIST Chemistry Webbook), and if one supposes the average weight of an ice cube to be 10 grams, the energy supplied by ice cubes amounts to the respectable value of -1.17 (MINUS 1.17) kilocalories per ice cube, and this supposing that they are ingested at their melting temperature (0 Celsius). This means, for example, that the calories contained in the standard Coca-Cola (not Diet Coke!) can (330 mL) are completely eliminated just by adding 148 ice cubes to it.   (...In case the levity wasn't obvious, don't actually eat 148 ice cubes. That's probably a bad idea.)  This is supported by this article, in which Dr. Weiner discusses how eating ice burns calories. A note of caution: Although he concludes that \"the ingestion of one liter of ice per day appears to be generally safe\" (because Slurpees), he lists the following advisories:   Don't consume more than one litre of ice per day \"to avoid hypothermia or unusual cooling of the body\". For similar reasons, be extra careful when eating ice during cold weather. Don't chew ice, because it could crack your teeth, damage your gums or enamel, or injure your temporomandibular joint. For children, the amount of ice ingested should be monitored and related to their body weight and ability to report any problems. Do not put ice into the mouths of children who can't tell you if their brain has frozen. ",
        "id": 2325,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can a giant gummy bear (approx. 5 x 2 in.) give me diabetes?",
        "body": "There are multiple questions here so I'll tackle them one by one.   Your initial question: Can a gummy bear give me diabetes?  One giant gummy bear, alone, is very unlikely to give you diabetes. I don't want to say indefinitely, because nothing in health is a definite. However, the likely hood is so close to 0% I would consider it insignificant.   Next, you stated that immediately following the ingestion of a cute gummy bear, you felt tired and the next morning your breathe smelled sweet.   The reason for both of these symptoms can very well be due to your sugar levels becoming drastically high. In the medical field, we call this DKA. (Diabetic ketoacidosis). Essentially, your body recognizes a sharp increase in blood glucose levels and is trying everything in the books to expel the glucose. Your body does this by releasing ketones from your respiratory system. DKA is most notably recognized by sweet smelling breathe. Almost like juicy fruit gum.  DKA can actually be a very serious emergency which, if unchecked, can lead to a diabetic coma. However, for individuals without diabetes, and a properly working pancreas, your sugar levels should be back to normal by now.   I believe your incident with the cough is completely unrelated.   To recap. No I do not think you have developed diabetes due to a single gummy bear. However, it never hurts to be checked for the disease. You could very well already have diabetes, and the gummy bear threw you into DKA. Because I cannot see you, nor properly perform any tests. To cover myself for any legal issues I will say that 1. I am not a doctor and 2. Go get it checked.   In regards to telling your parents. Just say you had some candy and you felt really weird afterwards and you're nervous that you might have diabetes. Any sensible parent will at least set you up with a doctors appointment.   Rich AEMT  Source: http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/complications/ketoacidosis-dka.html",
        "id": 387,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why are obgyns generally hesitant to do VBAC (vaginal birth after cesarean sections) births? Do previous c-sections impose added risks?",
        "body": "Having a previous c-section raises the risk of uterine perforation during labor in the following pregnancy. Incidence also varies with the type of scar made by the c-section, being lowest with a low transverse prior incision (under 1% uterine ruptures during VBAC), but still significantly higher than for unscarred uteri (which is around 0.01%).",
        "id": 1687,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do seizures result from an excess of electrical current or electrical voltage in the brain?",
        "body": "Here's a brief overview of the types and characteristics of seizures:    Epileptic Seizure:  Is characterized by \"torrents\" of electrical discharges by groups of neurons.   This temporarily blocks any other neural signals from reaching the CNS.   You may lose consciousness, fall stiffly, and have uncontrollable jerking. Epilepsy is not associated with intellectual impairments Epilepsy occurs in about 1% of the population according to the American Epilepsy Society. Genetic factors play a role, but brain injuries, stroke, infections, or tumors can also be causes.     Aura (Sensory Hallucinations)   May precede seizure - some people report they can \"feel it coming\".     Absence Seizures    These are also referred to as \"petit mal\" Mild seizures of young children: expression goes blank for few seconds     Tonic-Clonic Seizures (formerly grand mal)   Most severe; last few minutes Victim loses consciousness, bones broken during intense convulsions, loss of bowel and bladder control, and severe biting of tongue     Sources:   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/ https://www.aesnet.org/sites/default/files/file_attach/ProfessionalEducation/EpilepsyEdPrograms/AES_Basic_Mechanisms_December_2014.pdf ",
        "id": 1947,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does caffeine reduce mass gaining by accelerating metabolism?",
        "body": "Answer: No  Summary  Metabolic effects of caffeine may vary depending on whether one is 'naive' to caffeine (infrequent user) or 'accustomed' to caffeine (daily user). Metabolic effects may also vary due to genetics, specifically a polymorphism on the CYP1A1/2 enzyme (1)  One review notes that, after looking at the differences in metabolism between humans and rats, that a 10mg/kg bodyweight dose in rats is roughly bioequivalent to 250mg in a 70kg person. (2)  https://examine.com/supplements/caffeine/#hem-metabolic-rate  Relevent Studies:  Dose Response Effects Of A Caffeine-containing Energy Drink On Muscle Performance: A Repeated Measures Design  Change of Effect: None Trial Design: Double blind Trial Length: 24 hours Number of Subjects: 12 Gender Both Genders Ages: 18-29, 30-44 Body-Types: Trained, Average  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22569090     Notes for this study:       In 12 active and healthy participants (light caffeine consumers at   less than 60mg daily), an intake of a caffeinated energy drink   (compared to placebo, the same energy drink but not caffeinated) was   able to increased blood pressure and heart rate at rest without   significantly affecting metabolic rate up to 3mg/kg bodyweight.      Power output, as measured by half-squat and bench, was increased only   at 3mg/kg bodyweight with no significant influence at 1mg/kg.   Caffeine: A Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study Of Its Thermogenic, Metabolic, And Cardiovascular Effects In Healthy Volunteers Change of Effect: Increase Trial Design: Double blind  Trial Length: 24 hours  Number of Subjects: 6  Gender: Both Genders  Ages: 18-29, 30-44  Body-Types: Untrained, Overweight, Average  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2333832     Notes for this study:       In low habitual coffee drinkers (150-300mL daily), supplementation of   100-400mg caffeine increased the metabolic rate (9.2+?-5.7, 7.2+/-6.0,   and 32.4+/-8.2kcal/h increase) with the highest dose also increasing   plasma glycerol (indicative of fat burning) and lactate. Blood   pressure was increased at 400mg only in supine position.   Footnote: Somatotypes aren't real. They are the result of a now debunked theory of psychology and had nothing to do with predicting how one gained fat or muscle. Describing yourself by one of the three somatotypes is just a limiting belief and a rationalization for failure.",
        "id": 1092,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does less sleep lead to weight loss?",
        "body": "Actually lack of sleep leads to weight gain and not weight loss.  Losing out on sleep creates a viscous cycle in your body, making you more prone to various factors contributing to weight gain. \u201cThe more sleep-deprived you are, the higher your levels of the stress hormone cortisol, which increases your appetite,\u201d.  When you\u2019re stressed, your body tries to produce serotonin to calm you down. The easiest way to do that is by eating high-fat, high-carb foods that produce a neurochemical reaction,\u201dsays Breus  http://dailyburn.com/life/lifestyle/sleep-deprivation-effects-weight-loss/",
        "id": 1322,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is animal fat good to eat or avoid?",
        "body": "Eating less saturated fat (mainly present in animal fat) should be healthy, although the calories you miss by not eating saturated fat shouldn't be replaced with carbohydrates (most other food in the American diet). It lowers your odds to get cardiovascular diseases, you won't live longer on average.  You might be better off not eating the whole peice of meat. Recently the WHO also put red meat on the 2A list of carcinogenic compounds, saying that red meat consumption probably increases your risk of colorectal cancer. The risk is not that high though. For processed meat (sausages, bacon) they're more sure.  However, if you look at it from the point of view of an average obese American, you might be better off eating the fat and meat, and just not drinking your coke, as obesity is a major cause of morbidity. It has been shown that low carb diets work better than low fat diets. ",
        "id": 1182,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should I kiss my wife",
        "body": "Original answer     You are already infected. The HSV is indeed dormant in your body. It   keeps trying to get out, till your immune system is off guard and it   will present as a cold sore.  So when you don't have a cold sore your   immune system is in control and you can't get \"more infected\" by your   wife. So you can kiss without worries.      The next question is, do you really want to if she has a sore ;)   Update: I'm new here, i thought I keep it simple. I will try to provide some evidence and complete the answer:  HSV-1 infects mucosal cells, like the ones in mouth and genitalia. After infection the HSV virus infects innervating neurons causing a latent infection. While the mucosal cells are infected, CD8+ cells (which kill virus infected cells) \"learn\" to recognize the virus and kill it of. As long as your CD8+ cells function normally the virus cannot reactivate. Also antibodies agains the infecting virus are formed, protecting against reinfection (theoretically you could also reinfect yourself)  (1)   As @YviDe pointed out it is possible to get infected with multiple strains. In this a small study with 13 HSV-1 infect persons 2 where infected with more than 1 strain (2) However, there is also evidence an infection with HSV can protect against an infection with another strain. (3)   Now, lets assume you and your wife have the same strain of virus. Then the likelihood of you reinfecting yourself is much higher than she infecting you, since you drink from your infected glass and use your infected toothbrush etc.   If she has a different strain things are uncertain. As pointed out, your current infection could protect you but depending on numerous factors you can get reinfected or not with the different strain. If you have a cold sore your immune system (partly) compromised, so at that moment your susceptibility for a infection by this different strain is probably higher.  However, changes that you get infected anyway while living under the same roof is pretty high.  If I where you, I would worry about it to much since you can't be sure about anything without genetic sequencing of your and your wifes HSV-1 virus.  (1) Egan KP et al, Immunological control of herpes simplex virus infections, 2013  (2) Roest RW et al, Genotypic analysis of sequential genital herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) isolates of patients with recurrent HSV-1 associated genital herpes, 2014  (3) Stanberry LR et al, Longitudinal risk of herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1, HSV type 2, and cytomegalovirus infections among young adolescent girls, 2004",
        "id": 835,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can I take moldy melatonin pills?",
        "body": "Not only are they moldy, it looks like they've also been damaged by moisture. See how the surface is rippled in spots? That's what water does to pills.   Bathrooms are the worst place to store medicines because of the heat and humidity from showers and bathtubs.  No, the medicine is not safe to use despite being within the expiration date (see same link above). Although they might not hurt you (\"might\" being the key word), they are quite likely ineffective.",
        "id": 408,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Sour/Acidic Food reduce libido in men?",
        "body": "Erectile dysfunction (ED) can be caused by a wide variety of things covered in this answer, but it cannot be caused by eating the kind of foods you are talking about.",
        "id": 2349,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a computer screen work as a lightbox?",
        "body": "I don't know if there is research on this, but if not, this might help.  Natural daylight contains a wide range of light frequencies - hence the rainbow, when it's split up. At different times of day, the light has to travel through a different distance in the atmosphere, which tends to absorb some frequencies, and scatter others. This is why the sky generally looks blue (blue and higher frequencies are scattered), but looks redder when the sun is rising or setting at the start or end of the day (absorption of blue and other higher frequency components).  Life on earth has adapted to this, so there are biological changes triggered by the regular cycle of more, then less, of the higher (\" blue\") frequencies. In simple terms, these changes include triggering of changes within the brain that hint to come awake, or feel drowsy, by working on the parts of the brain that control general arousal. The body has its own internal clock for these, but it also \"syncs\" to natural daylight, which helps to keep it on track. The triggering is apparently specific on frequencies at the blue end of the spectrum (not on red or other frequencies, or their relative proportions), as far as I have seen it discussed.  So this is the clinical basis behind the advice to avoid blueish light at, or towards, bedtime. Computer screens are also closely connected to mental activity and stimulation, which is a second reason why they aren't too good when heading for a sleepy state of mind.  Now, computer screens are not lit like natural daylight. They don't have a full spectrum - that's an optical illusion. Instead they usually have LEDs in three colours - red, green and blue - and they make all other colours by lighting these to different extents. Apparently the blue frequencies used to make various colours (including white) are close enough to the blue that's triggery in daylight, to have a similar effect.  At this point I have to start making intelligent guesses. What this means in theory is that yes, a computer or smartphone screen could act as a good lightbox in the way you're thinking, simply because it's capable of producing and avoiding blue light of the kind the body's clock is sensitive to. In fact there are a number of apps on smartphones which modify the displayed colours on the screen, to reduce the blue LED component. They make the screen look warmer and redder, or less brilliant white, but in fact they're doing it by selectively reducing the levels of all  blue pixels.  So you could in principle create an app that (say) lit your screen a dim red at 6am, and gradually raised the general brightness and brought in the green and blue pixels over the space of say 15 - 30 minutes to reach full brightness. If the blue frequencies are close enough to those recognised by the body clock, it should work pretty much like a lightbox does.  Whether you want that, or want to leave a computer on overnight, or can figure a way to auto-switch on and auto-log in and run the app a while before waking, is a personal choice, though. Also the type of monitor might matter - some monitors have very low visibility off-axis (when not pointing directly at you), which means you are counting largely on reflected light, that may have a considerable filtering/muting effect. (\"TN\" displays are often like this, and \"IPS\" displays often have very wide viewing angles within which colours are faithfully seen). A monitor can also have poor colour range, or very low brightness. So it depends on the monitor.  Also bear in mind the noise itself might wake you up too:)",
        "id": 2447,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it normal for the vaccination site to hurt?",
        "body": "Since it's unclear from the question what vaccination this was, I looked up two likely cases: the flu vaccine, and the DTaP booster, because these are vaccines regularly given to adults.   Influenza vaccine  The flu vaccine can cause soreness, redness, and swelling at the spot where the vaccination was given. If the pain is more than mild, or lasts longer than a day, ask your doctor.   DTaP, or Tdap  Pain at the injection site occurs in 2 out of 3 adult patients. Severe pain is rare, and should be discussed with a doctor.   A rather comprehensive overview of vaccine side effects can be found at the CDC website. Soreness and mild pain is a side effect of many, but anything severe or lasting more than 1 to 2 days should be discussed with a doctor. ",
        "id": 449,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible for a syphilis test to be negative when a syphilis chancre is present?",
        "body": "You're asking about the false positive rates of syphilis blood tests in primary syphilis.  It's a biostatistics thing.  The AAFP has a good article on the \"clinical dilemmas of syphilis.\"     The VDRL and RPR, respectively, are reactive in 78 percent and 86 percent of patients with primary syphilis. They become positive within approximately four to six weeks after infection or one to three weeks after the appearance of the primary lesion. Thus, these tests can be negative in early syphilis, when patients have lesions.    This means that a test could be incorrectly negative if:   The person is not in the 78% (VDRL) or 86% (RPR) of people with the disease that the test is able to identify correctly The test is done before the body has made enough antibodies for the test to detect them yet   FTA-ABS is often used as a confirmatory test after a positive VDRL or RPR.  Sensitivity is 84% in primary syphilis and nearly 100% in later stages. Its specificity is 96%.  Usually clinicians start with a screening test like RPR, then if it's positive, follow up with a confirmatory test.    Ideally screening tests should be highly sensitive (rule out); confirmatory tests should be highly specific (rule in).  With something like syphilis, often a chancre is treated as syphilis even with a negative test in case it's a false negative, due to the serious transmission and complications possible from untreated syphilis.",
        "id": 1828,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What causes smelly feet?",
        "body": "This is an interesting question. You are certainly not an isolated case.  The \"origin\" of foot odor has been examined in many studies.   This study conducted by Marshall et al focused on the microflora found on normal feet (no foot odor) and compared it to feet with foot odor. They reported a higher population densities of staphylococci and aerobic coryneform bacteria in the feet with foot odor. They also reported that these feets had higher exo-enzymes (lipase, protease, and callous degrading enzymes) than the other feet. During the same period, Kobayashi et al showed staphylococcus epidermidis was linked to the presence of foot odor or not Some years later, a japanese group led by Kanda analysed socks (!) and feet from two group of people (with/without odor) using a  gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). They reported that short-chain fatty acids were the primary components of foot odor   In 2006, a very interesting study was conducted by a group of canadian researchers: their aim was to identify microorganisms that are involved in producing unpleasant odors and examine plant extracts and fragrant agents which would inhibit the routes of production of these substances.  Here first an overview of the fatty acid they have found ( acetic acid is responsible for the odor of sweat, isovaleric acid, propionic acid, isobutyric acid, and butyric acid are involved in foot odor)    Then they looked at a difference in organisms distribution and found that bacilli were significantly different between the groups:    They then examined the possible role of naturally occurring materials using leucine dehydrogenase activity as an index (which is involved in foot odor), and obtained citral, citronellal, and geraniol as good competitive inhibitors. So these fragments are likely to inhibit foot odor.  Why different bacteries are present in some individuals and not in another might be multifactorial and precipitated by diseases (fungus, endocrine disorders,...). I haven't found any study suggesting it might be genetic.  Now, there are indeed many websites suggesting many different possible ways of treating foot odor. The only peer-reviewed paper I could find is was on The Physician and Sportsmedicine . Here their advices:    Hope this brought some clarifications.  Sources: Ara et al. Foot odor due to microbial metabolism and its control.Can J Microbiol. 2006 Apr;52(4):357-64.",
        "id": 1236,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Definition of Prevalence",
        "body": "There are two broad types of prevalence statistics: point prevalence and period prevalence. In both cases, more details need to be specified in order to fully describe the statistic.  Point prevalence is the proportion of people who have a disease at a given point in time. In other words, the total number of people in a given population who have a disease at a specific point in time divided by the number of people in that population. To be complete, it should include a case definition (how \"have a disease\" is defined), a population definition, and the particular point in time used.  Period prevalence is the proportion of people who have or have at some point had a disease over a period of time. Here, instead of the total number with a disease at any one time, you include anyone who had the disease at any point during the period. Depending on the period you choose, the population may change, in which case, you would typically use the population at the midpoint of the period.  A specific (and common) period to use for this statistic is \"lifetime\", which changes things slightly. Lifetime prevalence is typically reported as the proportion of people (alive now) who have had the disease at any point in their lifetime. The period in this case is not an absolute time period, but the lifetime of each person in the population.   You can learn more about this in the CDC's online text Principles of Epidemiology in Public Health Practice. Lesson 3 covers prevalence statistics.",
        "id": 2614,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Formula for determining carb count from blood sugar changes?",
        "body": "If you know your insulin-to-carb ratio and your correction factor (how much your blood sugar drops per unit of insulin), you should be able to calculate how much you should have had fairly simply &ndash; at least in theory.   Assuming that your blood sugar would have remained level had you not eaten (which will not usually be the case in real life), you just need to subtract your expected blood sugar from your actual blood sugar.   85 - 200 = 115 [mg/dL]  115 [mg/dL] * (correction factor) [units / mg/dL] = (insulin deficit) [units]   Suppose your correction factor is 1:50, e.g. 1 unit brings you down 50 mg/dL.   115 [mg/dL] * (1/50) [units / mg/dL] = 2.3 [units]   You can then estimate about how many extra carbs were in the meal, using your insulin-to-carb ratio:   (insulin deficit) [units] * (carb ratio) [g carb/unit] = (excess carbs) [g carb]   Suppose your ratio is 1:10, e.g. 1 unit covers 10g of carb:   2.3 [units extra needed] * 10 [g carb/unit] = 23 [g carb more than estimated]   If you use 15g carb = 1 exchange/choice:   23 g / 15 g = 1.5 exch   So, you now know that the meal had 23g more carb in it than you expected, and that in the future you would take 2.3 more units.   Of course, in reality it's not quite so simple. Different foods take longer to digest, convert to glucose, and enter the bloodstream. Activity level, injection site, and other factors affect how quickly insulin kicks in. The above calculation is the most straightforward way to calculate the food/insulin/blood sugar balance, but there will always be other factors at play. ",
        "id": 219,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possible to whiten teeth beyond natural color without veneers?",
        "body": "There is no healthy way. Whitening/bleaching do not change the shape of your teeth but alas, dentine doe not bleach well, if at all (it just gets more sensitive to temperature change). Veneers done well will have a 'good' shape to ensure gum health. As for trying to find something to paint on, let's explore that if you place a opaque white dental liquid filling but it being so thin, will eventually wear off real fast with everyday brushing. Sorry, no miracle solution.",
        "id": 1918,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could a high TSH level mean a problem with the pituitary gland?",
        "body": "When a physician is studying someone for a suspected disorder related to the thyroid hormones, he/she should not only study the thyroid, but evaluate the hypothalamus-pituitary-thiroid endocrine axis and a frequent initial assumption is that the problem could be at any of these 3 levels instead of assuming the problem is in the thyroid gland.  Thyroid serum profiles include TSH, because as you said, the problem might be at a pituitary level and also this allows for further evaluation of the feedback system of the axis. Another important note is that a healthy thyroid gland will produce thyroxine proportionally to the serum levels of TSH, that is it WILL work quickly enough in response to these high levels of TSH and produce high levels of thyroxine, however a healthy axis would also lower the TSH levels after this.  To properly understand this we need to review that for this axis:   The hypothalamus produces the Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in an inversely proportional manner to thyroxine blood levels. TRH estimulates the production of Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the pituitary. The pituitary produces TSH in a directly proportional manner to TRH levels and also in an inversely proportional manner to thyroxin blood levels (it has a negative feedback control independent of the hypothalamus and a positive one dependent on the hypothalamus). TSH estimulates the production of thyroxin by the thyroid. The thyroid produces thyroxin and this hormone then acts in several tissues across body regulating metabolism. Thyroxin production goes down if TSH levels go down.   Now for some generic examples, if a patient has hypothiroidism signs and symptoms, and then we see a thiroid profile like this:   Thyroxin levels: low TSH levels: high   This suggests the problem is in the thyroid gland since the pituitary is doing its job by increasing TSH to demand more thyroxin, but the thyroid is not responding at all.  Another example:   Thyroxin levels: low TSH levels: low   The problem could be in the pituitary this time since even though thyroxin is low the pituitary isn't asking for more thyroxin by producing more TSH.  On the other hand if we suspect hyperthyroidism and we see:   Thyroxin levels: high TSH levels: low   We suspect of a thyroid-level problem again because the pituitary is trying to slow down the production by lowering TSH, but the thyroid is independently producing more and more thyroxin (one of the first things we would suspect is a thyroid hormone producing tumor).  Another example:   Thyroxin levels: high TSH levels: high   We could suspect that there is something wrong in the pituitary (again it could be a tumor) since TSH levels are high regardless of high thyroxin levels, the pituitary is not slowing down in a situation in which it normally would.  As you can see the disorders are produced when the feedback systems begin to be lost and the different levels of the axis become unresponsive or self-controlled.  Other strange situations would include problems at hypothalamic level or production of thyroxin by tumors outside of the thyroid, but these are never suspected in first instance since they are very rare.   A brief, but ok review of this axis can be read at Wikipedia or if you want a more robust review you can consult Greenspan's endocrinology which is what I read back in the day (:",
        "id": 2594,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If people can create an accelerated medical program that can be completed in just three years, what textbooks should they select in the curriculum?",
        "body": "an MD is an MD. If you want an intensive course for a health professional, give it another name: \"medical assistant\", \"health technician\", etc.  These professionals wouldn't obviously perform surgery. Instead, their training should be focused on the top 90% diseases they are more likely to see in their everyday practice. Find what diseases and disorders are more prevalent in your area: yellow fever? rheumatic heart disease? HIV infection? Dengue or Zica fever?  Diseases caused by Helmints and Protozooa? TB?  And then train your technicians on the diagnosis and treatment of those disorders.  That's the logical thing to do if a country is very poor and can't afford to have decent medical schools.",
        "id": 1369,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do patients who are paralyzed from the waist down maintain healthy bones?",
        "body": "This answer includes some speculation in the end. Since this is also a speculative question I hope that's okay :-)     if people who suffer from paralysis, specifically those who can't walk anymore, lose strength in their skeletal structure from the waist down as well.   Yes. Bones that aren't used lose mass. In a study of 89 men who had been in a wheelchair for at least 2 months and up to 50 years:     In the femur and tibia, bone mass, total and trabecular bone mineral density (BMDtot and BMDtrab, respectively) of the epiphyses, as well as bone mass and cortical cross-sectional area of the diaphyses, showed an exponential decrease with time after injury in the spinal cord injured subjects. The decreasing bone parameters reached new steady states after 3\u20138 years, depending on the parameter. Bone mass loss in the epiphyses was approximately 50% in the femur and 60% in the tibia, while the shafts lost only approximately 35% in the femur and 25% in the tibia.    Relationship between the duration of paralysis and bone structure: a pQCT study of spinal cord injured individuals  Other studies agree:     In the lower extremities the BMC decreased after injury. New steady-state levels for BMC were reached at 2 years post-injury for the proximal tibia and the femoral neck at 40\u201350% and 60\u201370% respectively of normal values   Longitudinal study of bone mineral content in the lumbar spine, the forearm and the lower extremities after spinal cord injury.     if there would be an advancement that would allow them to move their bones with the aid of artificial muscles, would their bones be rigid enough to still support them? If not, would there be a type of therapy combined with supplements that would help them regain strength in their bones?   There are \"standing wheelchairs\", designed to give patients with paralysis the chance to stand up, which helps with household activities, etc.   The Rehabilitation Engineering &amp; Assistive Technology Society of North America released a position paper on these devices. They cite numerous health benefits, among them benefit for bone mineral density :     Research suggests that weight bearing is superior to nutritional supplements in preventing BMD loss, and that the mechanical loading of the bones should be dynamic for full prevention of BMD loss. It also appears that with discontinuation of the weight bearing program, BMD levels will continue to decrease and/or return to pre-weight bearing values.   They cite a few studies for this benefit, among them:   Static vs dynamic loads as an influence on bone remodelling Low magnitude mechanical loading is osteogenic in children with disabling conditions   However, other research does not agree with this, saying that after the first year after the injury has passed, bone mineral density does not recover even from weight-bearing exercises. From Non-pharmacological treatment and prevention of bone loss after spinal cord injury: a systematic review:     For the chronic phase (Table 2), the picture seems more uniform, with very little evidence for any gain in BMD when the first year after injury has passed.    They also looked at studies regarding other intervention, for example electrical stimulation and found no significant benefits:     The level of evidence is important and in this study area, there is no conclusive indication of any effective intervention.   However, that doesn't mean your scenario would not work:   This is talking about losing bone mineral density compared to control groups. However, from standing assisting technology we know that the remaining bone density is enough to at least support short-term standing, bearing a significant part of the individual's body weight. A return to pre-paralysis levels might not be needed for short-term walking, for example.  The construction of such a device would lead to more studies into this. Right now, stopping the loss of bone density is not the primary motivating factor for the use of standing wheelchairs, for example - they are to increase quality of life and also to strengthen the individual's circulation, for example.  ",
        "id": 582,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "\"Blood rushing to the head\" during handstands: How is it regulated?",
        "body": "What happens during inversion?         increase in blood pressure   Oxygen uptake increase   Heart rate decreased significantly   The double product, the frequency of breaths, and tidal volume were not significantly changed      What happens post exercise ?     nonsignificant changes in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and double product from the pre-inversion baseline standing position.\u00a0   What are chronic changes     No physiologic adaptations occurred in any of the inverted positions as a result of inversion training.\u00a0   Mechanism for maintenance of Blood pressure?  There is baroreceptor at aorta and carotid sinus. These receptors have a baroreflex mechanism that helps maintain normal pressure on the brain and other vital organs.     As the acute adaptation and resetting are correlated using a graphic analysis, we hypothesize that the baroreceptors can recognize a new pressure level within minutes. The inherent ability incurs downward and upward adaptation as well as resetting at lower and higher holding pressure, respectively.link      It is important to note that baroreceptors adapt to sustained changes in arterial pressure. For example, if arterial pressure suddenly falls when a person stands, the baroreceptor firing rate will decrease; however, after a period of time, the firing returns to near normal levels as the receptors adapt to the lower pressure.\u00a0CV physiology   Adaptation of carotid and aortic baroreceptors     the longest measure time for an almost complete adaptation of mechanoreceptors is about 2 days, which is the adaptation time for many carotid and aortic baroreceptors; however some physiologist believes that these specialised baroreceptors never fully adapt.   [excerpt from Guyton And Hall textbook of medical physiology]-    So, as people practice this handstand posture, slowly the receptors may start to adapt or they might never adapt  Hence, in short, we can say that the body's mechanism either remained the same or adapted a little in long term, while the short term regulation of blood pressure remained the same.  Cerebral blood flow  With the regulation of BP in mind, we can think further about the regulation of cerebral blood flow.     cerebral blood flow is autoregulated extremely well between the arterial pressure limits of 60 mm Hg and 140 mm Hg; further, the cerebral blood flow autoregulation occurs even when the mean arterial pressure Rises to as high as 160 - 180 mm as in case of hypertensive   [Ref. Guyton and Hall Physiology]- ",
        "id": 2627,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much cinnamon is too much?",
        "body": "The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment has established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.1 mg coumarin per kg body weight, but also advises that higher intake for a short time is not dangerous. {1} Meanwhile, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) of the United States does not classify coumarin as a carcinogen for humans. {2}  There are two very distinct kinds of spices on the market which are commonly called \"cinnamon\". True cinnamon (derived from the plant Cinnamomum verum), also called Ceylon cinnamon and cassia cinnamon (derived from the plant Cinnamomum cassia). Although they are closely related they are different species and the distinction between the two was made early on since they are not only regionally separated but also tasting slightly different. And since your tongue might already tell you that: meaning their chemical composition is different. Concerning the quality of taste: true cinnamon is commonly described as milder, weaker, more elegant. Cassia on the other hand is cheaper per volume and more efficient to achieve a certain level of cinnamon taste.  I'll focus on cassia cinnamon rather than Ceylon (\"natural cinnamon\") because the levels of coumarin are higher and it's better to be safe than sorry.  Doing the math, take your weight (in lbs.) and multiply by .221 to get the daily recommended limit in milligrams (in Germany).     Ceylon Cinnamon has less than 0.04% Coumarin while Cassia Cinnamon has   in the region of 4%. {1}   Let's say you're petite or a developing child (80 lbs.) and can't handle as much coumarin. 80 * .221 = 17.68 milligrams of coumarin.  If we imagine 17.68 as 4% of some daily intake of cinnamon, that would be 442 milligrams or .442 grams of cinnamon daily.  Of course, if you happened to weigh twice as much, your intake would be twice that, and so on.  Also, if you want to take 6 grams of cinnamon per day, it seems that Ceylon is the better choice to prevent overexposure to coumarin, since you can take close to a hundred times more.  Disclaimers:   Levels of coumarin in cassia cinnamon vary greatly even in bark from the same tree. {4} The recommended daily intake exists in Europe, not US. Levels of coumarin from cassia are already too high from a health standpoint if eaten as a spice in comparatively low amounts, intake levels needed for a \"natural supplement\" of unproven benefit will quickly exceed that range   Sources:  http://www.bfr.bund.de/en/faq_on_coumarin_in_cinnamon_and_other_foods-8487.html https://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_229620.html http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101103135352.htm",
        "id": 72,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible for a healthy person to drown in their sleep without waking up?",
        "body": "No, that's not even a little bit plausible unless something else caused seizures or altered mental status that would deaden the normal airway protection reflexes. As you observed, inhaling water would cause an immediate and violent reaction even in someone who's sound asleep.   For example, intoxicants, unrecognized injury, or hypothermia could explain it. In the story you mentioned, hypothermia would get my vote. Falling asleep with your body partially submerged in cold water could do that, and a soldier exhausted from days without sleep might be a ready victim.   http://www.nature.com/gimo/contents/pt1/full/gimo11.html",
        "id": 1691,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Side effects of ivermectin and anti-hypertensive drugs",
        "body": "Ivermectin (Stromectol) is a broad-spectrum antiparasitic agent with macrocyclic lactones structure, Ivermectin acts by interfering with nervous system and muscle function,in particular by Binding GluCls ion channels (1) in invertebrate nerve and muscle cells,produces paralysis, death of parasite.(2)  Medications that interfere with P-glycoprotein( multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1)) have the potential to effect on systemic/CNS exposure of Ivermectin and its elimination.(3),(4),(5)     hypertension drugs like verapamil,reserpine,diltiazem and etc plus other Heart Disease medications like amiodarone and warfarin can interfere with above mechanism , its important to say this interaction not known as contraindication or serious interactions but categorized as Significant interactions which needs close monitoring so there is no need for drug alternation unless you see significant side effects in the patient .(6),(7)  Drugs that have serious interaction with Ivermectin are ivacaftor and quinidine ( in every form and combination).(6),(7)   To see complete Interaction list checkout  Medscape and Rxlist",
        "id": 765,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What should a GP do if a patient unilaterally discontinues the prescription of a specialist?",
        "body": "If the patient quit without sophisticated reason, a GP usually would advise the patient to resume the medication.  They would also, of course, review the specialist's report when available.    Sophisticated reasons include:   quitting due to side effects.     quitting due to intake provides difficulty (fear of injections, fear of pills etc.).    other medical conditions the specialist wasn\u2018t aware of.     new medication prescribed from another therapist   and many more.   In such cases, the GP would do whatever is appropriate, but these edge cases are very much reliant on every single case, and as such unfitting for the Q&amp;A format of SE.",
        "id": 2191,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Menstruation and emergency contraceptives",
        "body": "Questions about medications are usually best answered by the manufacturer, or by a site such as drugs.com or rxlist.com. In this case, the manufacturer has this to say:     You have to know that POSTINOR may disrupt the regularity of your   period that month. Your period may come earlier than usual or later.   I don't know why you think these drugs would cause periods to stop permanently. That would be such a major undesirable side effect that the drug would never have been approved, or it would at least carry a black box warning.   I recommend that you read the FAQ at the link I provided above.",
        "id": 2360,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Probiotic doses - comparing CFU measurements",
        "body": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1198254/     The study group members (8 males and 4 females) took three probiotic containing capsules (8.4 log CFU per capsule) two times daily (the daily dose 9.2 log CFU) during three weeks.   So, the study protocol says the active group took 6 capsules a day.  The question says that the retail version of this capsule says it contains 8 billion CFU per capsule. So, without knowing the weight of the bacteria in the capsule, it's not possible to do a direct comparison as bacteria are normally counted as the ability to form colonies per g, or per ml of the bacterium.  And then because these figures are very high, they are changed to a log base 10.",
        "id": 1998,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mental disorders are documented in the DSM, how are other medical conditions documented?",
        "body": "Not sure if this is what you are after but there is the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), a medical classification list by the World Health Organization (WHO). The current one is ICD-10 http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/icdonlineversions/en/",
        "id": 1883,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Isn't \"epithelial carcinoma\" a tautological term? Are there non-epithelial carcinomas?",
        "body": "You are correct that carcinoma refers to types of cancer arising from epithelial tissue.     Definition of carcinoma: Cancer that begins in the skin or in   tissues that line or cover body organs.   This includes tissues that line both the inner and outer surfaces of the body and that arise from cells originating in the endodermal, mesodermal or ectodermal germ layer during embryogenesis. Source: Wikipedia.  This also includes glandular tissue, even if this tissue is within an organ, as glands contain many ducts lined with secretory cells and this is also epithelium.  However, in the specific case of epithelial ovarian cancer, it refers to cancers arising on the surface of the ovary (the germinal epithelium), rather than the tissues within, as there is technically epithelial tissue inside as well.  Source: Cancer Research UK.",
        "id": 2595,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "\"AGE\" meaning in the term AGE-associated autoantibodies?",
        "body": "Advanced Glycation End-products  These are basically proteins and lipids that are glycated in a high glucose environment, e.g.  in untreated diabetic patients. Wikipedia has an article about the details.   In case you need more details than Wikipedia provides: you can find numerous peer reviewed articles via Pubmed, this one for example was suggested by user Lucky.",
        "id": 2149,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "When someone with glaucoma sees rainbows around lights, what exactly is happening physically?",
        "body": "The so-called halos are typical for spikes of intraocular pressure rise in high-tension glaucoma (or ocular hypertension) forms, most often in melanin-dispersion syndrome (MDS, or pigment-dispersion syndrome) which is a trigger for glaucoma in myopes and often begins in early adulthood.   The halos appear when a spike in intraocular pressure leads to intracorneal edema, as the corneal endothelial cells which permanently pump the nutritious water out of the cornea cannot compete with the high pressure pushing the fluid into the cornea anymore. Thus, the cornea fills with water, leading to temporary loss of visual acuity and, as an early symptom, to halos and rainbows around sources of light due to increased dispersion of light. The regularity of the extracellular matrix, which is crucial for corneal transparency, is disturbed by the intrusion of water leading to cell displacement.  Basically, this can happen in other forms of high-tension glaucoma or ocular hypertension with momentarily raised intraocular pressure (IOP), too. Note that it only does in forms where the IOP rises quickly, whereas in a slow and constant rise (as it happens in many forms of chronic glaucoma) the endothelial cells can adapt and still drain the cornea from the excess water. So basically, the same happens in an attack of angle-closure glaucoma, just with the difference being that angle-closure glaucomas often don't go away without medical treatment, whereas in early adulthood IOP spikes due to MDS the halos often are the only symptom which is often triggered by exercise or in dim ambience light situations. This is due to the fact that when the iris moves (as in widened pupils due to adrenaline reactions when performing sports or whe the lights are dim) in a patient with MDS, it rubs against the lens, loses pigment by erosion and this then clogs the eye's drain (in the anterior chamber angle).  This can be seen as basic knowledge in ophthalmology. A first report on the mechanism leading to IOP rise dates back to 1953. The induction of IOP spikes by exercise has also been known for a longer period of time.  EDIT: As your question explicitly relates to open-angle glaucoma, I'd like to add that there are different types of open-angle glaucoma, and only some of them are known for IOP spikes that could lead to said halos and rainbows. Primary open-angle glaucoma usually doesn't, but other than the mentioned pigmentaray dispension syndrome, PEX glaucoma could, and herpes simplex trabeculitis is also not uncommon.  The American Academy of Ophthalmology has a good description on pigmentary glaucoma in their EyeWiki.  It can be also found in Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systematic Approach, 7th Edition. Jack J. Kanski, B, Bowling. 2011, Saunders, ISBN 978-0-7020-4093-1, p:365ff., and extensively in Basic and Clinical Science Course 2007-2008 Section 10: Glaucoma. American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2007, San Francisco, ISBN 978-0-7020-4093-1, p.101-103.",
        "id": 111,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do epi-pens work? Are they specific per allergy? Epi-pen for latex allegery exist?",
