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ISBN: 978 1 4718 6364 6
eISBN: 978 1 4718 6365 3

© Alexis Rickus, Bev Saunder and Yvonne Mackey 2016

First published in 2016 by

Hodder Education,

An Hachette UK Company

Carmelite House

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www.hoddereducation.co.uk

Impression number    10 9 8 7 6

Year          2021

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Contents

How to use this book

Introduction to AQA GCSE Food Preparation and Nutrition

Acknowledgements

Section 1    Food Preparation Skills

Skill 1 General practical skills

Skill 2 Knife skills

Skill 3 Preparing fruit and vegetables

Skill 4 Use of the cooker

Skill 5 Use of equipment

Skill 6 Cooking methods

Skill 7 Preparing, combining and shaping

Skill 8 Sauce-making

Skill 9 Tenderising and marinating

Skill 10 Dough

Skill 11 Raising agents

Skill 12 Setting mixtures

Section 2    Food, Nutrition and Health

Topic 2.1 Macronutrients

Topic 2.2 Micronutrients (and water)

Topic 2.3 Nutritional needs and health

Section 2 Practice questions

Section 3    Food Science

Topic 3.1 Cooking of food and heat transfer

Topic 3.2 Functional and chemical properties of food

Section 3 Practice questions

Section 4    Food Safety

Topic 4.1 Food spoilage and contamination

Topic 4.2 Principles of food safety

Section 4 Practice questions

Section 5    Food Choice

Topic 5.1 Factors affecting food choice

Topic 5.2 British and international cuisine

Topic 5.3 Sensory evaluation

Topic 5.4 Food labelling and marketing

Section 5 Practice questions

Section 6    Food Provenance

Topic 6.1 Environmental impact and sustainability of food

Topic 6.2 Food production and processing

Section 6 Practice questions

Section 7    Preparing for Assessment

Topic 7.1 Non-exam assessment

Topic 7.2 The written exam

Glossary

Index

Introduction to AQA GCSE Food Preparation and Nutrition

This book has been written to help you master the skills, knowledge and understanding you need for the AQA GCSE (9–1) in Food Preparation and Nutrition.

This GCSE course focuses on practical cooking skills and will help you develop an understanding of nutrition, food provenance and the working characteristics of food.

The content of the course is divided into five core topics:

1  Food, nutrition and health

2  Food science

3  Food safety

4  Food choice

5  Food provenance

Food preparation skills are integrated into each of these core topics.

Each of these areas will be assessed in the Food Preparation and Nutrition written examination you will complete at the end of the course. (You will find information to help you prepare for the written exam at the end of this book on pages 454–459).

You will also complete two Non-Examination Assessments (NEAs): Food Investigation; and Food Preparation Assessment. (You will find information to help you prepare for these tasks at the end of this book on pages 430–453).

Summary of assessment

Component | Assessment type | Time and marks | % of qualification
Food Preparation and Nutrition | Written examination paper | 1 hour 45 minutes 100 marks | 50%
Task 1: Food Investigation | Non-examined assessment (NEA) | 30 marks | 15%
Task 2: Food Preparation | Non-examined assessment (NEA) | 70 marks | 35%

How to use this book

The book is divided into seven sections.

Section 1: Food preparation skills

Section 1 covers the 12 food preparation skills you will need to understand throughout the course, and provides example recipes that incorporate each skill. These skills are integrated into the practical activities that appear throughout the textbook. You are not expected to work your way through this section of the book from start to finish, but may find it useful to refer to it to find recipes, or when completing the practical activities elsewhere in the textbook.

Sections 2–6: Subject content

Sections 2–6 cover the four areas of subject content you will be tested on in the Food Preparation and Nutrition written exam:

•  Section 2 Food, nutrition and health

•  Section 3 Food science

•  Section 4 Food safety

•  Section 5 Food choice

•  Section 6 Food provenance

Each section is divided into several topics. Throughout each topic you will find the following features:

Learning objectives

This box appears at the start of each topic and will tell you what you should know and understand by the end of the topic.

Key words

Key words are provided throughout each topic and define all of the important terms you will need to know and understand.

Practical activity

Practical activities are food preparation and cooking tasks that will provide you with opportunities to demonstrate the different food preparation skills and techniques, as well as allowing you to apply your subject knowledge and understanding in a practical context and see how it is relevant to practical food preparation and cooking. You may find it useful to refer to Section 1 Food preparation skills when completing these activities.

Activity

Activity boxes include short activities your teacher may ask you to complete either in class or at home to help you develop your knowledge and understanding of a topic.

Extension activity

These extension tasks will help you to develop your knowledge and understanding of a topic further. They may ask you to complete further research into a topic, demonstrate more complex food preparation and cooking skills and techniques, or consider some of the more challenging aspects of the course.

Check your knowledge and understanding

These are short questions that appear at the end of each topic. They will help you to test your knowledge and understanding of the content covered within the topic.

Practice questions

These questions appear at the end of each section. They will help you to prepare for the written exam.

