Chronic edema of the lower limbs (i.e., chronic peripheral edema) can cause pain, heaviness, weakness, discomfort, and negative body image, and limitations in mobility and flexibility [1]. Multiple causes of peripheral edema exist, including deficiencies in the venous or lymphatic systems [2], heart failure [3], and certain medications [4]. When peripheral edema is untreated, it can increase the risk of infection and ulcers [5]. Research performed in clinic-based samples or in countries outside the U.S. suggests that edema affects many individuals, including those with obesity, older age, sedentary lifestyles, history of deep venous thrombosis, and occupations that require long hours of standing [6, 7]. No cure for peripheral edema exists. Some forms of edema are responsive to diuretics [7], but these medications cause frequent urination that can lead to dehydration and decreased renal function. Dietary restrictions, such as limiting salt intake, can reduce edema as well. However, lifestyle changes are challenging to implement and sustain, especially for lower income individuals for whom easy access to healthful foods may be limited. Thus, chronic peripheral edema is likely left unaddressed in many individuals. Considering the high rates of obesity and other risk factors in the U.S., peripheral edema is likely a large public health challenge [7], but its overall prevalence among older adults in the U.S. is largely unknown.

The goals of this study were to use data from a nationally representative survey to (a) characterize the prevalence of chronic lower limb edema and recent time trends among older Americans, and (b) identify associations between peripheral edema and demographic and clinical features, activity levels, and mobility limitations in the U.S.

The prevalence of lower limb edema among older U.S. adults was 20.0%, 19.4%, 19.0%, 19.0%, and 19.1%, in 2000, 2004, 2008, 2102, and 2016, respectively. The prevalence of lower limb edema was strongly and significantly associated with all tested demographic, clinical, activity, and mobility limitation variables. Specifically, edema was associated with older age, female sex, minority race, low wealth, overweight/obese status, diabetes, hypertension, pain, low activity, and mobility limitations (Table 1 and S1 Table). These significant associations with demographic and clinical variables persisted in a multivariable logistic model including all variables simultaneously (Table 2). In particular, respondents over 90 years old and those 80–89 years old had 5.0 and 2.9 times the odds, respectively, of reporting peripheral edema compared to those who were 51–69 years old. Those in the wealthiest quartile were least likely to report peripheral edema (OR: 0.51 (95%CI: 0.43–0.61) 4^th vs. 1^st quartile). Obese individuals had 2.3 times the odds of reporting peripheral edema compared to those in the normal weight range. Finally, pain severity was particularly predictive of peripheral edema in the multivariable models. Compared to respondents with no pain, those with mild, moderate, or severe pain had 2.1, 2.85, and 5.61 times the odds of swelling, respectively (Table 2).

In a multivariable model adjusting for all demographic and clinical variables, less frequent exercise (whether mild, moderate, or vigorous) was significantly associated with peripheral edema (Table 3). For example, reporting mild, moderate, and vigorous exercise more than once a week resulted in considerable decrease in the odds of reporting peripheral edema when compared to never performing that level of exercise (OR mild: 0.67 (95%CI: 0.56–0.79); OR moderate: 0.76 (95%CI: 0.65–0.89); OR vigorous: 0.71 (95%CI: 0.61–0.83)). Similar models also identified strong associations between peripheral edema and difficulty standing up from a chair (OR: 2.20 (95% CI: 1.95–2.48)), difficulty climbing several flights of stairs (OR: 2.33 (95% CI: 2.06–2.64)), and difficulty walking several blocks (OR: 2.98 (95% CI: 2.60–3.40)) (Table 4).

To our knowledge, this is the first population-based study and first study conducted in the U.S. to investigate the prevalence of peripheral edema. Other studies have investigated the prevalence of chronic edema or lymphedema in hospital- and primary care clinic-based populations in Europe [14, 15]. However, potential selection bias from clinic-based recruitment limits the generalizability of these results to the general population. Our data are directly relevant to and representative of the U.S. older adult population (i.e., 55+ years for prevalence time trends) and identify a staggering prevalence of peripheral edema (i.e., 19%-20% depending on the year). As expected, this prevalence is lower than estimates obtained in the clinic-based studies (e.g., 38% [14] and 56% [15]), but still considerable. In addition to documenting the persistently high prevalence of lower-limb edema in the U.S. between 2000 and 2016, this study found edema to be strongly associated with age, obesity, pain, less frequent physical activity, and mobility limitations (standing, walking, and climbing stairs). These associations confirm and strengthen the findings of previous studies in clinic-based populations in Europe [1, 14, 16, 17]. Although the cross-sectional associations identified in this study cannot elucidate causality, the fact that peripheral edema is consistently associated with many markers of ill health in multivariable models suggests that peripheral edema is potentially a highly detrimental problem. Thus, it needs to be addressed by primary care clinicians and should be a focus of future interventional research programs.