        "body": "This is not a medical consultation or advice, only educational information. For any specific questions, talk to your doctor.  EpiPen is an injection of Epinephrine (also called Adrenaline) that is indicated for treatment of anaphylaxis (or anaphylactic shock), which is a clinical representation of the most severe systemic allergic reactions. Anaphylactic shock may have multiple signs and symptoms, such as: urticaria and/or angioedema; bronchospasm; hypotension; cardiac arrhythmias; unconsciousness and shock (this is an incomplete list, see picture and references for more).    All these adverse reactions occur in the context of an IgE-mediated mechanism. IgE is a type of antibody, which is released in huge amounts in the body when a person is exposed to any type of allergen which they are sensitive to following a first exposure (of course, different people may have different allergies; some may have several, some may have none). When IgE antibodies are released in the body, they cause multiple effects that comprise the anaphylactic shock (some were mentioned above, see references below for others).    Epinephrine is a natural hormone that is responsible for the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. For example, it can cause an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, it can cause dilation of the bronchi (which allows to breathe better) and other effects. For this reason, it is used as a medication for anaphylaxis, since it can reverse many of its symptoms (i.e. hypotension, bronchoconstriction etc.).  It is worth noting that being a natural hormone, if Epinephrine is taken orally, it is broken down in the stomach rather quickly. That is the reason it has to be given by injection.  I will answer some of your questions specifically:   Epinephrine will usually begin to have an effect in a few minutes, which is important for a medication given for a life-threatening condition (anaphylaxis). There are several ways to administer Epinephrine. It is agreed upon that the most beneficial method is to inject it into the thigh muscle. Epipen is used to treat anaphylactic shock regardless of the allergy that caused it. No matter which allergen caused the shock, anaphylaxis is the same for all people (it is an immunologic reaction of the human body). Therefore, whether it is caused by exposure to latex, bee sting, milk etc., a person in anaphylactic shock should receive the proper dose of Epinephrine as soon as possible (there is an adult dose of 0.3 mg and a child dose of 0.15 mg). For the actual method of administration (which is a very important thing to know, for everyone), you can ask a healthcare professional or watch clips on YouTube, such as this one. (important: one of the things people overlook many times is the fact that you have to inject the medication, HOLD IT IN for 10 seconds and then pull the injector out).   For further information, you can check out the EpiPen official website and the following texts:  Adrenaline in the treatment of anaphylaxis: what is the evidence?  Epinephrine: The Drug of Choice for Anaphylaxis--A Statement of the World Allergy Organization",
        "id": 1360,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Quick way to determine if a medication is processed in the kidneys or liver?",
        "body": "drugs.com is a great resource. Go to the a Pro Edition header. Once you pull up the medication, scroll down until you find the Pharmacology Category. Once here, look for Metabolism and Elimination. This is where you will find your answer. Wikipedia is also a great place for quick hitter info. Search for the same sections in those articles and you should get the information you need. The least fun but most precise way is to google search the package insert for the medication you wish to research. Make sure you click the \"I am a health care provider\" tab. Then look for the package insert/prescribing information. This will be a large pdf where CTRL + F will be your friend.   Hope this helps.",
        "id": 1491,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Starch recommendation based on research",
        "body": "There are a wide variety of starch sources, from refined flours with a high glycemic index (e.g. white crackers or bread) to whole grains and nuts with lower glycemic index, high fiber, and many other nutrients.  The body processes them differently even if they have ultimately the same # of calories or starches.  Therefore in the field of medicine, one of the predominant evidence-based approaches to carbohydrate intake is in terms of (1) quality and (2) proportion, rather than just an RDA of grams or # calories.  Harvard's SPH released an evidence-based update to the original USDA MyPlate where whole grains are shown in the proportion recommended.  Note that proportion and qualities are what are highlighted rather than exact grams, calories, or measurements.  ",
        "id": 2466,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the distal portion of the ribs?",
        "body": "The part of the ribs that articulates with the thoracic vertebrae (in your spine) is called the proximal end and the part that articulates with the costal-cartilage / sternum (in the centre of your chest) is called the distal end. The 11th and the 12th pair of ribs only articulates with the thoracic vertebrae (proximal). They are called as floating ribs.     Ribs project from proximal articulating facets with thoracic vertebrae, slant forward, and depending on the rib pair under consideration, articulate at the distal end with either the sternum, hard cartilage or \u2018float\u2019 freely (Jurmain et al 2011).   [Source] ",
        "id": 1699,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to lose water weight? Or prevent water retention?",
        "body": "For a healthy individual there are 2 main ways to lose water weight:   To decrease sodium intake (this may take several days to become effective). A low-carb diet that results in ketosis (in as little as 2 days). This means that you burn all glycogen you have in the liver and muscles. If you have 500 grams of glycogen stores and if each gram of glycogen can bind up to 4 grams of water (Wiley Online), you can lose 2,000 grams (~4 pounds) of water. I'm not saying I recommend this.   The other cause of \"bloating\" is abdominal fat.  The other real cause of abdominal bloating (abdominal distension) is excessive production of gas in the bowel. This usually occurs after consumption of foods high in soluble fiber (oats, legumes, fruits and some vegetables) (Cleveland Clinic) or after drinking milk (in people with lactose intolerance) or consumption of fructose (in those with fructose malabsorption). This type of bloating does not increase body weight.",
        "id": 1273,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there such a thing as a hard heart beat? (as opposed to a fast heart beat)",
        "body": "It is more likely to be related to your blood pressure, which is one of the reasons of Pulsatile Tinnitus (heart beat sound in the ear), during exercise. Weightlifting may cause a temporary increase in blood pressure. This increase can be dramatic, depending on how much weight you lift. It is not dangerous if your pre-exercise (or resting) blood pressure is not 180/110mmHg.   Focus on breathing   Also, there is an old but good article about it.",
        "id": 855,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are calcium supplements harmful, even if you stay short of the maximum dose?",
        "body": "Background In the past 10-15 years, thinking on calcium supplementation has shifted significantly. In 2001, a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis made the recommendation that calcium should be supplemented to maintain daily intake 1000 - 1500 mg/day in older adults. The reasoning behind this was that calcium is crucial for maintaining bone mass, which tends to deteriorate during the aging process, leaving this group at increased risk for fractures. The panel acknowledged that most older adults do not obtain this amount of calcium from their diet; they therefore suggested supplementation to this level.   Emerging Skepticism Since the NIH recommendation in 2001, several large randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have called into question the efficacy of calcium supplementation to prevent fractures. Although total fracture risk appears to be marginally reduced, the data suggested that hip fractures, which cause the most significant morbidity and mortality, are not prevented with calcium supplementation.  Possible Risks In addition to questions about efficacy, concerns have been raised about possible increase in cardiovascular events in those receiving calcium supplements, especially women. In one RCT, postmenopauasal women were randomized to calcium supplementation or placebo. The rate ratio of myocardial infarction was 1.67 in the calcium group compared to placebo.1   Current State of Affairs   In 2013 the US Preventive Services Task Force issued a statement recommending against calcium supplementation for primary prevention2 of fractures.  Summary Calcium supplementation has questionable efficacy for reducing clinically important fractures, and there is evidence to suggest that it may increase cardiovascular risk. Because of these factors, large groups of smart people who spend their lives analyzing epidemiological data (read: the USPSTF) do not recommend calcium supplementation for primary prevention.     Notes (a.k.a. my shameless plug for epidemiology education)   1. From such data we get headlines: Calcium increases the risk of heart attack by 167%! When you see these things, have a look at the abstract with special attention to the confidence interval. Here, the interval was 0.98-2.87. Because it crosses 1, this is actually considered a not statistically significant result. Although the trend is there, and similar results have been reproduced, this broad confidence interval at least warrants some caution when thinking about what the risk really is. When interpreting data about rare outcomes, calculation of the Absolute Risk is also worthwhile for perspective.   2. Primary prevention refers to measures to avert an undesirable outcome in people with no history of a such a problem (here, fractures). This stands in contrast to secondary prevention, which involves a population who has already experienced one incident where the goal is to prevent recurrence. The latter group is expected to be at higher risk given their demonstrated propensity for the outcome. For this reason, measures that incrementally decrease this risk tend to provide more absolute benefit compared to primary preventative measures. This is based on the principle that absolute risk reduction depends on baseline risk, an important concept to understand when evaluating this literature.   References   Bischoff-Ferrari, HA et al. 2007. Calcium intake and hip fracture risk in men and women: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies and randomized controlled trials. The American journal of clinical nutrition 86(6):1780\u201390.    Bolland, MJ et al. 2008. Vascular events in healthy older women receiving calcium supplementation: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 336(7638):262\u201366.   Moyer, V. A., U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation to prevent fractures in adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Annals of internal medicine 158(9):691\u201396.   NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy. 2001. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. Pp. 785\u201395 in, vol. 285.   Tang, BMP et al. 2007. Use of calcium or calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation to prevent fractures and bone loss in people aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis. Lancet 370(9588):657\u201366. ",
        "id": 2,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How effective is deviated septum surgical procedure?",
        "body": "According to the article How is deviated nasal septum related to cold:     By looking at the information above you could think that the connection between nasal septum deviation and chronic sinusitis is clear. This literary review however states that the correlation between a deviated nasal septum and having chronic sinusitis is still unclear.   So it looks like it is unclear whether it will help you reduce the risk of infection, but it also looks like it is a given that it will improve your breathing",
        "id": 1105,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is wanting to eat a lot of salt, a sign for something?",
        "body": "Salt cravings can be a sign of adrenal insufficiency or Bartter syndrome[1], so you should probably see a doctor and get checked out.  If you have neither of those things, then you need to learn reduce your salt intake. It is not a symptom of high blood pressure or diabetes. (Some of your coworkers have their causes and effects mixed up.) But it can cause high blood pressure, which you definitely want to avoid. ",
        "id": 534,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why do tendons become less flexible with age?",
        "body": "As you grow older, your tendons become more rigid and brittle. This is probably because of decrease in the water content of tendons, which is one of the reasons why tendons are flexible. This decrease in water content makes your tendons stiffer and weaker. They also become less tolerable of stress. This causes you to be more prone to tendon injuries, which can then lead to tendinitis.    Effects of Aging  Effects of Aging on the Musculoskeletal System",
        "id": 42,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to get six packs by doing exercise at home?",
        "body": "You to prioritise high tension low rep range over large rep range with lower tension.  The key in building muscle is something called 'Time under tension'.  A good number of reps for hypertrophy (building muscle) is 8-12 whereas for building strength a good range is &lt;6. You want to build muscle, not strength! (understand the difference :)) (A keynote is this: the abdominals are muscle, and need to be trained accordingly - e.g., they need the same kind of attention as any other muscle; tension > volume) (A second keynote: approiate tension is key, chose a weightrange where you fail after 12 reps.)  You also need to eat a solid diet, and a low (e.g. very low 6-10% BF, the lower you go the morw definition you get)  Lastly, there are no shortcuts - many (especially product advertisers) would have you believe this; this is false!!)  Visit a site like www.t-nation.com and read some articles - you'll have to educate yourself a little to reach your goal.  I believe theese are the keypoints to achieving a six-pack. Next up you'll have to research some exercises yourself. And remember, regular situps will not do much, the key is ToT (time under tension).. :)  Sorry bout the bad grammar also, was written in a rush.",
        "id": 1600,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do \"Zero Calorie Energy Drinks\" work? (Or do they?)",
        "body": "Energy drinks aren't supposed to supply you with nutritional energy but to temporarily stimulate your mental and/or physical functions and encourage your body to use energy it already has. Such stimulated person might be seen as \"more energetic\" because of     enhanced alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, increased arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and the perception of a diminished requirement for food and sleep.   (source of above description)  What are energy drinks made of:     Energy drinks can contain more than 15 ingredients, but the essential components come in five categories: (1) caffeine; (2) a sweetener of some kind (usually sugar); (3) one or more amino acids (most often taurine but sometimes L-carnitine); (4) vitamins B and (5) one or more plant/herbal extracts such as ginko biloba, guarana, ginseng, milk thistle etc.   (source)  In all energy drinks I've personally seen there was only one clearly stimulating compound and it was caffeine, \"the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug\" (as Wikipedia nicely desbribes it).      Caffeine, an adenosine receptor antagonist, is a stimulant that can influence the activity of neuronal control pathways in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is the most common stimulant in EBs [Energy Beverages] (...)    (Energy Beverages: Content and Safety, 2010)  There are also other substances in energy drinks, but their purpose and effect is often unclear. or example, glucuronolactone, ginseng, ginkgo biloba and many others. Some of them might actually work in some mildly stimulating way. If you're interested, read Energy Beverages: Content and Safety.  Now, sugar is not considered a stimulant, although     Administration of glucose or other carbohydrates before, during, and after prolonged exercise (>1 hour) has been shown to postpone fatigue, conserve muscle glycogen, and improve performance.   (Energy Beverages: Content and Safety, 2010)  There was a common myth about children being stimulated by candies and other sugar products, but it was proven false. In some aspects and for some people (e.g. elderly) sugar may improve some congnitive perfomance, but for others it (e.g. infants) it may work as sedative. Its removal from energy drink probably doesn't change much, other sweeteners are used instead, although one may wonder what are all those vitamins then:     Because EBs contain large amounts of sugar, these vitamins are touted as ingredients necessary to convert the added sugar to energy. Hence, the B vitamins are the \u201ckey\u201d needed to unlock all the energy provided by the simple sugars in EBs, and this is the extra energy that EB companies claim their product can provide.   (Energy Beverages: Content and Safety, 2010)",
        "id": 1049,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Number of MRI scanners in the world today?",
        "body": "Magnetic-resonance.org     World\u00adwide, there are approximately 36,000 MR machines. At present,   about 2,500 MR imaging units are sold worldwide every year    This CDC link shows the amount per country.    If you take this to be a good reference then this could be answer. ",
        "id": 1043,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Dermatitis Herpatiformis have a differential diagnosis?",
        "body": "This is general information about celiac disease and dermatology.  For individual diagnosis one must see a physician.  A primary care physician is a good option, as they can diagnose celiac disease, it is usually not necessary to see an immunologist or dermatologist.  Dermatitis Herpetiformis does have a differential diagnosis.  First, consider other conditions that could mimick DH like bullous pemphigoid, herpes, uritcaria, eczema, etc.   DH is often confirmed by a biopsy and testing for associated conditions that are suggested by other symptoms.   Even for confirmed DH, however, consider that celiac is not the only disease associated with DH.     UpToDate states that the next most common associated condition is autoimmune thyroid disease, and others include type 1 diabetes, pernicious anemia, vitiligo, Addison's disease, alopecia areata, some other autoimmune diseases, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.   Remember that correlation does not imply causation - this means that just because they occur together does not mean one causes the other, or that they are certainly caused by the same thing.  It just means that there's an increased likelihood of having one of the other conditions.  However, the added time-consistent direct correlation of gluten and the rash would very strongly suggest celiac and make other associations unlikely.  So, is it diagnostic of celiac disease then?  Can you definitively rule in or out celiac?  No.     Diagnosing celiac disease incorporates multiple aspects including clinical history, exam, and usually lab testing. Consider that gluten does not exist in isolation; it is a component along with many other components in certain foods.  It is possible, though less likely, to have a skin reaction to a different component in the same food.   This article in a GI Journal states the current recommendation:     ...interpretation of serological testing requires consideration of the full clinical scenario.   I have seen some providers consider one feature of celiac disease as clinically diagnostic, and therefore treated as such without necessarily confirming with blood tests:  the repeatable correlation of resolution of gastrointestinal symptoms on removal of gluten, and recurrence of symptoms upon reintroduction of gluten.  However, there are other associated recommendations are to do the blood testing to have a more concrete diagnosis.  UpToDate recommends:     As a general rule, testing should begin with serologic evaluation. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) anti-tissue transglutaminase (TTG) antibody is the single preferred test for detection of celiac disease in individuals over the age of two years. ",
        "id": 1890,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to get rid of acne marks and scars?",
        "body": "The short answer: many therapies can reduce acne scars, but no therapy can get rid of acne scars entirely, so you should talk to a dermatologist about the best option for you.   The long answer: Preventing acne scars in the first place is the best approach, but there are many methods for removing scars of different types. There are different kinds of acne scars: atrophic scars (indentations in the skin caused by destruction and loss of collagen), and hypertrophic scars and keloids (firm, raised lump; less common; caused by collagen gain). There may also be a reddish hue associated with either type of acne scar. The first step in treating acne scars is to treat the redness. The best treatment to decrease redness is pulsed-dye laser therapy, which targets oxyhemoglobin (a compound from blood) within the skin and can reduce redness by about 60%. Other steps in treating acne scars include the CROSS technique (chemical reconstruction of skin scars, using a trichloroacetic acid peel), subcision (a surgical technique), and punch excision and punch elevation (another surgical technique). Collagen remodeling procedures are also available, which include ablative laser resurfacing, a method that ablates parts of the skin very precisely. Other miscellaneous acne scar treatments: chemical peels, dermabrasion, skin needling, injectable soft tissue fillers, and silicone gel sheeting. NOTE: Do not try any of the medical procedures at home. Talk to an experienced dermatologist. The best way for you to reduce the appearance of your acne scars will be to meet with a dermatologist who can give you a physical exam, treat any ongoing acne flare-ups, and provide you with personalized, practical options for reducing your existing acne scarring. Reference: \"Management of Acne Scars\" from the UpToDate encyclopedia; article written by Nazanin Saedi MD and Nathan Uebelhoer MD. ",
        "id": 1938,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many calories does it burn to regrow a liver?",
        "body": "To get the answers started, though admittedly with a very rough estimation, I'll add my own idea of a lower bound of calories burned to regrow an entire liver.  Because basic laws of thermodynamics state that to produce 100 calories worth of food requires at the very least 100 calories worth of energy, an estimate on the nutritional content of the liver itself should be a reasonable lower bound for how many calories it takes to regrow a liver.  According to Nutritiondata.com, raw pig liver has 134 calories per hundred grams, and raw cow liver has 135. Given the relative consistency, right around 134 should be a reasonable estimate for the caloric content of human liver, not that any of us really want to test that one out. Now according to Hypertextbook referencing a number of sources, average mass of a human liver is around 1.5 kg.  Finally, UCSF Medical Center states that the majority of a liver is regrown in the first two weeks. In theory, this would mean that in the case of a whole liver donation, half the liver would be regrown in the first two weeks after donation. However, whole liver donations tend to not lead to regrowth, with this study (unfortunately paywalled) stating that around 25% of the liver needs to be left to initiate regrowth. For arguments' sake however, and considering we're already vastly underestimating the caloric needs for liver regeneration by assuming 100% efficiency, let's roll with it.  So 1.5 kg of liver at 134 calories per 100g yields 2,010 calories per liver, of which 1,005 would regrow in the first two weeks, or no less than 71.79 calories per day to regrow a liver for the first two weeks after loss/donation. Notably, Raymond Lindeman's 10% law implies that regrowing a liver may burn 10x this number of calories or more, so I'm really curious to see what answer someone who knows more than I do might provide.  Sources:   http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/pork-products/2195/2 http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/beef-products/3468/2 https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/MaryPennisi.shtml http://ucsfhealth.org/education/evaluation_to_be_a_living_liver_donor http://www.journal-of-hepatology.eu/article/S0168-8278(00)80412-2/pdf http://www.biologyexams4u.com/2017/07/ecology-notes-raymond-lindemans-law-of.html ",
        "id": 2057,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Postherpetic neuralgia: Treat or suffer the pain (if you can suffer)?",
        "body": "I had shingles in the last quarter of 2013. It was on the facial and trigeminal nerves. There were times when it felt like someone was boring a hole in my ear with a dull drill bit and pouring 90% isopropyl alcohol on an open wound on my left cheek. It was damn painful.I have been taking gabapentin every since, and I'm not sure NSAIDs would be very helpful. Besides, they have their own risks, not the least of which are heart and gastrointestinal problems. Gabapentin has been most helpful, and it doesn't seem like I've suffered any side affects.As to whether you should treat or suffer, that's really a personal decision, but if the choice were between NSAIDs or pain and you could tolerate the pain, I'd forego the NSAIDs.",
        "id": 1550,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are survival rates of male patients in stage IV throat cancer that has metastised to the lower pallet?",
        "body": "Roughly speaking, it appears that about 30-40% of patients in stage IV will survive for 5 years or more depending on where the cancer originated. This reference provides details. ",
        "id": 453,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are PCOS & endometriosis linked? How to know if menstrual pain is atypical to warrant testing?",
        "body": "I think your question contains many personal parts which I can't answer and should be addressed by your gynaecologist. However, I will try to bring some clarifications to some of your raised issues:     If you have PCOS are you more likely to have endometriosis?   Actually, two studies have investigated this.  The first study was conducted in 1989 and included 91 women. Here the results:     Pelvic endometriosis was observed in 15 of 91 women (16.5%) with   laparoscopically confirmed polycystic ovary syndrome. There were no   significant clinical differences among those with and those without   endometriosis. The groups were of similar age, parity, and ponderal   indices and had similar incidences of oligomenorrhea, hirsutism, and   infertility; the serum concentrations of LH, FSH, LH/FSH, prolactin,   testosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate were also similar in   each group. However, women with polycystic ovaries and endometriosis   presented more frequently with regular menses (40 versus 14.5%; P =   .05) and less frequently with secondary amenorrhea (0 versus 38.2%; P   = .05) and galactorrhea (0 versus 9.2%; P = .05) than the women with polycystic ovaries alone.   The authors concluded:     Endometriosis appears to be a coincidental finding in polycystic ovary   syndrome, and its development does not modify significantly the   clinical picture or biochemical profiles of these patients. However,   menstrual patterns seem to be affected.   Similarly, a second study, conducted in 2014, reported *a significant association between endometriosis and women with PCOS with pelvic pain and/or infertility.  So to conclude: while a causal link has still to be determined, presence of endometriosis and PCOS is not uncommon. The latter study showed an odds ratio of 19.7 (95% CI, 9.6-40.2) of finding endometriosis in PCOS (p&lt;0.0001)    Now the diagnosis of PCOS relies on the Rotterdam criteria ie two out of three of the following are required to make the diagnosis: oligomenorrhea, hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries on ultrasound.  While the diagnosis of endometriosis relies on histologic evaluation of a lesion biopsied during surgery (typically laparoscopy).  As a side note, according to uptodate:     Definitive diagnosis of endometriosis is often delayed because the   symptoms of endometriosis are vague, the symptoms overlap with a   number of gynecological and gastrointestinal processes, and a surgical   diagnosis entails risk. Studies have reported an average diagnostic   delay of 7 to 12 years in women with endometriosis.   You may wish to consider reading following websites on endometriosis and PCOS: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/endometriosis-the-basics?source=related_link http://www.uptodate.com/contents/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-the-basics?source=related_link    Sources:  Barbieri et al. Diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome in adults. Uptodate. Aug 2016  Schenken et al. Endometriosis: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis. Uptodate. Aug 2016",
        "id": 1169,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does caffeine raise your blood pressure when it's a diuretic?",
        "body": "   Caffeine increased plasma renin activity by 57 per cent, plasma norepinephrine by 75 per cent and plasma epinephrine by 207 per cent. Urinary normetanephrine and metanephrine were increased 52 per cent and 100 per cent respectively. Mean blood pressure rose 14/10 mm Hg one hour after caffeine ingestion. There was a slight fall and then a rise in heart rate. Plasma caffeine levels were usually maximal one hour after ingestion but there was considerable individual variation. A 20 per cent increase in respiratory rate correlated well with plasma caffeine levels. Under the conditions of study caffeine was a potent stimulator of plasma renin activity and adrenomedullary secretion.   http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM197801262980403  The mild diuretic effect does not compensate for the hypertensive effect which occurs early after ingestion.",
        "id": 2230,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health consequences of higher melanin production",
        "body": "The easy answer is that skin turns over, and rather quickly at that. Specialized skin cells called melanocytes impart more or less melanin (through granules called melanosomes) to keratinocytes; these cells then are what give you a tan. The keratinocytes undergo constant turnover, so are eventually shed, and in the absence of continued exposure to UV radiation, there is no need to keep producing melanin-heavy keratinocytes. (It's a bit more complicated, but that's the basic idea.)        The keratins and proteins within the stratum corneum act mainly by scattering and absorbing the UV. UV-R sets in action an integrated mechanism for the formation and delivery of melanin within melanosomes from melanocytes to keratinocytes. This mechanism is probably triggered by keratinocytes, which respond to UV-R with bursts of mitoses and with increased production of ET-1 and POMC, thus creating a new demand for melanosomes. The mitotic rate of basal keratinocytes increases a day after UV exposure, reaches a maximum 2 days later, and maintains this level for \u223c1 wk. It then declines, and the skin regains its original thickness after 1\u20132 months if there has been no subsequent exposure.   In other words, for a light-skinned individual, light skin is normal, healthy, and appropriate. A tan represents response to a level of damage. When the damage ceases, the skin stops producing the unnecessary cells and the unnecessary pigmentation.     Is there is any medical disadvantage of a high melanin level during periods of reduced sun exposure[?]   Yes. Darker skin is less conducive to production of Vitamin D. This is why Southern Asians living in northern European cities are more prone to Vitamin D deficiency.  Also, when exposed to UV radiation, melanin can itself become somewhat toxic to cells, the photosensitization generating superoxide radicals which can injure individual cells. So the risk having melanin must be outweighed by the protective effect of melanin against UV light. It's a delicate balance.   Continued exposure to UV light stimulates the melanocytes to grow. This increases the chance of the development of melanomas. Since skin cells containing melanin are shed (there's no getting around that), in light-skinned individuals, keeping a tan is to keep injuring the skin and risking carcinogenesis.  Melanin Pigmentation in Mammalian Skin and Its Hormonal Regulation Human skin pigmentation: melanocytes modulate skin color in response to stress Mechanism of UV-related carcinogenesis and its contribution to nevi/melanoma    ",
        "id": 703,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Recommendation for long-lasting (eg 1 week) airproof and waterproof plaster?",
        "body": "Your problem is going to be sweat, waterproof duct tape will prevent sweat evaporating and will cause the tape to un-stick.   As the NHS states:      There is limited evidence to support the effectiveness of using duct   tape to treat warts. However, side effects of this type of treatment   are rare, although the skin can become irritated.   I suggest using the other methods: Salicylic acid or Cryotherapy ",
        "id": 1118,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How are performers able to \"swallow\" swords without harming their body?",
        "body": "I had an uncle that could do this trick, and it always amazed me.      \"Swallowing\" the sword is really just letting it slide down your throat, but this is much harder than one might think. It requires the peformer to relax all the muscles in the throat (and resist the body's natural urge to gag or get the object out) - this requires a lot of practice.   Perhaps it's obvious, but I should mention that they always use a sword with a dull blade.      So it's not exactly \"swallowing\" a sword - instead, the performer relaxes his throat muscles, allowing the blade to enter the esophagus.  ",
        "id": 1706,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What to eat when you are a skinny fat?",
        "body": "More physical activity would very probably be a good idea. Body fat distribution has genetic determinants, and you cannot really target a body area for fat reduction. Conversely, exercising can have an impact on muscles and general fitness, in addition to improving your mood and maybe helping you be more satisfied with your body.  It does not have to be musculation: you may try swimming, running, body-weight training, yoga or any individual or team sport.",
        "id": 1750,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Mental health and the work place",
        "body": "Remploy provide support and guidance to employers through services such as training, workshops, events and other resources.     We will work with your organisation to create the conditions for success that will allow your people to flourish.   For diversity issues involving the LGBTQIA community, on top of involving Stonewall, there is also Pink Therapy who also have a regular newsletter available through email.  As a personal observation, some organisations \u201dtalk the talk but don\u2019t walk the walk\u201d.  It is all well and good to put on websites and flyers etc. that you support diversity and support those with mental health problems, but it doesn\u2019t help your employees if you are not visibly supportive.  I suggest a notice board in a discrete area for reading in order for notices to be put up showing a company mental health policy detailing anyone in the workplace they can speak to in confidence, along with other organisations they can go to.  As well as the organisations I have mentioned above, the Survivors Trust also provides a list of contacts for Rape and Sexual Abuse Crisis Centres, who you can contact for leaflets, posters etc. which you can put up and make available to all employees to show commitment to support without prejudice.",
        "id": 1426,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "breathing in versus injecting mercury (the gas)",
        "body": "The problem here is the over-simplified (and inaccurate) idea that Thiomersal = mercury, it's not, rather it is a compound (chemical formula: C9H9HgNaO2S) that has mercury atoms in it's molecules, the mercury vapors (Hg) are a different thing, chemically speaking.  This means that mercury and Thiomersal will behave very differently in chemical terms, Thiomersal is metabolised by the body into ethylmercury (C2H5Hg+) which is eliminated from both the body and the brain relatively quickly and does not bioaccumulate. Unlikle methylmercury (CH3Hg+) which is the organic mecury formed from inorganic mercury sources such as the aforementioned mercury vapors or ingesting liquid mercury) which stays in the body up to five times longer (offering significant opportunity for bioaccumulation in the food chain - most human exposure to methylmercury comes from eating fish such as swordfish, big-eye tuna and king mackerel).  While Thiomersal itself can be quite toxic itself (which of course is exactly why it works so well as a preservative) as the old axiom states \"the dose maketh the poison\" and you need much higher doses that what is contained in vaccines to create adverse health effects in humans. And with the fact that it is eliminated completely from the body and doesn't bioaccumulate it's not a case that you need to worry about any cumulative effects.  The removal of Thiomersal from childhood vaccines (it's still in single-vial forms of some flu vaccines) in the US/Europe (some other countries still use the variant of MMR that contains Thiomersal) was prompted (at least in part) by a mistaken presumption that ethylmercury would behave in the body in the same way that methylmercury does. Which we now know not to be the case.  If you were to inject elemental mercury, then you'd be in the same situation as breathing in the vapors - even small doses can be dangerous because it metabolizes in to methylmercury and bioaccumulates.  NB: On a related note the distinction between ethyl- and methylmercury is what makes the chelation therapy some quacks/scam artists prescribe for autism to be doubly ineffective (not to mention it's potentially lethal effects!) because not only is autism not caused by mercury-poisoning but the mercury they are trying to chelate out is no longer even in the body in the first place!",
        "id": 2494,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Name of medicine specialty dealing with lactation",
        "body": "In most of the countries, obstetricians are the physicians specialised in breastfeeding. Sometimes, pediatricians are also involved but they often tend to focus more on the breastfeeded child, leaving obstetricians the lead concerning the mother.   Here a note from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists:  http://www.acog.org/Resources-And-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Obstetric-Practice/Optimizing-Support-for-Breastfeeding-as-Part-of-Obstetric-Practice",
        "id": 1159,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do electronic cigarettes affect the teeth?",
        "body": "As with regular smoking, in vaping, one of the biggest threats to your oral health is the presence of nicotine.   It causes the following effects on the physiology of the mouth:   Inhibit saliva production      which increase susceptible to bacteria buildup, dry mouth, and   tooth decay.    Peridontal disease.: . The periodontal tissues (gums) keep the tooth anchored to the rest of the body. Nicotine can increase incidence of gum problems by the following mechanisms:   Microbiological effect:   Smoking increases two or three-fold the ammount of P. Gingivalis, T. Forsythia, bacterias associated with diseased gums  Effect on the Immune system   \u2193 responsivness of Helper T-cells (adaptative immune response) \u2193 functionality of the neutrophiles (innate or non-specific immune response) by inhibiting the production of certaint metabolites necessairy for their antibacterial activity.  Effect on the vascularisation and repaire of the tissues :    Reduces blood flow via vasoconstriction, therby slowing the arrival of inflamatory cells to fight off infections and initiate repaire. Therefore, there is also a negative impact on the healing process of the gums, by inhibiting the production of collagen and in fact increasing cllagenase which degrades the collagen.  Nicotine also suppresses the proliferation of osteoblasts, which hampers the reconstruction of the bone tissues on which rest the gums.     Others leads to follow:   Oral Trauma and Tooth Avulsion Following Explosion of E-Cigarette. ",
        "id": 707,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it possible to have dental sealants removed permanently?",
        "body": "To remove the sealant, probably the most effective way to protect the teeth from caries, you need to reapply an acid or remove the superficial sealed enamel. In both cases you will loss more healthy enamel than sealant.   So, I would not reccomend to remove a sealant from a sealed tooth, instead, I would reccomend to re-seal any partial loss sealed tooth to avoid the risk of caries.   By the way, the sealants work creating a barrier between the surface of tyour tooth and the acid that generates the sugar that you drink/eat and is metabolized by normal bacteria living in our mouth. ",
        "id": 633,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is going to sleeping with socks beneficial or detrimental?",
        "body": "First, some anecdotal evidence:  Whenever I slept in cold environments (cold room, camping), the feet were usually the first that got cold to the point I was not able to sleep. An obvious solution was wearing socks, which usually helped.  The opposite is also true. When wearing socks makes me too warm, I may not be able to sleep, so I remove them and it helps.  I'm convinced, many people have the exact same experience.  The article linked from the question links to 2 studies about socks and sleep:  1. Skin temperature and sleep-onset latency: changes with age and insomnia (PubMed, 2007):  The abstract of this study just says that wearing socks accelerated the sleep onset in adults. They don't even mention any temperatures.  2. Warm feet promote the rapid onset of sleep (Nature, 1999):  This study does not specifically mention socks but claims that vasodilation in the feet (which can be stimulated by wearing socks, btw) accelerates sleep onset.     Here we show that the degree of dilation of blood vessels in the skin   of the hands and feet, which increases heat loss at these extremities,   is the best physiological predictor for the rapid onset of sleep.   More studies about how warm feet can help you fall asleep:   Effects of feet warming using bed socks on sleep quality and thermoregulatory responses in a cool environment (PubMed, 2018) Sleep Environment Recommendations for Future Spaceflight Vehicles (NASA, 2016) ",
        "id": 2583,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Values of Body Hydration Values to calibrate the readings of Galvanic skin response sensor",
        "body": "Skin becomes a better conductor of electricity in response to physiologically arousing stimuli which can be external or internal. Increased sweat increases skin conductivity. This is known as the Skin Conductance Response (SCR) - also known as the Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). (See this Massachusetts Institute of Technology faq page).  Another name for GSR is Electrodermal Activity (EDA) and EDA measurement is one component of modern polygraph devices, which are often used as lie detectors (Source: BIOPAC Systems, Inc.).  Bearing this in mind, even though Microsoft submitted a patent application for such a device in 2015 (full technical details here), galvanic skin response sensors cannot be deemed reliable to determine body hydration levels.  There can be no standard voltage levels because different people sweat at different rates.  Look at hyperhidrosis sufferers for example.  Estimations of hydration levels can be made however, if other data is combined with galvanic skin response results &mdash; body mass index, heart rate and skin temperature (Suryadevara et al., 2015).  References  Suryadevara, N. K., Mukhopadhyay, S. C., &amp; Barrack, L. (2015). Towards a smart non-invasive fluid loss measurement system.\u00a0Journal of medical systems,\u00a039(4), 38. doi: 10.1007/s10916-015-0206-6",
        "id": 2619,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take healthy/normal cells to turn into cancer?",
        "body": "Cancerous cells are cells that, through cumulative DNA damage, are unable to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death), so really the question boils down to how fast can these cancerous cells replicate. That depends on what cell it is and where it's located. Location and cell type are crucial because they determine how quickly the tumor can reproduce and/or breach organ barriers and metastasize (spread to other areas of the body).  The speed of growth can be generalized by looking and the 'histology' and 'differentiation' of a cancer.  The differentiation of a tumor refers to how the cells look under the microscope. Cells that look normal are termed well differentiated. On the other hand, if the cells appear very abnormal they are termed poorly differentiated. Poorly differentiated cancers tend to grow quicker than well-differentiated tumors.  The histology of a tumor relates to the pattern the cells form as whole when viewed under the microscope. This influences a tumor's rate of growth and spread. For example in lung cancer, small-cell cancers tend to grow and spread very rapidly. In contrast, non-small cell lung cancer tends to grow and spread at a slower rate.  There's more complexity to this, but the only real way to determine the rate of growth is to observe the patient and their cancer development over a period of time - it can vary wildly.  Additional information and resources:  Tumor grade (differentiation and growth speed indications): http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/prognosis/tumor-grade-fact-sheet  Types of cancer (what different types of cancer are produced by different cells/locations): http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/what-is-cancer/how-cancer-starts/types-of-cancer  Example of histological indication (click the answers button): http://www.pathguy.com/histo/007.htm ",
        "id": 921,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can thrombolysis \"cause\" an embolism?",
        "body": "Thrombolytics:  Risk vs Reward  The thrombolytics risk vs reward debate isn't going anywhere for a while.  It isn\u2019t due to lack of numbers or statistics. The reason that this issue is still debated is all about the reliability of the data.  Stroke is a devastating condition and every clinician wants to do everything in their power to help their patients. Unfortunately, good intentions are not enough, and it is generally our sickest patients in whom we need to be most careful about the delicate balance between doing good and doing harm.      I can\u2019t tell you for sure whether thrombolytics work. Physiologically   speaking, they are clearly doing something, as is evidenced by the   increase in bleeding.   There is a hint at benefit throughout a number of studies, but that has to be tempered by the various sources of imbalance and bias in this literature.  My guess is that there must be some subgroup of patients who are benefiting to balance out harms in others. Unfortunately, our currently approach is akin to giving thrombolytics to all chest pain patients, or at least to any patient with a positive troponin. In that population, lytics fail. We don\u2019t have an ST elevation equivalent to guide us in stroke.      My biggest concern is that the push to define tPa as the \u201cstandard of care\u201d has robbed us of the important research that would have discovered this subgroup.     Bottom Line?  I don\u2019t know. If NINDS was replicated today, I would open the odds between 4:1 and 9:1 against the same results. (In other words, I think there is about a 10-20% chance that if the same protocol was run, we would see the same results). I think we clearly need more research. I think basic philosophy of science and statistical tenants tell us that we must attempt to replicate NINDS. Or maybe this whole debate will simply disappear, as endovascular therapy becomes the new norm. More on that next time\u2026    How tPA Should be Presented to Patients  \u201cThere is a treatment we sometimes use for stroke that is supposed to break down the clot causing the stroke. The treatment is controversial, and you will probably hear different things from different doctors. The issue is that out of 13 major trials, only 2 have shown benefit, and both of those trials have some problems, and they were both paid for by the people who make the drug.   There are some risks that we\u2019re certain about: about 1 in 12 patients will have severe bleeding resulting in worse neurologic outcome. Despite that risk, in the best case scenario, about 1 in 10 people given this drug early will have a noticeable improvement in their function after 3 months.   Unfortunately, it isn\u2019t clear how reliable the science has been, and we don\u2019t know which patients have the greatest chance at benefit or harm. The choice to receive this medication remains up to each individual patient.\u201d    Source: https://first10em.com/2017/05/26/thrombolytics-for-stoke/ ",
        "id": 1887,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Loperamide POM Medication",