Section 7: Preparing for assessment

The final section of the book is divided into three topics:

•  Topics 1 and 2 cover the two Non-Examination Assessments: Task 1 Food Investigation and the Task 2 Food Preparation Assessment. They explain the format each assessment will take, how many marks are available for the different aspects of each assessment, and include example work for assessment tasks similar to those you will need to complete.

•  Topic 3 is designed to help you to prepare for the written exam. It includes details on the format of the exam paper, information on the types of questions you will encounter and advice on answering exam questions. It also includes practice questions with some sample answers and commentary.

Acknowledgements

Alexis Rickus: Thank you to Tom and Scott for their support and patience during the writing process.

Bev Saunder: I would like to thank my husband Simon, and my children William and Sophie for being so supportive and self-sufficient giving me the time to write.

Thanks also to Helen, Kim, Helen, James, Anne and Sam for their sound advice throughout the process.

Yvonne Mackey: I would like to thank my mother, Irene for sharing her knowledge of food and nutrition with me from a very early age and for allowing me to cook at home whenever I wanted to.

Also, thank you to Pat Andrews for my ever increasing interest in food safety and enabling me to work in the food industry.

Picture credits:

Figure 1.1.1 © Schlierner – Fotolia; Figure 1.1.2 © Difydave - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.1.3 © arinahabich- iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.1.4 © arinahabich- iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.1.6 © Ewais – Fotolia; Figure 1.1.8 © songdech17 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Skills 2 © Nikodash - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.2.1b © Marc Dietrich – Fotolia’ Figure 1.2.1c © dbvirago – Fotolia; Figure 1.2.1e © bradcalkins – Fotolia; Figure 1.2.3 © John Carey - Getty Images; Figure 1.2.4a © Nikodash - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.2.4b © Sergejs Rahunoks - 123RF; Figure 1.2.17 © Sergejs Rahunoks - 123RF; Figure 1.2.19 © robynmac - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.3.2 © o2beat - 123RF; Figure 1.3.5; © Patryk Kosmider – Fotolia; Figure 1.3.6 © Anna Liebiedieva - 123RF; Figure 1.3.7 © CCat82 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Skill 4 © StephM2506 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.4.1 © Serghei Starus - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.4.2 © Steve Debenport – iStockphoto; Figure 1.4.3 © Joe Gough – Fotolia; Figure 1.4.4 © StephM2506 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.4.5 © Photography Firm - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.4.8 © Dulcenombre Maria Rubia Ramirez- 123RF; Figure 1.4.9 © Fiery_Phoenix - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.5.1 © Cultura Creative (RF) / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.5.2 © VictorH11iS - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.5.4 Andrew Twort / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.5.6 © st-fotograf – Fotolia; Figure 1.5.7 © Andrew Twort / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.5.12 © Art Directors & TRIP / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.5.13 © David Lee / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.6.1 © tatniz - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.6.3a © Innovation Works UK Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo, b © KarpenkovDenis - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images, c © Abpixs / Alamy Stock Photo, d © PinkBadger - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.6.6 © PinkBadger - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.6.7 © Kondor83 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.6.8 © littleny - iStock Editorial via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.6.10 © Sarah Jane – Fotolia; Skill 7 © mrcmos - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.7.4 © saquizeta - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.7.5 © mrcmos - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.7.8 © IrKiev - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.7.9 © PaulCowan - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.7.10 © ansardi - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.8.5 © foodfolio / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.8.10 © razorpix / Alamy Stock Photo; Skill 9 and Figure 1.9.3 © Fudio - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.9.4 © cheche22 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.10.3 © studiomode / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.10.4 © sarahdoow - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.10.5 © Sarah Marchant - 123RF; Figure 1.10.2 © boyarkinamarina - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.10.14 © Monika Adamczyk - 123RF; Figure 1.11.2 © Sergii Koval - 123RF; Figure 1.11.3 © 58shadows - iStock Editorial via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 1.11.4 © Mediablitzimages / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.11.5 © V. J. Matthew - 123RF; Figure 1.11.6 © Mediablitzimages / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 1.12.2; Section 2 and Figure 2.3.28 © Ryzhkov - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Topic 2.1 © Image Source / Alamy; Figure 2.1.2 © Africa Studio – Fotolia; Figure 2.1.3 © robynmac - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.1.5 © Getty Images/Thinkstock/iStockphoto/artphotoclub; Figure 2.1.6 © Multiart - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.1.7 © Monkey Business – Fotolia; Figure 2.1.8 © bacalao – Fotolia; Figure 2.1.9 © Image Source / Alamy; Figure 2.1.10 © Nancy R. 