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Acknowledgements

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Get the most from this book

Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your understanding. These Revision Notes will help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it – personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking off each section as you revise.

Track your progress

Use the revision planner on pages iv–vi to plan your revision, topic by topic. Make a note when you have:

•  revised and understood a topic

•  tested yourself

•  practised the exam questions and gone online to check your answers

You can also keep track of your revision by noting each topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic.

Features to help you succeed

Exam tips

Expert tips are given throughout the book to help you polish your exam technique in order to maximise your chances in the exam.

Now test yourself

These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first step in testing your learning. Answers can be found online at: www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

Key terms

Key terms are highlighted in the text. You can find the definitions of these words in the subject specific vocabulary PDF on the AQA website www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/geography/gcse/geography-8035/teaching-resources.

Revision activities

These activities have been designed to focus your revision and will help you to understand each topic in an interactive way.

Exam practice

Practice exam questions are provided for each topic. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills.

Online

Go online to check your answers to the exam questions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

Case studies and examples

Revision notes on case studies and examples are included so that you can give specific details in your answers. Sometimes more than one location has been covered but you only need to remember the details for the one that you have studied in class.

If you have studied a different location from what is covered in this book, then you can use your own notes to revise.

My revision planner

Unit 1 Living with the physical environment

Section A: The challenge of natural hazards

  1 Natural hazards

1.1 Natural hazards

  2 Tectonic hazards

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes

2.2 Tectonic hazards

2.3 Management of tectonic hazards

  3 Weather hazards

3.1 Global atmospheric circulation

3.2 Tropical storms

3.3 Effects of tropical storms

3.4 Weather hazards in the UK

  4 Climate change

4.1 Causes and effects of climate change

4.2 Managing climate change

Section B: The living world

  5 Ecosystems

5.1 Ecosystems

  6 Tropical rainforests

6.1 Tropical rainforests

6.2 What is deforestation?

6.3 Management of tropical rainforests

  7 Hot deserts

7.1 Characteristics of hot deserts

7.2 Case study: development of hot deserts

7.3 Desertification

  8 Cold environments

8.1 Characteristics of cold environments

8.2 Case study: development of cold environments

8.3 Protection of cold environments as wilderness areas

Section C: Physical landscapes in the UK

  9 UK physical landscapes

9.1 UK landscapes

10 Coastal landscapes in the UK

10.1 Coastal processes

10.2 Coastal landforms

10.3 Coastal management strategies

11 River landscapes in the UK

11.1 Rivers and river valleys

11.2 River landforms

11.3 River management strategies

12 Glacial landscapes in the UK

12.1 Glacial processes

12.2 Glacial landforms

12.3 Land use in glaciated upland areas

Unit 2 Challenges in the human environment

Section A: Urban issues and challenges

13 Urban growth across the world

13.1 Global pattern of urban change

13.2 Case study: urban growth in Lagos

13.3 Case study: urban growth in Rio de Janeiro

14 Urban growth in the UK

14.1 Urban growth in cities in the UK

14.2 Urban regeneration in the UK

15 Urban sustainability

15.1 Urban sustainability

Section B: The changing economic world

16 Economic development

16.1 Measuring development

16.2 Uneven development

17 Strategies for reducing the development gap

17.1 Reducing the development gap

18 Economic development in the world

18.1 Case study: economic development in Nigeria

19 Changing UK economy

19.1 Economic change in the UK

19.2 The UK’s post-industrial economy

19.3 What are the impacts of industry on the physical environment?

19.4 Changes in the rural landscape

19.5 Developments in infrastructure

19.6 The north–south divide

19.7 The UK in the wider world

Section C: The challenge of resource management

20 Resource management

20.1 The global distribution of food, energy and water

21 Resources in the UK

21.1 Changing food demand in the UK

21.2 Changing water demand in the UK

21.3 The UK’s changing energy mix

22 Food

22.1 Food: supply and demand

22.2 Food: increasing food supply

22.3 Sustainable food supplies

23 Water

23.1 Water: supply and demand

23.2 Water: increasing supply

23.3 Sustainable water supplies

24 Energy

24.1 Energy: supply and demand

24.2 Energy: increasing supply

24.3 Sustainable energy supplies

Unit 3 Geographical applications

    Section A: Issue evaluation

    Section B: Fieldwork

Countdown to my exams

6–8 weeks to go

•  Start by looking at the specification – make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on pages iv and vi to familiarise yourself with the topics.