        "body": "As Don_S mentioned in comments:     Probably the overall mass of Loperamide in the package. The POM has 60 mg total of Loperamide, while the OTC has 36 mg at most (18 capsules being the largest package size I saw for Imodium). I don't know what is the mass threshold between POM and OTC medications in the UK, but it's probably between those two numbers (perhaps even closer to 36 mg total weight). Sometimes the decision between POM and OTC is the toxicological potential if someone accidentally (or not) swallows the entire package at once.   This is one possible explanation for the general case. But for example in my jurisdiction 200mg pack of acetylcysteine powder is POM and 600mg tablet is OTC, giving a massively larger dose for the OTC variant. There are certainly some idiosyncrasies to observe. In this case: there is something else at work here.  First of all, Imodium is a brand name and those are usually quite a bit more expensive when compared to generics like the one you linked to.  And there we get closer to the nature of this beast:       The NHS is great service provider and quite tough negotiating with pharmaceutical companies over the prices for drugs.     AMENDMENTS TO THE DRUG TARIFF \u2013 March 2018 \u2013 For the UK, March 2018    Basic prices of drugs lists loperamide in  \"Part VIIIA\" on page 204   You already mentioned the price. That's the reason. If needed for prescriptions, you1 get the NHS negotiated rebate for the drug in its cheap generic form. Without that prescription the manufacturer of the brand name drug is free to charge what he thinks he can get away with.  Or to turn that around, you need a prescription to get the cheaper drug which is subsidised. It's  not about the ingredients or the dangers. It's poltics of price and availability.     There is a culture of secrecy and shame concerning primary care rebate schemes but there are really no good reasons why they should not be adopted in the NHS.   A robustly administered rebate scheme will not have any impact on clinical decision making in the local NHS and can only support the legal requirement for PCTs to make arrangements which are \u201cnecessary and expedient\u201d to supply medicines to patients, according to the NHS Act 2006 and the NHS (Pharmaceutical Services) Regulations 2012. As Paul Jerram, head of medicines management at the former Isle of Wight PCT, put it: \u201cAs I help GPs manage a budget which is public money I believe that I am ethically obliged to source at the best price. Therefore \u2026 I have to support rebates.\u201d   However, in practical terms, NHS bodies are not always willing to consider pharmaceutical industry rebate schemes. Some are concerned that participation in a rebate scheme may undermine their credibility as a healthcare body. Others will not enter rebate schemes because of the generic prescribing agenda in the NHS in general.   For example, some rebate schemes will not be recommended by prescribing optimisation service PrescQIPP because they might advocate branded prescribing, even in cases where branded prescribing is clinically appropriate. Some will claim that rebates are at odds with local formulary and guidance recommendations.   Stephen Goundrey-Smith: \"Primary care rebate schemes: win-win partnerships for industry and the NHS\", The Pharmaceutical Journal 29 MAY 2013.   Or:        Appendix 1: DH view on Rebate schemes: an extract from an email sent to colleagues on the UK Pharmaceutical Advisors Group November 2012   The Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme (PPRS) is the UK-wide voluntary scheme agreed between Government and the Association of British Pharmaceutical Industry to control the prices of branded medicines supplied to the NHS. Under the terms of the 2009 PPRS agreement (see paragraph 3.4 of the agreement), it states that the Department of Health does not support additional or alternative initiatives by health authorities in respect of the pricing of branded medicines in primary care.   The pricing arrangements under the 2009 PPRS aim to secure value for money for the NHS whilst providing companies with the right incentives to invest in new and effective medicines for the future. The Department's concern is that local rebate schemes potentially undermine the PPRS pricing arrangements but also, it is possible that companies will seek to make good lost revenues from rebate schemes elsewhere, for example by increasing the wholesale price on other medicines or not offering as much discount to community pharmacies. Both of these scenarios could have implications for the community pharmacy contractual framework funding arrangements or lead to higher growth in the NHS drugs bill.   In view of this, Primary Care Organisations (PCO) should look critically at the wider ramifications of any potential rebate schemes on NHS budgets and future NHS service provision before entering into local agreements.   The PPRS does not extend to non-branded medicines or other items which may be prescribed on the NHS; this includes POM medicines. Depending upon the detail of the rebate scheme, it will be important to consider other relevant issues. If a company is offering an arrangement that is of added value to a PCO, for example, it supports implementation of one of the PCO\u2019s prescribing policies, or optimises patient\u2019s use of their medicines, there may be a benefit.   Pharmaceutical Rebate Schemes     1: \"You\" in this context means someone looking at the database of prices, this is not necessarily the patient in general. It is the cost incurring for the system, that is here: the NHS.",
        "id": 2380,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bitten by a Hobo Spider. How serious? Going to off-hour clinic tomorrow, but should I go to the ER now?",
        "body": "So I didn't die during the night, but the pain did awake me with a jolt at about 5am, and I went to the Urgent Care Clinic promptly at 6am, and it's a good thing because the inflamed site had grown significantly. The Doctors were able to incise/cut out the bite site and take a syringe and suck out the venom/blister/pus that was festering underneath. They applied antibiotic cream over that and bandaged it up. They swabbed it and are running a culture test on it to know which medications are best to treat this. They think they got all of it, but want to make sure it didn't enter my bloodstream, etc.   Apparently during the fall, the Hobo Spiders are extremely aggressive/active at night as it is their mating season and while their bite is not always venomous (it depends whether they inject it at the time), sometimes it is, and in this case it was. The symptoms of a Hobo Spider bite are akin to a Brown Recluse, although not as a potent. But the wound site does take several months to recover/heal completely and will probably leave a scar.   If the bite is venomous or it just becomes infected, it can become pretty serious, especially for those with poor immune systems.   So just be aware of the Hobo Spider if you are in the Pacific Northwest!  Or if you are concerned about any spider bite, just speak to your physician -- don't hesitate. ",
        "id": 1252,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Would an operating theater ringed with green plants increase infection risk or reduce it?",
        "body": "Perhaps a good idea for separate lobbies or waiting rooms, but definitely not for operating suites or patient care areas.  Plants use CO2 and release O2, which is good. They also do filter VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and other air toxins, primarily via the microorganisms living on their roots.  Also good.  There is a ton of research including the NASA research you referenced on the benefits of plants for indoor air quality.    But the toxins that a plant would filter from the air are actually not involved (or at most minimally involved) in hospital-acquired infections, which result from transmission of bacteria, viruses, and fungi.  So they wouldn't help further \"clean\" the hospital from clinically significant pathogens. If anything, the soil would foster growth of some pathogens, and stirring it up even just with air flow could contaminate patients.  As a comment mentioned, you would definitely NOT want that when someone is sick and immunocompromised, or intubated, or cut open on a table, or healing from wounds.",
        "id": 2685,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why does my throat hurt so bad after a bug goes into it?",
        "body": "No one can diagnose your particular problem over the internet, nor should they. However, some general guidelines may be helpful.  Swallowing the average gnat should be completely painless, as should swallowing the average mosquito, as neither should be releasing any (or many) noxious chemicals to irritate one's oropharynx.  Some insects when swallowed do sting defensively, and can cause significant problems; I would include spiders and hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants, etc.) in this group.  Some insects (such as blister beetles, hairy spiders such as tarantulas, and certain hairy caterpillars, among others) have irritating toxins on them which can cause significant problems with swallowing (tarantula is considered a delicacy in some parts of the world, and this has caused such problems.)  However, to the average person, mosquitoes and gnats should not present much of a problem. It's possible that if someone is extremely hypersensitive to mosquito saliva, the small amount of saliva which might be released by swallowing/crushing the mosquito may irritate one's throat slightly. However, a more likely cause of minor irritation is hypervigillance: the anxiety caused by a threat to one's health can cause an enhanced state of sensory sensitivity. In other words, if someone is anxious that something might hurt them, they might feel something that they might not otherwise pay much attention to, making it worse.  Pharyngeal Irritation After Eating Cooked Tarantula &lt;- beware, yuk-inducing Severe tongue necrosis associated with pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni) ingestion in three dogs Caterpillars: An unusual source of ingestion. Urticating Hairs in Arthropods: Their Nature and Medical Significance Physician's Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance, Sixth Edition, Jerome Goddard, CRC Press  ",
        "id": 222,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Aesthetics aside, is there a medical reason that acne should be treated?",
        "body": "   What would be medical advantages?    There are several problems with what you're asking. It has to do with how you're framing the issue. But rather than get into a more convoluted point, I'll just answer your question:   Reduced psychosocial well-being Longer term scarring    Maybe that matters to you, maybe it doesn't. For some people it can impact their life in a significant way, leading to depression, etc. Then again, the retinoid treatments for acne can also lead to depression or worse.  \"Remaining a virgin at age 40\" may not have an ICD-10 code, but it doesn't mean it's not a risk factor of acne worthy of attenuating.     Such as avoiding risk for infections, or other?   No, quite the opposite is possible:     https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/398804      Antibiotic Treatment of Acne May Be Associated With Upper Respiratory   Tract Infections      Objective  To determine if the long-term use of antibiotics for the treatment of acne results in an increase in either of 2 common   infectious illnesses: upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) or   urinary tract infections.      Design  Retrospective cohort study.      Setting  General Practice Research Database of the United Kingdom, London, England, from 1987 to 2002.      Patients  Patients with a diagnosis of acne.      Main Outcome Measure  The onset of either a URTI or a urinary tract infection.      Results  Of 118 496 individuals with acne (age range, 15-35 years) who were identified in the General Practice Research Database, 84 977   (71.7%) received a topical or oral antibiotic (tetracyclines,   erythromycin, or clindamycin) for treatment of their acne and 33 519   (28.3%) did not. Within the first year of observation, 18 281 (15.4%)   of the patients with acne had at least 1 URTI, and within that year,   the odds of a URTI developing among those receiving antibiotic   treatment were 2.15 (95% confidence interval, 2.05-2.23; P&lt;.001) times   greater than among those who were not receiving antibiotic treatment.   Multiple additional analyses, which were conducted to show that this   effect was not an artifact of increased health care\u2013seeking behavior   among our cohorts, included comparing the cohorts of patients with   acne with a cohort of patients with hypertension and the likelihood of   developing a urinary tract infection.      Conclusions  Patients with acne who were receiving antibiotic treatment for acne were more likely to develop a URTI than those with   acne who were not receiving such treatment. The true clinical   importance of our findings will require further investigation. ",
        "id": 2155,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the long term side effect of lying after eating?",
        "body": "Advice against lying down after a meal is usually given to those who already have acid reflux (WebMD) and not to everyone.  Reflux comes from excessive relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) or diaphragmatic sphincter (the later occurs in hiatal hernia), which results in a free flow of acid into the esophagus when you lie down. If your LES functions properly, you will not likely have acid reflux if you lie down.",
        "id": 1422,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to request copies of CT-Scans, MRI, X-rays & ultrasound/endoscopic imagery from Dr.'s/Surgeons for personal records? Possible?",
        "body": "Regarding United States, quote from \"Copy Fees and Patients\u2019 Rights to Obtain a Copy of Their Medical Records: From Law to Reality\" (2005):     Patients have a legal right under HIPAA to a copy of their medical records. Personal life-long medical records rely on patients\u2019 ability to exercise this right inexpensively and in a timely manner. We surveyed 73 hospitals across the US, with a geographic concentration around Boston, to determine their policies about fees for copying medical records and the expected time it takes to fulfill such requests. Fees range very widely, from $2-55 for short records of 15 pages to $15-585 for long ones of 500 pages. Times also range widely, from 1\u201330 days (or longer for off-site records). A few institutions provide records for free and even fewer make them accessible on-line.   From \"Patient Access to Personal Health Information: Regulation vs. Reality\" (2015):     Access to health information through patient portals and other electronic means is increasing with the adoption of electronic health records (EHRs), but not all providers have EHRs or patient portals and not all information may be available electronically. Patients are expected to continue to request paper and electronic copies of their medical records.   From \"How to Request Your Medical Records\" (2012):     patients have the ability to request the format in which they would like to receive their records. For facilities using an electronic health record system, the medical record may be available on CD, DVD, USB flash drive, or sent via secure e-mail. Additionally, larger facilities are increasingly creating Web-based portals that allow patients direct access to their information. It is important to note that patients have a right to a copy of their record, not the original. The original record belongs to the healthcare facility. It is a document they must maintain for legal and business purposes.   In Canada it seems to be regulated by each province intependently. For example, in Ontario there is Personal Health Information Protection Act (see part V, chapter 52 for example).  Now, in United Kingdom things seems to look like this (quote from NHS website):     Under the Data Protection Act 1998, you have a legal right to apply for access to health information held about you. This includes your NHS or private health records held by a GP, optician or dentist, or by a hospital. (...) Depending on which health records you want to see, submit your request in writing or by email to a registered health professional (...). This is known as a Subject Access Request (SAR). (...) Under the Data Protection Act, requests for access to records should be met within 40 days. However, government guidance for healthcare organisations says they should aim to respond within 21 days. (...) You may have to pay a fee to access your health records, so ask if there is a charge before you apply to see them.   Some more from NHS (other webpage) about fees:     Online access to your GP records is free of charge. However, charges may apply if you wish to see the originals or get physical copies or your health records. (...) No fee is charged to see your records but if you wish to take a copy away you may be charged. The charge will vary, depending on how the information is stored. The maximum charges are:    * \u00a310 for records that are only held electronically    * up to \u00a350 for those records that are not available in electronic form or only partially available electronic form   In Israel there is Patient's Rights Law which states among other things:        (A) The patient shall be entitled to obtain from the clinician or the medical facility medical information concerning himself, including a copy of his medical records. (...) 20. (A) A clinician or medical facility may pass on medical information to a third person in any of the following cases: (1) The patient has consented to the disclosure of the medical information. (2) The clinician or medical facility are legally obliged to pass on the information; (3) The disclosure is for the purpose of the patient's treatment by another clinician;      There is also short note from Ministry of Health website:     You have the right to receive from the care provider or medical institution, medical information contained in your medical records, or a copy of the medical record (receiving a copy of the record may be subject to a fee). At the time of your release, you have the right to receive a summary of the course of treatment or hospitalization, in writing. ",
        "id": 1284,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much does aspirin affect blood clotting?",
        "body": "According to Tulane's pharmwiki, the half-life of aspirin for a dose of 300-650 mg is 3.1-3.2 hours. The half life of a drug is the amount of time needed for the concentration of drug to be reduced in half (after reaching peak concentration).   So, after 5 half-lives, or roughly 16 hours, the amount of drug remaining in the body is (1/2)^5 = 0.03125 -> 3%, which is mostly eliminated from the body.   *I only use 5 half-lives because it was a rule of thumb for drug elimintion mentioned in the Youtube video in my references. A more conservative answer could be 6 half-lives (1.5625% drug remaining in blood) or rougly 19 hours.   Half-Life:     Aspirin functions as a blood thinner by irreversibly inactivating a protein called the COX enzyme in platelets, which disrupts the clotting process. This is why a possible serious side effect of taking aspirin is bleeding a lot from a minor cut.   In summary, in those 16 hours in which the aspirin is in action, the platelets (life span: 8-9 days) that are affected will be unable to clump together to clot which can pose a risk for minor bleeds.    References:  Pharmacological Information on Aspirin  Quick Youtube Video with half-life example problems   Educational Resource on Safe Usage of Aspirin  Biochemical Action of Aspirin and Cost-Benefit Analysis  Image Source",
        "id": 2233,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do doctors deal with fear of blood?",
        "body": "Having a psychological reaction to exposure to blood, injections, incisions, dissection, or similar stimuli is common - even among those training in medical fields.  Symptoms from nausea to dizziness up to vasovagal syncope or panic attacks happen to some people, but it is rarely a hard barrier to progressing in the medical field - unless it is not addressed responsibly. Even those fairly severe responses almost always can diminish or extinguish over time through simple repetition (\"habituation\") and/or psychotherapy.  The important thing is to be aware of your triggers and responses, be in tune with your symptoms, and ask to step away or for help the moment you realize there may be an issue.  The culture of medicine is not always kind, and there still exist some who might tease someone for stepping aside.  But far worse would be faceplanting into the surgical field, or the OR floor and acquiring a TBI, just because you were too embarrassed to excuse yourself when you felt symptomatic.  I've heard such stories, and have seen surgeons tell students to let someone know immediately if they start to feel woozy so they can hand over their role.  It's not just you, it's the team and the patient at risk if you aren't responsible enough to ask for help.",
        "id": 2286,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do we need to drink milk?",
        "body": "You certainly don't require milk in your diet. Those with allergies need to avoid it. The whole thing is about getting the nutrients that the body needs. If you replace them with sufficient alternative sources, you'll be fine.   Don't forget the calcium, the added vitamin D, etc. that's in milk: All very important building blocks for a healthy life.  Addition, I was reminded to cite a source for my answer:  The USDA on milk, appendix # 3-6. The appendix elaborates all the vitamins that are in milk that the body needs. Further down the appendix it states alternative sources for these nutrients. The link to this is Here",
        "id": 719,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any definitive prevention for tooth decay?",
        "body": "There is no definite prevention. The teeth naturally weaken with age just like the rest of your body. However, smoking,   chewing tobacco, junk food, and drinking sugary drinks will not cause it immediately but definitely will speed it up and make is worst. Brushing your teeth and flossing them at least twice a day for each should help prevent tooth decay too. Unfortunately though, many people lose some of their teeth by the time they are in their 80s and may start showing signs of tooth decay as early as their 40s. You can only do what's most healthy and hope for the best.",
        "id": 1572,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do women with polycystic overian syndrome is prone to have insomnia during motherhood?",
        "body": "Insomnia is not a known complication/side effect of PCOS. PCOS is a syndrome of complex hormonal interactions, so it is possible that it could have an effect on sleep quality, but in PCOS typically the estrogen level is elevated, not lowered, due to its causing anovulatory cycles. Also, it usually it is a decreased estrogen level that would cause difficulty sleeping, as can be seen in menopausal women.  The change in estrogen due to breastfeeding is due to the elevated prolactin levels in lactating women, and while can be high enough to inhibit/delay ovulation, not likely to be severe enough to cause insomnia.  The most likely explanation to your wife's insomnia is the act of getting up and feeding multiple times per night, combined with the \"postpartum insomnia\" which is usually related more to the anxiety/excitement of having a newborn.",
        "id": 1722,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Playing badminton after tooth extraction",
        "body": "That will be hard to predict, as it varies from person to person. I've had one of them extracted and could train the next day (a different sport, korfball, but with similar impact on your body as badminton); a team mate couldn't play for a week after his operation. Wikipedia states     Most patients will experience pain and swelling (worst on the first post-operative day) then return to work after 2 to 3 days   but also     the rate of discomfort decreased to about 25% by post-operative day 7   so don't expect the operation to help so soon; it will mostly have a long term effect.",
        "id": 2088,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Health risk associated with living close to a power line: Cancer risk & exposure to electromagnetic field",
        "body": "This has been on peoples' minds for decades and the answer is still not clear.  TL;DR at the bottom.  Research done in the past has not always been of the best quality and so conclusions that might have been made which suggest harm, are probably wrong. For example: a UK study in 2005 suggested increased rates of cancer in association with distance from power-lines (closer = worse) BUT the association continued even further than the distance the power lines could have any effect. That means that the suspicion that it could be the electromagnetics of the power line can't be related, because even after it dropped off there was still something apparently going on.     Title: Do power line - generated electromagnetic fields have any   association with certain disorders? Source: JAMA: Journal of the   American Medical Association [0098-7484] Ross, Randy yr:1988 vol:259   iss:8 pg:1131 SINCE THE MID-1960s, scientists have debated whether   low-level electromagnetic fields generated by power lines represent a   health hazard. Recent studies suggesting possible links between   electromagnetic exposure and cancer have drawn renewed attention to   this controversy.      For years, researchers have hypothesized links between electromagnetic   fields and a variety of disorders ranging from malignant melanoma to   mental illness. British investigators have suggested a link between   electromagnetic exposure and suicide, while a Russian study indicated   cardiovascular changes in electrical workers.      At least one literature review, by a London utility company scientist,   discounted these and other associations (JR Soc Med 1982;75:933-941).   But epidemiologic and other studies have continued.   A study looking at some particularly rapidly developing cells taken from mice in China in 2015 suggested that the cells might not live as long, but no signs of cancer. This was in MICE, not humans, and in cells taken from the body and therefore not around their normal external defence and healing mechanisms. What that means is that this study is of uncertain value.     Title: Effects of Long-Term 50Hz Power-Line Frequency Electromagnetic   Field on Cell Behavior in Balb/c 3T3 Cells Source: PLoS ONE   [1932-6203] An, Guang-Zhou yr:2015 vol:10 iss:2 pg:e0117672 -e0117672   Abstract Power-line frequency electromagnetic field (PF-EMF) was   reported as a human carcinogen by some epidemiological research, but   the conclusion is lack of robust experiment evidence. To identify the   effects of long-term PF-EMF exposure on cell behavior, Balb/c 3T3   cells in exponential growth phase were exposed or sham-exposed to 50   Hertz (Hz) PF-EMF at 2.3 mT for 2 hours (h) one day, 5 days every   week. After 11 weeks exposure, cells were collected instantly. Cell   morphology was observed under invert microscope and Giemsa staining,   cell viability was detected by 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,   5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, cell cycle and apoptosis   was examined by flow cytometry, the protein level of Proliferating   Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) and CyclinD1 was detected by western blot,   cell transformation was examined by soft agar clone assay and plate   clone forming test, and cell migration ability was observed by scratch   adhesion test. It was found that after PF-EMF exposure, cell   morphology, apoptosis, cell migration ability and cell transformation   didn\u2019t change. However, compared with sham group, cell viability   obviously decreased and cell cycle distribution also changed after 11   weeks PF-EMF exposure. Meanwhile, the protein level of PCNA and   CyclinD1 significantly decreased after PF-EMF exposure. These data   suggested that although long-term 50Hz PF-EMF exposure under this   experimental condition had no effects on apoptosis, cell migration   ability and cell transformation, it could affect cell proliferation   and cell cycle by down-regulation the expression of PCNA and CyclinD1   protein.   A recent study (2014) in Denmark looking at actual humans (specifically whether kids developed leukaemia closer to power lines) found no association between distance from power lines and rates of developing cancer - and this was from much stronger power lines than the street-based ones you're talking about. This one is a significant paper for 3 reasons: 1) it looked at actual people. 2) children are in theory MORE susceptible to radiation-based tumours (ie EM radiation) and 3) leukaemia is a typical type of cancer seen in response to radiation.     Title: Distance from residence to power line and risk of childhood   leukemia: a population-based case\u2013control study in Denmark Source:   Cancer causes and control : An International Journal of Studies of   Cancer in Human Populations [0957-5243] Pedersen yr:2014 vol:25 iss:2   pg:171 -177    Abstract    Purpose Epidemiological studies have found an   association between exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic   fields (ELF-MF) and childhood leukemia. In 2005, a large British study   showed an association between proximity of residence to high-voltage   power lines and the risk of childhood leukemia. The association   extended beyond distances at which the \u2018power line\u2019-induced magnetic   fields exceed background levels, suggesting that the association was   not explained by the magnetic field, but might be due to chance, bias,   or other risk factors associated with proximity to power lines. Our   aim was to conduct a comparable study in an independent setting   (Denmark).      Methods We included 1,698 cases aged &lt;15, diagnosed with leukemia   during 1968\u20132006, from the Danish Cancer Registry and 3,396 controls   randomly selected from the Danish childhood population and   individually matched by gender and year of birth. We used geographical   information systems to determine the distance between residence at   birth and the nearest 132\u2013400 kV overhead power line.      Results Odds ratios (ORs) were 0.76 [95 % confidence interval (CI)   0.40\u20131.45] for children who lived 0\u2013199 m from the nearest power line and 0.92 (95 % CI 0.67\u20131.25) for those who lived 200\u2013599 m away when   compared with children who lived \u2265600 m away. When restricting the   analysis to 220 and 400 kV overhead power lines, the OR for children   who lived 200\u2013599 m from a power line was 1.76 (95 % CI 0.82\u20133.77)   compared to children who lived \u2265600 m away. However, chance is a   likely explanation for this finding as the result was not significant,   numbers were small, and there were no indications of an higher risk   closer to the lines since no cases were observed within 200 m of   these.      Conclusions We found no higher risk of leukemia for children living   0\u2013199 m or for children living 200\u2013599 m of a 132\u2013400 kV overhead   power line. A slightly elevated OR for children living between 200 and   599 m of a 220\u2013400 kV overhead power line is likely to be a chance   finding.   So... what does that mean when it comes to living close to power lines?   prior thought has been that it's bad, but this has been with shonky research. Chinese mice cells taken from the body don't show signs of cancer, but maybe don't last as long actual humans (children in Denmark) don't seem to show any signs of developing leukaemia public opinion is still divided, even though the research seems to be pretty sound.   TL;DR My suggestion? Getting the apartment isn't any risk (cancer-wise) to yourself. You might find it harder to get rid of if anyone else feels the same trepidation you do!",
        "id": 2354,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Protrusion or Extrusion?",
        "body": "To me it appears like an extrusion, have a close look at this.  The aperture of the disk material that is outside its confined space is larger than the the width of its normal boundaries. Since, it's very minor I still doubt to completely categorize it.  I read an article that explains the difference between \"disk protrusion &amp; extrusion\": here is the link to it.",
        "id": 1850,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to discover allergies to certain foods?",
        "body": "Some people might recommend that you could have a diary of foods consumed and when symptoms of allergies occur, and by eliminating causes one by one, whatever remains will be the food you are allergic to.   If symptoms of the allergy include a difficulty of breathing or eye/lip or throat swelling, do not do this, under no circumstances, but go straight to the doctor.  You might have a potentially deadly anaphylactic shock if you suddenly consume a lot of the allergen (by trying to eliminate other causes). Apart from that, this method is unreliable and will take a long time.  Tests  Multiple allergy tests exist, and depending on your insurance and location, healthcare providers might cover the tests for you.    Various skin tests. Further discussion of the 3 most common skin tests at Medlineplus.gov Various blood tests. Further discussion of blood tests at American Association for Clinical Chemistry   Basically, there\u2019s no way around getting together with your GP and discussing this matter. The GP will advise you which test to take.",
        "id": 1934,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Body building without protein shakes",
        "body": "First of all, know that you regularly consume protein and have been all of your life. If you did not, you would be in quite terrible health.1 That being said, IGF-1 is involved in bone growth, muscle growth, connective tissue growth, motor neuron growth, and so on. It's also produced within the body.2 Your body uses it for growth and healing, and this has nothing to do with whether or not you drink protein shakes or work out.  The human brain has an incredible capacity to make connections where they're not obvious; one could argue this is the source of human intelligence, but sometimes it gets these connections wrong. I'm telling you definitively that IGF-1 was not the cause of your breakout, and neither was protein. Most likely you just so happened to break out at the same time you were drinking protein shakes. Feel perfectly comfortable drinking them now.  Furthermore, your body relies on the amino acids in protein to rebuild itself, and keep you alive. The fact that you're breathing right now means that you consume protein regularly. When you work out, you are causing tiny amounts of muscle damage, and the muscle building basically results from the body overcompensating as it heals the muscle.3 This healing relies on these amino acids, which are taken from protein as it is broken down in digestion. You can't heal (and therefore grow) muscle without protein, just as you can't live without protein.  Moral of the story: Drink protein shakes if you like, eat plenty of meat and fish if you don't. It won't cause acne.  Sources:   http://www.livestrong.com/article/73310-happens-dont-enough-protein-diet/ https://thinksteroids.com/steroid-profiles/igf-1/ https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/musclesgrowLK.html ",
        "id": 957,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there a best time of the day to measure blood pressure?",
        "body": "Blood pressure of a person varies throughout the day. This is attributed to numerous factors including stimuli from your sorroundings. As an innate tendency of the body. blood pressure is lower at night when you sleep, and is higher when you wake up in the morning. It continuously increases(roughly) as the day progresses.   So there is no one best time to measure your blood pressure. If what you are looking to do is to monitor your blood pressure, then it is important that you measure it at the same time everyday - at whatever time of the day it is. If what you are trying to get is an accurate measurement, then you are better of measuring it at two different times of the day(in the morning and in the evening) and taking an average, or measure it at two different times and report the readings along with the time of the day the measurement was taken. If you are on any medication to control your blood pressure, then you should measure your blood pressure once in the morning before taking any medications and once in the evening (assuming that you take medication in the morning). However, your doctor may specifically ask you to measure your blood pressure at a particular time of the day. That is because he is interested in that particular value for some reason.   References :    Short- and Long-Term Blood Pressure Variability High blood pressure (hypertension) ",
        "id": 163,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "If a person has lockjaw, what disease is he or she suffering from?",
        "body": "Your question is unclear. But I (and with me some others) think you are referring to Tetanus.   Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani, bacteria found in street dirt and animal dung (for example horse dung). The bacteria enters the wound through a dirty wound (for example a bike accident). It can be cured by a Tetanus vaccination that must be appllied in a few days.   The vaccination last for 10 to 15 years but is sometimes renewed within 7 years. If the victim is not vaccinated the disease can be deadly. One of the symptoms is muscle stiffness often started with the jaw muscles hence the name lock jaw.",
        "id": 2501,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can Kidney stones cause painful ejaculation?",
        "body": "If you saw the size of Foley catheters that get inserted, and how easily they slip out again, you could guess how easily the urethra passes small stones.  There was this small study which claims that frequent intercourse increases the clearance of distal renal stones, but at least in the abstract they don't mention pain.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26142575",
        "id": 2153,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Eliminating deafness",
        "body": "The term deaf (with a lowercase d) is generally not used clinically. In lay usage it can mean various degrees of hearing loss from moderate (possibly even slight or mild) impairments through profound loss. Similarly eliminating deafness is not a well defined concept.  The auditory system is complex and hearing loss can be caused by damage to any part from the outer ear all the way up to the auditory cortex (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_deafness).  Conductive hearing losses are generally caused by damage to the outer and middle ears and can often be eliminated through surgery or hearing aids.  Damage to the inner ear can be treated with hearing or bypassed with cochlear implants. Neither of these eliminate deafness, but can restore a significant amount of functional hearing. The auditory system is described as having thousands of channels  while a cochlear implant has a dozen or so. Hearing aids simply turn up the volume so other channels can detect the sound, but there are still missing/damaged channels.  This is also research into hair cell regeneration that could repair some types of damage to the inner ear. While the research looks promising, it is technically difficult. You have to regrow the hair cell in the correct location with the right orientation and size. Then you need to stimulate nerve fibers to synapse on the regrown cell. you have to also worry about the supporting cells and the rest of the structures in the inner ear.  Damage to the auditory nerve can be bypassed with auditory brainstem implants and midbrain implants. These devices do not eliminate deafness, but do restore functional hearing. Again, the number of channels (and the processing the brain does on the sound) limit the performance of the device.",
        "id": 1830,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Who to go to for diagnosis of random seizures?",
        "body": "I'll be answering this question in the way @DaveL edited the post.  The specialist you should go to is a neurologist. They are the ones who are most qualified when it comes to seizures.  In the mean time (because you'll probably have to wait before you can get an appointment), you can go to your GP and explain the problem. The way you're describing it, the EEG is probably normal because it would only changes when you're asleep and feverish, but maybe they'll like to redo it to see if there's an evolution, or test other hypotheses.   To these doctors, you'll have to describe the seizures precisely - when do they happen in the night? do you lose consciousness or not? is there abnormal body moves and if so, what kind? are you immediately able to think normally after they happen or are you slowed down for a while? did you bite your tongue? do you have witnesses of these seizures that could possibly notice something you didn't? did you take any medication that could have induced them or reduced them?   If you can, keep a journal of your seizures with these informations and bring it to your appointments. The more information, the better in these cases.   Guidelines of the American Academy of Neurology Exemple of seizure journal ",
        "id": 608,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do transvaginal ultrasounds break the hymen if one is a virgin? Is it painful for a virgin?",
        "body": "During Transvaginal Ultrasaund procedure defloration (breaking a hymen) can happen but not necessarily;It depends on several factors.   Transvaginal Ultrasaund in virgins should be performed only with patent's signed informed consent form (or by close relatives if patient is not of legal age or is unable to do so).   This is very important,especially in culturally sensitive regions as can be detrimental for patient's future life,thus if defloration happens It will be documented and can be shown to the interested sides.   Informed consent is legal document that is intended to protect both:the patient and the doctor who performs the procedure.   Information mentioned above is derived from own practice.   Unfortunately no research or case report is available by online search.  Here is the forum link where you can find some answers: http://www.doctorslounge.com/gynecology/forums/backup/topic-14728.html  Here is the popular article from news:  http://m.huffpost.com/us/entry/3907422",
        "id": 1544,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is the second vaccine dose necessary if seroconversion occurred after the first dose?",
        "body": "The only way to know the the level of conversion is through bloodwork to measure it and even that can be problematic.  From the CD site:     Laboratory evidence of immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease  Commercial assays can be used to assess disease-induced immunity, but they lack sensitivity to always detect vaccine-induced immunity       (i.e., they may yield false-negative results).   The issue there is that even the CDC knows that immunity can be undetectible (for what reason I do not know), and yet you are protected.  If it's a vaccine induced infection, I think you'd be subject to the same risk of false negatives.   The only way to measure is titer though.  In fact, you cannot actually know the current vaccine schedule is leaving you protected.  I have a sibling that has received a particular vaccine a number of times (3 times more than what is considered necessary) and regardless, if she has a titer pulled, it shows no immunity (not varicella, we had that as children).  We don't typically titer all people because it isn't generally a good use of resources.  You can though, request one to be done &amp; certainly after an outbreak of varicella, to simply see if another shot is warranted or not.   The quote provided is about 1/4 of the way down on that link.   https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt17-varicella.html",
        "id": 1612,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Acidity of gut contents",
        "body": "Not sure if I answered this right:   leaflady.org     The system begins in the mouth, where the pH of saliva is 5.7 \u2013 7.0.   In the esophagus the pH is 7.0. The stomach pH is 1.5 \u2013 3.0. In the   Duodenum (upper part of the small intestine) pH is 4.0 \u2013 5.0, and in   the lower part of the small intestine (jejunum and ileum), pH 6.5 \u2013   7.5   The reason for it:  livestrong.com     In order to carry out their individual functions, each section of the   digestive system maintains a pH that suits the needs of the   environment. The first part of the system prepares the food for   digestion. This section\u2019s weak acidic surroundings begin the process.   The second area, the stomach, must supply enough acid to break the   food into its nutrients. However, when the food continues into the   intestines, it no longer needs acid. Both intestines bring the matter   closer to the pH of the body   Basically these values stay consistent with some minor changes, unless a person is experiencing a acid-base imbalance. These are life threatening and can be extremes in acid or alkaline. The pH as you can see stays within the range it needs to be, in order to process food. ",
        "id": 754,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is Jicama root safe to eat every day?",
        "body": "There seems to be no study that would mention an association between peeled jicama root consumption and Parkinson's disease or any intoxication in humans.  Rotenone can be found in jicama seeds, stems and leaves and, according to some random sources in jicama root skin. Severe intoxication can occur after eating jicama seeds (PubMed, 2005).  I haven't found any source that would claim there is any meaningful amount of rotenone in the peeled jicama root.  Rotenone as a pesticide (but not as part of any food) ingestion has been linked to Parkinson's disease in humans, though (Environmental Health Perspective).  In conclusion, there seems to be no evidence to recommend against daily consumption of peeled jicama roots in aim to avoid any disease.",
        "id": 2646,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is a tonsillectomy (tonsil-removal) typically more painful the older you are? Are the the pain nerves more advanced?",
        "body": "   After removal of tonsils, most adults   have significant pain for 10 -14 days, some up to 3 weeks. Because    adults &amp; teenagers have larger tonsils and more developed throat muscles, pain and muscle spasm can    make it difficult to swallow for 2 weeks or more.  Constipation may occur because narcotic pain    medication, when taken regularly, can slow down the bowels.  link ",
        "id": 1300,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Increase pre-biotics or reduce FODMAPs can these two postions be reconciled",
        "body": "The question, as I understand it: Should the current recommendations about a low-FODMAP diet, which is also low-prebiotic and thus potentially harmful, be changed?  Short answer: There is some evidence that a low-FODMAP diet can reduce symptoms in individuals with fructose malabsorption and irritable bowel syndrome but no clear evidence about its harms. So, I don't think the diet should be changed, but some aspects could be reconsidered:   A low-FODMAP diet needs to be only as strict as necessary to prevent symptoms. Individuals with IBS should try to treat their problems by solving their psychological issues and not only by a low-FODMAP diet.     (FODMAPs - Fermentable Oligo-, Di- and Monosaccharides and Polyols include: nondigestible oligosaccharides, lactose, fructose and sugar alcohols - sorbitol, xylitol, etc. From this list, only certain oligosaccharides are considered prebiotics (article, or directly, table 4). Prebiotics are nutrients that promote the growth of beneficial intestinal microbes.)    In certain gastrointestinal conditions, mainly fructose malabsorption, FODMAPs are poorly absorbed in the small intestine, so they reach the large intestine, where they feed normal intestinal bacteria, which produce excessive gas, and also cause osmotic diarrhea. The aim of a low-FODMAP diet is to reduce the feeding of the intestinal bacteria and thus reduce the symptoms.    EVIDENCE:  1. A low-FODMAP diet can reduce symptoms in fructose malabsorption and IBS.  Most study reviews, including the ones from 2016-2017 linked here, provide some evidence that a low-FODMAP diet decreases symptoms in individuals with fructose malabsorption (1, 2) and diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (3, 4, 5, 6).  2. A low-FODMAP diet can reduce symptoms in Crohn's disease, but does not likely prevent the disease itself.  A low-FODMAP diet can be used as a temporary measure to reduce symptoms in Crohn's disease (PMC). On the other hand, there is no convincing evidence that this diet decreases the risk of developing Crohn's disease.  3. Is a low-FODMAP diet potentially harmful?  This and this review from 2017 raise concern that a low-FODMAP diet may lead to nutrient deficiency and suboptimal intestinal flora and that...more research is needed.  CONCLUSIONS:   Even if there is a lot of evidence that high-fiber diet, which is often also high-prebiotic, can be beneficial for health (PubMed), there seems to be no clear evidence that a low-FODMAP diet, which is also low-prebiotic, is harmful. Every therapeutic approach, including a low-FODMAP diet, is justifiable until the health benefits outweigh the possible harms. For example, in fructose malabsorption, a commonly documented significant reduction in symptoms seems to outweigh theoretically possible but non-documented harms. ",
        "id": 2063,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Water and wrinkled skin. Is being under water for long dangerous?",
        "body": "Wrinkling is an adaptative response of the skin, allowing for better grasp on objects when the skin is wet. The skin is a barrier of stacked cells mostly made of keratin and lipids. It is covered in aqueous and oily secretions (sweat, sebum) containing salts, acids, peptides, squalene, steroids, etc, as well as bacteria forming a biofilm and that defend you against pathogens.   If you are soaking continuously in water, these components are being washed away. One problem I immediately think of is fungal infection.  Also, in warm water the skin is only semi-permeable, which is the basis of balneotherapy (absorbing minerals through the skin).  With time, water would disrupt the statum corneum, making the skin permeable, resulting in irritations, ulcerations, infections, loss of electrolytes, etc.   Look up \"trench foot\" or \"immersion syndrome\" , eg.  How irritant is water? An overview. These disorders can leave permanent damage on the skin or the organs underneath. Stay dry.",