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Figure 2.2.20 © Imagestock / iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.2.22 © Steven May / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.2.23 © cheri131 – Fotolia; Figure 2.2.24 © lapas77 – Fotolia; Topic 2.3 and Figure 2.3.4 © Fotolia/aconcheng; Figure 2.3.1 © Food Standards Agency (OGL); Figure 2.3.2 © robynleigh - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.3a © valery121283 – Fotolia, b © Timmary - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images, c © Bon Appetit /Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.5 © Photographee.eu – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.6 © Alamy Stock Photo/ Radius Image; Figure 2.3.8 © Chris Pearsall / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.9 © pioneer111 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.11a © CharlieAJA - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images, b © Sergey Skleznev – Fotolia, c © hitdelight – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.12a © Julián Rovagnati – Fotolia, b © Anna Kucherova – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.13 © Patrizia Tilly – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.14a © eyewave – Fotolia, b © shim11 – Fotolia, c © Alen-D – Fotolia, d © Stockbyte/Getty Images, e © Freestocker - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images, f © sanjagrujic - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.15 © Bubbles Photolibrary / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.17 © Vegetarian Society; Figure 2.3.18 © Vegan Society; Figure 2.3.19a © Clynt Garnham Food & Drink / Alamy Stock Photo, b © Isolated Products (John Boud) / Alamy Stock Photo, c © studiomode / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.20 © monticello - 123RF; Figure 2.3.21 © Doves Farm Foods Limited; Figure 2.3.22 r © Obak – Fotolia, l © photocrew – Fotolia, c © OxanaNigmatulina - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.23a © igor kisselev – Fotolia, b © bigmagic – Fotolia, c © Rena-Marie - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.24 © buyit - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.25a © kmit – Fotolia, b © AlinaMD - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.26 © Wavebreak Media ltd / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.27 © monkeybusinessimages - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.29 © ansardi - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.30 and Figure 2.3.31 © Nutrients Software; Figure 2.3.32 © gpointstudio - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 2.3.33 © Galina Barskaya – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.37 © Jacek Chabraszewski – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.38 © BSIP SA / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.39 © Zsolt Bota Finna – Fotolia; Figure 2.3.40 © BSIP SA / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 2.3.41 © robynmac - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 3.1.2a © Sergiy Bykhunenko - 123RF, b © Sergiy Bykhunenko - 123RF; Figure 3.1.7 © Elizaveta Sokolovskaya - 123RF; Figure 3.1.8 © designua - 123RF; Figure 3.1.10 © StephM2506 - iStockphoto via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 3.1.13 © Heath Doman - 123RF; Figure 3.2.4 © ableimages / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 3.2.12 © ConstantinosZ - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 3.2.13 © filipebvarela – Fotolia; Figure 3.2.14 © Robyn Mackenzie - 123RF; Figure 3.2.18 © Nataliya Arzamasova - 123RF; Figure 4.1.3 © Hodder Education; Figure 4.1.4 © BSIP SA / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 4.1.5 © Ratchapol yindeesuk - 123RF; Figure 4.1.6 Yvonne Mackey; Figure 4.1.7 © Jultud - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 4.1.8 © Ivan Kmit / Alamy Stcok Photo; Figure 4.1.9 © Pavel Chernobrivets - 123RF; Figure 4.1.10 © Joshua Resnick - 123RF; Figure 4.1.11 © Sasa Komlen - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 4.1.13 Yvonne Mackey; 4.1.14 © shareski on Flickr; Figure 4.1.15 © alicjane - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 4.1.16 © g215 – Fotolia; Figure 4.1.17 © Photographee.eu – Fotolia; Figure 4.1.18 © fotek - 123RF; Figure 4.1.19 © Robert Anthony - 123RF; Figure 4.1.20 © Heinz Leitner - 123RF; Figure 4.1.21 © pitchaphan - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 4.1.22 © margouillat - 123RF; Figure 4.1.23 © oksix - 123RF; Figure 4.1.24 © John Carey - Getty Images; Figure 4.1.25 © Ingor Normann – Fotolia; Figure 4.1.26 © jiradelta - Fotolia; Figure 4.1.27 © chengyuzheng - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 4.1.29 © Sarah Allison - 123RF; Figure 4.2.2 © alex9500 - 123RF; Figure 4.2.3 © Kevin Britland /Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 4.2.3 © Kevin Britland /Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 4.2.4 © Okssi68 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 4.2.5 © dipressionist – 123RF; Figure 4.2.6 © Sean Malyon/Corbis; Figure 4.2.7 © praisaeng - Fotolia; Figure 4.2.8 © Cathy Yeulet - 123RF; Figure 4.2.9 © keith morris / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 5.1.1 © Monkey Business – Fotolia; Figure 5.1.3 © bst2012 – Fotolia; Figure 5.1.4 © Nikolai Sorokin – Fotolia; Figure 5.1.4 © Nikolai Sorokin - Fotolia © bhofack2 - iStockphoto via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.1.5 © lzf - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.1.6 © Liv Friis-Larsen – Fotolia; Figure 5.1.7 Mark “used with the kind permission of Freedom Food, a charity registered in England & Wales, no. 1059879 and in Scotland, number SCO38199; Figure 5.1.8 © Noam – Fotolia; Figure 5.1.9 © mukesh-kumar - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.1.10 © gpointstudio - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.1.11 © Patti McConville / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 5.1.12 © Coeliac UK; Figure 5.1.13 © jodiejohnson - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.1.14 © Papa Kay / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 5.2.2 © Joe Gough – Fotolia; Figure 5.2.3 © EmmaIsabelle - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.2.6 © DENIO RIGACCI - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.2.7 © Constantinos – Fotolia; Figure 5.2.9 © glsk – Fotolia; Figure 5.2.10 © Eduardo1961 - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.2.12 © showcake - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 5.2.12a Andrew Callaghan; Figure 5.2.13 michaeljung – Fotolia; Figure 5.2.14 © MediablitzImages – Fotolia; Figure 5.2.15 © mnsanthoshkumar - 123RF; Figure 5.4.1 © Ed Rooney / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 5.4.2 © Alpha and Omega Collection / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 5.4.3 © Hodder Education; Figure 5.4.5 © Mar Photographics / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 5.4.6 © glegorly - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images; Figure 6.1.3 © iconimage – Fotolia; Figure 6.1.4 © Red Tractor Assurance; Figure 6.1.5 © Libby Welch / Alamy Stock Photo; Figure 6.1.6 © Marine Stewardship Council (www.msc.org); Figure 6.1.7 © Hodder Education; Figure 6.1.8 © Soil Association; 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Except where stated above, photographs are by Andrew Callaghan.