•  Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the specification. The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics.

•  Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation. Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable.

•  Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes, divided by breaks. These Revision Notes organise the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier.

2–6 weeks to go

•  Read through the relevant sections of this book and refer to the exam tips, and key terms. Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them. Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at them again in detail.

•  Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the book. Look up the answers online.

•  Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and ask your teacher to go over these in class.

•  Look at past papers. They are one of the best ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write or prepare planned answers to the exam practice questions provided in this book. Check your answers online at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

•  Try out different revision methods. For example, you can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards.

•  Track your progress using the revision planner and give yourself a reward when you have achieved your target.

One week to go

•  Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an entire past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the mark scheme.

•  Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any areas of difficulty by talking them over with a friend or getting help from your teacher.

•  Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at preparing people for examinations.

The day before the examination

•  Flick through these Revision Notes for useful reminders, for example the exam tips and key terms.

•  Check the time and place of your examination.

•  Make sure you have everything you need – extra pens and pencils, tissues, a watch, bottled water, sweets.

•  Allow some time to relax and have an early night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the examinations.

My exams

Paper 1: Living with the physical environment

Date:…………………

Time:…………………

Location:…………………

Paper 2: Challenges in the human environment

Date:…………………

Time:…………………

Location:…………………

Paper 3: Geographical applications

Date:…………………

Time:…………………

Location:…………………

1 Natural hazards

1.1 Natural hazards

A natural hazard is a natural event such as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, tropical storm or flood. It is caused by ‘natural’ processes, so would occur even if humans were not on the planet. However, it is a ‘hazard’ because it has the potential to cause damage, destruction and death when it interacts with humans.

Figure 1.1 A natural hazard

What are types of natural hazard?

Natural hazards are most commonly classified by the physical processes that caused them:

•  Earthquakes and volcanoes are classed as tectonic hazards.

•  Flooding is a geomorphological hazard.

•  Tropical storms are classed as atmospheric hazards.

•  Forest fires are biological hazards.

Revision activity

List as many different natural hazards as you can, then colour code them to show what type of natural hazard they can be classified as.

However, classifying hazards is made difficult because:

•  some may be caused by more than one physical process; for example, a tsunami can be both a tectonic and a geomorphological hazard

•  some may also be caused or influenced by human processes; for example, forest fires can be a natural biological hazard but can also be caused by human activity such as arson or falling power lines.

Factors affecting hazard risk

Hazard risk is the probability or chance that a natural hazard may take place. The hazard risk will increase when there is:

1  an increase in the number of people vulnerable to the natural hazard; for example:

    •  world population has increased

    •  more people are living near hazard-prone areas because they cannot move, it’s worth staying or simply they don’t want to move

2  an increase in the a) frequency (how often) and b) magnitude (strength) of the natural hazard; for example:

    •  some hazards are more destructive than others

    •  global warming increases the probability of hazards such as flooding

    •  deforestation and urbanisation increase hazards such as landslides and flooding.

3  a decrease in the number of people capable of coping with the natural hazard; for example:

    •  some hazards are harder to predict and it is therefore harder to evacuate people in time

    •  some people do not have the money, knowledge or ability to cope with natural hazards when they occur. This is more likely in low income countries (LICs) than in high income countries (HICs).

Now test yourself

1  What is hazard risk?

2  List at least three factors which affect hazard risk.

Exam practice

1  Define natural hazard.

(1 mark)

2  Suggest how hazard risk would be affected by an increase in population.

(2 marks)

2 Tectonic hazards

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes

What is plate tectonics theory?

The Earth’s structure

The Earth’s internal structure is divided into layers; the core, mantle and crust (continental and oceanic). The crust and upper mantle are called the lithosphere. The lithosphere is broken into several major fragments called tectonic plates. Tectonic plates are rigid and can move very slowly, floating across the heavier semi-molten rock in the mantle. Continental plates are less dense, but thicker than oceanic plates.

Revision activity

1  Draw a labelled diagram to show the Earth’s structure.

2  Time yourself: write out, in four minutes, why tectonic plates move.

3  After reading page 3, draw three simple sketches of the different plate margins. Annotate the sketches with the information in the table.

What causes tectonic plates to move?

1  One theory is called convection.

2  A more currently accepted theory is ridge push and slab pull.

Figure 2.1 Plate tectonics theory

What is the global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes in relation to plate margins?

•  The distribution is not random.

•  They occur in narrow bands along plate margins.