        "id": 522,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can regular immersion in cold water cause loss of hearing?",
        "body": "It is possible that hearing loss can be caused by cold water. Several different different types of benign growths can cause loss of hearing because they may block the ear canal. One of these types of growths are exotoses in the ear canal (aka Surfer's ear). Surfer's ear is caused by exposure to cold air or cold water. Odds are that frequent cold showers won't cause Surfer's ear, because usually the growth is caused by both cold air and cold water (doesn't always have to be cold, but it is much more likely for cold air and water to cause it than warm air and water). Extoses be treated through surgery to remove the growth (obviously this wasn't possible in the 18th and 19th century).  It is also possible that loss of hearing can be be caused by a condition known as Swimmer's ear which is the result of prolonged exposure of the ear to moisture and water. Things like swimming (hence the name) or routine showering can cause this, which means it may be possible for you to experience a sudden loss of hearing. This water doesn't have to be cold though. Swimmer's ear doesn't always cause loss of hearing and when it does, it is only temporary and can be treated with some medications and eardrops.    Exostosis of the external auditory canal  Hearing Loss Causes  Swimmer's Ear  Swimmer's Ear Directory",
        "id": 289,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Did science backtrack regarding coffee causing dehydration?",
        "body": "Why it has been long assumed that caffeine or coffee is dehydrating?  Because caffeine is a mild diuretic - it stimulates water excretion through the kidneys. But the amount of water you consume with caffeinated drinks is usually greater than the amount of water you lose in urine due to caffeine diuretic effect, so there is no net water loss and hence no dehydration.  Also, regular (daily) coffee drinkers will usually quickly (within few days) develop tolerance to caffeine effects including the diuretic effect.  Source 1 (PubMed, 2003):     Caffeine and related methylxanthine compounds are recognized as having   a diuretic action...      The available literature suggests that acute ingestion of caffeine in   large doses (at least 250-300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in   2-3 cups of coffee or 5-8 cups of tea) results in a short-term   stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of   caffeine for a period of days or weeks. A profound tolerance to the   diuretic and other effects of caffeine develops, however, and the   actions are much diminished in individuals who regularly consume tea   or coffee. Doses of caffeine equivalent to the amount normally found   in standard servings of tea, coffee and carbonated soft drinks appear   to have no diuretic action.   Source 2 (PubMed, 2014):     It is often suggested that coffee causes dehydration and its   consumption should be avoided or significantly reduced to maintain   fluid balance...Our data show that there were no significant   differences across a wide range of haematological and urinary markers   of hydration status between trials. These data suggest that coffee,   when consumed in moderation by caffeine habituated males provides   similar hydrating qualities to water.    In conclusion, the old suggestion that caffeine is dehydrating was due to misinterpretation that increased diuresis automatically results in dehydration. They also overestimated the actual diuretic effect of caffeine.",
        "id": 2464,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do the symptoms of viral tonsillitis differ from bacterial tonsillitis",
        "body": "There is a great deal of both overlap and variability in the symptoms associated with pharyngitis. Many causes can include visible swelling of the tonsils and tonsillar exudate, and so can be classified as tonsillitis.  The usual clinical question here is \"should I treat this sore throat with antibiotics,\" which depends on symptoms, signs, history, and epidemiology. In an otherwise healthy individual, the treatment decision is more about preventing later complications associated with infection than treating the (self-limited) infection itself. In most practices the key question, then, is not just \"is this bacterial or viral\", it is, \"is this Group A Streptococcus (GAS) or not\".  There is a good discussion of this issue and the evidence in the clinical practice guidelines from the infectious diseases society of America.  Of note, there is some argument (see Cecil medicine Ch. 437, in addition to the discussion in the IDSA guidelines) for making the question \"is this Fusobacterium necrophorum, GAS, or something else\".   Now, with that preamble, we can get to the question in your title:     How do the symptoms of viral tonsillitis differ from bacterial tonsillitis   For an otherwise healthy pediatric or young adult patient in the US who is up to date on vaccinations, there are some useful symptom-based rules of thumb (see both the earlier linked guidelines, and the chapter in Cecil).  From the guidelines, signs and symptoms that strongly suggest viral etiology:        Conjunctivitis   Coryza   Cough   Diarrhea   Hoarseness   Discrete ulcerative stomatitis   Viral exanthema      Cecil's describes a useful evidence based risk score for deciding whether or not to treat with antibiotics (which is essentially a question re: what is the likelihood that this is group A strep). Each of the following gives 1 point: temperature > 38 C, absence of cough, swollen, tender anterior cervical nodes, tonsillar swelling or exudate, and age 3-14 yrs.  Age 15-44 years gives 0 points, age >44 subtracts a point. If the score is 4 or more, you treat with antibiotics. If the score is 2 or 3, you culture the throat and treat if positive. if the score is 0 or 1, you observe. You can examine the evidence for this score here.  As the risk score algorithm indicates, one of the possible diagnostic next steps is a throat culture for GAS. There are also tests that detect the presence of antigen. It's important to note (as is discussed in the linked sources), that many patients are pharyngeal carriers of GAS, so detecting GAS may not provide any information about the cause of a particular bout of pharyngitis in general or tonsillitis in particular. There is a very good meta-analysis that relates to this point. ",
        "id": 2486,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does some food increase pollen allergy symptoms?",
        "body": "There are foods that won't increase your pollen allergy symptoms, but instead cause them. This is a condition called Oral Allergy Syndrome, also known as Pollen-Food Allergy Syndrome.1 This is caused by a reaction to foods that contain similar ingredients or proteins to the type of pollen they are allergic to. So while this allergy is a bit different than just a regular pollen allergy, it is likely that, if you have a pollen allergy, there will be foods that trigger the same symptoms you may get from your pollen allergies.2  There are a few common types of pollen allergies that have foods associated with them. Ragweed allergy, which is caused by the pollen of ragweed and mainly causes symptoms like sneezing, itchy throat, stuffy/runny nose, and possible trouble breathing. Some of the foods that may cause these symptoms include watermelons, cantaloupes, bananas, and honey.3  A birch pollen allergy is also a common allergy which has many symptoms similar to those of ragweed allergy. Foods which many trigger those symptoms are kiwi, pears, apples, plums, cherries, carrots, and almonds. Grass pollen allergy is the other common type of pollen allergy and its symptoms, which are also like ragweed and birch allergy symptoms, can be triggered by foods like tomatoes, celery, peaches, and oranges. To help avoid the above mentioned foods, you can try many things, such as cooking the food or peeling it, if it is possible.4    1: Oral Allergy Syndrome  2: Recognizing pollen food allergy syndrome  3: Rag Weed Allergy  4: Foods That May Worsen Pollen Allergies",
        "id": 225,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chagas disease: transmission",
        "body": "Mother-to-Child transmission is known as \"vertical transmission\". Vector transmission exclusively refers to an intermediate organism (often, but not always, an insect).",
        "id": 1975,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are any drugs approved to deal with drug-induced myoclonus?",
        "body": "Treatment of Myoclonus  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3899494/?tool=pmcentrez  Caviness JN. Treatment of Myoclonus. Neurotherapeutics. 2014;11(1):188-200. doi:10.1007/s13311-013-0216-3.  This article offers a concise and fairly exhaustive approach to the treatment of Myoclonus of any cause. If you look at Figure 3 (the treatment algorithm), there is a specific pathway for the treatment of drug-induced (Symptomatic) Myoclonus. The actual treatment - and any drugs that might be used - depends on the classification:     cortical;   cortical\u2013subcortical;   subcortical\u2013nonsegmental;   segmental;   peripheral.   The ultimate treatment depends on this classification and is outlined in the article. The list of specific medications that may be used - anticonvulsants as well as other medications - is listed in the treatment algorithm.  The medications include:     Levetiracetam, Piracetam, and Related Compounds; Sodium Valproate; Clonazepam; Zonisamide, Primidone, and Miscellaneous Agents (these are not anti-seizure medications)   Of these only a couple are specifically listed as add-on agents:     Primidone and phenobarbital can be useful as add-on therapy  ",
        "id": 734,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do dosage directions refer to the amount of medical product or to the amount of active ingredient of it?",
        "body": "First of all, the leaflet in question also states:     Your doctor will tell you how much Daktarin    oral gel to take and for how long you should    take it.   It is essential that your therapy is supervised by a physician, primarily because infections of the stomach and the gut may be serious. The doctor can monitor how you respond to therapy in terms of both efficacy and safety (i.e. possible side effects).    That being said, it is important that you understand the information provided in the leaflet, so here goes the explanation.  20 mg is the dose of the active substance. This is a common practice because there may be preparations of different concentrations.   There is an example of dose calculation based on body weight in: Pharmacy Technician Certification Review and Practice Exam  edited by Barbara Lacher.  The other problem with you calculating the dose yourself is that the concentration is expressed as mass fraction, from which one can calculate the total mass of the preparation to be taken. On the other hand the measuring spoon provided (at least according to the attached leaflet) is scaled in milliliters and measures volume. To convert mass to volume you need the density of the preparation, which is not given in this document. This bit is probably known to your physician/health care team.",
        "id": 689,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How fast can a common cold progress/develop into pneumonia?",
        "body": "First, the definitions: A common cold (or \"head cold\") is a viral infection of the nose and throat. Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs. Tracheitis and bronchitis can be refered as a \"chest cold\" but not common cold (WebMD).  Neither a common nor chest cold are necessary steps in developing pneumonia. You can get pneumonia without having a cold. Here's a MedlinePlus article about viral pneumonia that does not even mention runny nose or sneezing, which are typical common cold symptoms.    Or you can get pneumonia at the same time as common cold, or days or weeks before or after it. This is because you do not need to go through a typical scenario of catching cold from someone and then developing pneumonia. You can have viruses, for example, influenza virus, in your nose, mouth or throat as part of \"normal flora\" without having any symptoms. At the time when your immunity weakens from some reason, the viruses can multiply and cause symptoms, either in your nose/throat (a common cold) or, if you inhale them, in the trachea/bronchi (tracheitis/bronchitis) or in your lungs (pneumonia).  The bottom line is that you may not be able to make a diagnosis from timing but from symptoms, as Carey Gregory mentioned in the comment. In a common or chest cold, you usually have no fever and in pneumonia you usually have it (but not always).",
        "id": 1667,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do I have a disorder? (See description)",
        "body": "You can't make a diagnosis based on a few behaviours, let alone on a forum.   If you feel these experiences are interfering with your daily life, then seek professional help - perhaps your doctor or mental health professional (e.g., clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, or psychotherapist).",
        "id": 1735,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Have to constantly pick my nose in order to breathe normally",
        "body": "You may see improvement by using a saline spray several times a day. Don't pick, as picking will favor the formation of crusts. You'll need to find some alternate things to fidget with for the duration, and on a temporary basis you may need to put some bandaids across the nostrils to deter the habit.  The following is taken from http://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/En/HealthAZ/TestsAndTreatments/HomeHealthCare/Pages/Normal-Saline-Solution-How-prepare-home.aspx     Normal saline is a sterile mixture of salt and water. It is called   normal because its salt concentration is similar to tears, blood, and   other body fluids (0.9% saline). It is also called isotonic solution.   Normal saline is soothing and will not burn or sting when applied. It   is used for:         injecting medicines via the veins (intravenous infusion)   rinsing contact lenses   rinsing the nasal passages (nasal irrigation)   cleansing the bladder (bladder irrigation)         How to make normal saline solution at home       Saline solution is easy to make at home. You will need:         1 clean glass bottle or jar with lid   table salt   pot with lid   Put one cup of water and \u00bd teaspoon of salt into the pot. Put the lid on.   Boil for 15 minutes with the lid on (set a timer).   Set the pan aside until cooled to a room temperature.   Carefully pour the salt and water (normal saline) from the pan into the jar or bottle and put the lid on.         Normal saline solution: A few important points         It is very important to use only fresh normal saline. Bacteria can grow in saline and cause infections   Use a clean glass jar or bottle is that has been recently washed in a dishwasher with very hot soapy water   Do not drink solution   Throw away the solution if it grows cloudy or looks dirty   Keep the saline in a bottle or a glass for a maximum of 24 hours. Throw away any unused solution, wash the container, and make a new   solution.      You can buy an over-the-counter nasal spray, if it is a bottle with a screw-on top, empty it out, rinse well with boiled water, and put the saline solution you prepared in that.  Squirt once or twice in each nostril several times a day.  Then just leave the inside of your nose alone and be patient.  If you feel the need to blow your nose, that's okay as long as you do it gently.  During the first few days, find special activities that will distract you from the urge to pick.  Stay away from environments and activities in which you normally engage in picking.  If you don't see improvement within a week, definitely see a doctor.  Or sooner if things are really bothering you.  Some additional resources that may be helpful:      In seeking sensory stimulation, people tend to go to the sites where the nerve endings are. Grooming-type behaviors would seem to be a likely choice when it comes to reducing or producing stimulation. Any one of a number of different grooming-like behaviors could be pressed into service to perform this balancing function externally. Hair pulling, skin picking, nail biting, blemish squeezing, cheek biting, nose picking, etc., are only a few of a whole group of behaviors that already exist in the repertoires of all human beings that can be put to this use. [...] Grooming behaviors are something all human beings already engage in on a daily basis. The difference is that those people, whose behaviors have become extreme versus those who are doing them at a low level, are having difficulty regulating their internal levels of stimulation, and are putting the behaviors to another use.  http://www.wsps.info/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=96:a-stimulus-regulation-model-of-trichotillomania-why-people-pull&amp;catid=37:trichotillomania-by-fred-penzel-phd&amp;Itemid=64   Other articles at the same site: http://www.wsps.info/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=section&amp;id=7&amp;Itemid=64  The section on Body Focused Repetitive Behaviors at https://iocdf.org/about-ocd/related-disorders/ ",
        "id": 1895,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the purpose of the \"observation cohort\" in a clinical trial?",
        "body": "This entire study was observational; they refer to the entire group as the \"observation cohort\" but they selected a subset of cases who received a certain treatment to complete their further analyses. Since they don't talk further about the \"observational cohort\" you can mostly ignore it for interpreting their results, it is only important in the context of how they selected their subjects, which I think is fairly clear if you just ignore those two words.  I think it's likely, though this is just a guess because I don't see clear description in the paper and I don't intend to dig further, that this 'study' they report is part of a larger observational study that will include other treatments, perhaps other cancers, etc. However, they are reporting on just one piece of it and treating it as a self-contained study. There's nothing really wrong with that as long as the 'sub-study' is planned in advance.  \"Observational\", in this context, means that the researchers made no treatment decisions: they assess the results of treatment only by how routine practice is applied and the resulting outcomes. This sort of study design is common for studying standards of care and establishing baselines, but it is less informative than a randomized controlled trial because subjects are selected for treatment on non-random criteria. For example, sicker patients might be more likely to receive a certain treatment, which might make that treatment look less effective or more dangerous than it really is.",
        "id": 2597,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the heart become stronger or weaker after an intensive workout?",
        "body": "We are looking at ventricular hypertrophy here.   The human heart has a left and a right side. On both sides there are a ventricle and an atrium (1) (2). Basically the heart is just a bulk of muscle tissue responsible for circulation and blood flow.  As with any muscle contraction when there is a resistance against the working muscle this leads to muscle growth or hypertrophy. A bad example of such resistance is a high blood pressure. Due to the elevated blood pressure, the heart must pump and contract against a continuously present counter force and this leads to a heart muscle hypertrophy, or ventricular hypertrophy (3). When hypertrophy is due to, say, high blood pressure this hypertrophy or growth is pathological and eventually leads to muscle stiffness and heart failure.  In your case, there is probably also some heart muscle hypertrophy but it is non-pathologic and it can be considered as a healthy \"heart condition\". The principle is the same. When you workout your heart must work more efficiently compared to its resting state and pump more blood to the skeletal muscles due to increased demand for oxygen. Due to the advantageous heart muscle growth your heart is capable of circulating blood more efficiently.     Whether the heart muscle growth is pathologic or non-pathologic depends on the concept of afterload (4). In a healthy heart the afterload is minimal indicating that the heart \"can rest\" shortly after ejection or ventricular contraction. This results to beneficial hypertrophy. However, if a substantial afterload is present, which is the case in elevated blood pressure, the heart \"can't rest\" after contraction but instead is must maintain some level of muscle contraction which results in adverse muscle hypertrophy.  However, in extreme cases the workout can result in some health issues, called an athletic heart syndrome (5).  This is still far less adverse than heart failure.",
        "id": 297,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long does it take for an illness from radiation to develop?",
        "body": "The WHO wrote a report in 2006 and stated that the incidence of thyroid cancer, which was the main concern, had dropped to near background levels with only a small increase in pre-menopausal breast cancer in those most exposed.  Regarding the population with lower exposure:     Projections concerning cancer deaths among the five million residents of areas with radioactive caesium deposition of 37 kBq/m2 in Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine are much less certain because they are exposed to doses slightly above natural background radiation levels. Predictions, generally based on the LNT model, suggest that up to 5 000 additional cancer deaths may occur in this population from radiation exposure, or about 0.6% of the cancer deaths expected in this population due to other causes. Again, these numbers only provide an indication of the likely impact of the accident because of the important uncertainties listed above.   A more recent report in 2011 from the NIH looked at Chenobyl residents who received higher exposure and is not so welcome.     The researchers found no evidence, during the study time period, to indicate that the increased cancer risk to those who lived in the area at the time of the accident is decreasing over time.  However, a separate, previous analysis of atomic bomb survivors and medically irradiated individuals found cancer risk began to decline about 30 years after exposure, but was still elevated 40 years later.  The researchers believe that continued follow-up of the participants in the current study will be necessary to determine when an eventual decline in risk is likely to occur.   So, it seems prudent to keep monitoring all those affected survivors as the risk may extend past 40 years.  Presumably more data will come to light with time.  Note that the I-131 risk was thought to be mainly from drinking cows milk with cows feeding on I-131 contaminated pasture, and concentrating it into their milk. ",
        "id": 914,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you estimate glucose and sucrose levels of a food product?",
        "body": "I check the carbs and it usually says  40 grams and \"amount that's sugar: 12 grams\". Then you know the carbs and how much is from sugar per gram.   Even 8-9 grams of sugar per 100grams is super much, that's like 10% for only that bottle/food. Carbs are ok at long it's fiber and good carbs with a low sugar rate. ",
        "id": 1843,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Gaining weight by eating mustard seeds",
        "body": "A look at the nutrient values of mustard seeds shows a high energy density, with lots of protein (26g per 100g) and lipids (36g per 100g), as well as minerals and vitamins. All of these may be of benefit. The high energy density would logically promote weight gain... if the quantities you ingest are significant.  It is not possible to say if it will help you gain weight or get rid of skin problems without knowing what your diet looks like apart from this morning glas, what these skin problems are, etc.",
        "id": 1751,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Tips to improve the sleep during the night",
        "body": "You should keep an eye on the sleeping environment's temperature and restrict the amount of light entering the space you sleep in. Eye masks are a cost-effective solution to reducing excessive light from entering your eyes. And more generally speaking, your level of comfort when you enter the bed is a good indicator of how well you can rest in that space (not too cold or hot, no blinking LEDs from devices, and so on.).   Try to avoid blue light and loud disturbances[1][2] as much as possible before bedtime. There are multiple tools to reduce the amount of blue light emitted by screens, if you have the need to use a computer in the evening.  Overall health has a direct impact on your sleep[3]. Remember to take proper care of your body -and mind- as this will result in better overall health. Eating \"properly\"[4] (enough energy, nutrients and hydration, all in proper quantities) before bed will also improve your quality of sleep. Feeling bloated is a great way to stay awake for unnecessarily long periods of time.  Regular exercise is rewarding[5]. Going to bed and falling asleep might be easier if you've exerted your body during the day.  The \"Why these things -section\":  [1] Humans react to stimuli. Constant arrhythmic sounds, especially loud ones, could keep someone awake, and their mind racing.  [2] \"Bright light effects on body temperature, alertness, EEG and behavior\" P.Badia, B.Myers, M.Boecker, J.Culpepper, J.R.Harsh (Elsevier: Physiology &amp; Behavior, Vol.50 Issue 3)  [3] Applies to nearly everything in life. Nominal systolic and diastolic pressures, no tightness in muscles, no grinding in joints is less to think about, and more time to focus on the task at hand.  [4] Being bloated can be uncomfortable, this can negatively affect your ability to relax and prepare for sleep.  [5] Moderation is key; however, the information available on the topic can be conflicted at times. People need to find what works for them, as age, and more broadly their own demographic, and type of exercise no doubt play a role.   Here is a general article on the topic from 2000: \"Exercise and sleep\" (Elsevier: Sleep Medicine Reviews, Vol.4 Issue 4) Helen S.Driver, Sheila R.Taylor.",
        "id": 1076,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the ratio when giving CPR",
        "body": "Definitely agree with you, it's a silly thing and different test inspectors have different ideology.   My advice is to not worry about the results of the \"paper tests\" (I know it's annoying) and focus on it's practicality. They make changes to the so called \"guidelines\" every few years, as if the past guidelines were \"inferior\" or \"not up to date\". Here's an interesting thing to think about.     Is CPR best given using the ABC method? In the past, we were taught Airway, Breathing, Compression. Now \"new\" guidelines are vouching for CAB because people are afraid of mouth to mouth contact, but are ok with compressing. Which allows the blood (with lower % oxygen:hemoglobin ratio) to circulate the body.   What about if there is 2 people? does the ratio change? If the ratios do change, it makes you question just how arbitrary these numbers are.   At the end of the day, tests are tests, and real word is real word. I worked in the hospital and my co-worker was accused by the patient's family members of \"not compressing fast enough.\" As if he was not \"passionate\" enough in saving a patient's life. Poor lad had to fill out more \"paperwork\". Good luck, the medical industry really sucks the energy out of you.   In reference to Uptodate, the essential goals for performing excellent chest compressions include: \u25cfMaintain the rate of chest compression at 100 to 120 compressions per minute  \u25cfCompress the chest at least 5 cm (2 inches) but no more than 6 cm (2.5 inches) with each down-stroke \u25cfAllow the chest to recoil completely after each down-stroke (it should be easy to pull a piece of paper from between the rescuer's hand and the patient's chest just before the next down-stroke) \u25cfMinimize the frequency and duration of any interruptions  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/basic-life-support-bls-in-adults?source=machineLearning&amp;search=ACLS&amp;selectedTitle=9~150&amp;sectionRank=2&amp;anchor=H12#H5",
        "id": 1255,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Any link between Cubital Tunnel Syndrome and \"chronic\" tendonitis?",
        "body": "Sorry for the wait!     To orient ourselves first trace the Ulnar Nerve distally to the hand from the Brachial Plexus (BP) and then review how Cubital Tunnel Syndrome ties in (it's neurological relation).   Let me know if you have a more specific question (this is most commonly what is seen -- can go into other areas.  Sorry for so many abbreviations - these are old ortho notes.     Nerve Entrapment - UE  Ulnar Nerve (C7, C8, T1)  1.) Arises from medial cord of BP 2.) Travels down medial arm (anterior compartment) 3.) Once it reaches the medial epicondyle run b/n brachalis and the medial head of the triceps. 4.) Crosses elbow on medial under ulnar groove. 5.) Right after it crosses the elbow It\u2019s travels b/n the heads of the FCU (called the cubital tunnel) then it.  Innervates FCU ulnar (humeral and ulnar) heads and FDP (Medial Part) (MOTOR)  6.) In the forearm it travels b/n FDS and FDP.  8.) Exits forearm medial to FDP tendons and just before it crosses wrist gives off a branch Dorsal Brach (SENSORY)  Dorsal side sensation to medial \u00bd 4th finger and 5th finger  9.) Travels through Guyon Tunnel (or Canal) at wrist above flexor retiaculum and gives off 2 branches:     Deep Branch Supplies (MOTOR)   Oppones Digiti Minimi Adductor DM 2 Lumbricals (on ulnar side) Dorsal and Palmar Interossi FPB   Superficial Branch (SENSORY)   Palmar side sensation to medial \u00bd 4th finger and 5th finger     Ulnar Nerve Compression Syndromes  Cubital Tunnel Syndrome:     Compression Sites:     Ulnar groove Cubital tunnel (where nerve passes b/n 2 heads of FCU) Medial head of triceps \u2013 seen as a result of hypertrophy of that muscle    If nerve is unstable in ulnar groove and it starts subluxing, can result in neuritis, but overtime with scaring can lead to compression.     Etiology: Syndrome associated with frequent elbow flexion (ulnar nerve on stretch).   Weight lifting Constricting fascia bands (ligament of strutres) Masses (bone abnormalities, swelling and ulnar nerve subluxation)     Clinical Picture:   Will be medial elbow discomfort (similar to medial epicondyltis) Parastesis of the medial \u00bd of the ring finger and 5th finger Repetieve flex/ext activites may excepabte these symptoms Orthopedic Testing /  (+) tinnel Atrophy of hypothenear group Decreased grip strength     \u00a0 Treatment:     Night splints to help keep elbow extended (to avoid stretching of that nerve)  \u00a0     Surgically:   Decompression, medial epicondyleptimy or transposition ulnar nerve more anteriorly. (so flexion will not stretch nerve) Ulnar Nerve Transposition     Images From: https://www.physio-pedia.com/",
        "id": 1913,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What treatments are available for dandruff/psoriasis",
        "body": "It\u2019s important to clarify that in a clinical setting, dandruff is associated with seborrheic dermatitis, which is not (and is not treated) the same as psoriasis. From UpToDate:     Seborrheic dermatitis in adolescents and adults. Denis Sasseville MD, 2018.           Clinical Manifestations                 Scalp\u00a0\u2014\u00a0The mildest and most common form of scalp seborrheic dermatitis is dandruff, also known as pityriasis sicca, in which the scalp shows fine, white, diffuse scaliness without underlying erythema. Dandruff may be asymptomatic or accompanied by mild pruritus. More severe forms of scalp seborrheic dermatitis present with visible inflammation, consisting of patchy, orange to salmon-colored or grayish plaques covered with yellowish, greasy scales (pityriasis steatoides), mostly over the temporoparietal areas or with concretions of scale around hair shafts (pityriasis amiantacea).                Management                 Seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp\u00a0\u2014\u00a0For patients with mild seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp who have diffuse, fine desquamation without inflammation (dandruff), we suggest treatment with an antifungal shampoo. Antifungal shampoos include ketoconazole 2% and ciclopirox 1%, available by prescription, and zinc pyrithione 1% and selenium sulfide 2.5% shampoo, available over the counter.              Five to 10 mL of shampoo should be left on for three to five minutes before rinsing off...       Patients sometimes complain that their shampoo is no longer effective. Given that some strains of Malassezia eventually become resistant to azole antifungals, it may be wise to effectuate, every few weeks to months, a rotation among shampoos based on different molecules.       For patients with moderate to severe seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp who have scale, inflammation, and pruritus, we suggest treatment with an antifungal shampoo (eg, ketoconazole 2% shampoo) in combination with a high-potency topical corticosteroid in a formulation (lotion, spray aerosol, or foam) of patient choice. Topical corticosteroids can be used daily for two to four weeks.       The addition of a salicylic acid shampoo to the above regimen may be helpful for patients with thick scale.           As you can see, coal tar is not a recommended treatment for traditional dandruff. It is, however, a therapeutic option for scalp psoriasis:     Treatment of psoriasis in adults. Steven R Feldman MD PhD, 2019.           Approach                 Scalp psoriasis\u00a0\u2014\u00a0The presence of hair on the scalp can make topical treatment of psoriasis challenging because patients may find certain products messy or difficult to apply. Recognizing the patient's preference for a drug vehicle may help to improve adherence to therapy. For many patients, solution, shampoo, lotion, gel, foam, or spray vehicles are preferable to thicker creams or ointments for use on the scalp.              Topical corticosteroids are the primary topical agents used for psoriasis on the scalp. Support for the use of these agents is evident in a systematic review of randomized trials that found that very potent or potent topical corticosteroids are more effective treatments for scalp psoriasis than topical vitamin D analogs. Combining a corticosteroid and vitamin D analog may offer additional benefit; in the systematic review, combination treatment with a potent topical corticosteroid and a vitamin D analog appeared slightly more effective than potent topical corticosteroid monotherapy...              Other topical therapies used for psoriasis (eg, tazarotene, coal tar shampoo, anthralin) and intralesional corticosteroid injections also may be beneficial for scalp involvement, though data on efficacy specifically in scalp disease are limited. Salicylic acid can be a helpful adjunctive treatment because of its keratolytic effect, but prescribing it alongside a separate topical corticosteroid makes the treatment regimen more complicated and, therefore, could adversely affect adherence to treatment. Phototherapy (eg, excimer laser) and systemic agents are additional treatment options for patients who cannot achieve sufficient improvement with topical agents.         ",
        "id": 2724,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there reasons why fertility awareness methods of family planning are not widely promoted?",
        "body": " Fertility awareness methods are slightly different from the others in that they require you to have self control and not have sex when you might otherwise want. Many people don't like to do this. In this study \"9.2 per 100 women dropped out because of dissatisfaction with the method\". Failure rates very widely depending the method of education, and the group receiving the education. For example, in this study, failure rate was around 21%! But in the aforementioned study, failure rates were only around 1-2%. My guess is this is because the effectiveness of this method is highly dependent on both how it is taught and implemented. Which leads me to my last point:  Public policy changes on something like this are likely going to be strongly affected by recommendations of medical organizations. However, medical professionals are likely to be more skeptical of something like family planning, because Doctors tend not to trust patients with treatments that depend too much on on the patient. From The silent world of doctor and patient:     From the time of Hippocrates, physicians have been told how to behave toward their patients in order to maximize the beneficial effects of their ministrations and to educe the risk of harm, especially the harm that comes from patients' needless worries or, worse, from their mistaken choices    See also this article arguing that Doctors should trust their patients - and why they don't. For example \"Lack of trust in a patient's competence to understand medical issues may lead to withholding information.\" ",
        "id": 2344,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the blood pressure within the right ventricle?",
        "body": "Like the left ventricle, the right ventricle goes through a contractile cycle: at diastole, the pressure is near zero (and must be &lt;0 relative to the right atrium, or it wouldn't fill with blood); at systole the pressure is maximal and drops quickly upon the end of contraction and closure of the pulmonary valve. Healthy right ventricular systolic pressure is typically less than 40 mmHg - far less than healthy peak left ventricular pressure which is normally stated as around 120 mmHg (like the right ventricle, the left ventricle is only briefly at such a high pressure; it decreases after the aortic valve closes).  Why is this so different from the left ventricle?  Similar to electricity, where voltage is a function of current and resistance (V=I*R), in a fluid system pressure is a function of flow and resistance.  Peak systolic pressure in the right ventricle is most related to resistance in the lungs; peak systolic pressure in the left ventricle is most related to resistance in the rest of the body. Typically, resistance in the lungs is much much lower than resistance in the rest of the body, but medical conditions that cause increased resistance in the lungs can cause pulmonary hypertension (which will also mean hypertension in the right ventricle).  Resistance in a vascular system is a function of both the total cross-sectional diameter of the vessels, and the length of the vessels. The path to the lungs from the heart is fairly short, and there is a very dense capillary bed.  But what about the lymphatic system and differences in flow?  The lymphatic system doesn't factor in much at all, the volume of blood pumped by the right and left ventricles (and therefore flow) is almost exactly the same: the only exception would be any amount of fluid lost in the lungs (your diagram shows this with fluid entering the lymph system in the pulmonary circulation), which would actually mean less fluid pumped by the left versus the right. The presence of the lymphatic system only reduces the amount of flow through the distal veins: as your diagram shows the fluid is returned to the bloodstream prior to arriving in the right ventricle. There is no place for \"extra\" fluid to enter only the left-side circulation without first passing through the right.    Currie, P. J., Seward, J. B., Chan, K. L., Fyfe, D. A., Hagler, D. J., Mair, D. D., ... &amp; Tajik, A. J. (1985). Continuous wave Doppler determination of right ventricular pressure: a simultaneous Doppler-catheterization study in 127 patients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 6(4), 750-756.  McLaughlin, V. V., Archer, S. L., Badesch, D. B., Barst, R. J., Farber, H. W., Lindner, J. R., ... &amp; Rubin, L. J. (2009). ACCF/AHA 2009 expert consensus document on pulmonary hypertension: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on expert consensus documents and the American Heart Association developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians; American Thoracic Society, Inc.; and the Pulmonary Hypertension Association. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 53(17), 1573-1619.  Rudski, L. G., Lai, W. W., Afilalo, J., Hua, L., Handschumacher, M. D., Chandrasekaran, K., ... &amp; Schiller, N. B. (2010). Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography: endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography, 23(7), 685-713.",
        "id": 2495,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does the circulatory system know where to distribute oxygen and nutrients?",
        "body": "The easiest explanation is that there is no \"knowledge\" involved, just physiology/molecular biology. In an area of low O2 and high CO2 (therefore a demand exists for O2), the oxygen dissociation curve will favor O2 release into the blood, which will then oxygenate the tissue.  Similarly, concentration of CO2 affects localizes extravascular pH. If there is a high amount of CO2 - which occurs with muscle use, among other things - the change in pH caused dilation of arterioles, allowing more blood to flow to those tissues that need it, releasing oxygen via the O2 dissociation behavior.   This is a simplified but essentially correct of the control of oxygen release to tissues that need it.     But the greatest subsequent vasodilation [in skeletal muscle] is due to local chemical factors. These are changes that occur during exercise in the extracellular fluid surrounding skeletal muscle cells. Such changes occur naturally as the cells consume more energy; in other words, the effect occurs automatically as a muscle exercises and only in the specific muscles working. The brain does not need to get involved in trying to adjust blood flow to the correct muscles. It happens automatically through this local mechanism.    More information can be obtained by reading the article linked to below.  Control of Arterioles",
        "id": 2560,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Off-label prescribing of drugs",
        "body": "Off-label prescribing of medicines - that is, prescribing medicines for indications, age groups or other circumstances for which they are not approved, is not prohibited by the FDA. FDA regulates approval of medicines for marketing, but it does not regulate the practice of medicine. Hence, once the medicine is on the market for certain indications it is up to physicians how they will describe them. (1,2).  However, this is not an unregulated field. The FDA does state that off-label use must be distinguished from clinical trials - which means when physicians prescribe medicines under off-label circumstances they are not experimenting on their patients. Furthermore, FDA stresses that this practice must benefit the patient and be in line with Good medical practice. In their own words (3):     Good medical practice and the best interests of the patient require that physicians use legally available drugs, biologics and devices according to their best knowledge and judgement. If physicians use a product for an indication not in the approved labeling, they have the responsibility to be well informed about the product, to base its use on firm scientific rationale and on sound medical evidence, and to maintain records of the product's use and effects. Use of a marketed product in this manner when the intent is the \"practice of medicine\" does not require the submission of an Investigational New Drug Application (IND), Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) or review by an Institutional Review Board (IRB). However, the institution at which the product will be used may, under its own authority, require IRB review or other institutional oversight.   Even though such practice isn't prohibited and is in fact sometimes necessary (1, 4), it still opens physicians to potential liability. Legal complaints are usually phrased as medical malpractice due to negligence or due to lack of an informed consent, which is recommended, but not mandatory (1, 2).   What physicians can do to protect themselves from liability is take care that their off label prescribing is (2):        made with the    patient\u2019s knowledge that a drug is being    prescribed for an off-label use;    principally motivated by a desire to diagnose,    treat and directly benefit the patient for whom a drug is prescribed;    based on the doctor\u2019s own expert medical opinion;    supported by reputable peer reviewed literature reflecting sound scientific evidence;    generally supported by the opinions of the physician\u2019s local colleagues      The situation is, however, different with the industry - promotion of off label use of medicines is prohibited. FDA has issued a draft document on it's viewpoint on industry providing information about off label use of their medicines. The request for information must be unsolicited (i.e. the company or its permanent or temporary employees should not prompt these requirements), and whether the request is public or not, the information should be provided in one-on-one communication (5). Furthermore, this document states:     FDA has long taken the position that firms can respond to unsolicited requests for information about FDA-regulated medical products by providing truthful, balanced, non-misleading, and non-promotional scientific or medical information that is responsive to the specific request, even if responding to the request requires a firm to provide information on unapproved or uncleared indications or conditions of use.     References:    Ten Common Questions (and Their Answers) About Off-label Drug Use Physicians\u2019 liability for off-label prescriptions FDA: \"Off-Label\" and Investigational Use Of Marketed Drugs, Biologics, and Medical Devices - Information Sheet FDA: Understanding Investigational Drugs and Off Label Use of Approved Drugs FDA: Guidance for Industry Responding to Unsolicited Requests for  Off-Label Information About  Prescription Drugs and Medical Devices ",
        "id": 448,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long will it take to show the signs of pregnancy after intercourse",
        "body": "Assuming pregnancy takes place, the only reliable sign that a woman is pregnant is cessation of her menstrual period. If she's late, urine tests are a reliable way to confirm pregnancy, especially if the woman has irregular periods.  Up to 50% of women will not experience nausea (the range, depending on the study, is 15-50%); while most will, when they do varies from early in the pregnancy (as early as 2 weeks after the first missed period, often peaking by the 9th week) to late (sometimes even into the early part of the second trimester).   Urinary frequency is experienced in only about half of women in the first trimester (range 25-60%); Fatigue is subjective and depends on self-reporting; many women do not report fatigue in the first trimester, whereas nearly 100% do in the third trimester.  Epidemiology of Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy: Prevalence, Severity, Determinants, and the Importance of Race/Ethnicity Prevalence of lower urinary tract symptoms during pregnancy in Taiwan Dewhurst's Textbook of Obstetrics and Gynaecology",
        "id": 179,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Current Theories on Ice vs. Heat for injuries",
        "body": "There is only marginal evidence of RICE (rest, ice, elevation and compression) improving recovery in injuries.   For example, in a review of 22 studies of ankle injuries, ice and elevation had only marginal effects on recovery.   In another review of six studies in soft tissue injuries, there was no evidence that ice was effective.   In a review of 45 sports medicine textbooks, the advice on the use of ice varied in the textbooks.   Some individual studies such as this one do show evidence for decreased pain and some increased range of motion earlier for ice used in the first 72 hours.   Importantly, studies don't seem to suggest there is a harm. The short answer, which we often use to guide decisions in medicine, is \"Can't hurt. Might help.\"  The \"can't hurt\" is conditional as only if done properly: don't ice directly on the skin as that is known to have caused frostbite. Wrap the ice in a cloth. Don't ice longer than 20 minutes. (Some studies say 10 minutes.)",
        "id": 845,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Dentures for my mother",
        "body": "Dentures:  In general, there are two kinds of removable denture: Complete and Partial, indicating whether the denture replaces all or only some of the teeth.   Purposes:   Restore or improve masticatory function (eating) Restore or improve phonetics (speech) Restore or improve esthetics (smile and appearance)   Keep in mind that the patient will need time to adjust to the dentures and that most dentures don't behave like the original teeth.  Design:  Their physical design which will determine the following:   stability (whether it uses extensions, clasps around teeth or attaches itself to implants to prevent it from moving side to side) retention (whether it uses suction, clasps around remaining teeth or attaches itself to implants to prevent it from getting out of place vertically) support (whether it rests on the gums, has rests to support itself on teeth or attaches itself to implants to resists vertical chewing forces)   Procedure:  The number of appointments depends on the work that needs to be done before making the denture. For example, The dentist will have to plan out the treatment, do filling, extractions or other surgeries (ex: place implants). As for the dentures,  it takes at the very least a few separate appointments depending on the treatment plan to get the right shape of the denture as well as the position of the teeth.  Further reading:  For further information on dentures, one should first understand the functioning of complete dentures:   Sharry, John J. 1968. Complete denture prosthodontics. New York: Blakiston Division, McGraw-Hill.  ",
        "id": 1646,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the rate of ethanol absorption into blood stream slow down as you drink more?",