Thanks to the authors of ‘Nutrients’ for permission to reproduce graphics from their software. Further information may be obtained from www.nutrientssoftware.co.uk.

SECTION 1 Food Preparation Skills

This section includes a range of food preparation and cooking skills that you will need throughout the GCSE course.

You are not expected to work your way through this section from start to finish, but you may find it useful to refer to it when completing the practical activities that appear in other sections of the book, or when preparing for your Food Investigation and Food Preparation Assessment.

This section also includes examples of recipes that use each of the different skills, which can be used for the practical activities throughout the book.

The following food preparation skills are covered in this section:

Skill 1 General practical skills

Skill 2 Knife skills

Skill 3 Preparing fruit and vegetables

Skill 4 Use of the cooker

Skill 5 Use of equipment

Skill 6 Cooking methods

Skill 7 Preparing, combining and shaping

Skill 8 Sauce-making

Skill 9 Tenderising and marinating

Skill 10 Dough

Skill 11 Raising agents

Skill 12 Setting mixtures

SKILL 1 GENERAL PRACTICAL SKILLS

Weighing and measuring

Most recipes depend on accurate measurements for success, so it is important to be able to weigh and measure accurately. If you are making a cake, for example, and you add too much sugar or too much flour, the results are likely to be poor. However, in some recipes it does not matter so much, for example if you put two onions instead of one in a Bolognese sauce.

Figure 1.1.1 Digital scales will give a more precise and accurate check on weight

Conversion tables

Some recipes use grams (metric); others use ounces/pounds (imperial). Some recipes use both so you have a choice. It is important that you do not use both systems of measurement – one or the other must be used throughout a recipe, as mixing the two could lead to potential errors in the proportion of ingredients in combination.

Measurements are based on weight for solids (dry ingredients) and on volume for liquids (fluid ounces and pints for imperial, millilitres and litres for metric). Table 1.1.1 is a useful guide for approximate conversions from imperial to metric for weight and volume; they have been rounded up or down.

Weight | Volume
Ounces | Grams | Fluid ounces | Millilitres
1 oz | 25 g | 1 fl oz | 30 ml
2 oz | 55 g | 2 fl oz | 50 ml
3 oz | 85 g | 5 fl oz ( pint) | 150 ml
4 oz | 115 g | pint | 300 ml
5 oz | 140 g | pint | 425 ml
6 oz | 175 g | 1 pint | 600 ml
7 oz | 200 g | pint | 1 litre
8 oz | 225 g |  |
16 oz (1 lb) | 450 g |  |

Table 1.1.1 Conversion table

Equipment

The following equipment is useful for weighing and measuring:

•  Kitchen scales – digital/electronic kitchen scales are most widely used.

•  Measuring jug – a measuring jug is used to measure liquids; the side of the jug is usually marked with millilitres or fluid ounces or both.

•  Measuring cups – some American recipes use cups for dried ingredients such as flour and sugar. Cups should not be used to weigh fat.

•  Measuring spoons – these are very useful for measuring an accurate teaspoon or tablespoon. 1 teaspoon is 5 ml, 1 tablespoon is 15 ml.

Figure 1.1.2 Measuring jug

Figure 1.1.3 Measuring cups

Figure 1.1.4 Measuring spoons

Preparing ingredients and equipment

Before you begin cooking, it is extremely important to organise yourself and the area you are cooking in. You will need to organise what equipment and what ingredients you need.

You also need to organise yourself following basic food hygiene and safety rules.

Preparation before starting to cook is called mis en place.

Key word

Mis en place means preparation before starting to cook.

A good way to remember how to set up your area ready to cook is the word HATTIE:

Figure 1.1.5 Make sure work surfaces are cleaned before cooking

It is always important to use the exact size of tin or dish recommended in the recipe.