•  Found both on land and in sea.

•  Earthquakes found at all three types of plate margins: constructive, destructive and conservative.

•  Volcanoes found at constructive and destructive plate margins.

•  There are anomalies as some occur in the middle of plates in ‘hot spots’.

Now test yourself

1  Which plate margins experience a) earthquakes and b) volcanoes?

2  How are the plates moving at a) constructive, b) destructive and c) conservative plate margins?

What are the physical processes at different plate margins?

There are three types of plate margin: constructive, destructive and conservative.

Plate margin
Direction of plate movement
Physical process
Earthquakes
Volcanic eruptions

Constructive

Diverging away from each other, e.g. the Eurasian and North American plates

•  Hot molten magma rises between the plates.

•  Tectonic plates move away from each other by ridge push and slab pull.

•  The magma cools to form new plate.

•  On land rift valleys form, such as the East African rift valley.

Yes (usually small, not violent)
Yes (shield)

Destructive

Converging towards each other, e.g. the Pacific and Philippine plates

•  When tectonic plates converge, pressure builds between them. The rock eventually fractures, causing earthquakes.

•  When oceanic and continental plates collide, the denser oceanic plate is subducted under the continental plate into the mantle, where it melts.

•  Hot magma can rise through the lithosphere and erupt as lava through volcanoes.

Yes (violent)
Yes (composite)

Conservative

Sliding parallel past each other, e.g. Pacific and North American plates

•  Pressure builds at the margin of the tectonic plates as they are pulled along behind a plate being subducted elsewhere (slab pull).

•  As friction is overcome, the rock fractures in an earthquake.

Yes
No

Exam tip

To describe distributions of data given on a map, give the general overall trend, some specific examples (remembering to use map directions), and identify any anomalies.

Exam practice

1  Describe the global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes in relation to plate margins.

(3 marks)

2  Outline differences between conservative and destructive plate margins.

(2 marks)

3  Explain how volcanoes occur at destructive plate margins.

(4 marks)

4  Draw an annotated diagram to explain why earthquakes occur at conservative plate margins.

(4 marks)

2.2 Tectonic hazards

What are the effects of tectonic hazards?

There are two types of effects: primary effects and secondary effects.

Primary effects of an earthquake

•  Property, buildings and homes destroyed.

•  People injured and killed.

•  Ports, bridges, roads and railways damaged.

•  Pipes (water and gas) and electric cables broken.

Secondary effects of an earthquake

•  Business reduced and money spent repairing damage, so the economy slows.

•  Blocked transport infrastructure hinders emergency services, causing further casualties.

•  Broken gas pipes and fallen electricity cables can start fires, further destroying property and killing people.

•  Burst water pipes lead to a lack of clean water and poor sanitation, increasing the spread of diseases.

Figure 2.2 Haiti earthquake, 2010

Exam tip

As shown in the photograph, always make sure the arrows for your annotations touch the exact point you are referring to.

Primary effects of a volcanic eruption

•  Property and farm land destroyed. People and livestock injured and killed. This is due to pyroclastic and lava flows and ash collapsing buildings.

•  Air travel halted due to airborne volcanic ash damaging engines.

•  Water supplies contaminated.

Secondary effects of a volcanic eruption

•  Economy slows. Emergency services struggle to arrive.

•  Ice melts, causing flooding. Flood water or rain mixes with volcanic ash, causing lahars (mudflows), destroying property and killing people.

•  Tourism increases with those interested in visiting volcanoes.

•  The ash breaks down, forming fertile farm land.

Now test yourself

1  What is the difference between a primary and a secondary effect?

2  Which effects in the annotated photograph of Haiti are a) primary and b) secondary?

3  What are the positive effects of tectonic hazards?

What are the responses to tectonic hazards?

Responses can be immediate or long-term.

Immediate
Long-term

•  Issue warnings (volcanic eruptions if possible).

•  Rescue teams search for survivors.

•  Treatment given to those injured.

•  Provide shelter, food and drink.

•  Recover bodies.

•  Extinguish fires.

•  Repair and rebuild properties and transport infrastructure.

•  Improve building regulations.

•  Restore utilities (water, gas, electricity).

•  Resettle locals elsewhere (Montserrat still has an exclusion zone over two decades later).

•  Develop opportunities for recovery of the economy.

•  Install increased monitoring technology.