        "body": "Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestine by diffusion. Most absorption occurs from the small intestine due to its large surface area and rich blood supply.  However, above a certain alcoholic concentration, the rate of absorption may decrease due to the delayed passage of alcohol from the stomach into the small intestine.  The maximum absorption rate is obtained with the consumption of an alcoholic beverage containing approximately 20-25% (by volume or v/v) alcohol solution on an empty stomach. The absorption rate may be less when alcohol is consumed with food or when a 40% (v/v) alcohol solution is consumed on an empty stomach. The rate may also slow down when high fluid volume/low alcohol content beverages, such as beer, are consumed.  http://forcon.ca/learning/alcohol.html",
        "id": 1392,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Digestion and absorption of large scale protein structures",
        "body": "   Do some proteins survive human digestion?   Yes. Prions are misfolded proteins with abnormal tertiary or quaternary structures. That grants them resistance (to some extent, at least) to proteases (1).   Also, researchers believe that prions are able to replicate (2), by changing the structure of other proteins.  Besides, It has been shown that small quantities of intact proteins do cross the gastrointestinal tract in animals and adult humans (3), and that this is a physiologically normal process required for antigen sampling by sub-epithelial immune tissue in the gut.  So, the resistance to the proteases and the ability to replicate in certain conditions might explain the odds of a prion crossing the gastrointestinal tract and infecting an individual.    References:   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24338008 http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199609193351218 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3060169 ",
        "id": 2315,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Legal issues when using first aid techniques that require certification in foreign countries",
        "body": "It does differ from country to country. For example, in France (As I'm sure you are aware), if a person fails to render assistance to a person in danger then they can by held liable. This falls under the \"duty to rescue\" concept.  Here in the United States (and elsewhere), this is covered by something called the \"Good Samaritan Law\", which is intended to remove the fear of litigation preventing someone from aiding another in times of distress.  However, it is not a blanket immunity from someone suing. One of the concepts that I was taught when I was a first responder and ER medic in the Armed Forces, is that you are pretty much safe if you act in a manner consistent with either your own training or the training of the general person on the street.  While it is not a guarantee, if you stick within the scope of your training and provide assistance, then you should pretty much be protected. You may still be sued, as there is no bar against a lawsuit being brought, but the Samaritan concept should protect you.  Note, this is not something that covers everything. For example, I was trained and certified in starting IV fluids. US protocol, however, provides that this can only be done when there is contact with a medical control available, and transport to a facility. If I came upon a hiking accident and whipped out an IV, I could still be held liable since that is out of protocol, and I would be considered to be acting outside the scope of common practice.  If you are traveling, your best bet is to look up the laws of emergency responders in the country you are going to. In some countries if it becomes known that you have the certification and you passed by an accident, you can then be held liable and possibly removed from certification because you failed in your duty to act.",
        "id": 27,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bacteria location in food poisoning?",
        "body": "This is a complex question and I can't cover it all.  Different countries may sell meat and other food products processed  in different ways. In the case of meat, it can be deep within the food in the case of ground meat. Use caution with ground meats, you should probably cook well done.  Even cured  meat can harbor listeria and other germs  (follow the storage instructions on the package).   What about salads?  Many counties include vinegar in the dressing, and this can help. The mayonnaise dressings can present more of a problem, keep refrigerated until ready to eat.   Meat cooking temperature, follow label directions. What about rare roasted (intact) meat? :)  This is relatively less dangerous than ground meat. Follow instructions in a recent cookbook and/or information provided by your government for cooking.   With our complex grower, processing, and distribution networks today, there are simply no guarantees.  Keep up with the news regarding recalls. Wash your vegetables and fruits well.  Don't use a cutting board/ knife for both meat and vegetable preparation. Follow good kitchen sanitation. Practice frequent handwashing using plenty of soap and water.   Here is some information from the   Univ. Mich. State. Primarily about salads but it has some good general information at the beginning. http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news/it_must_have_been_the_potato_salad  U.S. Govt. Meat, final internal temps.  (Meat thermometer) https://www.foodsafety.gov/keep/charts/mintemp.html Using Fahrenheit.   This answer is not intended to be comprehensive. ",
        "id": 2356,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In which version of the ICD was homosexuality classified as a disease?",
        "body": "I should look at the actions of American Psychiatric Assocation (APA) (1).     Although American homosexuals today are still struggling for equal   rights, no shift has been more drastically beneficial for the status   of homosexuality than its declassification as a mental illness. The   American Psychiatric Association\u2019s Board of Trustees passed this   groundbreaking decision unanimously on December 15, 1973, and   subsequently released  a statement that rejected legal discrimination   on the basis of sexual  orientation. In the publication of its   monumental decision to remove  homosexuality from the Diagnostic and   Statistical Manual of Mental  Disorders (DSM), the board cited \u201creview   of evidence[,]...changing  social norms and growing gay-rights   activism.\u201d   And indeed, Medicine has a dark history when homosexuality was regarded as mental illness.   Classification of diseases as adopted by the Massachusetts General Hospital (1919)    In the military medicine in the year 1949 homosexuality was classified under \"psychopathy\".    A \"modern\" perspective in 1968 was to consider pedophilia as a subtype of homosexuality.    Another \"modern\" perspective in 1971 considered LSD as a \"treatment\" for homosexuality.     So, yes, things were slightly different back in the days.",
        "id": 409,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there \"good kinds\" of pain?",
        "body": "\"Good kind of pain\" is not a precisely defined medical term, but the concept is certainly a familiar one on several levels.  Pain is an incredibly complex phenomenon that indeeds needs dissection for analysis.   Depending on definitions there are a few kinds of \"good pain\" indeed. If you eat capsaicin your pain receptors get stimulated and after getting used to it you even start to enjoy the right dose of pain (even if it is in reality only your appreciation for your bodies response to those fake pains). A similar response can be observed in cutting as a symptom of mental disorder or conscious body modification, or in certain techniques found in BDSM aficionados. In all those cases one might argue that pain perception at the neurological level as such is really irrelevant and the psychological interpretation dominates the experience, which is then obviously found \"good\" by the participant.  Apart from philosophical considerations of what is \"good\" or \"bad\" you might also look at it from a biological, evolutionary or physiological functions perspective. What is useful is \"good\". How can pain be useful?  It keeps people from doing dangerous things. Alas, not from doing stupid things. But in sports there is for example the adage \"no pain, no gain\". This is often executed in a detrimental manner but hints at a connection to observe:     How to Tell the Difference Between Good and Bad Pain   What is good pain?   One of the most common forms of \u201cgood pain\u201d is what doctors and physiotherapists may refer to as delayed onset muscle soreness,\u201d or DOMS. It happens when you\u2019ve challenged a muscle with something it\u2019s not used to (new, returning or increased exercise). Within one to two days, you\u2019ll start to feel soreness in the area and it may be tender to touch. But, it goes away quickly after that.      The pain comes from micro trauma in the muscle caused by rigorous exercise. But that\u2019s not a bad thing. A muscle gets stronger, building denser tissue, when it has a reason to remodel itself. When it senses the tiny trauma, the muscle repairs tissue to allow for more endurance. The key here is the \u201cmicro\u201d part of \u201ctrauma.\u201d   (You need to compare that with 'Good Pain' Versus 'Bad Pain' for Athletes)  And most importantly, our conscious minds are often quite bad of arriving at the right conclusion through reason alone. The more basic snsation of 'pain' can be quite a good signal telling us what to do: nothing. Keep at rest when you are ill.     The anesthesiologist explained that during surgery and recovery I would be given strong painkillers, but once I got home the pain would not require narcotics. To paraphrase him, he said: \u201cPain is a part of life. We cannot eliminate it nor do we want to. The pain will guide you. You will know when to rest more; you will know when you are healing. If I give you Vicodin, you will no longer feel the pain, yes, but you will no longer know what your body is telling you. You might overexert yourself because you are no longer feeling the pain signals. All you need is rest. And please be careful with ibuprofen. It\u2019s not good for your kidneys. Only take it if you must. Your body will heal itself with rest.\u201d   The episode of that series might therefore refer to pain associated with diagnosed illness, associated with healing, not that strong and about to end soon.",
        "id": 2459,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the latest evidence on underwear affecting sperm count?",
        "body": "WebMD.com has some insight into this, and based on their report wearing loose light underwear wouldn't have as much effect on your sperm count.      Keep your scrotum cool, because heat slows down the making of sperm.   To do this, avoid hot baths, wear boxers instead of briefs, and try   not to wear tight pants.   And mayoclinic. com agrees with the above statements, but also state that studies are limited and inconclusive.     Elevated temperatures impair sperm production and function. Although   studies are limited and are inconclusive, frequent use of saunas or   hot tubs might temporarily impair sperm count.   Sitting for long periods, wearing tight clothing or working on a   laptop computer for long stretches of time also might increase the   temperature in your scrotum and slightly reduce sperm production.   I don't know exactly what you read and reputable it is, but all the sites I am listing from are mostly good references.   There is also this study from 1990 that somewhat supports the above belief:  Fit of underwear and male spermatogenesis: a pilot investigation  And another article from WebMD: Boxers vs. Briefs: Increasing Sperm Count also agrees with the above content.   Another study from NCBI.",
        "id": 1101,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Put kid upside down while doing Heimlich on her/him",
        "body": "First, don't hold your 4 year old child upside down when performing abdominal thrusts for choking.  This is what you (and any bystander) should do for a choking child (Note that intervention for a choking child is appropriate for any individual to perform, though one should obtain consent from a parent if they are there. You do not need to be a healthcare provider to do this)  Current guidelines on pediatric basic life support can be found here.   For any individual experiencing foreign body airway obstruction, if they are able to cough or make a sound, do not attempt abdominal thrusts or back blows. For a child or infant this is particularly important because these interventions can convert a partial airway obstruction to a full airway obstruction.  IF AND ONLY IF THEY ARE UNABLE TO MAKE A SOUND you have a full airway obstruction. This is where you intervene. Children over 1 (e.g., the 4 year old in the OP) should receive abdominal thrusts, aka the Heimlich maneuver. Current recommendations (current today, 12/10/2018) do not include alternating abdominal thrusts with back blows.   Correct technique for abdominal thrusts for a child are described in this red cross pamphlet. Note that the algorithm in this pamphlet is outdated (it recommends alternating back blows and abdominal thrusts), but the photos demonstrating the abdominal thrust technique are useful (and correct). Don't hold your child upside down or hold them up in the air. Do get down on your knee (see the picture below) if you need to in order to put your hands in the correct position (just above the child's abdomen) and perform the thrust without lifting them off the ground.     ABDOMINAL THRUSTS:         Place a fist with the thumb side against the middle of the child's abdomen, just above the navel.   Cover your fist with your other hand   Give quick, upward abdominal thrusts               There is a case where care of a foreign body airway obstruction involves holding a child at a downward angle. This is ONLY for infants (0-1 year old).   Infants (0-1 year) should receive back blows alternating with chest compressions. The reason you provide chest compressions for airway obstruction in infants is because airway obstruction and respiratory failure of an infant quickly leads to cardiac arrest.  The technique is described well (with pictures) in this red cross pamphlet. Note again that this particular pamphlet has outdated recommendations for older children (recommending alternating back flows and abdominal thrusts), but the infant technique is current:     CONSCIOUS CHOKING--INFANT      Cannot Cough, Cry or Breathe            GIVE 5 BACK BLOWS:   Give firm back blows with the heel of one hand between the infant's shoulder blades                        GIVE 5 CHEST THRUSTS:   Place two or three fingers in the center of the infant's chest just below the nipple line and compress the breastbone about 1 1/2 inches. TIP: Support the head and neck securely when giving back blows and chest thrusts. keep the head lower than the chest.                        CONTINUE CARE:    Continue sets of 5 back blows and 5 chest thrusts until the:          Object is forced out   Infant can cough forcefully, cry or breathe   Infant becomes unconscious               WHAT TO DO NEXT: If infant becomes unconscious--CALL 9 -1 -1, if not already done. Carefully lower the infant onto a firm, flat surface, and give CARE for an unconscious choking infant, beginning with looking for an object (PANEL 6, Step 3). ",
        "id": 2550,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does total mg of medicines effect human body?",
        "body": "This question is fundamentally flawed as it is based on a common misunderstanding about dosage. Every medication has a different potency, which could be thought of as the # of mg required to have a clinically noticeable effect. This ranges from a tiny fraction of 1 mg to thousands of mg.    Toxicity level similarly varies: drug A that is clinically effective at 0.075 mg daily might reach toxic levels with just 0.5 mg daily, whereas drug B that is clinically effective at 2,000 mg daily might not reach toxic levels until exceeding 4,000 mg daily.  There is not a standard ratio of potency to toxicity either; it depends on multiple factors and can be looked up for each medication.  Therefore the # of mg can NOT be compared between different medications. You cannot compare whether a drug is better or worse for you based on the absolute # of mg you need to take of it.    Another way to say it is that just because you only have to take 0.075 mg of Drug A doesn't mean it is better for you than 2,000 mg of Drug B.  ",
        "id": 2492,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Fractured 2nd metatarsal near the toe - treatment options?",
        "body": "Edit:  If there's any obvious fracture, follow RICE - Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation.  Do not bear any weight until you can see a specialist and get a diagnosis, and a diagnosis you are happy with.  Try to rest it as much as possible and keep the limb elevated above the heart as much as you can until you have professional medical advice.    In my situation:  I saw the orthopaedic specialist today. The conclusion from the x ray is that yes, it's fractured... But the \"good\" news is that I only have a fracture boot and can load bear on my heel as much as pain allows.  The summary is that there's a lateral metatarsal ligament that binds the knuckles of the metatarsals together, and as long as only 1 of the central metatarsals is fractured, it is in effect supported in position by that ligament and the two either side act as splints.  In that the bone is in the correct position, it'll not drop back (if more than one was fractured, the ligament would pull it back) and it'll be 3 -4 weeks before I can start to weight bear and 6 weeks should be back to ahem normal. No pins or plates required.",
        "id": 787,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does vaccination weaken the immune system ? Studies?",
        "body": "I have found a couple of papers which debunk this myth.  The links here go directly to free PDF copies and there are DOI links in the references in case the PDF links die.  The most recent paper I can find at the moment is by Hilton, et al. (2006).     The recent controversy surrounding the safety of the measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR) has heightened parents\u2019 concerns about the safety of vaccines, and led some to believe that giving vaccines in a combined form may \u2018overload\u2019 children's immune systems. However, to date no studies have been published examining how British parents conceptualise the notion of \u2018immune-overload\u2019 or how they relate this concept to their own children. Eighteen focus groups were conducted with parents between November 2002 and March 2003. [....] We conclude that although there is no scientific evidence that supports parents\u2019 fears about combined vaccines causing \u2018immune-overload\u2019, policy makers need to recognise these concerns if they are to successfully persuade parents that combined vaccines are safe.   There is also Offit, et al. (2002).     Recent surveys found that an increasing number of parents are concerned that infants receive too many vaccines. Implicit in this concern is that the infant\u2019s immune system is inadequately developed to handle vaccines safely or that multiple vaccines may overwhelm the immune system. In this review, we will examine the following: 1) the ontogeny of the active immune response and the ability of neonates and young infants to respond to vaccines; 2) the theoretic capacity of an infant\u2019s immune system; 3) data that demonstrate that mild or moderate illness does not interfere with an infant\u2019s ability to generate protective immune responses to vaccines; 4) how infants respond to vaccines given in combination compared with the same vaccines given separately; 5) data showing that vaccinated children are not more likely to develop infections with other pathogens than unvaccinated children; and 6) the fact that infants actually encounter fewer antigens in vaccines today than they did 40 or 100 years ago.   In summary, they said     Current studies do not support the hypothesis that multiple vaccines overwhelm, weaken, or \u201cuse up\u201d the immune system. On the contrary, young infants have an enormous capacity to respond to multiple vaccines, as well as to the many other challenges present in the environment. By providing protection against a number of bacterial and viral pathogens, vaccines prevent the \u201cweakening\u201d of the immune system and consequent secondary bacterial infections occasionally caused by natural infection.   References  Hilton, S., Petticrew, M., &amp; Hunt, K. (2006). Combined vaccines are like a sudden onslaught to the body's immune system\u2019: parental concerns about vaccine \u2018overload\u2019 and \u2018immune-vulnerability\u2019.\u00a0Vaccine,\u00a024(20), 4321-4327.DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.003PDF: http://www.academia.edu/download/43189354/Combined_vaccines_are_like_a_sudden_ons20160229-3560-1cbx2wu.pdf  Offit, P. A., Quarles, J., Gerber, M. A., Hackett, C. J., Marcuse, E. K., Kollman, T. R., ... &amp; Landry, S. (2002). Addressing parents\u2019 concerns: do multiple vaccines overwhelm or weaken the infant\u2019s immune system?.\u00a0Pediatrics,\u00a0109(1), 124-129.DOI: 10.1542/peds.109.1.124PDF: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/109/1/124.full-text.pdf",
        "id": 2348,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can lumbar/sacral/thoracic spinal injury cause migraines?",
        "body": "The headache after lumbar puncture is common (~30%) and is not migraine headache. The mechanism is not entirely clear but likely involves a drop of cerebrospinal fluid volume and/or pressure (PubMed):     There are two possible explanations. Firstly, the low CSF   [cerebrospinal fluid] volume depletes the cushion of fluid supporting   the brain and its sensitive meningeal vascular coverings, resulting in   gravitational traction on the pain\u2010sensitive intracranial structures   causing classical headache, which worsens when the patient is upright   and is relieved on lying down. Secondly, the decrease in CSF volume   may activate adenosine receptors directly, causing cerebral   vasodilatation and stretching of pain\u2010sensitive cerebral structures,   resulting in headache after lumbar puncture.   Also:     According to the Headache Classification Committee of the   International Headache Society, headache after lumbar puncture is   defined as \u201cbilateral headaches that develop within 7\u2005days after an   lumbar puncture and disappears within 14\u2005days. The headache worsens   within 15\u2005min of resuming the upright position, disappears or improves   within 30\u2005min of resuming the recumbent position\u201d. This definition   helps to avoid confusion with migraine or simple headache after lumbar   puncture.   A herniated disc that puts pressure on the spinal nerves or spinal cord in the neck (cervical spinal stenosis) can cause \"cervicogenic headache.\" This headache is also not migraine headache and     is characterized by unilateral headache symptoms arising from the neck   that radiate to the frontal-temporal and possibly to the supraorbital   region.   Mechanism (StatPearls):     A cervicogenic headache is thought to be referred pain arising from   irritation caused by cervical structures innervated by spinal nerves   C1, C2, and C3.   A herniated disc or spinal stenosis in the thoracic, lumbar or sacral region as such does not likely cause headache, but it rarely can, if the disc cuts the dura mater and causes CFS leakage leading to spontaneous intracranial hypotension (PubMed).  I maybe jumped too much on the term \"migraine,\" but I wanted to be accurate. The exact definitions of various types of headache are here: The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition (2018).",
        "id": 2543,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does the immune system recieve equivalent results when doing inactive exercise like when doing active exercise?",
        "body": "Basically every movement you make uses energy. The exercice on your photo defenitly uses a moderate amount of energy depending on speed and time you workout. Simplified your lymph moves with every movement, not only when you use your strength; in a healthy body(no heart or vessel disease) it actually moves without any movement. The white blood cells need no movement to 'escape blood vessel', but true, your immune system works better with proper lymph drainage. (simplified)   To answer your question: In assumption you are a 'typical' more or less healthy person, yes, it will be good to exercise (not because of lymph movement though). Every workout you make, even if it is just going round for an hour, cycling or anything else, will improve your health.   Note that 'too much' may do more harm than good.",
        "id": 364,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a late term abortion work?",
        "body": "8th Month is ~ 32 Weeks, pregnancy is usually ~40 weeks  Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion. (Healthwise, 2004) Manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta, and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) uses an electric pump. These techniques differ in the mechanism used to apply suction, in how early in pregnancy they can be used, and in whether cervical dilation is necessary.  From the 15th week of gestation until approximately the 26th, other techniques must be used. Dilation and evacuation (D&amp;E) consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. After the 16th week of gestation, abortions can also be induced by intact dilation and extraction (IDX) (also called intrauterine cranial decompression), which requires surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation. IDX is sometimes called \"partial-birth abortion\", which has been federally banned in the United States. (Wikipedia, 2016)  In the third trimester of pregnancy, induced abortion may be performed surgically by intact dilation and extraction or by hysterotomy. Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of pregnancy. (McGee, Glenn; Jon F. Merz, 2009)  In places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or where preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary (Borgatta, L, 2014). This is sometimes called \"induced miscarriage\". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries (Society of Family Planning, 2011).  Only limited data are available comparing this method with dilation and extraction(Society of Family Planning, 2011). Unlike D&amp;E, labor induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor induced abortion is legally risky in the U.S.(Society of Family Planning, 2011).  Note, unless there are severe medical complications, an induced birth will be the option because at 32 weeks there is a >95% chance it will live.   Main source: Wikipedia",
        "id": 1099,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does walking daily causes knee joint damage?",
        "body": "The term \"knee damage\" can encompass many different conditions and injuries so let's just examine at some of the more common ones you might be looking at:  Osteoarthritis  Osteoarthritis of the knee is when the cartilage in the joint has become thin or worn and the body is unable to \"keep up\" with repairs. Walking generally isn't going to cause this unless you are severely overweight or you're walking in unsuitable footwear etc. Quite the reverse - after a period of rest to allow for some recuperation from a flare up walking is recommended as it is a low impact way of building strength in the knee and is good for losing weight etc. Running on the other hand is significantly higher impact (walking means you experience ground reaction forces of ~ 1.2xBody weight, for running it's ~2.5xBody weight) and can aggravate the damage and you're also much more likely to experience various types of musculoskeletal injuries. Although offsetting that increased risk of injury is the potential for increased cardiovascular fitness from running vs walking.  This is much more common in older people as the body's ability to repair itself decreases with age.   Tendonitis  Patellla tendonitis is an overuse injury where the patella tendon (which connects to the bottom of the knee cap) becomes inflamed or otherwise damaged such as a loss of collagen in the tendon. Similarly to osteoarthritis walking is rarely a cause of this - typically it requires much higher levels of impact than walking alone can produce unless severely overweight or excessive amounts of stair climbing.   This can also happen in older people where it is the result of repetitive small amounts of damage over an extended period of time - and just like in osteoarthritis as the body's ability to heal falls away the rate of injury can exceed the rate of repair leading to chronic problems.  Avoiding activities that cause pain and keeping up with low impact exercises to improve strength is recommended.  Summary  Basically if you take a sensible approach - walking on reasonably flat surfaces, keep weight low, use appropriate footwear, and apply a modicum of moderation walking generally doesn't do damage to knees unless something has compromised the body's ability to \"repair\" itself to a significant extent. The benefits however are many and can actually help prevent damage by improving both the strength of the joint and overall health and fitness. So that 30 mins brisk walking a day is doing you far more good than harm.",
        "id": 2541,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does eating three to five whole eggs each day increase the level of blood cholesterol?",
        "body": "One egg contains about 186 mg of cholesterol, which is found mostly in the yolk. As with most foods, eggs should be eaten in moderation. Eggs can be a healthy food choice when you limit other foods with saturated and trans fat. A healthy person without high blood cholesterol can eat an average of one whole egg per day. This does not increase your risk for cardiovascular disease",
        "id": 2037,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do humidifiers help cure the flu?",
        "body": "There is a mixed, but largely unconvincing evidence that increased moisture within the nose would help to prevent or cure flu or common cold.  Common colds: Relief for a stuffy nose, cough and sore throat (Informed Health Online):     Many people find it pleasant to breathe in (inhale) steam ...But this   kind of inhalation doesn't have a clear effect on cold symptoms.   Dehydration can make your nasal mucosa dry, but:     Drinking a lot of fluids is also often recommended if you have a cold.   There's no scientific proof that this will help, though.   In one 2008 study in 401 children 6-10 years old, nasal irrigation with saline solution decreased and shortened symptoms in some children with common cold or flu. But in several similar studies, nasal irrigation had no effect.  Important to know: Even antiviral drugs can effectively shorten the duration of flu when taken within 24-48 hour after the onset of symptoms (CDC.gov). This also likely applies for any nasal moisturizer, because viruses act within the cells, where can't be reached by drugs or moisture.",
        "id": 2533,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Monster Energy - SugarFree - vs coffee",
        "body": "Diet soda isn't inherently bad for you: http://examine.com/nutrition/is-diet-soda-bad-for-you/  It's hard to come up with any conclusive statements about caffeine; it is an incredibly well researched topic, but the immense social usage of it and creeping biases make it hard to pick a side on things outside of non-applied biochemistry.  The dosages of caffeine tend to fluctuate around a certain range, but with the high inter-individual variation seen with the Aromatase enzyme and thus systemic levels of caffeine and its metabolites I would find it a bit futile to try to find the absolute best dosage.   Choose your caffeine dose (zero, low, medium, or high) and pick your poison for method of consumption (energy drink, pre-workout supplement, coffee, tea, No-Doz pills, etc.) and see how it works for you.  http://examine.com/supplements/Caffeine/",
        "id": 1248,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Bitten by some insect",
        "body": "I have had similar experience many times. But sometimes it might be just allergy not insect bite. Usually, if it is insect bite it is itchy which is body's response to the proteins left by the insect in case of the mosquito. Some times some other pests or spiders. It may take more than a week or just a few days. But if you're concerned or it is painful, please contact your GP or Aesthetic specialist.",
        "id": 2403,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Herpes: would prophylaxis H202 3% or alchol 70% decrease risk of infection from exposure?",
        "body": "Both alcohols, ethyl and isopropyl, can kill several bacteria in 10 seconds or fewer in the lab, including Staph aureus, Strep pyogenes, E. coli, Salmonella typhosa, and Pseudomonas species, some of the bad actors in infections. For M. tuberculosis, it may take as long as five minutes of contact.\u00a0 Many, but not all, viruses are goners, too, like HIV, hepatitis B, herpes, influenza, etc. Even some systemic bad fungal infections are susceptible, but again not all. But kissing means you put the virus into the mucose of the Respiratory and GI tract,  rubbing the alcohol wont help the disease transmission.   Some references: - This study is addressing the effectiveness of alcohol. - This PDF      ",
        "id": 1664,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Identifying the right caloric intake for weight loss",
        "body": "Let your own body figure this out You'll get better results if you increase the amounts of healthy foods, at least 400 grams of vegetables and eating only whole grain products. With only 1700 Kcal intake per day (which is pretty much what I eat for dinner alone), it's quite hard to get the large amount of nutrients you need for optimal physical performance when you are burning 700 Kcal doing exercise. Note e.g. the importance of magnesium for your body.  The human body is going to work hard to maintain itself. If we compare the human body to a factory and compare eating to supplying raw materials, then it's clear that a diet that is not supplying the nutrients in the right proportions will cause the body to either store or excrete the compounds it gets in relative excess. Suppose that your magnesium intake is too low compared to your calorie intake. Then the body will tend to store the calories in the form of fat, as it needs magnesium to burn calories. While this example may be a bit too simplistic, there are many biochemical pathways available for the body to do what it needs to do, it's still going to be constrained by the intake of nutrients on the long term.",
        "id": 991,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Who offers CO2 Laser treatment for Bartholin's Cysts in California?",
        "body": "I found a lead that may provide you with a practitioner in California that offers the treatment you are looking for.     MISforWomen.com provides patients with complete access to AAGL\u2019s Physician Finder, a comprehensive database of our more than 7,500 members.  Finding a surgeon who specializes in minimally invasive surgery has never been easier with this excellent, easy-to-use physician search engine.        AAGL \u2013 Advancing Minimally Invasive Gynecology Worldwide   6757 Katella Avenue | Cypress, CA 90630   (800) 554-2245 | (714) 503-6200   https://www.aagl.org/jmig/journal-spotlight-co2-laser-treatment-for-bartholin-gland-abscess-ultrasound-evaluation-of-risk-recurrence-2/    https://www.aagl.org/service/patient-outreach/",
        "id": 512,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Rodents falling from the ceiling at Chipotle restaurants, what to do?",
        "body": "You actually need to ask this question? If rats are falling on your food in the restaurant then they're running amuck in the kitchen eating and crapping on your food. So the answer is:   Find the manager Demand a refund Leave Report it to the health department ",
        "id": 1823,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Possible iron/protein defeciency in vegetarians",
        "body": "Is it possible for vegetarians who eat plenty of dairy food to have iron or protein deficiency?  Everyone who consumes too little iron can develop iron-deficiency anemia, but this is not necessary more common in vegetarians than in omnivores.      An appropriately planned well-balanced vegetarian diet is compatible   with an adequate iron status. Although the iron stores of vegetarians   may be reduced, the incidence of iron-deficiency anemia in vegetarians   is not significantly different from that in omnivores (PubMed,   1994).   It is a blood test that can reveal the presence and severity of anemia. It may be unreliable to estimate anemia from symptoms.  Dairy is not a good source of iron; an egg contains 0.88 mg, 50 g of most cheeses less than 0.30 mg, and a cup of milk (237 mL) only 0.15 mg (USDA.gov). Calcium and phosphate from milk can significantly reduce the absorption of iron (AJCN). There are plant foods that contain much more iron, up to 6 mg per serving (Chart 2, NutrientsReview).  Protein deficiency in vegetarians who regularly eat protein-containing foods is very unlikely (PubMed, 2018).     There is a widespread myth that we have to be careful about what we   eat so that we do not cause protein deficiency. We know today that it   is virtually impossible to design a calorie-sufficient diet, whether   it is based on meat, fish, eggs, various vegetarian diets or even   unprocessed whole natural plant foods, which is lacking in protein and   any of the amino acids.   Are there demonstrable health benefits from eating small amounts of shellfish? Or is there evidence it can be bad for health in the way red meat can be?  Certain shellfish contain 2-8 mg of iron per serving (USDA.gov). They also contain quite some protein, vitamin B12 and omega-3 fatty acids (USDA.gov). It seems they contain less mercury than fish (FDA.gov). Rarely, shellfish poisoning can occur; this mainly depend on the location of their origin (Canadian Food Inspection Agency). Shellfish are often considered a healthier food choice than red meat (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015, p.24); no food is healthy as such, though.  Is it still the case that there is little or no evidence that taking dietary supplements is an effective way of remedying iron or vitamin deficiency?  Supplements are an effective way to treat iron or other mineral or vitamin deficiencies. In a diagnosed deficiency, prescribed rather than commercially available supplements may be needed. Linus Pauling Institute has a detailed article about iron, including iron supplements, anemia, foods high in iron, etc. Individuals who are not at risk of iron deficiency should not take iron supplements without an appropriate medical evaluation to avoid iron overload.  Healthy people without nutrient deficiencies will unlikely benefit from dietary supplements (PubMed, 2012).",
        "id": 481,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How to help my dyslexic daughter to not get frustrated while reading",
        "body": "Words like them and the are quite similar, which makes things more difficult for a child with dyslexia since they sometimes opt to just analyse part of the word and guess the entire word based on the first part. Such strategies are used to avoid the extensive amount of effort that reading poses on them, though it can increase reading frustration because it makes them fail more.  You provide little information regarding how she actually reads and writes, which would be helpful in order to make a more specific recommendation. Children get frustrated easily when confronted with their difficulties, so one needs to help them mature their emotional skills and understand that that particular difficulty does not reflect their intellect or even self-worth.  When it comes to reading, I would advise you to choose a book that she already knows and have read or been read to her. Then I would do alternate reading or simultaneous reading with her, so that she reads for less periods of time and has the opportunity to listen to a more adequate reading style that can serve as a model. You should be patient and always congratulate her for her progress, even if it is not an actual progress in her reading skills, at least congratulate her effort.  I would also advise you to try to better understand whether her phonological skills need to be stimulated, a Speech and Language Therapist pr Psychologist would be a good resource for information.  You should also read the book https://www.amazon.co.uk/Supporting-Children-Dyslexia-Continuum-Hundreds/dp/0826434169 if you have the opportunity. It offers a great number of strategies that can work for her.  Best of luck.",
        "id": 934,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do turkey and chicken pastrami count as \"processed meats\" in terms of cancer risk (in light of the recent WHO publication)?",
        "body": "It's not the species of animal that matters; it's how the meat was prepared.  According to the Washington Post, WHO defines processed meats as:     Processed meat includes hot dogs, ham, sausages, corned beef and beef   jerky \u2014 or any other meat that has been cured, smoked, salted or   otherwise changed to enhance flavor or improve preservation.   And according to Wikipedia, pastrami is:     Pastrami (Turkish: past\u0131rma, Romanian: pastram\u0103, Bulgarian: \u043f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044a\u0440\u043c\u0430)   is a meat product usually made from beef, and sometimes from pork,   mutton or turkey. The raw meat is brined, partially dried, seasoned   with herbs and spices, then smoked and steamed. In the United States,   although beef plate is the traditional cut of meat for making   pastrami, it is now common to see it made from beef brisket, beef   round, and turkey. [Emphasis mine]   So yes, the WHO would say turkey and chicken pastrami are carcinogenic.",
        "id": 540,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Antibiotics only if fractured?",
        "body": "This is known as antibiotic prophylaxis. It is to prevent infection in the bone (osteomyelitis).  If the bone surface is intact, pathogens like bacteria cannot penetrate it easily, but in the presence of an open fracture (when the bony injury is exposed to the environment due to skin and subcutaneous tissue damage) antibiotics are used to prevent infection.  In some countries, an open fracture may be known as a compound fracture.  Source:   Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Open Fractures in the Emergency Department ",
        "id": 2441,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What really happens to the heart during cardiac arrest and why is an AED useful?",
        "body": "1) What happens to the heart in cardiac arrest?  During a cardiac arrest, the electrical and mechanical activity is compromised (either one or both) such that the heart does not pump blood sufficiently to sustain life.  This can be either due to an abnormal electrical rhythm, such as ventricular fibrillation, or a condition such as hypovolemic shock where the preload of the heart (the volume of blood in the chambers prior to the start of a contraction) is insufficient to have a useful amount of normal blood flow.  2) Why is an AED useful?  An automated external defibrillator is useful for two abnormal heart rhythms: pulseless ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. The shock from an AED essentially resets the electrical system of the heart in hope that it will resume normal activity afterwards. In many cases, this may work.  The reason that an AED is not the cure-all for cardiac arrest is that there are many reasons for someone to go into an abnormal rhythm and only rarely are abnormal rhythms an isolated problem by themselves. Typically, someone goes into ventricular fibrillation because they are having a heart attack. Only by opening up the artery that has been blocked in a cardiac catheterization suite can the inciting event be treated. Shocking the patient may get them back to a normal rhythm for some time but until the blockage is fixed or the tissue beyond the blockage is completely dead and therefore electrically inert they will go back into the abnormal rhythm.  I remember one patient whom I had flown to the cath lab who was shocked 13 times, the last time being in the hallway prior to the doors of the cath lab. Once the blocked artery was opened he stopped going into abnormal rhythms.  3) Does CPR do something else?  In some cases, the heart can mechanically be defibrillated. The old \"precordial thump\", which was taught to those of us with grey hair back when advanced cardiovascular life support was a 3 full day class, can (every once in a while) shock the heart enough for return of spontaneous circulation. There is a reason it is no longer taught, along with \"cough CPR\" not being mentioned.  CPR, at best, produces maybe one third of normal cardiac output. It can support oxygenation of vital organs and prevent clinical death (pulselessness and apnea) from becoming biologic death (dead beyond any hope of resuscitation). A hypoxic heart is not likely to have enough oxygen for normal electrical function. It doesn't make sense to try to zap someone into oblivion without at least giving them a fighting chance with CPR. This is the reason for the old \"shock first\" with witnessed arrest and \"shock fast\" with unwitnessed arrest strategies that I believe were put into the ACLS protocols maybe around the year 2000.  4) Pacemakers  Defibrillation and cardioversion are distinctly different from internal or external pacemakers. Think of defibrillation and cardioversion as a sledgehammer and a temporary transvenous pacemaker as a jeweler's hammer. Ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia require a big whack. Really big. Sometimes two distinct defibrillator units at the same time big (\"dual simultaneous defibrillation\" - google scholar it, it's neat stuff). However, getting the heart to beat in an organized manner requires a much more gentle touch. We are talking 200 Joules of a big whack versus 0.2 mA of pacing current the last time I had floated a wire in someone's heart. Pacing is a firm but gentle zap. It gets the electrical system to beat but orders of magnitude less than what is required to reset the system from V-fib.  Finally, there is no \"slight\" ventricular fibrillation. That's an all or nothing rhythm. The reason that \"cough CPR\" is still useful to those of us board-certified in emergency medicine is that we have toys the majority of the population does not know how to use. Consciousness can be maintained many seconds beyond cardiac arrest. If I have you on a cardiac monitor and you go into asystole in front of me, I can likely keep you conscious for a minute or longer if you actually obey my instructions for cough CPR.",
        "id": 2139,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do you really get better at digesting beans?",
        "body": "Yes it is. The fact that the more you eat beans, the faster it digests, is not a myth.  For directions,  Try adding them into your diet in 1/4 cup increments, and increasing very slowly.  Although, there are other ways to increase the digestion rate of beans, but as for your question, it's certainly not a myth.  http://www.thefullhelping.com/10-tips-for-better-bean-digestion-a-few-announcements/  What Makes Them So Hard to Digest?  Besides the phytic acid contained in legumes, the harder beans such as kidney and navy beans contain oligosaccharides. This complex sugar is impossible to digest without some help because humans do not produce the enzyme alpha-galactosidase needed to properly break it down.",
        "id": 1397,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the name of this disease, it's cause and cure?",
        "body": "Likely it's sleep paralysis in the hypnopompic state. It's not uncommon and has a hereditary component. Drug therapy is not that useful, and it may just require some cognitive therapy.",
        "id": 1944,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Using farsighted glasses to counter nearsightedness?",