•  If the tin or dish is too large, then the mixture could spread too thinly and burn or be too crispy in texture.

•  If the tin is too small, then the mixture may overflow and spill in the oven and the centre may not cook evenly.

Some tins need preparing before use, mainly to ensure that the mixture does not stick. For example, the tins used to make Swiss rolls need to be lined with non-stick baking paper and greased. Sandwich cake tins need to be lined and greased lightly to stop the cake from sticking to the bottom of the tin.

A light dusting of flour on top of the greased paper can also be added to stop the bottom of the cake becoming too greasy. Non-stick tins may not need to be greased.

Figure 1.1.6 A non-stick cake tin

Selecting and adjusting cooking times

When cooking food, it is best to follow the recipe instructions for a guide to how long it needs to be in the oven. Timing is crucial because you don’t want food to be spoilt by overcooking or undercooking.

However, it is also important to learn how to check when food is cooked, and to adjust the cooking time if necessary. Different types of food take different times to cook. It is important to be guided by the recipe, but also to do a visual check and/or a taste test, extending or reducing the cooking time accordingly.

Fish and shellfish

The thickness of the fish will have an impact on the cooking time – thinner fillets cook much quicker than thicker fillets, so the time needs to be adjusted according to the size of the fish.

•  For thinner fillets of fish, such as plaice or sole, if the outside of the fish is opaque, the fish is done.

•  For thicker fillets, such as salmon or cod, insert a small, thin knife into the thickest part of the fillet to see if it is opaque throughout.

For raw shellfish, boil, sauté or grill them in their shells to keep the most flavour. Raw prawns are grey in colour and turn pink when they are cooked. They cook extremely quickly so you need to watch for the colour change.

Meat and alternatives

Larger joints of meat need long, slow cooking – cooking times are not as precise because they are unlikely to overcook if left in for a few minutes too long.

Smaller cuts, such as steak or burgers, can be grilled more quickly. They can overcook easily so need to be watched while cooking.

Mycoprotein products (i.e. Quorn™) can be cooked using an oven, grill or microwave.

•  The instructions on the packet need to be followed, but as a general rule mycoprotein does cook more quickly than meat and poultry.

•  You can use mycoprotein mince, pieces and fillets in a recipe in the same way you would meat, just reduce the cooking time slightly.

•  For example, mycoprotein mince fries in about 3–5 minutes if using it in a Bolognese sauce.

Bolognese sauce

500 g of mycoprotein

1 onion

50 g mushrooms

1 small pepper

1 clove garlic

400 g tin of chopped tomatoes

1 tbsp of tomato purée

18 ml (1 tbsp) oil

Optional ingredients:

Red/yellow/green pepper

1 courgette

1 carrot

Method

1  Deseed and chop all vegetables into dice. Heat oil and fry the vegetables until soft, approximately five minutes.

2  Add the mycoprotein and stir in.

3  Add all the other ingredients.

4  Decide on whether to add some water and how much – add water (between 125–250 ml).

5  Bring to the boil and simmer for 20 minutes.

6  Adjust seasoning to taste.

Vegetables

Vegetables are usually steamed or boiled and can take as little as 5 minutes to cook. When they are cooked ‘al dente’ they should be firm to the bite. It is advisable to check vegetables after 3–5 minutes with a knife, as overcooked vegetables lose colour, flavour and nutrients. Continue cooking the vegetables until they are the softness you require.

Pasta and rice

•  Pasta and rice are usually placed into water that is already boiling. (Putting pasta and rice into cold water will be less successful and adds to cooking times.)

•  Guidance is usually given on the packets because thicker pasta takes longer to cook, and brown rice takes longer than white rice.

•  It is useful to check pasta and rice after two-thirds of the cooking time. Continue cooking until it is the softness you require.

Baked products

Generally, individual cakes, breads and pastries cook in a shorter time than large cakes and bread. Larger cakes sometimes need a lower temperature too to avoid the top of the product overcooking.

When it gets near to the cooking time recommended in the recipe, test for readiness regularly.

Figure 1.1.7 Bread baking in an oven

Testing for readiness

You can check whether food is cooked in different ways.

Temperature probe/knife

Raw meats (i.e. chicken and beef burgers) must be cooked thoroughly in order to kill any bacteria present.

To test for readiness, you can use a temperature probe, or use a knife to cut into the thickest point and check that the juices are clear and not pink or bloody.

Skewer

When making deep cakes, it is difficult to judge whether the centre is cooked. You can check by inserting a skewer – if the skewer comes out clean, then the cake is cooked. If it is coated with sticky cake mixture, it needs longer in the oven.

Figure 1.1.8 Skewers

Finger/poke test

The finger/poke method is most commonly used to check if small cakes are cooked. When you touch them with a finger, they should feel springy and spongy not liquidy or gooey. Smaller cuts of meat can also be checked by pressing them; the fibres should feel set not soft.