Sixty-five percent of respondents with peripheral edema reported having at least mild pain most of the time. This percentage is only slightly lower than the 80% of patients with peripheral edema from Canadian outpatient wound clinics who reported having at least some pain or discomfort [17]. We would expect that pain in the general population with persistent swelling would be lower than pain in patients whose edema is sufficiently severe to seek care at a wound clinic, especially if some of the pain is in fact from the peripheral edema. Experiencing even mild pain was associated with 2.1 times the odds of reporting persistent swelling, while respondents with severe pain had, strikingly, 5.6 times the odds of reporting swelling. These data suggest that edema could cause significant pain, a potential causal relationship that warrants future study. We also observed a generally consistent decrease in the likelihood of reporting peripheral edema with increased frequency of activity, regardless of the activity intensity. Notably, even reporting of infrequent exercise was associated with lower odds of reporting peripheral edema. For example, respondents who reported mild exercise just 1–3 times per month had 33% lower odds of reporting swelling than those who hardly ever or never took part in mild exercise. Thus, these data suggest that even very modest amounts of exercise may be effective at decreasing swelling. However, they could also suggest that peripheral edema prevents many people from performing even infrequent, mild exercise since these data cannot determine the causal direction. Individuals who reported persistent swelling had almost 3 times the odds of reporting having difficulty walking several blocks. These data are consistent with those from a large study of individuals recruited from UK Community Nursing Services that demonstrated that patients with peripheral edema more commonly required walking aides than those without peripheral edema [15]. Those who reported difficulty climbing stairs or standing up from a chair were at slightly less increased risk of reporting swelling (with odds ratios of 2.2 and 2.3, respectively). Although these data cannot determine causality, one possible explanation for the results is that persistent swelling plays a particularly significant role in difficulty walking. If this is the case, outcomes related to ability to walk or amount of walking would be important outcomes for trials of peripheral edema interventions. Difficulty walking was reported the least frequently of the three mobility limitations (i.e., 25% of respondents vs. 35% and 42% for standing up from a chair and climbing stairs, respectively), suggesting that individuals with difficulty walking several blocks might have the highest level of overall physical impairment, and that high levels of physical impairment have the strongest association with peripheral edema.

The strong associations found in these data between peripheral edema and pain, low levels of physical activity, and physical limitations support a hypothetical “vicious cycle” model in which peripheral edema causes pain and limited physical activity, and in turn limited activity increases the severity of peripheral edema (Fig 1). Continuation of this vicious cycle could cause debilitating edema and impaired quality of life. The perpetuation of inactivity and mobility limitations can also contribute to comorbid conditions that were associated with peripheral edema in our study (i.e., obesity, diabetes, and hypertension). The prevalence of these conditions are, in fact, increasing in the U.S [18–20]. Future research that investigates the causal relationships between these domains are necessary to confirm the validity of this model.

Our findings also indicate that social disparities in lower limb edema are significant, with Blacks/African Americans and other racial minorities, women, and less wealthy individuals reporting the highest rates of peripheral edema. These patterns mirror those for high-impact chronic pain, disability, and obesity [21–24]. These disparities were observed in both bivariate associations (Table 1) and in a fully-adjusted model (Table 2), indicating that race, sex, and wealth predict risk of edema independently, and net of age, BMI, diabetes, hypertension, and pain level. Minority racial status and lower wealth could be associated with peripheral edema for multiple reasons, including higher rates of other chronic health conditions as well as lower access to healthy foods and preventive care services. The high prevalence of peripheral edema among disadvantaged groups is especially problematic because of the potential negative social and economic effects of chronic edema. These may include increased care burden on families, negatively affected relationships leading to social isolation, out-of-pocket treatment expenses, quality-of-life detriments, and loss of productivity [25]. These negative effects may contribute to another hypothetical “vicious cycle”, in which low socioeconomic status increases the likelihood of developing chronic edema which in turn leads to outcomes that negatively impact individual or family socioeconomic status (Fig 1). The causal nature of these relationships should be investigated in future studies. The sociodemographic disparities in peripheral edema found herein highlight the need for effective and affordable interventions for peripheral edema that are covered by insurance. Future research could clarify the precise mechanisms underlying social disparities in edema.

To our knowledge, this study is the first to provide national prevalence estimates of chronic peripheral edema among older U.S. adults. The results show that chronic peripheral edema is common and persistently affecting approximately 19% of the population. It also disproportionately affects women, racial minorities, and less wealthy individuals. People living with peripheral edema have more pain, comorbidities, and mobility limitations, and participate in less physical activity. In addition to lifestyle interventions, novel non-pharmacologic interventions would be ideal for the treatment of peripheral edema because of polypharmacy challenges that are common for older adults and individuals with multiple comorbid conditions. Peripheral edema should be a focus of clinicians and of future research in order to develop novel, non-pharmacologic and cost-effective interventions.