        "body": "Note  This answer is not a substitute for medical advice and medical advice questions are off-topic here.  If you have concerns about your eyesight you must speak to your optometrist (or ophthalmologist if you are under their treatment).  Question 1 - Can nearsightedness be just a result of eyes getting accustomed to working at very close distances most of the time?  In\u00a0people with\u00a0short-sightedness, the eye has usually grown slightly too long.  This means that when you look at distant objects, the light isn't focused directly on to your retina, but a short distance in front of it.  Image source: WebMD - What Is Myopia  The NHS website has a good set of pages about myopia (short-sightedness) where it is found that     Spending a lot of time focusing your eyes on nearby objects, such as reading, writing and possibly using hand-held devices (phones and tablets) and computers can increase your risk of developing short-sightedness.   However, myopia cannot be halted permanently.     Short-sightedness usually stops getting worse at around the age of 20.      There's currently no single treatment available that appears to stop this progression.      But it may be slowed by treatments involving eye drops of a medication called atropine, or special contact lenses.      Research has shown that atropine eye drops can slow the progression of short-sightedness, but it can cause side effects at high strengths (such as difficulty reading and sensitivity to bright light). (Source: NHS - Myopia Treatment)   Questions 2 and 3 regarding anti-corrective glasses to make those short distances seem longer  As highlighted by the Mayo Clinic, it is a myth that wearing eyeglasses that have the wrong prescription will damage the eyes, but it may make your vision worse and cause other problems such as headaches.     Eyeglasses change the light rays that the eye receives. They do not change any part of the eye itself. Wearing glasses that are too strong or otherwise wrong for the eyes cannot harm an adult's, although it might result in a temporary headache. At worse, the glasses will fail to correct vision and make the wearer uncomfortable because of blurriness, but no damage to any part of the eye will result.   The use of so called anti-corrective lenses is a topic of discussion in many blogs but I would heed caution on taking advice from blogs.  There have been scientific studies on \"undercorrection\" of myopia in children (Chung, et al. 2002) which found that it enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression.  How to slow down, and maybe halt progression of myopia  If you use computer screens over a long period each day, especially if you do so as part of your job, wearing the correct prescribed eyewear would be the best thing to do.  Employers must provide and pay for eyesight tests and any resulting prescription where requested by the employer in law under the Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 here in the UK, and in the European Union under Council Directive 90/270/EEC of 29 May 1990.  Employers must also ensure that employees take regular and adequate breaks from looking at their screens.  This applies whether you work at home, hotdesk at different locations or workstations, or work at a fixed workstation.  The Heath and Safety Executive website points out that     The law says employers must arrange an eye test for\u00a0display screen equipment (DSE) users\u00a0if they ask for one, and provide glasses if an employee needs them only for DSE use.   DSE work does not cause permanent damage to eyes. But long spells of DSE work can lead to:         tired eyes   discomfort    temporary short-sightedness   headaches         DSE work is visually demanding, so it can make someone aware of eyesight problems they have not noticed before (including changes in eyesight that happen with age).      Employees can help their eyes by:         checking the screen is well positioned and properly adjusted   making sure lighting conditions are suitable   taking regular breaks from screen work      More can be read on this via the main page at http://www.hse.gov.uk/msd/dse  References  Chung, K., Mohidin, N., &amp; O\u2019Leary, D. J. (2002). Undercorrection of myopia enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression.\u00a0Vision research,\u00a042(22), 2555-2559. doi: 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00258-4 PubMed: 12445849",
        "id": 2545,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does low sugar/fat intake cause short term memory loss?",
        "body": "One of the low-fat diet risks include poor brain function, because the brain basically requires a high amount of cholesterol, which can be reduced by low levels of healthy fats in the ration. Here's some more information about short term memory loss and some foods should be included in the diet to prevent it.  Connection between memory loss and nutrition:     Another cause of this problem is when you have a deficiency of certain vitamins in the body. If you don\u2019t eat well then this can lead to deficiency of certain nutrients in the body such as vitamins that play a major role in keeping your brain in good health.   Serum cholesterol and cognitive performance in the Framingham Heart Study     Lower naturally occurring TC levels are associated with poorer performance on cognitive measures, which place high demands on abstract reasoning, attention/concentration, word fluency, and executive functioning. ",
        "id": 187,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the dangers of breathing minerals that are dispersed into the air by a humidifier?",
        "body": "Pathologies due to mineral inhalation are a broad spectrum of diseases called pneumoconiosis. You can read about it here in Wikipedia.  The type of disease is different regarding different minerals, and this reflects to the treatment approach.",
        "id": 778,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does wart treatment (such as freezing) kill the wart or only triger the bodies natural immune reaction?",
        "body": "It does both.   The center of the wart is weakened/killed with the acid/nitrogen(cold), while the periphery is damaged (both the wart and the skin around it).   Because the wart is weakened, the body's natural reparation process slowly replaces the missing skin (under and around the wart) faster than the wart can grow, while the immune system prevents it from spreading within the area.   Eventually what remains of the wart will get exfoliated (fall off) the same way as old skin, leaving behind healthy skin with no warts.   More info about the treatments: Plantar Warts Diagnosis &amp; Treatment.",
        "id": 1039,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What contagious diseases can be diagnosed by x-ray test on chest?",
        "body": "A chest X-ray can detect changes in the lungs that occur in certain infections, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, tularemia, aspergillosis, histoplasmosis, plague, etc (American Journal of Rentgenology).  In most cases, additional tests, such as sputum and blood tests, are needed to confirm an exact diagnosis.  Here and here you can see which other lung abnormalities (lung cancer, edema, COPD..) a chest X-ray can detect.",
        "id": 2274,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does use of NSAIDs prolong recovery time from febrile illness?",
        "body": "There are studies that state reducing a fever may prolong illness. Fever can increase T-cell proliferation and cytotoxic activity. A study in 1990 showed that acetaminophen and aspirin increased symptoms and made viral shedding last longer. While that doesn't exactly address the role of NSAIDS I would think it would be the same as aspirin and acetaminophen. Source: Is Breaking the Fever Bad? Fever Suppression May Be Detrimental by Catherine Moss",
        "id": 1989,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Will using fluoride-free toothpaste eventually lead to tooth decay?",
        "body": "First, some quote from British Fluoridation Society webpage (which text is based on some article authored by dr Levine, author of \"The action of fluoride in caries prevention. A review of current concepts\"):     The relationship between fluoride and tooth decay is complex and probably not yet fully understood. However, it is known that fluoride interferes with the process of tooth decay in at least four ways: (1) If children ingest sufficient fluoride (...) up to 7 years of age the fluoride alters the structure of the developing enamel making it more resistant to acid attack. (2) (...) encourages remineralisation and ensures that the enamel crystals that are laid down are of improved quality. (...) low levels of fluoride in the mouth gradually improve the strength of the tooth enamel and its ability to resist acid attack. (3) (...) reducing the ability of the plaque bacteria to produce acid. This is a major factor in the prevention of tooth decay. (4) (...) if sufficient fluoride is ingested during childhood when the teeth are developing, it affects the depth of the fissures (grooves) on the biting surfaces of the teeth (...) thus reducing the ability of plaque to remain undisturbed.   Now, let's analyze what is written above. Points (1) and (4) are important when you're a kid, they doesn't matter to you now. Point (2) is about improved self-repair and acid resistance. This is some very good property of fluoride, but it may not be so well understood and so effective as it is often presented. Quote from \"Current concepts on the theories of the mechanism of action of fluoride.\" (1999):     Comparative studies of fluoride efficacy have shown that higher concentrations in solution are needed in pH-cycling studies of dentine than in enamel to maintain the mineral balance or to induce remineralization. (...) future perspectives for fluoride applications should be found in the retention and slow release of fluoride after various combinations of fluoride treatment, the combination of fluoride and anti-microbial treatment, the individualization of caries prevention, and the combination of preventive schemes with new developments in caries diagnosis.   (So this is not so simple just to have low levels of fluoride.)  If you sincerely keep good dental habits which include also proper diet and mouth washing, then you could rely on your natural remineralization. Keeping/restoring proper pH level would be important here.  Point (3) is about bacteria and here things can get tricky. Bacteria evolve and it is not impossible that they will learn to deal with fluoride. Quote from \"New insight on the response of bacteria to fluoride.\" (2012):      However, the precise effects that fluoride has on bacteria and the mechanisms that bacteria use to overcome fluoride toxicity have largely remained unexplored. Recently, my laboratory reported the discovery of biological systems that bacteria use to sense fluoride and reduce fluoride toxicity.    Actually, some really bad-ass fluoride-resistant bacterias are known to exist from a quite a long time now.  If you're not to use fluoride then again a lot will depend on your dental habits. If proper pH levels are maintained then \"good\" and \"bad\" bacteries in your mouth will keep themselves in some form of balance (hopefully).  Now, I think that it is important to explain what is the main function of toothpaste and general toothbrushing: it's mechanical surface abrasion. This is nicely summarized here:     Toothpastes contain mild abrasives which physically scrub away the plaque and food debris without damaging the tooth enamel.   This, in essence, has nothing to do with fluoride.  So, in my opinion, you can use fluoride-free toothpaste. If you'll be careful with pH levels, do mouthwash, be careful what you eat, then your natural tooth decay prevention mechanisms should work. But I don't guarantee anything.  Also, if I was to use fluoride-free toothpaste, I would like know if there exist some alternative chemical substance of similar properties. I haven't checked that and this is good material for another question.",
        "id": 693,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Recommended size of diclofenac patch",
        "body": "The skin permeation profile (particularly the lateral diffusion coefficient) of a diclofenac (DK) transdermal patch, and percutaneous absorption in general, are in question here.  I include the medical terms, mostly because it may help finding further reading beyond what I suggest.  An approachable introduction to percutaneous absorption is a review written by Dr. Paul Brisson (it was in fact, used a source text in my schooling).  Lateral diffusion, how any drug spreads out from the application site as opposed to down through the skin, varies on how the patch is actually made.  This is often measured as cm2/h, as the diffusion happens over time.  It should be noted that even with the constant application of the patch, you are going to get reduced diffusion based on concentrations gradients which roughly follow Flick's laws of diffusion.    A standard salt gel formulation of DK (which is a good baseline, as any modifications will be at best 100x change in ether direction) has a lateral diffusion coefficient of 9.65x10-9 cm2/h, and a rough saturation time of about 3 hours.  Even if we assume 10 hours of diffusion, and a 100X increase in the coefficient (9.65x10-7), that still only gives us 9.65x10-7 cm2 lateral diffusion.  Let's round that off to an even 97 square nanometers.  That's smaller than the cross sectional area of many viral particles.  So you are quite right, a patch is most directly treating the area that it is directly on top of.  But this ignores another factor in patch dosing, which is that the drug is transferred to the plasma (blood), and then distributed systemically throughout the body.  Thus a significant portion of the dose that a prescribing physician is intending you to recieve might be through delivery from the blood.  So yes, you can sometimes cut a patch to deliver the drug better to a local area, but you should first check with your medical professional to be sure that the type of patch you are using can in fact be cut and still effective (some the nanogel suspensions can't be).",
        "id": 725,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Caffeine clearance range/distribution and what determines it",
        "body": "There are many parameters to consider. The caffeine clearance is influenced by genetics, environmental factors, age, drug interactions, pregnancy, illnesses, day and time of day, habituation, what species you look at,  etc.  We do not have a complete picture in terms of perfect predictability. But we have quite a few individual lines of cause and effect cleared up to a certain degree.  Caffeine is absorbed in the intestine quite rapidly and almost completely. Then generally 97% are metabolised into 'something' and only 3% excreted as is, on average. Caffeine concentration is characterised in half life.  Drinking grapefruit for example before drinking coffee increases that half life, as the fruit contains quite significant levels of naringenin, bergamottin and hydroxybergamottin. These substances have in common that they inhibit cytochrome p450 in the liver (effecting quite a few drugs by the way). This effect was only found out in 1989 by chance.  Calculating all the variables will not be possible in this answer. Let's focus on genetics of caffeine pharmacokinetcis in humans.             Jakob Strube: \"Studie zu erblichen Einfl\u00fcssen auf die Pharmakokinetik von Midazolam und Koffein.   (Study for the evaluation of heritability of midazolam and caffeine pharmacokinetics)\", Dissertation, Georg-August-Universit\u00e4t G\u00f6ttingen, 2015. (PDF)   This small study found an unexpectedly marked hereditary component in caffeine clearance and also gave a range from own measurements and compared those with previous literature:  Clearance/F* [ml/min]              40 - 431    own measurement Clearance/F\u00b7KG-1* [ml/min\u00b7kg- 1]   0,35 \u2013 5,08 own measurement                                     1,12\u00b10,3    Newton et al. 1981                                    2,20\u00b11,02   Lelo et al 1986 a                                    2,07\u00b10,96   Lelo et al 1986 b                                    2,2\u00b11,67    Kamimori et al. 2002                                    1,58\u00b10,54   Perera et al 2011 t1/2 [Minuten]                     97,6 - 735  own measurement                               meist 246 - 342; bis zu 600 Lindopharm GmbH 2004                                     162 - 744   Newton et al. 1981                                    246\u00b178      Lelo et al. 1986 b                                    240 - 300   Kot und Daniel 2008                                    330\u00b1114     Perera et al. 2011 Cmax [\u03bcg/l]                        668 - 1984  eigene Messung                                    1170\u00b1980    Kamimori et al. 2002                                    750\u00b1250     (normiert auf 50 mg-Dosis) Perera et al. 2011 Tmax [Minuten]                     26 - 200    eigene Messung                                    30 - 40     Lindopharm GmbH 2004                                    30 - 90     Newton et al. 1981                                    60          Perera et al. 2011                                    85,2\u00b154     Kamimori et al. 2002  V/F [l]                            22,9 - 68,7 eigene Messung V/F\u00b7KG [l/kg]                      0,38 - 0,81 eigene Messung                                    0,52 - 1,06 Lindopharm GmbH 2004                                    0,5 - 0,75 Kot und Daniel 2008                                    0,781\u00b10,208 Kamimori et al. 2002 ",
        "id": 2462,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are there health benefits associated with avoidance of gluten?",
        "body": "There are two main reasons why foods are made (or advertised) as gluten free. In short it is partially to meet the needs of a small but growing group of people who are allergic to gluten and also to catch people who are taking part in the gluten free fad.  The main reason is that there are different conditions out there that cause a person to have issues dealing with gluten one of them is a condition called celiac diease (WebMD/Celiac.org)     Celiac disease -- also known as celiac sprue or gluten-sensitive enteropathy -- is a digestive and autoimmune disorder that results in damage to the lining of the small intestine when foods with gluten are eaten. Gluten is a form of protein found in some grains. The damage to the intestine makes it hard for the body to absorb nutrients, especially fat, calcium, iron, and folate.   This is something that can be a very serious issue for people that have it     Celiac disease can leave a person susceptible to other health problems, including:   Osteoporosis, a disease that weakens bones and leads to fractures. This occurs because the person has trouble absorbing enough calcium and vitamin D. Miscarriage or infertility. Birth defects, such as neural tube defects (improper formation of the spine) caused by poor absorption of such nutrients as folic acid. Seizures. Growth problems in children because they don't absorb enough nutrients. Cancer of the intestine (very rare).  People with one of these conditions need to avoid all foods with gluten in them in order to avoid the effects of the condition  The second reason that food are made this way are because going gluten free has become a fad and food manufacturers are just cashing in on the latest trend.  Now when it comes to gluten free food there are some things that you need to remember. First there are types of gluten free food.   Foods that are naturally gluten free and just need to be advertised as such Foods that have gluten in them but easy changes can be made to remove it Foods that have are based primarily on gluten based products and need to be changed drastically in order to be gluten free.   The reason that knowledge is important is that people who have a sensitivity to gluten can easily have issue from cross contamination. An example of this would be if a pizza place was making a gluten free pizza but they used the sauce and ladle that is used on normal pizza which will bring in contaminates to the gluten free food.",
        "id": 93,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Chagas disease: stages",
        "body": "Here an answer. Everybody is invited to debate. The person who wrote it is a Chagas disease specialist, Dr Anis Rassi Jr. So thanks Dr Rassi for the answer.     The phases of the disease are only 2: acute and chronic. The chronic   phase is divided into: indeterminate form, cardiac form, digestive   form and cardio-digestive form. With the exception of only about 5% of   the patients who right after the acute phase get directly into a   determinate form, all the others get into the indeterminate form. Of   those in the indeterminate form, about 60% will remain indeterminate   all lifelong while about 40% of patients 10 to 30 years later develop   the clinical forms of the disease.   Similar information can be read on this excellent paper which is free (and has more than 1300 citations).",
        "id": 1990,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much tuna can I eat a week without running into mercury issues?",
        "body": "Worried about tuna giving you mercury poisoning? Here's the exact study that caused this concern. It's recommendations are much higher than that of the FDA and online calculators: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp46.pdf   Pages 24-25 of the report states:     No consumption advice is necessary for the top ten seafood species   that make up about 80% of the seafood sold in the United States:   canned tuna, shrimp, pollock, salmon, cod, catfish, clams, flatfish,   crabs, and scallops. The methylmercury in these species is generally   less than 0.2 ppm, and few people eat more than the suggested weekly   limit of fish (i.e., 2.2 pounds).   They also showed that a person can chronically (for >365 days) ingest .0003mg per kg of bodyweight of mercury per day with no adverse effect (pages 509 and Appendix 10).   Thus, someone who weights 80kg (176lb) could thus safely ingest 0.024mg of mercury a day. Given that tuna is about .2ppm (parts per million) mercury, that equates to 120g tuna per day. Note that this is not the maximum safe amount but merely the highest they tested, so the maximum safe level is not known.  In terms of grams per bodyweight, it changes per person. A 150lb person can safely consume 3.75oz of tuna per day, whereas a 210lb person can consume over 5oz per day.  Here is a handy chart which should help you pick some better fish.  Here is the EWG mercury-fish calculator.  Here is some anecdotal evidence of 2 cans a day giving a guy mercury poisoning!  Here is the EPA advisory website for fish  TL;DR You can safely eat 1.5g/kg (0.7g per lb) of bodyweight in canned tuna per day.  Note: USE MODERATION WHEN EATING ANYTHING",
        "id": 1120,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it healthy to eat meat of an animal that died of an old age?",
        "body": "The only consequence is that meat from older animals is generally tougher. (1) To compensate, cooks usually use meat from older animals in soups, stews and other dishes that require long, slow cooking in liquid (braising). Braising breaks down connective tissue and tenderizes the meat. For example, older chickens are often referred to as stewing hens while younger birds are referred to as fryers, reflecting their best uses. ",
        "id": 564,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the limits on the amount of pathogens that a body can be immune to at any given time?",
        "body": "   Won't this (having a flu vaccine every year) put them in an uncharted territory as far as effects on the immune systems are concerned within a couple of decades?   No  You are exposed to and develop a memory response to many, many more pathogens than vaccines. Your collective immune memory from natural exposure to a pathogen is much, much larger than from vaccination.  Effective vaccines reproduce the immune response of exposure to a pathogen (see the CDC pink book, Chapter 1). Some use specific subgroups of antigens important for protective immunity, some use killed viruses that don't replicate in the host, and others use live attenuated viruses that replicate, but don't cause disease. The number of vaccines you get is much smaller than the number of different antigens you are exposed to. Considering the common cold alone, the incidence in the US is 6 per person year for children, 2 per person year for adults without exposure to children (see Cecil Medicine Ch. 369). Each of these exposures involves many different antigens. Vaccine related immune memory is  a drop in the bucket.  Beyond this, the basic premise (that you have a small amount of immune memory storage relative to the number of vaccines you receive) is wrong. There are over 3 billion B-cells in your body at any given time, with about 100 million different B cell receptors. This repertoire of antigen receptors is enough to match every single (or nearly every single, depending on who you ask) possible macromolecular antigen. For a protein, or protein conjugated antigen, the product of that match can produce long lived high affinity memory B cells, and long lived high affinity plasma cells. Your immune system has the memory capacity to deal with a great deal more antigens than the number of vaccines.  You can read about these basic immunology details in Sompayrac's How the Immune System Works (Chapter 1 gives the numbers I've discussed here, and discusses how the repertoire of antigen receptors matches up with the number of possible antigens). Other basic immunology texts (e.g., Abbas, Janeway) cover the same, but can be a little more dense.",
        "id": 2496,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How long is infectious mononucleosis contagious?",
        "body": "You picked an interesting virus (and illness) to ask about. There are still a lot of studies being conducted and many of the answers aren't in.   A bit of background. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV - the virus that causes infectious mononucleosis) is a member of the herpesvirus family, very \"successful\" viruses in that most of the world's population are infected (90% of the world's population has been infected with EBV), and the viruses are known to remain in the host's body throughout their lifetimes (that is, the host doesn't usually die from the disease, instead living to pass it on to others). With Herpes Simplex, reactivation is in the form of cold sores. With varicella-zoster virus - the cause of chickenpox - reactivation takes the form of \"shingles\". So, to expect EBV of periodic reactivation isn't very far fetched.  In the US, ~50% of the population seroconverts (becomes infected as manifested by antibodies to the virus) before 5 years of age. This population has not been extensively studied for asymptomatic viral shedding. In the rest of the population, most cases of EBV infection are still subclinical, but some adolescents and young adults - about 25% of those newly infected - get the illness known as infectious mononucleosis (IM). This has been the group most studied group in terms of who is shedding virus and who isn't.  Once infected, humans carry the virus for life in a small number of white blood cells called \"memory B lymphocytes\". Immediately following infection, the cells shedding the most virus are pharyngeal epithelial cells (though this has been challenged), so virus is present in the saliva, but has also been found in other bodily fluids.    One study in France followed 30 patients for 6 months: 20 after diagnosis of IM, and 10 healthy EBV carriers (determined by the presence of IgG antibodies against EBV and the absence of IgM) as controls. Blood and  saliva samples were collected at day 0 [D0]), D3, D7, D15, D30, D60, D90, and D180 on all subjects.  Infectivity of saliva was determined by lymphocyte transformation in cell cultures of fresh cord-blood lymphocytes.  All newly infected patients had sustained viral shedding in the saliva, and all still had infectious saliva at day 180, 16 patients maintaining a high EBV load during the 6 months of follow-up, and 4 showing a low level of virus, though viral load was significantly lower at D180 than at D90 in all patients. Of the controls (healthy people who had positive antibodies), 8 subjects had 2\u20134 episodes of detectable EBV in their saliva, with the remaining 2 having no EBV in their saliva during the follow-up period.   In the patient blood samples, EBV-infected B cells decreased significantly from day 0 to day 180, with 18 showing a viral rebound between D30 and D90. Among these 18, 4 patients had tonsillitis and lymphadenopathy (!) which indicates a recurrence. Only one of the control subjects showed no detectable  EBV in their Memory B Cells during the entire follow-up period. This shows that patients with IM remain highly infectious during convalescence.  A Japanese study analyzed the prevalence of EBV in saliva and throat washings from healthy people. EBV DNA was detected in 43 of 48 throat washings from healthy adults aged 21 to 57 years of age, and in 35 of 93 salivas from healthy children 0 to 6 years old. Umbilical cord lymphocytes were transformed by some throat washings from EBV seropositive donors, indicating infectivity of the virus. Furthermore, EBV DNA was detected in throat washings from 2 healthy adults whose EBV antibody was not detected.   In a study of 22 healthy EBV-seropositive blood donors over a period of 15 months, serology suggested reactivation (significant changes in viral load plus a serological response) in eight donors. Another five individuals also exhibited significant changes in viral load but no serologic response. Of the 13 volunteers with significant increases in viral load, 6 had a period of viremia accompanying the rise in viral load, that is, they had a viral infection clinically.    What triggers reactivation in healthy subjects is not known precisely. The presumption is that it occurs when latently infected B cells respond to unrelated infections, because B-cell receptor stimulation triggers reactivation in B-cell lines.   So, whatever you have read, there is probably proof for it, as well as much else that wasn't read! It appears that healthy adults and children shed virus intermittently for an unknown number of years.  Image from On the dynamics of acute EBV infection and the pathogenesis of infectious mononucleosis, Hadinoto et al, Blood. 2008 Feb 1; 111(3): 1420\u20131427.  Infectious Mononucleosis Progress and Problems in Understanding and Managing Primary Epstein-Barr Virus Infections Long-Term Shedding of Infectious Epstein-Barr Virus after Infectious Mononucleosis Detection of Epstein-Barr virus in salivas and throat washings in healthy adults and children Molecular Parameters for Precise Diagnosis of Asymptomatic Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation in Healthy Carriers On the dynamics of acute EBV infection and the pathogenesis of infectious mononucleosis",
        "id": 174,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What does fluoride toothpaste do to the dentin on the teeth?",
        "body": "This is usually seen in clinical settings: a child is left with an untreated enamel caries. Then the lesion progress and the lesion is cavitated. The dentin then start to react, ocludding the dentinal tubules. When the saliva (+ minerals) reach the dentin, the caries process start to slow down and the dentin change from dark brown to almost black. At the same time, the change in color represents a change in the surface composition, changing from a soft surface to a hard one.   This occurs with the minerals of the saliva. If you add fluoride, you will enhance this process. Hence, the fluoride of the toothpaste will slow down the caries process in the dentin.   About you side question: often. Keep in mind that any radicular surface clinically visible means exposed dentin.  Google \"radicular caries\" images.   If you want to read the details, ten Cate has several (now classics) papers:    ten Cate JM. Remineralization of caries lesions extending into dentin. J Dent Res. 2001 May;80(5):1407-11. Deng DM, van Loveren C, ten Cate JM. Caries-preventive agents induce remineralization of dentin in a biofilm model. Caries Res. 2005 May-Jun;39(3):216-23.   Bonus 1: nobody knows why the carious dentin is brown...  Bonus 2: a black spot in a teeth means a dentinal stopped carious lesion. ",
        "id": 2067,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What happens to melatonin and the circadian rythm when one adopts biphasic sleep cycle?",
        "body": "Yes, something quite similar to what you hypothesize in fact!  According to this study (unfortunately, behind a paywall): In short photoperiods, human sleep is biphasic. (Literally the title of the research paper.)     When normal individuals were transferred from a conventional 16-h   photoperiod to an experimental 10-h photo-period, their sleep episodes   expanded and usually divided into two symmetrical bouts, several hours   in duration, with a 1-3 h waking interval between them. The durations   of nocturnal melatonin secretion and of the nocturnal phase of rising   sleepiness (measured in a constant routine protocol) also expanded,   indicating that the timing of internal processes that control sleep   and melatonin, such as circadian rhythms, had been modified by the   change in photoperiod.   WEHR, T. A. (1992), In short photoperiods, human sleep is biphasic. Journal of Sleep Research, 1: 103\u2013107. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.1992.tb00019.x",
        "id": 2177,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Weight on front or back of feet",
        "body": "So there are a few things making this a difficult question to answer.  Much of the in-depth research hasn't been done on healthy individuals (biomechanics of the foot), but where there's something wrong (pathomechanics of the foot).  There is also a difference between what is theoretically best (found here) and what people actually do (sort of found here).  Also, the search terms might not be readily apparent because the biomechanical word for \"standing\" is \"stance\" (eg \"load distribution in stance\").  The best models and papers I found were also behind pay walls (which my institution has access to), but I can summarize the information as follows:  There are 6 main points of pressure in the healthy foot: the heel, and the head of each (5) metatarsals:    The metatarsal head of the hallux (big toe, labeled 2 above) should take about 2x the pressure as the other 4 heads, which roughly balances the left to right load on the foot.  As far as front to back, the only reference I found that calculated an ideal position was the one I mentioned before, and seemed to indicate the heel should receive 52.6% +/- 1.36% of the load of the foot (Fig 7).  Presumably the rest of the weight would then be distributed to the metatarsal heads as mentioned above.  I will say that was calculated with math I don't quite understand, and on a very idealized adult foot.  It might be much more useful to ask the question: \"How do people with healthy feet and gates distribute the load on their feet?\"  That would go back to my second reference and give us this lovely figure: [Fig 1]    My final conclusion is that if you are concerned about your gate you should see an OT or PT. Check for uneven wear on the feet, and try to stay \"balanced.\"",
        "id": 699,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How come corn and cornflakes (which are 98%+ corn) have a drastically different glycemic index rating?",
        "body": "Cornflakes were specifically invented as a religiously inspired way to make the grains more easily digestible and to decrease masturbation desires. This \"health food\" tasted awful and made the eaters not very happy. Today the now very ancient memory of healthy food choice still reverberates through the marketing efforts and public memory. Despite these flakes now being a very highly processed food that many people might object to eat at all if they knew how these are made (analogous to the sausage making process).     A switch of emphasis occurred early in the 1900s from promoting corn flakes as a health food to a breakfast food that \u2018tastes good\u2019. This occurred especially after barley malt extract and sugar were added to enhance the flavor of the basic toasted corn flakes. Cereal producers in those early 1900s also turned to prominent artists to paint scenes of \u2018the wholesome life situations\u2019 that always included the product being advertised in a prominent position. [\u2026]   Market forces also drove the quest for more nutritious cereals. The emphasis was aimed at stressing the importance of breakfast as the day\u2019s most important meal in a world whose pace was beginning to accelerate faster and faster. A \u2018vitamin\u2019s horsepower\u2019 race soon evolved where manufacturers and marketers tried to outdo each other with vitamin additions and marketing strategies. [\u2026]   We will limit our discussion here on liquids blending to the four basic flavor materials; water, sugar, salt and malt. The workhorse mixing vessel for these has been, and still is, the steam jacketed kettle. Liquid sucrose, dry salt, and liquid malt extract are slurried in water in a kettle equipped with agitation, and a steam jacket sufficient in capacity to heat the mix to 125\u00b0F (52\u00b0C). This is a high enough temperature to make a good useable slurry of such viscosity for ease of handling.   [from: Gavin Owens: \"Cereals processing technology\", Woodhead Publishing: Abington, 2001.]      Nobody needs to chew cornflakes, as they are sugary pre-digested carbohydrates that dissolve on their own upon contact with watery liquids. The pre-digestion artificial stomach machine looks like this:   Looking at the finished product some orienting average numbers might be for typical cornflakes and unprocessed maize:          starches sugars fibre salt flakes  72g      8g     4g    2.75g Maize   63g      1.29g  9.2   0.02g   Source: Naehrwertrechner For one popular product and others  Cornflakes are not 98% corn. Just using dry weight ratios of the finished product: The amount of salt, malt and sugar alone is above 10%. Another  \"official\" recipe for typical corn flakes is:     Formulation:   The basic raw material for the traditional corn flake is derived from the dry milling of regular field corn. Dry milling removes the germ and the bran from the kernel, and essentially what is left is chunks of endosperm. The size needed for corn flakes is one half to one third that of the whole kernel. [\u2026]   A typical formula for corn flakes is as follows: corn grits, 100 lb (45 kg); granulated sugar, 6lb (3.7 kg); malt syrup, 2lb (1 kg); salt, 2lb (1 kg); and water sufficient to yield cooked grits with a moisture content of not more than 32% after allowing for steam condensate. [From Elwood F. Caldwell &amp; Robert B. Fast: \"Breakfast cereals and how they are made\", American Association of Cereal Chemists: St. Paul, 2000, p19.]   Compared to the corn going into these machines: Fibre content removed, heated several times, sugar and carbohydrates ratio increased. Everything pulverised and only afterwards baked together into something resembling solid food. Although on a much lower level this is of course also true for anything grain based, like good old bread, the level of processing is much higher in these flakes.  Further steps in processing: Mixing, Cooking, Dumping, Delumping, Drying, Cooling and Tempering, Flaking, Toasting, which then usually results in:      The moisture content of flakes is usually in the range of 1.5\u20133%.   Do not bet your farm on these numbers, products differ in one and the same assembly line and even much more so in different markets!  The amount of processing leads to some very minor enhancements in availability of the remaining nutrients, removal or destruction of many other nutrients:     Effects of Different Processing Methods on the Micronutrient and Phytochemical Contents of Maize: From A to Z:   The effects of different processing methods on nutrient content in maize, from field to plate, indicate that, generally, the fresher and less processed the maize is, the more nutrients it retains. [\u2026] Losses to micronutrients during processing can be mitigated by changes in processing methods or reduction in processing, and also by encouraging consumption of whole-grain maize products over degermed, refined products. When losses cannot be mitigated and populations consuming the product are at risk of specific micronutrient deficiencies, these can be potentially reduced through fortification    This leads to the gycemic index and its differences even in seemingly similar foods:     International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002   [\u2026] It is also important to emphasize that many low-GI foods are relatively less refined than are their high-GI counterparts and are more difficult to consume. The lower energy density and palatability of these foods are important determinants of their greater satiating capacity. [\u2026]   WHY DO GI VALUES FOR THE SAME TYPES OF FOODS SOMETIMES VARY?      Many people have raised concerns about the variation in published GI values for apparently similar foods. This variation may reflect both methodologic factors and true differences in the physical and chemical characteristics of the foods. One possibility is that 2 similar foods may have different ingredients or may have been processed with a different method, resulting in significant differences in the rate of carbohydrate digestion and hence the GI value. Two different brands of the same type of food, such as a plain cookie, may look and taste almost the same, but differences in the type of flour used, in the moisture content, and in the cooking time can result in differences in the degree of starch gelatinization and consequently the GI values. In addition, it must be remembered that the GI values listed in the table for commercially available processed foods may change over time if food manufacturers make changes in the ingredients or processing methods used.      Another reason GI values for apparently similar foods vary is that different testing methods are used in different parts of the world. Differences in testing methods include the use of different types of blood samples (capillary or venous), different experimental time periods, and different portions of foods (50 g of total rather than of available carbohydrate). Recently, 7 experienced GI testing laboratories around the world participated in a study to determine the degree of variation in GI values when the same centrally distributed foods were tested according to the laboratories\u2019 normal in-house testing procedures (31). The results showed that the 5 laboratories that used finger-prick capillary blood samples to measure changes in postprandial glycemia obtained similar GI values for the same foods and less intersubject variation. Although capillary and venous blood glucose values have been shown to be highly correlated, it appears that capillary blood samples may be preferable to venous blood samples for reliable GI testing. After the consumption of food, glucose concentrations change to a greater degree in capillary blood samples than in venous blood samples. Therefore, capillary blood may be a more relevant indicator of the physiologic consequences of high-GI foods.      Although it is clear that GI values are generally reproducible from place to place, there are some instances of wide variation for the same food. Rice, for example, shows a large range of GI values, but this variation is due to inherent botanical differences in rice from country to country rather than to methodologic differences. Differences in the amylose content could explain much of the variation in the GI values of rice (and other foods) because amylose is digested more slowly than is amylopectin starch (32). GI values for rice cannot be reliably predicted on the basis of the size of the grain (short or long grain) or the type of cooking method. Rice is obviously one type of food that needs to be tested brand by brand locally. Carrots are another example of a food with a wide variation in published GI values; the oldest study showed a GI of 92 \u00b1 20 and the latest study a GI of 32 \u00b1 5. However, the results of an examination of the SEs (20 compared with 5) and the number of subjects tested (5 compared with 8) suggest that the latest value for carrots is more reliable, although differences in nutrient content and preparation methods contributed somewhat to this variation.      An important reason GI values for similar foods sometimes vary between laboratories is because of the method used for determining the carbohydrate content of the test foods. GI testing requires that portions of both the reference foods and test foods contain the same amount of available carbohydrate, typically 50 or 25 g. The available or glycemic carbohydrate fraction in foods, which is available for absorption in the small intestine, is measured as the sum of starch and sugars and does not include resistant starch. Most researchers rely on food-composition tables or food manufacturers\u2019 data, whereas others directly measure the starch and sugar contents of the foods.      This difference in the accuracy of measurements of the carbohydrate content might explain some of the variation in reported GI values for fruit and potatoes and other vegetables. Food labels may or may not include the dietary fiber content of the food in the total carbohydrate value, leading to confusion that can markedly affect GI values, especially those for high-fiber foods. Consequently, researchers should obtain accurate laboratory measurements of the available carbohydrate content of foods as an essential preliminary step in GI testing. The available carbohydrate portion of test and reference foods should not include resistant starch, but, in practice, this can be difficult to ensure because resistant starch is difficult to measure. There is also difficulty in determining the degree of availability of novel carbohydrates, such as sugar alcohols, which are incompletely absorbed at relatively high doses.      Measuring the rate at which carbohydrates in foods are digested in vitro has been suggested as a cheaper and less time-consuming method for predicting the GI values of foods (33). However, only a few foods have been subjected to both in vitro and in vivo testing, and it is not yet known whether the in vitro method is a reliable indication of the in vivo postprandial glycemic effects of all types of foods. It is possible that some factors that significantly affect glycemia in vivo, such as the rate of gastric emptying, will not change the rate of carbohydrate digestion in vitro. For example, high osmolality and high acidity or soluble fiber slow down the gastric emptying rate and reduce glycemia in vivo, but they may not alter the rate of carbohydrate digestion in vitro. It is difficult to mimic all of the human digestive processes in a test tube. In fact, research results from our laboratory have shown that GI values measured in vivo can be significantly different for the same foods measured in vitro. Until we know more about the validity of in vitro methods, it is not recommended that they be used in clinical or epidemiologic research applications or for food labeling purposes because of the potential for large over- or underestimates of true GI values.   As any grain from grasses maize needs some form of processing to be really palatable and nutritious for humans. Corn flakes may be actually one of the better choices among those horrid cereals, being relatively low in added sugar compared to other cereals and mainly raising concerns for their high amount of salt. But the destructive processing removes the taste along with the vitamins:     The managing director of Kellogg's Europe Tony Palmer confessed that 'if we'd known you could take out 25 per cent of the salt and make cornflakes taste even better, we would have done it earlier. But it's also about the interaction with the sugar \u2013 as you take the salt out, you've got to reduce the sugar because it starts to taste sweeter.' But isn't the target to reduce sugar consumption too? Why not just cut down on salt and sugar, we wondered. Well, sugar helps keep the crispness and is part of the bulk, so that would be difficult, we were told. Mr Palmer's eyebrows started working furiously as he answered: 'And the risk is, if you take the salt out you might be better off eating the cardboard carton for taste,' he said.  ",
        "id": 2071,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does less than 10% of donated used medical equipment ultimately becomes operational?",
        "body": "That is on the one hand quite a broad question (\"these countries\") for not a very vague but a very specific number. On the other hand this is indeed a public health issue very much unfocused by the public eye.  One additional problem not mentioned in the question is that from all the donated equipment some is not suitable, beyond repair, unwanted, without operators or technicians to repair, running out of replacement parts and consumables. That means that it is not only a factor of \"what percentage becomes operational\", but also of what arrives where, who profits from what along the whole line and how long does it stay operational?  To give you a few examples with references: Effectiveness of medical equipment donations to improve health systems: how much medical equipment is broken in the developing world?     It is often said that most of the medical equipment in the developing world is broken with estimates ranging up to 96% out of service. [\u2026] This study examined 112,040 pieces of equipment. An average of 38.3% (42,925, range across countries: 0.83\u201347%) in developing countries was out of service. The three main causes were lack of training, health technology management, and infrastructure. We hope that the findings will help biomedical engineers with their efforts toward effective designs for the developing world and NGO\u2019s with efforts to design effective healthcare interventions. [\u2026]   The analysis may underestimate the number of pieces out of service. We have relied on hospital reported equipment status reports to create the analysis. However, hospitals may ignore some working equipment that never entered their inventory, broken equipment off inventory or they may lack the technical staff to conduct a thorough inventory. In any case, we suspect that many hospitals are underreporting their broken equipment. Unfortunately, we are aware of no independent, peer-reviewed study that tracks a particular shipment of donated equipment from original status to final disposition.      So, how much equipment is out of service in the developing world? The answer is about 40%. We find no evidence to support the statement that most or nearly all the equipment in resource poor settings is broken.      While donations can cause problems and there are undoubtedly some hospitals where the situation is much worse, the analysis does suggest that donating equipment can improve the available healthcare options.      On the other hand, investments in capacity building, health technology management and infrastructure could nearly double the amount of working medical equipment without the expense of collecting, testing, and shipping used medical devices.   Why is this seemingly simple process so ineffective? From Beyond good intentions: lessons on equipment donation from an African hospital     While researching this subject the authors found guidelines for medical equipment donations produced by WHO in 2000. They identify four principles of \"good donation practice\":          the ensuring of maximum benefit to the recipient,    respect for the wishes and context of the recipient,    the avoidance of quality double standards,    and effective donor-recipient communication and planning.          This case bears out the importance of these principles and the necessity for putting into practice guidelines that appear to have been largely overlooked. The need to strengthen health systems throughout the world is a recognized key to achieving the Millennium Development Goals. This case is illustrative of this challenge and offers support for WHO policy, and indeed support for the contention that the progression from knowledge and policy to practice is the great challenge of international health.   The WHO paper referenced in the question is relatively old (1997) \u2013 but apperently not much has changed \u2013 Barriers for medical devices for the developing world:     The most important design barrier is the lack of spare parts in the target countries. Any device designed for the developing world will be likely to stop working as soon as the first replacement part is required. [\u2026] Other possibilities for the failure to replace parts exists. The cost may be prohibitive or the hospital may lack the expertise or tools required to execute the repair. Most hospitals do not have a technician with more than a high school education. [\u2026] One of the most common problems encountered in developing world hospitals is the lack of consumables. Consumables are liquids or supplies required for the use of the equipment, but allowing only limited, or no, reuse [\u2026]         The developing world represents a market size approximately five-times larger than the developed world.   Successfully capturing the developing world market will require more than selling the same devices at lower prices. Most medical devices   transplanted from the developed world to the developing world hospital   fail.   The most important unique design barriers for medical devices in the developing world hospital are the lack of spare parts and the lack of   required consumables.   Other unique barriers include a lack of reliable power and water, public infrastructure and technical expertise.   It is a misconception that designs must be simple and that capital cost is always the primary barrier.   Stripped-down designs may be perceived as lesser quality and rejected, despite lower cost.      Looking at just one concrete example of Medical equipment donations in Haiti: flaws in the donation process:     The team found that only 28% of the equipment was working properly and in use for patient care; another 28% was working, but lay idle for technical reasons; 30% was not working, but repairable; and 14% was beyond repair.   Up to this point this answer focussed on just a short list of what in this process usually can go wrong: just dumping some stuff in front of the natives while making money from it is not effective, despite producing some karma-friendly statistics. Speaking of which, some problems are not so much in the design of the process, but in the execution. Equipment donation to developing countries:     There has been one episode when import duty was requested; the charity's response was that the equipment could be \u2018safely dumped into the sea\u2019. Fortunately, there was a happy ending to this story and the equipment reached its destination.      On another occasion, a container was \u2018lost\u2019 in Somalia, due to a lack of robust arrangements at the destination. Donations to countries which are politically unstable are a particular challenge.   tl;dr  That number of 30% or less does not look very inaccurate today, 20 years after  it was  identified as a problem, guidelines to reduce this inefficiency published and much money made from this good-doing charitity.",