Visual colour check/sound check

Most baked products should be a golden brown in colour. In the case of bread, there is also a sound check – when the bread is turned upside down and tapped with a knuckle, it should sound hollow if it is cooked. When products containing starch, such as bread, cakes and biscuits, are baked in the oven, the dry heat causes the starch to brown (dextrinisation). This makes the product look attractive to eat and the depth of the browning is a way in which it can be judged whether the product is cooked.

Taste test

Foods such as rice or pasta can be tasted to check if they are cooked.

•  Pasta should be al dente, which means firm to the bite.

•  Rice should be cooked through: it should be soft and not have a gritty texture.

Key words

Dextrinisation is when dry heat turns a starch brown.

Al dente means ‘firm to the bite’, a description of the texture of correctly cooked pasta.

Judging and modifying sensory properties

In order for people to want to eat food, it needs to look and smell appetising. We then judge by taste. The taste buds on our tongues detect four basic flavours in food – sweet, sour, salt and savoury. Personal preferences for food may differ from one person to another and are governed by our taste buds.

As you cook more, you will gradually learn the skills of tasting food to check for flavour, texture and seasoning.

The characteristics of food that affect our organs or senses are known as organoleptic qualities. Judging food based on these characteristics is sensory evaluation.

You will learn about sensory testing methods and how to taste food in Topic 5.3 Sensory evaluation.

Testing for flavour and seasoning

It is necessary to make sure that the food being cooked retains its taste. Checking its taste is essential during the cooking process, but particularly just before the end of cooking when it may need adjusting by simply adding some seasoning or some herbs or spices. Make sure you use a clean teaspoon when testing flavour.

Changing taste and aroma

An aroma is usually a pleasant smell. It is possible to change the taste and aroma of food by the addition of ingredients, or by the length of cooking time.

Taste and aroma can be changed in the following ways:

•  By infusion – to infuse is to flavour liquid with aromatic ingredients by slowly heating it to boiling point and then allowing it to cool. The flavoured liquid is then called an infusion. When making bread sauce, the milk is infused with cloves, black peppercorns, bay leaf and an onion, before the breadcrumbs are added.

•  By reduction – a reduction is a concentrated liquid formed when it is boiled rapidly; it will concentrate its flavour and colour. Wine and stock can be boiled until syrupy in consistency, and then cream can be added to make a rich reduction.

•  By making a paste – a paste such as a beurre manie is made from equal quantities of butter and flour mixed together to form a soft paste, which is added to liquids to thicken them. The consistency of liquids, gravy and sauces is important: they should not be too thick or too thin.

Figure 1.1.9 Reduction of wine, stock and cream

Changing texture and flavour

Tasting food for texture is as important as testing for flavour. In fact, in many cases, changing the texture of food also changes the flavour. It is important to avoid overcooking foods like rice, pasta and vegetables, so as to achieve the desired texture for a recipe, such as crunchy red pepper or al dente pasta.

The texture of dishes can be changed. Breadcrumbs can be added as a garnish to dishes such as a pasta bake or cauliflower cheese. This will give the dish more texture as it will be crispy and crunchy on top. It will also brown and look attractive.

Meat should be allowed to rest after cooking as this allows the muscle fibres to relax which makes the meat more tender.

When making a product such as crème brûlée, the sugar on the top is heated using the grill or a blow torch; the effect of the heat on the sugar causes it to melt and brown (caramelisation). It will burn if too much heat is applied for too long.

Foods such as pastry can be glazed, which will deepen the colour of the top of the pastry and make it look shiny and attractive.

You will learn more about dextrinisation and caramelisation in Topic 3.2 Functional and chemical properties of food.

Key words

Organoleptic qualities are the characteristics of food that affect our organs or senses.

Infuse means to flavour liquid with aromatic ingredients by slowly heating to boiling point and then allowing to cool.

Reduction is a concentrated liquid formed when it is boiled rapidly.

Beurre manie is a paste made from equal quantities of butter and flour mixed together, which is added to liquids to thicken them.

Caramelisation is the process of changing the colour of sugar from white to brown when heated.

Presentation and food styling

When eating out, we often judge food by its initial appearance.

Figure 1.1.10 Styled food – duck breast with cherries

Presentation and how the food is styled will improve a dish’s aesthetic qualities. If food looks delicious, it is likely that the person eating it will think it tastes delicious before they eat it. There are many different ways in which food can be styled and presented to make it look as attractive as possible.

Key words

Aesthetics is the art of making food look good or attractive, for example by using garnishes on savoury dishes or decorations on sweet dishes.

Garnishes are decorations on savoury food.

Garnishes and decorative techniques

Adding food to a finished dish can improve the aesthetic appearance. Decorations on savoury food are called garnishes. Examples of garnishes are sliced tomato, chopped coriander and lemon wedges.

You can learn more about how to prepare garnishes in Section 1, Skill 3 Preparing fruit and vegetables. See page 22.

Decorations on sweet foods are simply called decorations. Examples of decorations are grated chocolate, a dusting of icing sugar or cocoa, a strawberry fan, piped cream and chopped nuts.

