Molluscum contagiosum (MC) is a skin disease caused by molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV), a poxvirus. The infection causes firm, small, papular lesions, often with an umbilicated center. Lesions may have a region of erythema and can be found anywhere on the body. Lesions may remain for many weeks to months before resolving without treatment; however, in immunocompromised individuals, infection with MCV can cause giant lesions and a large number of lesions that require treatment. Diagnosis is usually made upon visual inspection of the lesions. Although rarely pursued, laboratory confirmation is available. There are several approaches to treating MC lesions, including physical destruction (cryotherapy, curettage, laser therapy) or use of immunomodulatory medicines (topical imiquimod) [1], [2].

MCV is spread by contact with lesion material from an affected individual. Recommendations to prevent the spread of MCV on an individual's body or to others may include keeping the lesions covered and not sharing clothing, linens, or items that may contain lesion exudate with others [3]. Also, avoiding any behavior that would open the lesion and spread the material, such as shaving [4], scratching, and electrolysis [5], is recommended to prevent spread of the virus. An association between swimming pool use and MCV infection has been reported [6],[7], but robust scientific data do not exist to firmly support this association. Although benign, MC can have an adverse effect on patients' and their families' lives, causing emotional concern and anxiety about physical manifestations of the infection [8].

There have been notable clinical cases of patients who present with atopic dermatitis (AD, including eczema) and have concurrent extensive MC lesions [9], [10]. One clinical review of 284 children noted more lesions and a greater extent of surrounding eczema in patients presenting with MC and AD compared to those patients presenting with MC alone [11]. Indeed, there are indications that AD may be a risk factor for acquisition of MCV and that patients with AD may suffer a more extensive course of MC illness [12], but, to date, there are no case-control studies to evaluate these hypotheses.

Although MCV infection occurs in individuals of all ages, the infection is seen most often in children [13]–[15]. Publications often associate MC with tropical environments, the developing world, and poor living conditions, but infections are seen worldwide in a multitude of climates [8], [13], [16], [17]. An analysis of Indian Health Service (IHS) outpatient visit data showed a higher incidence of MC in American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) children aged 1–4 years old compared to other age groups, and this rate was particularly high in the IHS West region [15]. This increased incidence and disparity seen among IHS AI/AN patients, specifically those in the West region, warranted further investigation of cases and their potential risk factors.

We present a study designed to determine potential dermatological risk factors of MCV infection among AI/AN children seen in IHS facilities with a high incidence of MC. Furthermore, we investigated the occurrence of those risk factors in patients with MC.

Published data show a higher incidence of MC in AI/AN children <5 years of age, specifically amongst children aged 1–4 years [15]; and the more recent measures here show the same trend across IHS regions, with the West region having the highest incidence. Moreover, this age distribution has been noted previously in children <5 years old [13], [22]–[24]. Some authors have hypothesized that children in this age range have behaviors and activities that facilitate close contact with affected individuals, thereby facilitating the spread of MCV to others [23], [25], and others have suggested that maternal antibodies may protect newborn infants from infection [23]. Cases from the two IHS facilities examined in the present study had a slight predominance of female patients versus male. There are no consistent data in the literature to suggest one gender is overrepresented by MCV infections [8].

The majority of MC cases in the present study were noted to have a MC diagnosis only once, but over 30% of cases had MC on multiple healthcare center visit records. The duration of illness lasted for several months for many patients and up to one year for one patient. MC is known to persist for months to years, eventually resolving without treatment for many patients [3].

In this population of pediatric AI/AN patients with a high burden of MC, there was an association between MC and prior or co-occurring diagnosis of eczema, eczema or dermatitis, impetigo, and scabies. Prior research has suggested a purported association between patients with AD or eczema and MC [25]–[27], but this study is the first to quantify this relationship. AD patients are known to have an increased susceptibility to many dermatologic infections and are at risk for severe complications from poxviral infections, notably Orthopoxviruses including vaccinia virus [22], [28], [29]. A study that utilized parent recall of prior dermatological conditions in pediatric patients did not find an association between MC illness and prior history of AD [30], but this approach has the limitation of dependence on recall of clinical diagnosis. Here, we utilized documented clinical diagnoses of MC and concurrent or prior diagnosis of several dermatological skin conditions. All of the significant conditions (eczema, eczema or AD, impetigo, scabies) can compromise the integrity of the external epidermal surface, providing portals of entry for the establishment of viral infections. Eczema and AD can also be considered manifestations of immune deficits or disregulation, and this may yield a propensity to develop infections [22].

A recent study of pediatric health survey data suggested that approximately 10% of all children <17 years old in the United States have had a prior diagnosis of eczema, and children <4 years old have the highest incidence of eczema. Also, the incidence of eczema differed geographically, with the western United States having a notably high incidence (although, high incidence rates were is not observed exclusively in the western United States) [31]. Over half of the pediatric MC patients in the present study had a diagnosis of eczema or dermatitis, a remarkably high frequency of diagnoses compared to national data. In a published chart review by Berger, et al., a high percentage of pediatric MC patients (37.2%) had a history of AD [28]. It is unknown if the co-occurring high incidence of eczema and MC are related.

The present study has several possible limitations, as well as, some unique attributes that contribute to the strength of our conclusions. Because the AI/AN populations studied are relatively isolated, the IHS clinic, which offers no-cost health care to eligible beneficiaries, is the source of the vast majority of health care for these populations. It is believed that the charts at Facilities A and B represented most of the clinical visits for an individual over their life to date (up to 5 years of age), so our ascertainment of prior dermatological conditions was likely to be complete. Also, this study was able to capture and review the majority of MC cases <5 years of age at the two outpatient clinics. However, clinical diagnoses (including those for impetigo and scabies) were based on clinical examination alone and never laboratory confirmed, which likely suggests that some diagnoses may have been inaccurate. Diagnostic laboratory testing was only requested for one MC case and the results were not listed in the chart. Similarly, in most diagnoses of AD there was no documentation of any additional laboratory evaluation or referral to a dermatologist for evaluation. Further, surrounding erythema is known to occur with some MC lesions and this was noted for 16.4% of MC cases reviewed here. It is unknown if the presence of erythema surrounding lesions was considered by the practitioners to be a presentation of MC or a presentation of atopy. Such possible misdiagnoses could lead to a misclassification bias in our study, although unless primary care providers systematically misdiagnosed MC for AD, there should not be a significant effect on our measures of association. Further, descriptive information was missing from some charts, particularly information relevant to the MC presentation.

The AI/AN population harbors a high burden of infectious diseases [32], [33], and MC in the pediatric population is no exception. The present study affirms the association between AD and MC; however, the mechanisms of such an association are unknown and deserve further attention and study in additional patient populations. AI/AN pediatric populations would benefit from targeted outreach to prevent and mitigate the spread of MCV among children.