        "id": 1961,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Do cars with automatic transmission tend to make passengers less car sick than cars with manual transmission?",
        "body": "In order to understand this claim you have to first understand what causes car sickness in the first place. What is basically happening is the motion you sense with your inner ear is different from the motion you are visualizing. This is easily caused by motions that you sense with your body that you can't see with your eyes or that you can't anticipate. This is most common in cars when people are doing other activity while riding in them such as readying a book or playing on an electronic device. It is generally not an issue for the driver since they are in control and able to anticipate everything.  As to your question the there really isn't any difference in the motion of an automatic car and a manual car as when driven properly there will be no noticeable changes in motion when shifting gears. I would chalk that site up to an advertisement for selling cars with an automatic transmission as it just seems to talk about how an automatic transmission is better then a manual.   If you look around online you will find claims that both an automatic and a manual are better for preventing carsickness.  As a side note there is talk about how driver less cars might make carsickness worse for some people as it will take away the advantages that are gained from driving.  http://www.medicinenet.com/motion_sickness_sea_sickness_car_sickness/article.htm",
        "id": 66,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can dog bites cause Echinococcosis?",
        "body": "Dog bites are the most common type of animal bites. Only 5% of dog bites lead to local infection.  No, echinococcus can't be transmitted through dog bites. Pathogens which can be transmitted by the saliva of the dog are rabies, pasteurella, capnocytophaga and brucella.  Echinococcus could be transmitted by dogs but through fecal transmission. Dogs are the definitive hosts for the tapeworm, Echinococcus granulosus. The adult tapeworm is present in the dog's small intestine and produces eggs that are excreted in the feces contaminating the environment. These eggs are infective to humans once ingested.  References:  Kotton C. Zoonoses from dogs. Aug 2016. Uptodate. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/zoonoses-from-dogs?source=search_result&amp;search=echinocoque&amp;selectedTitle=6~49#H6",
        "id": 1208,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Could genetically modified viruses cure genetic diseases?",
        "body": "Yes.  Gene therapy is an active area of research; most gene therapy approaches that are studied use some sort of viral vector, those that don't are more the exception and it is unclear how several of those methods would be applied clinically.  There have already been clinical trials of gene therapy with viral vectors, with mixed success.    Edelstein, M. L., Abedi, M. R., &amp; Wixon, J. (2007). Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2007\u2014an update. The Journal of Gene Medicine: A cross\u2010disciplinary journal for research on the science of gene transfer and its clinical applications, 9(10), 833-842.  Ginn, S. L., Alexander, I. E., Edelstein, M. L., Abedi, M. R., &amp; Wixon, J. (2013). Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2012\u2013an update. The journal of gene medicine, 15(2), 65-77.  Greenberg, B., Butler, J., Felker, G. M., Ponikowski, P., Voors, A. A., Desai, A. S., ... &amp; Pogoda, J. M. (2016). Calcium upregulation by percutaneous administration of gene therapy in patients with cardiac disease (CUPID 2): a randomised, multinational, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2b trial. The Lancet, 387(10024), 1178-1186.  Kay, M. A., Glorioso, J. C., &amp; Naldini, L. (2001). Viral vectors for gene therapy: the art of turning infectious agents into vehicles of therapeutics. Nature medicine, 7(1), 33.  Mulligan, R. C. (1993). The basic science of gene therapy. Science, 260(5110), 926-932.  Naldini, L. (2015). Gene therapy returns to centre stage. Nature, 526(7573), 351.  Niidome, T., &amp; Huang, L. (2002). Gene therapy progress and prospects: nonviral vectors. Gene therapy, 9(24), 1647.  Thomas, C. E., Ehrhardt, A., &amp; Kay, M. A. (2003). Progress and problems with the use of viral vectors for gene therapy. Nature Reviews Genetics, 4(5), 346.",
        "id": 2458,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the coldest temperature a person could live in continuously?",
        "body": "There are just too many factors to give an easy clean answer to this question. To limit the problem, lets assume the individual is wearing 1 CLO of clothing in still dry air. Further, lets assume that this person has a surface area of 2 m (a little bigger than the typical male, but it makes the math easier). Finally, lets assume they can indefinitely produce 300 Watts of heat (this is about 6000 calories a day). This means their heat output is 150 W/m^2. Then solving  T = (31 \u2212 0.155\u00b7P\u00b7R)\u00b0C   with R=1 and P=150 gives a temperature of 8\u00b0C.",
        "id": 2013,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there some medicine that can safely and reliably cause mild nausea?",
        "body": "Sounds like you have a test to avoid, in which case you can probably just say you are feeling nauseous. If you really want to make yourself (or someone else) feel nauseous, depending on your sensitivity to motion sickness, you can put wamr (or cold) water in the ear canal. This is basically what a caloric test of balance is.",
        "id": 2043,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does Mederma for scar removal really work?",
        "body": "From what I found they may have some benfit on the appearance of scars. But the info available is contradictory.     It is featured in a article on ncbi.nlh.nih.org called: Snake oil for the 21st century  Effect of Mederma on hypertrophic scarring in the rabbit ear model   Improvement in dermal organization of collagen No significant difference in dermal vascularity or inflammation       Computer analysis of the scar photographs demonstrated no significant   reduction in scar erythema with Mederma treatment   A New Proprietary Onion Extract Gel Improves the Appearance of New Scars     once-daily application of the proprietary advanced formulation of   onion extract gel is safe for use on new scars and significantly   improves their overall appearance, redness, softness, and smoothness   compared to control scars.   Hypertrophic Scarring and Keloids: Pathomechanisms and Current and Emerging Treatment Strategies   States that available data is contradictory    A comprehensive evidence-based review on the role of topicals and dressings in the management of skin scarring     Two randomised studies by Draelos in 2008 (n = 60) and 2012 (n = 44),   following shave excision of seborrheic keratoses, concluded that   Mederma\u00ae improved the appearance, signs and symptoms of the healed   wounds compared with untreated controls [42, 43]; however, both these   studies note that funding was provided by the manufacturer Merz   Pharmaceuticals.   As for the Amazon product I cannot find where it was sponsored or approved for safety. ",
        "id": 919,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What is the mechanism of eczema?",
        "body": "TLDR: The pathogenesis of eczema is multifactorial, but broadly follows a process of genetic (or epigenetic, in the case of the early gut microbiome) dysregulation relating to barrier integrity proteins like filaggrin with corresponding changes in the skin microenvironment's ceramide content. Following these changes in protein structure and function and lipid quantity, the compromised barrier is predisposed to irritation and infection, which leads to an abnormal immunological response as Th2 cells work to resolve inflammatory processes in the skin (it's not clear how B cells participate in the pathogenesis of eczema at this time).   Treatment options for mild-moderate eczema are generally limited to topical corticosteroids and moisturizing ointments, as well as topical immunomodulators. For more severe disease, patients can pursue phototherapy, oral (and other systemic) immunosuppressants, or, recently, the mAb dupilumab, which targets the Th2-regulated cytokines IL-4 and IL-13. Considering this mAb's efficacy, you might regard eczema as an autoimmune disease with non-immunological predisposing factors.    Generally speaking, all of the mechanisms you've described participate in the pathogenesis of eczema. As mentioned, atopic dermatitis (eczema) is not completely understood, but a number of factors have been identified as potential targets for clinical interventions. It remains unclear whether eczema is initiated at the skin barrier (\"outside-in\") or by the immune system (\"inside-out\"), as quality evidence supports either hypothesis, but the actual etiology of eczema is likely a complex interplay between extrinsic and intrinsic physiological elements. Collectively, these factors culminate to produce chronic pruritic (itchy) skin inflammation, particularly on flexor surfaces (\"creases\" between joints).        If the cause is a deficiency of ceramide, what causes this cause?       Ceramide is an interesting subject in the context of eczema. There are 12 ceramide subspecies, the quantities of which are important for the organization of the epidermal barrier. We know that the epidermal barrier is compromised in eczema, and we know that relative ceramide concentrations are different on eczema patients' skin compared to healthy controls, so we say that there is an association between altered ceramide production and eczema, although we're not certain that this 'deficiency' of ceramide is the actual cause of eczema [1].     Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules, so exactly which chemical is produced?    From [1]: The lipid bilayers of the stratum corneum consist predominantly of three different lipids: ceramides, cholesterol, and free fatty acids. The ceramides are further divided into 12 subspecies (ceramides 1\u201312), and are thought to be critical in the organization of the lipid bilayer. The synthesis of the lipids takes place in the stratum granulosum, from where the lipids are delivered to the stratum corneum. The lipids surround the corneocytes, which are flat nucleus\u2010free cells built of keratin filaments and surrounded by cross\u2010linked proteins called the cornified envelope.     Is it because the skin produces another kind of ceramide which has lower quality, or it does not produce enough?   From [1]: Comparisons of SC ceramides in healthy skin and atopic dermatitis skin were made by different groups in the 1990s, and showed lower levels of ceramides 1 and 3, as well as a lower ceramide/cholesterol ratio, for non\u2010lesional atopic skin.        If the cause is an abnormal or missing protein, what causes this cause?      The \"key players\" in skin barrier integrity are lipids (like ceramide) and proteins (which are regulated by gene expression). Because of this known relationship, it was long-hypothesized that there was some genetic dysregulation contributing to the compromised barrier integrity in eczema, which was supported by twin studies showing that eczema was highly heritable. In 2006, mutations in the gene encoding filaggrin (FLG) were identified as a primary predisposing factor for eczema [2,3].     What protein it is?   From [2]: Filaggrin is a key protein that facilitates terminal differentiation of the epidermis and formation of the skin barrier.  As it relates to ceramide, from [1]: ...one research group studied atopic dermatitis skin, excluding patients with filaggrin mutations to ensure that the discoveries made were independent of the mutations, and correlated the ceramide composition with the lamellar lipid organization. They found significantly lower levels of ceramide 3 in atopic dermatitis individuals than in healthy controls, as well as a correlation between a low ceramide 3 level and lamellar lipid disorganization, despite the presence of wild\u2010type filaggrin in both groups.  We can see from these results that both proteins (filaggrin) and lipids (ceramide) are involved in the pathogenesis of eczema, but they don't appear to be significantly related to one another. It's possible that eczema/atopic dermatitis, as we currently understand it, can actually be broken up into many subphenotypes that have similar presentations (itchy, erythematous skin) but different etiologies, much like cancer and sepsis.     Is that something related to T cells (recognizing antigens) or B cells (producing antibodies)?    As mentioned above, skin cells (not T cells) are responsible for lipid production, and filaggrin \"facilitates terminal differentiation of the epidermis\" (not lymphocyte development). However, T lymphocytes are involved in eczema, as it is an inflammatory process (which are regulated by these immune cells) [4]. To avoid going down too many rabbit holes, you might familiarize yourself with helper T cells and cytokines before continuing. From [4]: ...a subgroup of patients with atopic dermatitis has a filaggrin loss-of-function mutation. Recently, it was shown that filaggrin expression is reduced in atopic dermatitis even in the absence of any mutation. Keratinocytes differentiated in the presence of IL- 4 and IL-13 exhibited significantly reduced filaggrin gene expression and neutralization of IL-4 and IL-13 improves skin barrier integrity. This indicates that Th-2 lymphocytes directly contribute to the skin barrier defect in atopic dermatitis...Microscopic studies revealed a sparse perivascular T cell infiltrate in unaffected atopic dermatitis skin that is not seen in normal healthy skin.  In terms of B cells, conflicting evidence exists regarding their participation in eczema's pathogenesis. Some patients have shown dramatic improvement in their symptoms when treated with rituximab, an anti-B cell mAb [5], while others have not responded to the medication [6], marking the need for a formal RCT examining rituximab's efficacy in treating eczema and further studies elucidating the role of B cells in the pathogenesis of the disease.     Is it a skin problem or an immune system problem?   This is really asking \"is eczema an outside-in or an inside-out problem?\" The answer, as I'm sure you've already realized, is: it's more complicated than that. The \"problem\" of eczema arises from disrupted skin permeability, which can be both caused and worsened by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors [7]:          Also, I heard from many sources that this is an immune system problem. And the source of this problem is the gut. They quote Hippocrates: \"All disease begins in the gut\". Is that true?       It's true that studies have shown an association between reduced gut microbial diversity in early life and eczema, but best evidence doesn't support that the gut microbiome plays a definitively causative part in the pathogenesis of the disease [8].  From [8]: Culture-based studies have shown strong associations between cutaneous Staphylococcus aureus colonisation and established atopic eczema during and outside of the context of disease flares. Using the same approach, there is also evidence for an inverse relationship between gut bacterial diversity in early life and the later development of atopic eczema, in keeping with the \u2018biodiversity hypothesis\u2019...both Staphylococcus aureus and epidermidis proliferate whilst bacterial diversity drops at lesional sites when atopic eczema flares, but S. aureus elimination is not the main reason why atopic eczema gets better...studies have not found evidence that S. aureus colonisation triggers atopic eczema development...  Because eczema is an inflammatory disorder, the immune system is an inherent participant in its initiation and resolution. Recent research has identified Th2 cells as important players in the pathogenesis of eczema [9]. From [9]: Early models of aetiology attributed symptoms of [eczema] to cutaneous inflammation at lesion sites, but recent studies have established that activated immune mediators in the circulation drive disease severity. Activation of T helper 2 (Th2) and Th22 cells in the circulation appears to be the principal initiator of acute [eczema] pathology, with the emergence of Th1 and Th17/interleukin (IL)\u201023 pathway activation marking the transition to a chronic state.     Will just eating healthy food, adding more probiotics, and applying moisturizer help the skin effectively?   \"Healthy food\" won't necessarily help, but avoiding food that contains allergens that trigger your eczema outbreaks will. Besides, eating healthier will make you feel better in general. \"More probiotics\" almost certainly won't help, as clarified by [8]: ...there is further evidence that a reduced diversity of the faecal microbiota precedes the development of atopic eczema, an association that appears lost in established disease. If \"established disease\" doesn't feature the same reduced diversity in the fecal microbiome as before the development of eczema, then the microbiome in established disease isn't really a therapeutic target.   \"Applying moisturizer\" probably will help. From [7]: Application of creams and ointments containing lipids and lipid-like substances, hydrocarbons, fatty acids, cholesterol esters and triglycerides stimulates barrier repair and increases stratum corneum hydration...As AD is often accompanied by reduced lipid composition, topical application of lipids and hydrocarbons may partially correct permeability barrier defects. It has been shown that topical treatment with hydrocortisone ointments may lead to rapid improvement in barrier function in atopic skin...several research groups and companies report that creams containing ceramides and a mixture of the three key lipids are not superior to \u2018\u2018classical\u2019\u2019 cream or ointment preparations, such preparations have not yet been widely used. More research is necessary to determine the significance of ceramides and the treatment composition with the most therapeutic benefit.  The pathogenesis of eczema is multifactorial, but broadly follows a process of genetic (or epigenetic, in the case of the early gut microbiome) dysregulation relating to barrier integrity proteins like filaggrin with corresponding changes in the skin microenvironment's ceramide content. Following these changes in protein structure and function and lipid quantity, the compromised barrier is predisposed to irritation and infection, which leads to an abnormal immunological response as Th2 cells work to resolve inflammatory processes in the skin (it's not clear how B cells participate in the pathogenesis of eczema at this time).   Treatment options for mild-moderate eczema are generally limited to topical corticosteroids and moisturizing ointments, as well as topical immunomodulators. For more severe disease, patients can pursue phototherapy, oral (and other systemic) immunosuppressants, or, recently, the mAb dupilumab, which targets the Th2-regulated cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 [10]. Considering this mAb's efficacy, you might regard eczema as an autoimmune disease with non-immunological predisposing factors.    [1] Jungersted, J. M. and Agner, T. (2013), Eczema and ceramides: an update. Contact Dermatitis, 69:65-71. doi:10.1111/cod.12073  [2] Palmer, C. N. A. et al. (2006), Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nature Genetics, 38:441\u2013446. doi:10.1038/ng1767  [3] Weidinger, S. et al. (2006), Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 118(1):214-219. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.05.004  [4] Werfel, T. and Wittmann, M. (2008), Regulatory Role of T Lymphocytes in Atopic Dermatitis. Chem Immunol Allergy, 94:101-111. doi:10.1159/000154935  [5] Simon, D. et al. (2008), Anti-CD20 (rituximab) treatment improves atopic eczema. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 121(1):122-128. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.11.016  [6] McDonald, B. S. et al. (2015), Rituximab as a treatment for severe atopic eczema: failure to improve in three consecutive patients. Clin Exp Dermatol, 41:45-47. doi:10.1111/ced.12691  [7] Proksch, E. et al. (2006), Skin barrier function, epidermal proliferation and differentiation in eczema. J Derm Sci, 43(3):159-169. doi:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2006.06.003  [8] Marrs, T. and Flohr, C. (2016), The role of skin and gut microbiota in the development of atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol, 175:13-18. doi:10.1111/bjd.14907  [9] Guttman\u2010Yassky, E. et al. (2017), Systemic immune mechanisms in atopic dermatitis and psoriasis with implications for treatment. Exp Dermatol, 27:409\u2013 417. doi:10.1111/exd.13336  [10] Simpson, E. L. et al. (2016), Two Phase 3 Trials of Dupilumab versus Placebo in Atopic Dermatitis. N Engl J Med, 375(24):2335-2348. doi:    10.1056/NEJMoa1610020",
        "id": 224,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Lactulose and dental decay",
        "body": "This saccharide is of very minute risk, absolutely, and even more so if compared with glucose, fructose or saccharose.  Two reasons:    Caries is the result of microbiota producing acids which dissolve the enamel, and this effect is enhanced when this takes place under plaque when and where saliva cannot dilute the acids   For reason 1:     Most bacteria tested were able to metabolize lactulose with the exception of strains of Streptococcus salivarius, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lact. fermentum. Streptococcus mutans produced most acid overnight but the initial rate of acid production from lactulose by uninduced cultures was very low. Plaque pH was monitored in 12 volunteers following rinsing the mouth with lactulose, sucrose or sorbitol or Lactulose BP.   These studies in vivo showed both lactulose and Lactulose BP to exhibit low acidogenic potential. Thus, although plaque bacteria are capable of fermenting lactulose, the results suggest that lactulose is likely to pose a small acidogenic challenge to teeth under normal conditions of use.   P.J. Moynihan, S. Ferrier, S. Blomley, W.G. Wright and R.R.B. Russell: \"Acid production from lactulose by dental plaque bacteria\", Letters in Applied Microbiology 1998, 27, 173\u2013177. DOI   This has to be read in perspective, as S. mutans is capable of using lactulose, but not very efficient in doing so and while overnight the acid production is comparatively higher, it is quite low overall, compared to saccharose.  For reason 2:  Different sugars present the bacteria with different challenges in metabolising them. Dental plaque is mainly hold together by dextranes (extracellullar polysaccharides), which are not easily synthesised and excreted by the microbes, if they are fed lactulose.   Carbohydrate     pH    extracellullar polysaccharides ---                    (mcg/ml n = 2)  Glucose          4.55   110 Fructose         4.8     -- Invertzucker     4.2     -- Saccharose       4.7   1950 Raffinose        4.7    500 Stachyose        4.7    350 Leucrose         4.6   2600 Palatinose       5.1   2070 Lactulose        4.7     --       Formation of extracellular polysaccharides in the presence of selected saccharides by Streptococcus mutans Ingbritt (incubation time 48h / 37\u00b0C)      Summary: In the light of recent literature, the authors outline the state of our knowledge of the bio-chemico-microbiological actiology of dental caries. From experimental studies it is evident that the ,,cariogenic\" streptococcal strain S. mutans Ingbritt synthetizes in vitro extracellular dextrans suited for plaque formation not only preferentially from saccharose but also from a series of glucose-containing fructosides. No such synthesis was observed with the non-cariogenic S. faecalis. Systematic experiments are indicative of the trend that in the cariogenic S. mutans Ingbritt the activity of the synthetizing dextran sucrase is greater by about one power of ten than in S. faecalis. It seems that the dextran sucrase activity is a contributory determinant of the character of cariogenic streptococci.      A T\u00e4ufel &amp; K T\u00e4ufel: \"Zum mikrobiellen Verhalten von Gluco-Fructosiden gegen\u00fcber den Streptokokken der Mundflora   im Hinblick auf die Zahnkaries\", Die Nahrung, 14, 5 1970, p331-337. DOI   Meaning that metabolic activity of cariogenic bacteria is relatively low and their ability to form a biofilm plaque is much reduced if we look at isolated load from lactulose. Since bacteria can adapt and the flora of a mouth change, it's probably still not a good idea to really bath the teeth in lactulose solutions, but given the application as gastrointestinal treatment that's just swallowed quite quickly, the concern seems really low.",
        "id": 2618,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What residues do Ecigarettes create?",
        "body": "A bit of extra work today has yielded this concerning propylene glycol and glycerine:     The chemistry of PG and GLY has a studied history. The preparation of GLY in 1779 by Scheele, and his determination that it was susceptible to thermal decomposition during simple distillation, predated even W\u00f6hler\u2019s urea synthesis by half a century. By the mid-19th century, acrolein and acetic acid21 had been identified as products of GLY decomposition. Wurtz synthesized PG in 1859, and determined that it could be oxidized to lactic acid in air in the presence of catalysts. In 1904, Nef provided the foundation for the current understanding of GLY and PG chemistry.   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5307352/",
        "id": 2285,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "In childbirth, can one twin's arm stick out of the womb and then the other child is born first?",
        "body": "\"When the time came for her to give birth, there were twin boys in her womb. As she was giving birth, one of them put out his hand; so the midwife took a scarlet thread and tied it on his wrist and said, \u201cThis one came out first.\u201d But when he drew back his hand, his brother came out, and she said, \u201cSo this is how you have broken out!\u201d And he was named Perez.  Then his brother, who had the scarlet thread on his wrist, came out. And he was named Zerah.\" - Genesis 38: 27-30     It is implied that before birth, they knew the mother had twins.    Any good midwife can determine when a woman is carrying twins. The uterus will be bigger, and there will be excess everything: excess heads, excess rumps, excess backbones (these are things that can actually be felt and located on manual examination). Late in the pregnancy, if both twins are head down (the usual and most common presentation), there will be two rumps up top.     The first thing to come out of the womb was one baby's arm... The arm goes back into the womb.   In my medical experience delivering babies (I've delivered a significant number), this is fairly unlikely if the story is told without including pauses. For one thing, the waters would have had to have broken - at least one sac if they were dichorionic diamniotic twins, which is most common for non-identical twins (which they were). This usually occurs very close to the time of birth, when the pelvis would be already occupied by a head. There's not a lot of room for hands and arms to be swinging freely in there.        The first thing to come out of the womb was one baby's arm (upon which the first thing the midwife does is tie a crimson thread to it).   However, compound presentations may occur in a \"roomy\" pelvis, and are more likely to occur when the pelvis is not fully occupied by the fetus because of low birth weight, multiple gestation, polyhydramnios, or a large pelvis. They occur in singleton pregnancies about once in ~1500 births, and usually, the \"misplaced\" part is a hand or arm. In general, if left unattended, the hand will retract or the arm will extend further as labor progresses.     ...unborn children have all their reflexes in utero, [therefore] unborn babies are fully capable, within the limitations of the space available, of reacting as they would as newborns. The simplest approach, therefore, may be to apply a benign noxious stimulus, such as a gentle pinch to a fingertip of the advancing hand. By applying a benign noxious stimulus (between contractions, of course), the hand may withdraw and never appear in the undesired position again.   In Genesis, note that the hand alone came out, and since it usually retracts, this is possible. The tying of thread around the infant's arm might be enough noxious stimuli to cause it to retract.  As I said, with twins there's less room, however     Rupture of membranes when the presenting part is still high also increases the risk of compound presentation, cord prolapse, or both... In multiple gestations, a possible scenario involves the head of the first twin and an extremity of the second twin within the birth canal.   Which would be the exact scenario described in Genesis.  Dichorionic diamniotic twin pregnancy Image from About Multiple Birth Pregnancy Compound Presentations Management of the fetus with compound presentation  ",
        "id": 194,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wearing condom during fellatio,",
        "body": "You can get Genital Herpes from someone licking your scrotum and there is no protection from Genital Herpes with condoms anyway as they don't cover the scrotum.  With oral sex, the risk is only there for you if the person giving oral sex has a cold sore and the risk is only there for your partner if you have Genital Herpes.",
        "id": 1539,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does supplementation of garlic/allicin reduce the number of incidences and severity/duration of the common cold?",
        "body": "Taken from skeptics.stackexchange.com:  Summary: There is not yet enough evidence to form an opinion.  The 2014 Cochrane review, Garlic for the common cold by Elizabeth Lissiman, Alice L Bhasale and Marc Cohen, examined the study Preventing the common cold with a garlic supplement: a double-blind, placebo-controlled survey shows, and concluded it wasn't too bad:     The included trial was of reasonable quality   but still not perfect:           Figure 1. 'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.   Cochrane reviews normally systematic examine many different papers. However, this  review was unable to find any other high quality papers on the subject, and concluded:     Implications for practice      There is no conclusive evidence to recommend garlic supplements as a preventative or treatment option for the common cold. A single, small trial was found suggesting garlic might reduce the incidence of the common cold if taken continuously as a daily prophylactic (preventive treatment) but the results require validation. There is currently no evidence to help decide whether treating common colds with garlic will reduce symptom severity or days of illness. Anecdotally, adverse events reported include odour and minor skin or respiratory irritation. The frequency of adverse effects could not be determined from the evidence available.   We need more evidence though to seriously recommend such supplements. I hope there will be more studies in the future.",
        "id": 837,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why i feel cold",
        "body": "One may be cold for several reasons:  low air temperature especially if it is windy and humid, is the most common cause. Some people are cold at 70\u00baF, others only at 60\u00baf and a few people are very hardy and can easily tolerate temperatures below 50\u00baF provided there is no wind.   Younger and physically active people can also tolerate low temperatures better than the aged or bedridden.   High body temperature is another cause: fever and hyperthermia are examples.    Some disease states also make you more sensitive to cold temperatures: hypothyroidism is one of them.  ",
        "id": 1408,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does chin augmentation (through plastic surgery) affect dental prosthesis (or vice versa)",
        "body": "The question of augmentation-or-prothesis first is difficult to answer, and may even be based on the personal physiology of an individual. As such, health.se can't address that question.   Regarding the second question, \"can chin-augmentation affect the individual's bite...\", there's a study done with porous hydroxyapatite (not sure if chin-augmentation techniques vary) that indicates:     Cephalometrically, the procedure was found to provide very stable   results, with little change in the position of the implants and no   appreciable resorption of the implants and bone.   Chin augmentation with porous hydroxyapatite blocks.",
        "id": 537,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can one combine depression and self discipline?",
        "body": "   Depressed persons typically stop performing basic tasks such as eating regularly, taking showers, going out and other similar mundane and boring tasks that requires self some discipline.   [citation needed]     What I am looking for is documentation or case studies on people that have been diagnosed with depression, yet still manage to perform normal ADL (Activities of daily living) such as grocery shopping, errands, social activities. How prevalent is the stereotypical lay in bed type of depression versus functional depression, and where can I find more resources on this?   There are cases of depression with ADL, and they are at least as common as the major depressive disorder.    Depression is a highly individual disease and comes in many sizes, shapes and forms. A form of depression is dysthymia, or persistent depressive disorder (PDD) a long-lasting (>2 years) depression during which the individual may be functioning, and may also suffer from episodes of major depressive disorders (known as double-depression). This does not mean that PDD is less severe than other types of depression like MDD (major depressive disorder) or post-natal depression.  The major depressive disorder (MDD) as such is defined as a combination of symptoms that interfere with the ability to work, study, sleep, eat, and enjoy once pleasurable activities. Such a disabling episode of depression may occur only once but more commonly occurs several times in a lifetime. This means that there is a form of depression which is defined by being \u201edisabling\u201c in a way. This does not mean that all types (or even more than one specific type of depression) ",
        "id": 2359,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why did the UK ban phenmetrazine?",
        "body": "As correctly asserted, it is banned class B stimulant un the UK. In fact it was banned in 1971 so I am unsure why you think the ban was recent.  If you have social disorders and live in the UK you can ask for a referral from your doctor. Most common route is medication coupled with therapy (group or solo).  To why it was banned is a deeper question. When the misuse act was drawn up it pulled together substances that were known to be used to a 'high'. Primarily in Sweden it was abused for the high it gives leading to classification as a narcotic in 1959 ",
        "id": 1087,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can viruses be inherited?",
        "body": "A Universal childhood virus is inherited in DNA.      A virus that causes a universal childhood infection is often passed   from parent to child at birth, not in the blood but in the DNA,   according to a new study.   ... Her team is now investigating what this means for the children.     Researchers found that most babies infected with the HHV-6 virus,   which causes roseola, had the virus integrated into their chromosomes.   Not only that, but either the father or mother also had the virus in   the chromosomes, suggesting it was a germline transmission \u2013 passed on   in egg or sperm.   https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14658-universal-childhood-virus-is-inherited-in-dna/",
        "id": 1347,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What's the correct way to sneeze?",
        "body": "Whatever you do, make sure you cover your mouth with e.g. the inside of your elbow. Spreading bugs is a) bad, and b) impolite.  See this CDC webpage for more information.",
        "id": 1773,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does a skull mend after a surgery?",
        "body": "The article you cited answers your question.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniotomy     The amount of skull that needs to be removed depends on the type of   surgery being performed. The bone flap is then replaced using titanium   plates and screws or another form of fixation (wire, suture, etc.). ",
        "id": 1478,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How does breastfeeding protect the mother's bones?",
        "body": "I can understand your confusion, since the literature has confounding data.  However, I would suggest that you expand your reasoning beyond only thinking about calcium demand and consider hormonal changes as well.  Regardless, a newer paper that recently came out from Hwang et al. (2016) has some great information.  They cite the papers that have shown protective effects as well as the papers that show deleterious effects.  It is a complex issue, since the length of time of the breastfeeding matters as well as past and present medical history; it would be important to correct for differences in exercise, smoking, and diet; and age of breastfeeding as well as age of menarche are important as well.   References  Hwang, I. R., Choi, Y. K., Lee, W. K., Kim, J. G., Lee, I. K., Kim, S. W., &amp; Park, K. G. (2016). Association between prolonged breastfeeding and bone mineral density and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: KNHANES 2010-2011. Osteoporosis International, 27(1), 257\u2013265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-015-3292-x",
        "id": 2379,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is it ok to use sterile eye drops every day",
        "body": "Not sure what you mean by sterile eye drops? Most eye drops are sterile formulations so you do not introduce bacteria or pyrogens into your eyes.  Regardless, I looked into the product Clearine and found that the active ingredient is naphazoline. There are still many over the counter eye drop products that contain naphazoline so you might consider trying one of those. Visine-A is one example  If those are not strong enough there are some prescription only naphazoline eye drops that have a higher concentration that you could discuss with your doctor.",
        "id": 1174,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Which blood test results would most indicate further testing for cancer?",
        "body": "Short answer? Most likely none.  Better answer? What you are asking is what we health professionals call \"Screening tests\", which are by definition highly sensitive but relatively non-specific routine tests that are cost-effective to conduct routinely in HEALTHY population at risk for a particular disease.  Things like Prostate Antigen or Occult Blood in Stool may fall in this category.  So, there won't be a catch-all for what you want. Especially because \"cancer\" is, as you probably know, not a disease but rather a cluster of them, with different epidemiologies.  For example, it makes sense to check PSA in a male over 40 years of age, as screening for prostate cancer, because it is a slow disease with very good prognosis if caught early.  Same PSA, same pathology, but now your patient is a man identical to the first example, except he is now 80 years old. It is in fact much more probable that you will get an altered result and that he will in fact have prostate cancer. However, it's pretty futile to check his PSA because even if it was through the roof and he did in fact have cancer, at that age the benefit of actually making the diagnosis and treating him more likely than not will be outweighed by the cost of treatment (speaking both in terms of money and quality of life).  In short. Yes, there are such a thing as screening tests. Yes, they are great tools if employed judiciously. No, there are no catch-all batteries of tests that could detect cancer in healthy individuals in a cost-effective way.",
        "id": 1616,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Why is it important to eat healthy food in a low-stress environment?",
        "body": "Good evening.  I would like to point out that this question might be to general for a complete answer but I will do my best in point out some points.  When it comes to health, eating healthy is important regardless if your in a low stress or a high stress environment, and while I do realize you asked about eating healthy in a low stress environment I felt it was important to point out some of the stress inducing problem.   Effect of stress  Stress causes the release of hormones in your blood stream and it arrives and affects your entire body (From lectures). The extended exposure to stress has effects on cognitive and mental health, (Sonia J. et al.) and immune system (David N. et al.) among others.  Effects of Food  This one is probably self explanatory, between not eating the amount of vitamins required to problems such as obesity there's plenty we could talk about.   -For vitamins I like to refer to this very informative and complete website: http://universityhealthnews.com/daily/nutrition/the-abcs-of-vitamin-deficiency-symptoms-you-can-treat-yourself/  -Due to byproduct of protein metabolism ammonia, excess of protein intake can have toxic effects(William V. et al.).   Even if you live in a low stress environment the health issues obtained from unhealthy eating remain.  I hope This was useful to you and, even if not completely, answered your question.  References:   Sonia J. Lupien, Bruce S. McEwen, Megan R. Gunnar &amp; Christine Heim ; Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition David N Khansari, Anthony J Murgo, Robert E Faith. Effects of stress on the immune system William V. McDermott, Jr., M.D. ,Metabolism and Toxicity of Ammonia ",
        "id": 1627,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Piece of leftover toenail on big toe, too small to remove",
        "body": "This is how I do it:   I pull the skin on the left side of the big toe down with my fingers - this exposes the leftover part of the nail. I pull up the front bit of the leftover part of the nail with tweezers and thus release it a bit. This part of the nail is not attached to the nail bed, so this doesn't really hurt.  Using small pointed scissors, I cut only the part of the leftover nail that is not attached to the nail bed. (You may want to clean the area with alcohol first and sterilize the scissors in a flame.)   If to you everything looks more complicated, you may want to...well... visit a doctor.  About an infection. Such a broken nail is not much different from the properly cut nail. I mean, when you clip the nail normally, you also \"injure\" it. On the photo, there is apparently a bit more skin at the front exposed as normally, but it really does not look like a \"wound.\" Was there any blood? If worried, you can put on a small amount of an antibiotic cream or spray it.  On the other hand, the more you pick it the more likely it will become infected. But again, I do not see any big risk here.",
        "id": 1453,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Pine allergies is it possible?",
        "body": "I had a neighbor (who actually farmed Christmas trees) who was allergic to pine pollen. That's not something that you would get from bringing a tree into the house in December though. You can find plenty of information about pine tree pollen allergies - they don't appear to be serious.  The American College of Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology points out that some people are also allergic to eating pine nuts. Keep that in mind, though cones on your tree shouldn't be considered edible anyway, the tree may have been sprayed with all kinds of things.  Finally, not all Christmas trees are pine.",
        "id": 2092,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Are these studies about red algae reducing cold virus by 92% believable?",
        "body": "One might wonder why they gave an ambiguous and questionably relevant figure like \"reduces virus by 92%\" rather than saying \"people recovered more quickly\" or something like that. The answer is that in reference 1, which used real-world measures of cold severity and duration, the drug was a total failure. You can see this by looking on the results tab at the \"95% confidence interval.\" This is intended to represent a range of plausible values for the true effect of the drug, extrapolating from the sample of people that was studied (it gives a range of values because you can never know the exact value -- due to random chance, the people who were included in a study won't perfectly represent the entire population of people who might use the drug). By scientific convention, if the 95% confidence interval includes zero, the evidence isn't strong enough to say that the drug has an effect.   The study looked at several outcomes, including patients' ratings of their symptoms, their impression of whether the drug worked, and the duration of their cold. For the first four outcomes, the confidence interval includes zero. For #5, duration of the cold, they don't report that kind of confidence interval, but they report a p-value which tells you the same thing (if p>.05, then by convention the evidence is not strong enough). For #6 they used a test where the critical value for the confidence interval is 1 and not 0.   In other words, the clinical trial of this particular drug gives us little reason to believe that it works. That doesn't mean that it doesn't work, but they certainly haven't made a convincing case.",
        "id": 144,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Abnormal shrinkage of the eyeball",
        "body": " Atrophia bulbi (with shrinkage)  It occurs with shrinkage and also without shrinkage. In without shrinkage, generally the eye is of normal size, but the globe can be enlarged due to glaucoma. In with shrinkage, the globe becomes soft,small and partially collapsed. Atrophy is present in the intraocular tissues but the relationship between the tissues are relatively intact.The horizontal and verical rectal muscles are pulled off which gives the globe a cuboid-like appearance rather than a spherical one. The intraocular pressure (IOP) is decreased. The anterior chamber collapses and the cornea becomes edematous and opacified.  Phthisis bulbi   It is also called as atrophia bulbi with disorganization. The globe becomes small, mostly under an average diameter of 16-19 mm(noraml is 24-26 mm). The sclera becomes thickened and the cornea is opacified. Intraocular ossification(bone-formation) may also occur. The bowman layer, lens and retina are calcified. Proliferation and metaplasia of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) leads to drusen formation of the eye.      [Source 4]     References:  1: AMERICAN ACADEMY OF OPHTHALMOLOGY    2: Essentials of Ophthalmology By Neil J. Friedman, Peter K. Kaiser  3: Ocular Pathology By Myron Yanoff, Joseph William Sassani  4: The Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary Illustrated Manual of Ophthalmology      ...By Neil J.      Friedman, Peter K. Kaiser, Roberto Pineda II  5: Pathology of the Eye By G.O.H. Naumann, D.J. Apple",