Accompaniments, such as a sauce or vegetables, also add colour to a dish.

Figure 1.1.11 A styled dessert

Presenting food for serving

It is always important to consider the serving dish and how the food will be placed on the dish. A number of different techniques can be used:

•  Use the centre height of the dish – a mound of food will look more attractive than if it is flattened on a plate or serving dish.

•  If laying out a plate of biscuits or canapés, arrange them in contrasting rows, as these look attractive.

•  Overlap food such as fruit slices or slices of meat, which stops the food looking flat and dull on the plate.

•  Keep colours to a minimum – lots of different colours can be overbearing. Using two colours or different shades of a single colour works very successfully.

Portioning

How we portion food and finish it off for presentation is important to make the food look as attractive as possible. Correct portioning of food is important so that each person has the right amount of food to match their nutritional needs and to avoid food wastage.

You will learn portion size and cost when meal planning in Topic 2.3 Nutritional needs and health.

Different pieces of equipment are used to portion food, such as:

•  a scoop for mashed potato and ice cream

•  an individual pie dish for lasagne or shepherd’s pie

•  individual ramekin dishes for brûlées, mousses, pâtés

•  stacking food on plates to add extra shape.

SKILL 2 KNIFE SKILLS

Knives

A selection of small and large kitchen knives and equipment are needed for different purposes. When using knives:

•  Always clean the knife after use to avoid cross-contamination.

•  Make sure the knife is kept sharp – it causes fewer accidents.

•  Use the right-sized knife for the food you are cutting.

•  Always store knives carefully in a block or a wrap.

•  When carrying a knife always carry it by the handle with the point downwards.

The most common knives used are:

Figure 1.2.1 A selection of knives

Key words

Filleting knife is a thin, flexible, narrow-bladed knife used to fillet fish.

Cook’s knife is a large general-purpose knife with a deep blade, used for cutting, chopping, slicing and dicing.

Paring knife/vegetable knife is a small multi-purpose knife, mainly used for slicing and dicing.

Bread knife is a large knife with a serrated blade, used to slice bread, cakes and pastries.

Carving knife is a long thin-bladed knife used to carve both cooked meats and cold meats.

Other cutting equipment

•  A corer is used to remove the core (centre) from fruit, such as apples, pears and pineapples. The corer is pushed into the centre of the fruit and pulled out, taking the core with it as it goes.

•  A peeler is used to take off a small amount of the outside skin from fruit and vegetables, such as carrots, parsnips and apples.

Figure 1.2.2 Other cutting equipment

Chopping boards

Different coloured chopping boards are used for different preparation tasks:

•  A green board is used for salad and fruit.

•  A brown board is used for vegetables.

•  A red board is used for raw meat and chicken.

•  A blue board is used for fish.

•  A yellow board is used for cooked meat.

•  A white board is used for bread and dairy products.

Figure 1.2.3 Colour-coded chopping boards

Fruit and vegetables

It is important that fruit and vegetables are prepared using the correct equipment, which is usually a paring or vegetable knife, a peeler or a corer and a green cutting board.

There are two techniques for holding and cutting fruit and vegetables when chopping and slicing: bridge hold and claw grip.

Bridge hold

1  Use your thumb and forefinger and grip either side of the ingredient.

2  Use the knife to slice the ingredient in the gap underneath the bridge formed by your finger and thumb.

Figure 1.2.4a Bridge hold grip

Claw grip

1  With the tips of your fingers and thumb tucked under towards the palm of your hand, hold the ingredient to be cut in a claw-like grip.

2  Hold the knife in your other hand and carefully bring the knife across and slice the ingredient.

Figure 1.2.4b Claw grip

Research and practical activity

Watch the clip on how to chop an onion.

Practise chopping an onion finely.

https://www.jamieoliver.com/features/how-to-chop-an-onion/

Vegetable cuts

Vegetables can be cut into different shapes and sizes according to the dish they are being used for: julienne, brunoise, macédoine and jardinière.

Key words

Julienne means cutting vegetables into matchstick strips.

Brunoise means cutting vegetables into tiny dice from julienne strips.

Macédoine means cutting vegetables into medium dice.

Jardinière means cutting vegetables into batons.

Vegetable cut
Description

Julienne (matchstick strips)

1  Cut the vegetable into 2 cm lengths.

2  Cut into thin slices.

3  Cut each slice into thin even-sized strips.

Figure 1.2.5

Brunoise (small dice)
Cut each julienne strip into small dice.

Figure 1.2.6

Macédoine (medium dice)

1  Cut the vegetable into even-sized lengths.

2  Cut the length into 0.5 cm slices.

3  Cut each slice into 0.5 cm strips.

4  Cut the strips into 0.5 cm cubes.

Figure 1.2.7

Jardinière (batons)

1  Cut the vegetables into 1.5 cm lengths.

2  Cut into 3 mm slices.

3  Cut the slices into batons.

Figure 1.2.8

Table 1.2.1 Vegetable cuts

Meat, fish and alternatives

Chicken

Chicken can be bought whole or in portions (pieces). It is possible to cut a whole chicken into portions. This process is also called jointing. When just the breast is removed from the chicken, it is called filleting.

A whole chicken can be cut into six portions. The portions can be used in a wide variety of dishes; the carcass is generally boiled to make chicken stock.

Raw chickens are often a source of food poisoning bacteria, so it is important to follow hygienic procedures when preparing it to prevent cross-contamination. A red chopping board must be used.

Portioning a chicken

Figure 1.2.9 Portioning a chicken

Research activity

Watch a clip on how to portion a chicken: bit.ly/1LhFIIP

Filleting a chicken using a cook’s knife

Figure 1.2.10 Filleting a chicken

Meat

Meat is the muscle tissue of animals. In the UK, we mainly eat the meat of these animals:

•  pigs – pork, bacon, ham and gammon

•  sheep – lamb and mutton

•  cows – beef.

Meat does need some preparation before you cook it. Raw meat is a source of food poisoning bacteria so it is important to follow hygienic procedures when preparing it to prevent cross-contamination. A red chopping board should be used for raw meat.

Meat varies in its fat content; the fat is found on the outside of the meat and throughout. The visible fat is saturated fat so can be trimmed off with a small knife before cooking as a healthier option.

Figure 1.2.11 Fillet and loin of beef

Figure 1.2.12 Lamb loin chops

In the case of bacon and gammon, the outside skin (rind) should be removed before cooking; this can be done with a small knife or scissors.

Key word

Rind is the outside skin of bacon and gammon.

Figure 1.2.13 Gammon and gammon steaks

Fish

Fresh fish is usually sold whole, or cut into steaks or fillets. Fish sometimes carries food poisoning bacteria, so it is important to follow the same hygienic procedures as when using raw meat. A blue chopping board should be used.

Research activity

Watch the clip on how to fillet a round fish.

http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/catering/pc/chapter-6/video-2.asp

A fish fillet is a cut of fish that is free from bone. You can get two fillets from a round fish such as salmon, and four fillets from a flat fish such as Dover sole.

Key word

Fish fillet is a cut of fish that is free from bones.

To fillet a round fish:

1  Using a filleting knife cut the flesh along the line of the backbone and raise the fillet from the middle of the back to the sides, working from head to tail.

2  Then reverse the fish and remove the second fillet from tail to head.

Figure 1.2.14 Filleting a round fish

Fish can also be cut into:

•  steaks, which are thick slices of fish off the bone

•  goujons, filleted fish that has been cut into strips.

Figure 1.2.15 Tuna steak

Figure 1.2.16 Goujons

Practical activity

Demonstrate your knife skills by making a fish pie.

Fish pie

450 g fresh white fish

100 g shellfish, such as prawns, mussels (optional)

Can of sweetcorn (optional)

2 hard-boiled eggs, chopped up (optional)

100 g frozen peas, defrosted (optional)

500 ml milk

50 g butter or low-fat spread

50 g plain flour

Salt and pepper

Topping

300 g potatoes

50 ml milk and 25 g butter to mash potatoes

Method

1  Preheat the oven to 180°C.

2  Peel and cut potatoes for the topping into quarters. Cover with cold water, bring to the boil and simmer until soft for approximately 20 minutes. Mash and leave to cool a little before piping.

3  Skin white fish, cut into chunks and place in a shallow casserole dish.

4  Add any other optional ingredients. Season well.

5  Place the milk, margarine and flour into a saucepan. Over a medium heat, whisk the ingredients together until they come to the boil and thicken.

6  Pour over the fish.

7  Pipe mashed potato on the top. Bake for 35–45 minutes until the sauce is bubbling and the top golden brown.

Extension activities

•  Pipe the mashed potato on top of the pie.

•  Make your own pastry to place on top of the pie instead of potato.

•  Make a roux, béchamel sauce instead of an all-in-one.

•  Fillet the fish you are using yourself.

•  Serve some steamed vegetables as an accompaniment.

Alternatives

As an alternative to meat and fish, you may also wish to try the following:

Tofu

Tofu is an alternative protein food. It is sold as a curd, usually from the chiller cabinet. It can be cut into cubes and grilled or stir-fried and is often marinated to add extra flavour.

Figure 1.2.17 Tofu

Figure 1.2.18 Crispy deep-fried tofu

Paneer

Paneer is an unsalted, white cheese. It has a dense, crumbly texture that goes well with strong flavours. It is often used in Asian cuisine.

Halloumi

Halloumi originates from the Middle East and is traditionally made from ewes’ milk, or sometimes goats’ milk. It is a robust cheese with a deep savoury flavour, and keeps very well. It is a cooking cheese, which can be cubed or sliced (it cannot be crumbled) and then grilled, barbecued or fried. When cooked, the outside rapidly becomes crisp and golden brown, while the centre melts. The cheese does not lose its shape when cooked.

Figure 1.2.19 Halloumi