        "id": 2329,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many years is considered long term drug/medication usage",
        "body": "Yes, you have been on the PPI's long term. Not to be confused with continuous long-term, which is because you broke the cycle several times in the five years. Criteria;    Taking them for 5 years Taking them for a month or almost a month  Taking them for a reason that may not go away(not sure, but if the condition is chronic then you will need the meds chronic/longterm) signifying that you will continue to need them   Medscape:     a definition in the literature for \"long-term\" is lacking; neither the   AGA guidelines nor the ACG guidelines define what is considered   long-term. For the rest of this article, the authors use long-term to   designate therapy greater than 14 days   So we can deduce that if you continue therapy for longer than 14 days every year you will be long term.  About.GERD.com     Be aware that the OTC proton pump inhibitors should only be used as   directed for 14 days for the treatment of frequent heartburn. If your   heartburn continues, talk to your healthcare professional. No more   than three 14-day treatment courses should be used in one year.   So from here we can see that PPI's here are only indicated for around 14 days 3 times a year.  Are Heartburn Medications Safe for Long-Term Use?  Approved dosing chart for how long to take and amount of PPI",
        "id": 918,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Instant nausea when boarding aircraft",
        "body": "It sounds as though you're developing a conditioned response or allergy to some smell of the aircraft insides. Insecticides are used in some international flights but this is prior to disembarkation, and should have cleared by the time you embark. If it's linked to a particular airline, it may be the air freshener they use, and as your flight proceeds, the internal air recirculation systems scrub the air of it. So, you could ask the airlines if they all use a particular product.  Perhaps you could try some nasal filters  with activated charcoal to scrub the air for you to see if it helps in that first 20 minutes.",
        "id": 874,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Stray cat scratch - tetanus?",
        "body": "No one can predict the future, nor can we diagnose over the internet, so I won't address that aspect of your question. However, I can tell you why the doctor wanted the following shots.  Tetanus immunization: Any time a person gets a \"dirty\" wound* (animal bites and cat scratches are considered dirty - think of what a cat does with it's paws), tetanus immunization should be considered if the last immunization was more than 5 years ago (10 years if it's a clean wound.)  Tetanus Immune Globulin: for dirty wounds in people with an unknown history of prior immunization, or if 2 or fewer doses in the past.  Often in the past, elderly individuals were unimmunized against tetanus because of the availability and scheduling of the immunization. The TIG is recommended because the tetanus toxoid - the \"tetanus vaccine\" - takes a while (and several doses) to induce immunity. The TIG provides immediate but temporary immunity by directly providing antitoxin.   Rabies/Rabies Immune Globulin - for any bite from an animal of unknown status. Nonbite exposures rarely cause rabies, however that does not mean never. Such exposures should be evaluated for possible postexposure prophylaxis administration. If someone lives in an area where a significant numbers of rabid animals are known to exist, the recommendations will be different than in an area where rabies is rarely detected.  However, if the cat can be caught and quarantined (if the animal can be found and held for observation), a physician may delay this treatment.  It's a bit late now, but soap and water should be your first line of treatment for dirty wounds; if rabies is a possibility, apply Betadine/providone iodine after using soap and water.  Signs of wound infection include: puffiness, warmth, pain, redness extending outward from the wound, discharge of pus, a foul smell, streaks going up from the wound towards the body, fever, chills or muscle aches.  You can always go back to the doctor if you are worried. It's never \"too late\". You should also read about the signs and symptoms of tetanus, which is the results of an infection where the toxin spreads through the body. You cannot tell by looking at a wound if it's \"tetanus\". You can only tell if it's tetanus prone.  If you live in the US, you can often discuss the need for rabies prophylaxis not only with a doctor, but by calling your local or state Department of Health.  Again, it's never too late to see a doctor, and you should do so if you have any concerns (which you clearly do.)  Also, the doctor should address whether other tetanus shots should be given and when.  *Such as, but not limited to, wounds contaminated with dirt, feces, soil, and saliva; puncture wounds; avulsions; and wounds resulting from missiles, crushing, burns, and frostbite. Persons with wounds that are neither clean nor minor, and who have had fewer than 3 prior doses of tetanus toxoid or have an unknown history of prior doses should receive TIG as well as Td or Tdap. This is because early doses of toxoid may not induce immunity, but only prime the immune  system. The TIG provides temporary immunity by directly providing antitoxin. This ensures that protective levels of antitoxin are achieved even if an immune response has not yet occurred. - CDC, (Pink Book) Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, 13th Edition Nonbite exposures from terrestrial animals rarely cause rabies. However, occasional reports of rabies transmission by nonbite exposures suggest that such exposures should be evaluated for possible postexposure prophylaxis administration. - CDC ",
        "id": 201,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is there any way to increase self-burn calories rate?",
        "body": "It is extremely difficult to measure TDEE (Total Daily Energy Expenditure) - the calories one's body uses in a day - because of how complex the body works, how many factors effect it, and how different each person is. 150 calories/day is a relatively small amount in the grand scheme, and probably will not affect you a ton, especially in the short term.   One surefire way to increase TDEE is to gain muscle, as each muscle cell uses much more energy, even at rest, than each fat cell.  When you exercise, try shifting your focus from burning calories to building muscle (and you will still obviously burn calories in the process).  You can do this by weight training and resistance training most simply - start out small, find techniques that work for you, and keep upping the intensity over time.",
        "id": 2023,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can the cysteine from onions assimilated by the body?",
        "body": "Cysteine is an amino acid. It is true that it is denaturated in the stomach, but this means only its secondary structure (\"shape\"), but not the chemical bonds, are changed. So, the cysteine from onions will be absorbed as proper cysteine.  I'm not aware of any special health benefits of cysteine in otherwise healthy individuals, though.  Also, vegetables are in general low in protein and hence in cysteine. They are high-protein foods (meat, fish, eggs, nuts) that are high in cysteine.   Note, that cysteine is not the same as N-acetyl cysteine.  EDIT:   100 grams of a raw onion contains 0.004 g cysteine. (USDA.gov) 100 grams of cooked chicken leg contains 0.321 g cysteine (USDA.gov), so about 80 times as much as one big onion.   (NOTE: There is a typo in USDA.gov: they have wrongly written cystine instead of cysteine)  N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) is a supplement that acts as a \"prodrug\" for L-cysteine, which means NAC is converted to cysteine in your body.    It is true that cysteine is converted to glutathione and more cysteine would provide more glutathione. But \"more glutathione\" as such is not already better for health. Further, you would need to know which exact health effect you want to achieve.  My conclusion: Although, onions are viable, they are relatively poor source of cysteine.  ",
        "id": 1469,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How many Calories Deficit Equals 1 KG Loss, approximately",
        "body": "Burning 3,500 calories equals 1 pound of weight loss. To lose 1 kilogram of body weight, you would need to create a deficit of about 7,700 calories.  As stated above, 3,500 calories equals about 1 pound (0.45 kilogram) of fat, you need to burn 3,500 calories more than you take in to lose 1 pound.  So, in general, if you cut 500 calories from your typical diet each day, you'd lose about 1 pound a week (500 calories x 7 days = 3,500 calories).  Calories burned during exercise is affected by body weight, intensity of workout, conditioning level and metabolism.  References:  http://www.livestrong.com/article/370797-how-much-weight-in-kilograms-should-you-aim-to-lose-per-week-while-dieting/  http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/weight-loss/basics/weightloss-basics/hlv-20049483",
        "id": 883,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What are the health benefits and risks of \"radon therapy\"?",
        "body": "Terminology note: I am going on the assumption that by 'rheumatism' you are referring to rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic destructive inflammatory condition  There is not good or sufficient evidence to suggest that 'Radon bathing' confers symptomatic benefit for rheumatoid arthritis (and possibly some other diseases)    Is radon therapy a 'helpful therapy'?  This is a tricky-ish one to answer definitively. The best I can say is that I remain (healthily) skeptical of the evidence.  A 2012 study in mice (PDF) concluded \"Radon therapy ameliorates the inflammatory processes responsible for the arthritogenic activity of human TNF in mice.\"; however, (1) that was in mice, not humans; and (2) the numbers involved were quite small (17 vs 18) and I cannot see any analysis to suggest their results are statistically significant.  The journal Dose-Response seems to have published a number of papers on the subject:   Radon Treatment Controversy (2006) The Therapeutic use of Radon: A Biomedical Treatment in Europe; An \u201cAlternative\u201d Remedy in the United States (2007) Potential Treatment of Inflammatory and Proliferative Diseases by Ultra-Low Doses of Ionizing Radiations (2012)   How might radon be helpful? From the first article:     The exact mechanism of radon's effect on human body is not completely understood. However, the most favored hypothesis is that radon's action is mediated by the neuroendocrine system, stimulation of the suprarenal glands by the hypophysis, rather than by direct action on the T cells.    The last one is a general discussion of the use low-dose ionising radiation (ie not limited to radon) to treat disease. Specifically to rheumatoid arthritis, it references a 2005 review and meta-analysis which conclude there is benefit, but should be treated with some skepticism as the author is affiliated with Gasteiner Heilstollen Hospital, which offers radon spa therapy.  It seems that there may be a potential benefit for low-dose ionising radiation via neuroendocrine induction; but the evidence is (at worst) anecdotal and not extensive.  Another study from 2015 indicates that benefit of radon spa treatment may be 'due to chance':     adding radon to carbon dioxide baths did not improve pain intensity at three months but may improve overall well-being and pain at six months compared with carbon dioxide baths without radon, but this may have happened by chance.    Note: That study includes an excellent 'plain language' summary.  As far as I am aware, radon therapy is not available via the NHS in the UK.  Overall, there is no high-quality level one data to support the use of radon therapy for rheumatoid arthritis*.  Radon exposure (due to gas build-up in homes) definitely is harmful  From the National Cancer Institute:     Radon is a radioactive gas released from the normal decay of the elements uranium, thorium, and radium in rocks and soil. It is an invisible, odorless, tasteless gas that seeps up through the ground and diffuses into the air.      [...]      Radon decays quickly, giving off tiny radioactive particles. When inhaled, these radioactive particles can damage the cells that line the lung. Long-term exposure to radon can lead to lung cancer, the only cancer proven to be associated with inhaling radon. There has been a suggestion of increased risk of leukemia associated with radon exposure in adults and children; however, the evidence is not conclusive.   So long term exposure to radon causes lung cancer, and is apparently the second-leading cause of lung cancer after smoking.  As such it is important to be aware of the risks of indoor radon exposure.  So is spa radon harmful?  Given the smaller doses involved, it is hard to answer given the paucity of evidence; but I didn't find any bold, obvious warnings or studies to suggest that.   From the 2015 article on balneotherapy referrer to earlier:     we do not have precise information about side effects and complications of balneotherapy. This is particularly true for rare side effects. Side effects may include skin rash, infection and accidents, for example, slipping on wet surfaces near the bath area. The only study that reported side effects stated that they did not find any.   So I would not go so far as to label it 'safe'.    *: Credit to Graham Chiu for suggesting this qualifier.  References   Radon therapy ameliorates disease progression and prolongs survival in TNF \u03b1 tg mice + PDF Dose-Response Radon Treatment Controversy The Therapeutic use of Radon: A Biomedical Treatment in Europe; An \u201cAlternative\u201d Remedy in the United States https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3526331/ Radon therapy for the treatment of rheumatic diseases\u2014review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials Radon and Cancer -  National Cancer Institute  Indoor radon exposure and lung cancer: a review of ecological studies Radon, Smoking, and Lung Cancer: The Need to Refocus Radon Control Policy  Radon gas warning Balneotherapy (or spa therapy) for rheumatoid arthritis ",
        "id": 2162,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "What makes rice gluten-free?",
        "body": "tl;dr:  The terminology used to compare plant proteins is used on a level of abstraction too high to give meaningful medical results. Prolamins are too broad of a chemical category to assay their biology and qualities in disease.  Gluten-related disorders is a less than ideal term for a wide variety of disorders involving grains. While coeliac disease is triggered by wheat gluten, a wheat allergy is less well placed into this analytical category. For the consumer's sake of simplicity the equation of gluten=wheat like grains makes some sense, as a gluten-free product usually is also free of wheat.  But all storage proteins in grasses are classified into four groups, called Osborne fractions:     Albumin: water soluble, sometimes called leukosin in wheat (most likely allergen) Globulin: soluble in salt-water, called edestin in wheat Prolamin: soluble in strong ethanol, called gliadine in wheat and oryzin in rice (not to be confused with the enzyme, but because of the name double often called just prolamin) Glutelin: alkali/acid-soluble to non-soluble, called glutenin in wheat and oryzenin in rice   That is a very broad classification system for a mixture of several proteins in one group (or \"family\") based on very basic properties. The actual contents, configurations and other chemical, biological or medical qualities of the various proteins are not really covered with this scheme. But it is already apparent that although the proteins from rice and wheat may be classified similarly but are different enough to get their different names early on.  For StackExchange-simplicity's sake let's concentrate on the example of coeliac disease:     Celiac disease (CD) is more than just an \u201callergy\u201d or \u201csensitivity\u201d to wheat and gluten. It is a lifelong, permanent intolerance to the gliadin fraction of wheat protein and its related alcohol-soluble proteins (prolamins) found in rye and barley. In patients with the genetic susceptibility to CD, ingesting these proteins leads to an autoimmune enteropathy that will self-perpetuate as long as these foods remain in the diet. The good news is that, unlike most autoimmune conditions, removal of the environmental trigger (gluten) from the diet of a biopsy-proven celiac results in complete symptomatic and histologic resolution of the disease in the majority of patients.   Differentiating CD from wheat allergy, gluten sensitivity, and other autoimmune gastrointestinal (GI) diseases (such as Crohn\u2019s disease) can be challenging.   From: Michelle Maria Pietzak: \"Dietary Supplements in Celiac Disease\", in: S. Devi Rampertab &amp; Gerard E. Mullin (Eds.): \"Celiac Disease\", Humana Press: New York, Heidelberg, 2014, p137.)   If is only the gliadin fraction and the closely related proteins in rye and barley that trigger this disease, then how does gliadin compare to oryzin?     A singular feature of rice is that prolamin, which represents the major endosperm storage protein in other cereals except, oats (Shewry and Halford, 2002), is a minor protein in all rice grain milling fractions, whereas glutelin is the dominant protein in brown and milled rice. The proportion of albumin, globulin, glutelin and prolamin has been reported to be 5\u201310, 7\u201317, 75\u201381 and 3\u20136%, respectively, in brown rice, 4\u20136, 6\u201313, 79\u201383 and 2\u20137%, respectively, in milled rice, and 24\u201343, 13\u201336, 22\u201345 and 1\u2013 5%, respectively, in rice bran (Adebiyi et al., 2009; Agboola et al., 2005; Cao et al., 2009; Ju et al., 2001; Juliano, 1985; Zhao et al., 2012).          Rice prolamin has been reported to be composed of three polypeptide groups having MW of 10, 13 and 16 kDa, with the 13 kDa prolamin being predominant, as determined by SDS-PAGE (Hibino et al., 1989; Ogawa et al., 1987). In the current study, prolamin showed one major band with MW of about 10 kDa. Also, two minor subunits of about 18 kDa and 31\u201332 kDa were present, most likely due to cross-contamination with glutelin. The method used to extract the rice protein fractions from RF coupled with their solubilisation in the strong reducing buffer prior to SDS-PAGE analysis, provided good resolution of the proteins characterising the different fractions, which allowed the identification of the protein subunits of the intact rice protein ingredients.   Luca Amagliania et al.: \"Composition and protein profile analysis of rice protein ingredients\", Journal of Food Composition and Analysis   Volume 59, June 2017, Pages 18-26, [DOI].(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2016.12.026)   The exact structure of all the components making up a fraction of these proteins is not known yet. But it is clear that rice oryzin/prolamin does not trigger the following:     Dietary gluten storage proteins from wheat, rye, and barley contain protein sequences that elicit a diverse array of immunological response. Oats do not typi- cally elicit an immunological response unless there is sufficient cross-contamination from milling and handling of gluten-rich grains (i.e., wheat). Alpha-2 gliadin (\u03b12-gliadin) contains a 33 amino acid sequence that is resistant to digestion by human gut and pancreatic enzymes and is a classic CD antigen.   In order to mount an immunological response to gluten proteins, a number of events need to take place. The antigen must breach the protective barrier of the small intestine to be presented to the B and T cells of the mucosal immune system by major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHCs) present on antigen- presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells. Gluten proteins appear to traverse the cells and leak between cells due to defective regulation of tight junction proteins such as zonulin-1, providing a target for therapy 4. A number of agents can initiate a breach in barrier function (i.e., infections, nonsteroidal medications, bacterial overgrowth); thus, defective permeability may be an antecedent to disease develop- ment as proposed by Fasano. The resultant processing of indigestible gluten anti- gens by the mucosal immune system leads to active small intestine inflammation whose inflammatory cytokines can further loosen the tight junctions and promote further entry of more gluten peptides to perpetuate the vicious cycle.   The enzyme tissue transglutaminase (TTG) removes the amide group from glutamine of gluten peptides such \u03b12-gliadin, leaving it in a highly negatively charged state, which increases its affinity and binding to MHC HLA-DQ2.5 or DQ8. The aforementioned antibodies against TTG and deamidated gliadin become an important screening tool for CD.   Gerard E. Mullin 2014 (above), chap. Pathobiology, p2.  ",
        "id": 2303,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How do you filter out Benzene?",
        "body": "VOCs are one of the most prevalent indoor air pollutants. They are released by many common materials, from foams to carpets to paints.  House air circulation is not very conducive to adequate dispersion, and it is usually worse in the winter.  There are known health effects from headaches to cancer.  Effects experienced are usually limited to symptoms rather than more severe pathology, but it depends on air concentration and chemical.  There are filtration systems for VOCs.  This is not an exhaustive list.    I have written a term paper on plant VOC filtration, and researched/spoken with an MD pulmonologist who is an Environmental Health professor, for my OWN home air quality questions.  Sources below.  1. Activated charcoal and similar carbon filtration systems do filter VOCs.  The issue is air circulation; check the square footage of units. I myself purchased a Vornado (not product placement, just an example) and there are numerous others. (Note: the ones that use electric fields to sanitize air produce potentially harmful molecules. That's another topic.)  There are full-house HEPA filtration systems (HEPA filters can over-work your furnace) for particulates, but do note that putting a HEPA filter on a normal furnace can cause it to overwork and break.  However for VOCs, I imagine there are installable carbon filters for even a normal house HVAC. If you check into that, please add a comment or answer and I'll include it!     Air filters with activated charcoal will remove benzene (and other   volatile organic compounds)  Source:    2. Individual respirators for chemicals do exist as well.  However it is not feasible to live in a gas mask...  3. Plants filter VOCs pretty well.  Some years ago there was a surge of large downtown office buildings across the world that installed numerous of the plants that have the highest filtration rate.  I am going to quote my paper; references below.  It's a text wall, but it thoroughly answers your question.     Studies have shown that there are specific plants that are   particularly excellent at removing VOCs from the air.  Contrary to   what one might expect, it is not the foliage nor flowers of the plants   that are responsible for this filtration; it is the microorganisms   unique to each plant that live on the root systems in the soil.  They   absorb the molecules and metabolism them for energy.  (Wolverton,   1989).        Regarding specific plants, Chrysanthemum morifolium, the florist\u2019s   mum, in multiple studies stood out as the best at removing overall   VOCs in the indoor environment.  Other plants have more \u201cspecialized\u201d   performances.  For removal of formaldehyde, Chmaedorea seifrizii (the   bamboo palm) outperforms all other plants. For benzene,  Hedera helix   (English Ivy) does the best at low concentrations, and Gerbera   jamesonii (the Gerbara daisy) performs best at high concentrations.    The Gerbara daisy also outperforms all others at high concentrations   of TCE, but Spathiphyllum sp. (the Peace Lily) is better than the   daisy at lower TCE concentrations.  The common houseplants golden   pothos and snakeplant are both also well-studied as being adept at   removing VOCs (Wolverton, 1989).      The number of houseplants that would be required in order to   adequately filter an 1800 ft2 home is estimated at 15-18 of 6-8\"   diameter plants per person (Wolverton, 1997).   Aeration of the soil   is critical in order for airborne VOCs to reach these microbes.  There   have been several designs of aerated planters utilizing hydroculture   with charcoal filtration that have aimed to take advantage of this   army of chemical-cleansing microbes, such as the Plant Air Purifier   designed by Wolverton himself, but studies on efficacy are currently   sparse.   Sources:   NASA Clean Air Study and Wolverton Research    http://www.wolvertonenvironmental.com/air.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Clean_Air_Study  https://iaqscience.lbl.gov/voc-cancer http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/indoorair/voc/ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132311002101 Environmental Health and Occupational Medicine courses [like 30 other references for term paper]  ",
        "id": 1906,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Can optic neuritis be recovered 100%?",
        "body": "There's no reason to expect a full recovery within a short period of time. Optic neuritis takes some time to heal - if it does - and usually leads to effects lasting for months or longer. Many studies have found that vision will eventually return to average levels:   Hickman et al. (2002): ~85% of patients eventually reached levels of 20/25 or better in the affected eye, with improvements beginning to show within several weeks. The Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial (ONTT)1: 72% of patients eventually reached levels of 20/20 or better in the affected eye; this dropped to 60% in patients with multiple sclerosis. Two thirds reached these levels in both eyes.   Note that these results are for acute demyelinating optic neuritis; I don't know if that was what you had. Additionally, this is data from the primary episode. The ONTT found that 35% of patients suffered a recurrence within 10 years. Further episodes could lead to longer (or incomplete) recoveries.  Again, though, don't expect the symptoms to go away quickly, especially if you have multiple sclerosis. While certain factors can lead to a quicker recovery, especially in children, this is seldom the case. Finally, consult your doctor before doing the exercises you list. They are not necessary for a recovery and will not necessarily help at all.  Other references:   Royal National Institute of Blind People University of Iowa Science Daily article from the American Academy of Ophthalmology     1 This is a review of the ONTT, not the official final report.",
        "id": 1465,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Picking healthy ingredients for sandwich in Subway",
        "body": "The American Heart Association, as well as the NIH and others, have recommendations on eating healthier when eating out.    The fundamentals of what specific foods AND what quantities of those foods make for a \"healthy\" diet involves a very large discussion that is beyond the scope of this question.   In this specific setting, one way to approach it is to consider the choices between nutrient-dense foods versus calorie-dense foods as ONE measure of \"healthy.\"  For weight management, the number of calories you eat each day are important to consider as well.    Nutrient-dense foods have more nutrition packed into something with fewer calories - for example spinach, cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, sprouts...  Olives and avocados have more calories but are still nutrient dense with healthy fats.  Calorie-dense foods include things that have many calories (and often fat) in small amounts of the food, proportionally high in comparison with less nutrition - like mayonnaise, fried foods, sugar, flour/bread, etc.  Examples: Many cheeses and some meats (like salami or tuna with mayo) have more calories and fat per gram of protein and are therefore less nutrient-dense than lean meats (like chicken or turkey breast).  Mustard or vinegar have nearly no calories, whereas Mayonnaise has a lot.  Subway has a nutrition information webpage for specific information.  ",
        "id": 1675,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Is fibre an essential nutrient?",
        "body": "Essential nutrient means any substance normally consumed as a constituent of food which is needed for growth and development and/or the maintenance of life and which cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts by the body (fao.org).  Dietary fiber does not meet the criteria of being needed for life/growth, so, strictly speaking, it is not an essential nutrient. Anyway, according to some authors \"dietary fiber is essential for a healthy diet\" (Mayo Clinic), for example, insoluble fiber may help maintain bowel regularity and soluble fiber may contribute to intestinal health and lower cholesterol levels. Fiber may also slow down digestion and thus help to control blood sugar levels (PubMed).  Inuits do not eat only meat but also plant foods, such as berries, tubers, roots, seaweed...(Wikipedia: Inuit Cuisine) and, according to the documentary The Last Ice Hunters, some commercial food delivered from Denmark.  Results of a 1930 experiment, in which 2 men were eating exclusively meat (no plant food and hence no fiber) for a year:     At the end of the year, the subjects were mentally alert, physically   active, and showed no specific physical changes in any system of the   body.       The control of the bowels was not disturbed...      ...the clinical observations and laboratory studies gave no evidence   that any ill effects had occurred...   From this very small experiment it is not possible to reliably predict long-term effects of lack of fiber in humans, though.  Conclusion: While not essential for life, fiber can be good for health, especially for bowel regularity.",
        "id": 2100,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much is green tea really good against tooth decay?",
        "body": "Green tea, or any real tea made from the Camellia sinensis plant, has many advantages as a go-to beverage.  It itself does not contain significant amounts of sugar, it has an enamel preserving pH level (that is: it is non-acidic). Some compounds (like the poyphenols) have shown some activity against harmful bacteria causing gingivitis or caries.  The most significant part plays the sometimes enormous amount of fluoride tea contains. Fluoride hardens the enamel against acids from bacteria metabolising around. In fact tea has often so much fluoride that this is much more likely to be a health concern than the caffeine content some hysterics worry about. (Or not? Since everyone should only buy tea that was tested for pesticides,  radioactivity, and other contaminations, why not demand a chemical analysis sheet as well?)   Green tea is tooth friendly. It does not cause or aggravate tooth decay. On the contrary, it usually makes your teeth stronger (and stains them, alas) \u2013 Green tea will not stop or reverse caries. Every sugar drink replaced by tea helps. How much tea is needed for the effects of fluoride to be significant depends on other dietary factors, water fluoridation and tooth paste used. The amount of tea is therefore impossible to gauge exactly but an upper limit is dependent on how much tea a user can take (if the fluoride content is kept well below a dosage causing problems like fluorosis) since caffeine and tannins are not equally well tolerated by everyone. Sources:      Inhibition of Streptococcus mutans biofilm formation using extracts from Assam tea compared to green tea:   Results:   Assam tea has stronger biofilm inhibition activity against S. mutans than green tea. A substance of &lt;10kDa in mass in Assam tea had a high concentration of galloylated catechins and a stronger biofilm inhibiting activity than green tea. In contrast, substances >10kDa in mass from green tea included higher concentrations of polysaccharides composed of galacturonic acid, such as pectin, that enhance biofilm formation.   Conclusions:   The higher concentrations of galloylated catechins in Assam tea may assist in prevention of dental caries, whereas in green tea, this mode of inhibition was likely offset by the presence of pectin. Purification of catechins in partially fermented Assam tea with lower-molecular-weight polysaccharide than pectin may be useful for developing oral care products such as toothpaste and oral care gel pastes.      Inhibition of salivary amylase by black tea in high-caries and low-caries index children: A comparative in vivo study:    Results: The average ratio of maltose to sucrose ratio percentage reduction in high-caries group was 43.63% and 41.17% in no caries group which was highly significant (P &lt; 0.005) while the intergroup comparison was found statistically insignificant.   Conclusions:   Tea decoction has inhibitory effect on salivary amylase activity thus dental caries. The effect was statistically insignificant in children with high- and no-caries index.   An In vitro Study to Compare the Effect of Different Types of Tea with Chlorhexidine on Streptococcusmutans:   Results:   The mean zone of inhibition of the aqueous extracts of green tea, black tea, oolong tea and chlorhexidine was found to be 16.33 mm, 10.33 mm, 19.66 mm and 22 mm respectively. The mean zone of inhibition of the ethanol extracts of green tea, black tea, oolong tea and chlorhexidine was found to be 14 mm, 9 mm, 20.66 mm and 22 mm respectively. The study result state that the inhibitory effect of chlorhexidine is almost similar to that of oolong tea followed by green tea and black tea.   Conclusion: From the present study, it can be concluded that the aqueous and ethanol extracts of oolong tea showed highest antimicrobial activity compared to green tea and black tea.   Green Tea (Camellia Sinensis): Chemistry and Oral Health:   Green tea is a widely consumed beverage worldwide. Numerous studies have suggested about the beneficial effects of green tea on oral conditions such as dental caries, periodontal diseases and halitosis. However, to date there have not been many review articles published that focus on beneficial effects of green tea on oral disease. The aim of this publication is to summarize the research conducted on the effects of green tea on oral cavity. Green tea might help reduce the bacterial activity in the oral cavity that in turn, can reduce the aforementioned oral afflictions. Furthermore, the antioxidant effect of the tea may reduce the chances of oral cancer. However, more clinical data is required to ascertain the possible benefits of green tea consumption on oral health.   A more comprehensive overview with a lot of references are in each:  Yukihiko Hara: \"Green Tea: Health Benefits and Applications\", (Food science and technology ; 106), Marcel Dekker: New York, Basel, 2001.  Helen Mckinley &amp; Mark Jamieson: \"Handbook of Green Tea and Health Research\",  Food and Beverage Consumption and Health Series, Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2009.  Chi-Tang Ho &amp; Jen-Kun Lin &amp; Fereidoon Shahidi: \"Tea and Tea Products. Chemistry and Health-Promoting Properties\", CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2009.",
        "id": 2069,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Wide pushups vs narrow - what are the outcomes?",
        "body": "The wide push-up recruits more of your pectoral muscles while a regular push-up shares the burden with your triceps muscles. According to a small study of eight people, when subjects dropped to their knees to modify the wide push-up, also known as the abduction push-up, they saw a drop in overall muscle activation in the upper body. However, when the same scientists studied the narrow push-up, or adduction push-up, they saw an increase in upper body muscle activation, even though the subjects were modifying on their knees. Thus, they concluded that the narrow push-up is more challenging than the wide push-up.  http://www.livestrong.com/article/433267-push-ups-elbows-in-vs-out/",
        "id": 1401,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "How much blood can one lose (from internal hemoragging) and live prior to a blood transfusion?",
        "body": "That depends on the age and general condition of the patient, as well as why and how fast and where they're losing blood.   In your case, if you had pancreatitis severe enough to perforate the splenic artery (or another of the many large vessels touching the pancreas), the answer is \"not much, cause you're already in bad shape\". Then again, if that were the case, you'd have most likely been in the ICU before the hemorrhage happened for treatment of severe pancreatitis, and would have required surgery or interventional radiology to fix the bleeding, and the transfusion requirement would have been higher than three units, because blood loss quickly rises to litres from a major vessel like that.  The other option is known as hemorrhagic pancreatitis in which you bleed into the tissue of the pancreas itself. It doesn't necessary mean you'd end up needing surgery, and if you did, it would not have been for bleeding, it'd have been to clean out the dead parts of the pancreas. In such a case, blood loss would not be severe (minimal, in fact), but coupled with the rest of the stuff that goes very very wrong during pancreatitis, you'd have needed a modest transfusion anyway, in order to keep your blood hemoglobin content optimal, rather than just good enough (we don't usually transfuse to optimal, because the benefit of that is usually nowhere near as large as the risks of the transfusion itself, so we settle for good enough, if possible).",
        "id": 1353,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Consistency of fingerprint after an injury",
        "body": "The skin has 2 layers: epidermis (the outer) and dermis (the inner). Sliding down the rope may cause an abrasion in which only the epidermis is damaged. Scars develop only when the dermis is damaged.  Fingerprints (Britannica):     Each ridge of the epidermis (outer skin) is dotted with sweat pores   for its entire length and is anchored to the dermis (inner skin) by a   double row of peglike protuberances, or papillae. Injuries such as   superficial burns, abrasions, or cuts do not affect the ridge   structure or alter the dermal papillae, and the original pattern is   duplicated in any new skin that grows. An injury that destroys the   dermal papillae, however, will permanently obliterate the ridges.   So, the fingerprints after an injury that has left no scars will be likely the same as before, because the dermis has not been damaged. To prove this, one can ask \"the officials\" to take his/her fingerprints again...    Some chemotherapeutics can cause \"hand-foot syndrome\" with peeling of the epidermal layer of the skin and loss of fingerprints (Jama Oncology):     Within 8 weeks of treatment, severe quality loss of fingerprints was   noticed in 9 patients treated with capecitabine and in 1 patient   treated with the TKI sunitinib.      Severe fingerprint quality loss recovered completely within 2 to 4   weeks after treatment discontinuation in all 3 patients who were able   to provide posttreatment fingerprints   The article does not specifically say if the restored fingerprints were the same as before, though.",
        "id": 2544,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Best books for understanding pathophysiology",
        "body": "I really liked the pathology textbook Robbins &amp; Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease.  I own the massive book, and it's pretty well written and not difficult to read, given that you have the science background to understand it.  Not that I could sit down and read it, I used it more as a topic reference, but I did have classmates who read the thing, kudos to them.    I loved Pathoma for a more straightforward, simplified, top-down approach to pathology. It solidifies fundamentals without too many details, which Robbins and other sources will certainly fill in for you.  The most comprehensive sources of advanced concepts are usually system-specific texts rather than a general pathology textbook.  For example, extremely advanced cardiac pathophysiology would be more extensively covered in cardiology-specific literature than in Robbins.  Note: This answer is opinion-based. Since Robbins is a fairly standard med school textbook, I think it's fair as an answer; Pathoma is just a very popular resource that I found to be great.",
        "id": 1703,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does a single brain lobe (e.g. parietal lobe) heat more than others during processing tasks that are related to it?",
        "body": "Short Answer- Yes, brain activity does cause temperature fluctuations in specific area.     robust changes in brain temperature could occur in a temperature-stable environment following exposure to various salient somatosensory stimuli and during different types of motivated behaviors.\u00a0   1   There are different points of view on why these fluctuations occur and what their underlying mechanisms are.  Alterations in metabolic brain activity are the primary cause of intra-brain heat accumulation and a force behind more delayed changes in body temperature.\u00a0 1   Brain temperature fluctuations reported in these experiments(here) correlated with the biological significance of the environmental challenges, spontaneous and stimuli-induced changes in EEG and motor activity, and had some structural specificity with respect to the modality of sensory stimuli.   Let's think about numbers:   Although the brain represents ~2% of the human body\u2019s mass, it accounts for ~20% of the organism\u2019s total oxygen consumption at rest\u00a0 Since all energy used for brain metabolism appears to be finally transformed into heat, intense heat production appears to be an essential feature of brain metabolic activity.   From animal experiments All stimuli induced rapid, unique, and relatively long lasting temperature elevations in both brain structures and arterial blood, greatly exceeding the duration of stimulation. Rat experiment   each brain structure had its own basal temperature\u00a0 stimuli induced rapid, unique, and relatively long lasting temperature elevations in both brain structures and arterial blood temperature changes in each brain structure occurred significantly faster and had stronger amplitude than those in arterial blood temperature changes had structural specificity. Both striatal divisions showed quite similar changes, but temperature increases in cerebellum were more delayed and prolonged following each stimulus.\u00a0 temperature changes had structural specificity. Both striatal divisions showed quite similar changes, but temperature increases in cerebellum were more delayed and prolonged following each stimulus.\u00a0   Blood supply to the brain is cooler than the brain itself:   Given that the blood supply to the brain is cooler than the brain itself, and that brain temperatures rise more quickly and to a larger extent than do arterial blood and head muscle temperatures in response to all challenges, intra-brain heat production appears to be the primary cause of functional brain hyperthermia. While arterial blood temperature also gradually increases in response to all challenges, brain-arterial blood temperature differentials grow consistently during behavioral activation, showing an apparent increase in intra-brain heat production. Therefore, it seems that increased blood circulation that accompanies functional brain activation removes heat from the brain brain circulation is a significant factor in the re-distribution of locally released heat within brain tissue and in its removal from the brain, thus contributing to brain temperature fluctuations occurring under behavioral conditions. By increasing blood flow above the brain\u2019s current demand, more oxygen and nutrients are delivered to the areas of potential demand and more potentially dangerous metabolic heat is removed from intensively working brain tissue.\u00a0   More dorsally located structures were consistently cooler  (I added this thing as I thought it was interesting here as it's opposite of what OP had in question, however, that was surface temperature)   Tested at the same conditions, more dorsally located structures were consistently cooler (dorsal striatum, 36.6\u00b0C; hippocampus, 35.6\u00b0C) than more ventrally located structures (ventral tegmental area of midbrain, 37.3\u00b0C; medial preoptic area of hypothalamus, 37.3\u00b0C; nucleus accumbens or NAcc, 37.3\u00b0C).\u00a0   In Conclusion, in contrast to general beliefs that brain temperature is a stable, tightly regulated homeostatic parameter, data presented in this review demonstrate a relatively wide range of fluctuations (~3\u00b0C) occurring in rats following exposure to salient somato-sensory stimuli and during various motivated behaviors. Although rats and humans have obvious differences in temperature regulation and human data are very limited, similarity between rats and monkeys in general patterns of brain temperature fluctuations may support the findings.  References 1.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3149793/#!po=22.6852",
        "id": 2633,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Should a chiropractor be called if my neck is (moderately) out of alignment?",
        "body": "Under no circumstances should you ever allow chiropractic manipulation of the neck unless you're interested causing a stroke or paralysis. There is an artery that exits between two cervical vertebrae. If it gets pinched off, it can cause a full-blown stroke, and over-manipulation can actually break the neck.  ",
        "id": 1275,
        "article_url": ""
    },
    {
        "title": "Does sugar cause children to become hyperactive?",
        "body": "This is a hot topic, and I don\u2019t think there is a firm consensus in the child psychiatry world about the answer. I think a good summary of the literature would leave you with:      X, Y, and Z studies showed an association; \u03a7, \u03a8, and \u03a9 studies showed no association.   Excellent. \u0399n lieu of that, I'm going to use one study to illustrate a couple methodological points to show you why this answer is difficult to know. My goal is to help the reader develop a skeptical eye when research of this type is presented.  One study used teacher questionnaires about hyperactivity symptoms and student questionnaires about dietary habits to see if a relationship existed between high sugar intake and hyperactivity. They found that children were at statistically higher risk for ADHD if they consumed:     less sugar from fruit snacks   low Vitamin C    However, the total simple sugar intake did not correlate with hyperactivity symptoms.  This makes very little sense. Why should fruit snacks be different from other sugar, and where did Vitamin C come from?   Statistical noise. Data interpretation relies on a ratio of signal:noise to find the signal (in this case, an association). A 5-second brainstorm will bring to mind dozens of unrelated (to usual dietary patterns) topics that may affect what students write down on questionnaires: literacy, gender, upbringing, vocabulary, organization, memory, day-of-the-week, recent holidays, who won the Red Sox game, etc. etc. etc. Some of these may reflect recent dietary patterns that skew the memory of usual dietary patterns; others simply affect the accuracy of report. One could generate an equally diverse list of factors that may affect teacher reports. Either way, the result is the same: a noisy signal. Confounding. A confound exists when an extraneous factor exists that correlates with both the independent (dietary report) and the dependent (inattentiveness) variable. In this case, one could imagine that students who tend to be careless about reporting might also be those displaying symptoms of hyperactivity (which tends to run with inattentiveness). It\u2019s not obvious whether that would lead to under or over reporting of sugar intake.   Generally, obvious confounders can be adjusted for statistically (here, I don't see that they did much of that, although they did do separate analyses for boys vs girls). However, no amount of math can adjust for factors that aren\u2019t measured. There was no \u201ccarelessness independent of hyperactivity\u201d score obtained here, and we couldn\u2019t expect it &mdash; it\u2019s a basically unknowable parameter. Certain confounders are inherent to the methodology. Math never fixes this. Multiple comparisons. The basic principle is: if you look at enough factors, something is going to be statistically associated with something else for reasons that have nothing to do with reality. That\u2019s because we define statistical significance as a result that would occur by chance &lt;5% of the time. If you run 20 tests, you have a good chance of coming up with one of them that appears to be positive simply by chance. In data that has a low signal:noise ratio (see #1), this problem is all the more apparent. This is something to think about when unexpected results pop up from a study that was designed to look at something completely different. Vitamin C??!   Please note: this is not meant to be (primarily) a critique of this particular study. My goals here were to help the reader understand:    Why do I find different answers to this question every time I do a google search?    How should we think critically about epidemiological data presented on Health.SE?      Kim, Y. Chang, H. Correlation between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and sugar consumption, quality of diet, and dietary behavior in school children. Nutr Res Pract. 2011 Jun;5(3):236-45. ",
        "id": 64,
        "article_url": ""
    }
]