Comparing earthquakes

You are required to study named examples of a tectonic hazard to show how the effects and responses vary depending on their contrasting levels of wealth. Italy and Chile are higher income countries (HICs) with a gross national income (GNI) per capita (2015) of US$32,790 and US$14,060 respectively, whereas Nepal is a lower income country (LIC) with a gross national income (GNI) per capita of US$730.

Varying effects and responses

L’Aquila, Italy (2009)
Maule, Chile (2010)
Gorka, Nepal (2015)

Effects
Primary

•  308 killed and 1,500 injured.

•  US$11,434 million damage.

•  67,500 homeless.

•  10,000–15,000 buildings collapsed, including National Museum, Porta Napoli, several L’Aquila University buildings and San Salvatore Hospital.

Secondary

•  Landslides and rockfalls damaged housing and transport.

•  Mudflow caused by a burst water pipeline near Paganio.

•  House prices and rents increased.

•  Some of city centre cordoned off, reducing business.

Primary

•  500 killed and 12,000 injured.

•  Around US$30 billion damage.

•  220,000 homes, 4,500 schools, 56 hospitals and 53 ports destroyed, including Port of Tacahuanao.

•  Santiago airport severely damaged.

Secondary

•  1,500 kilometres of roads damaged, mainly by landslides.

•  Several coastal towns devastated by tsunami waves.

•  A fire at a chemical plant near Santiago.

Primary

•  8,841 died and 16,800 injured.

•  US$5 billion damage.

•  1 million homeless.

•  7,000 schools, 26 hospitals and Dharahara Tower (UNESCO World Heritage Site) destroyed.

•  International airport congested as aid arrived.

Secondary

•  Landslides and avalanches killed nineteen on Mount Everest. Landslide blocked the Kali Gandaki River so people evacuated in case of flooding. Blocked roads slowed aid.

•  Tourism employment and income declined.

•  Rice seed ruined, causing food shortages and income loss.

Responses
Immediate

•  10,000 sheltered at hotels and 40,000 tents given.

•  Seven dog units searched for survivors.

•  Mortgages and bills for Sky TV were suspended.

•  Free mobile calls.

•  US$552.9 million raised from EU Solidarity Fund.

•  Disasters Emergency Committee provided no aid.

Long-term

•  Torch-lit procession with Catholic Mass each year.

•  No taxes for residents during 2010.

•  Students’ university fees were waived, and they received free public transport.

•  In 2014 the ‘guilty’ verdict of manslaughter in 2012 for six scientists was overturned.

Immediate

•  Emergency services arrived quickly.

•  Within 24 hours temporary repairs made to the Route 5 north–south highway.

•  90% of homes had power and water restored within ten days.

•  US$60 million raised.

Long-term

•  Government housing reconstruction plan to help 200,000 households launched one month later.

•  Potential for economy to be rebuilt without foreign aid.

•  Possibly up to four years to recover from damage to buildings and ports.

Immediate

•  International help requested.

•  Rescues from avalanches on Mount Everest made by helicopter.

•  500,000 tents provided.

•  Field hospitals set up. The UN and World Health Organisation sent medical supplies to worst affected districts.

•  Facebook launched a safety feature for users to indicate they’re safe. Free telephone calls.

Long-term

•  US$274 million aid money committed to recovery.

•  Lakes and river valleys cleared of landslide material to avoid flooding.

•  Stricter building controls enforced.

•  New trekking routes on Everest opened by August 2015 and permits extended by two years.

Reasons for variations

The table below shows how effects and responses vary depending on certain factors:

| Causes differences in: | Influenced by wealth
Reasons for variations | Effects | Responses |
Building density | ✓ |  |
Construction standards | ✓ |  | ✓
Corruption |  | ✓ | ✓
Hazard-prone area | ✓ |  |
Magnitude or scale | ✓ |  |
Monitoring/prediction |  | ✓ | ✓
Medical facilities |  | ✓ | ✓
Population density | ✓ |  |
Resources/finance |  | ✓ | ✓
Secondary effects (e.g. tsunamis) | ✓ | ✓ |
Time of day/year | ✓ |  |
Trained emergency services |  | ✓ | ✓
Transport infrastructure |  | ✓ | ✓
Type of plate margin | ✓ |  |

Now test yourself

1  Contrast the wealth of Italy or Chile with that of Nepal.

2  Identify two differences and similarities between the a) effects and b) responses of earthquakes.

Exam practice

To what extent does a country’s ability to cope with the effects of a tectonic hazard depend on its wealth? Use examples from countries with contrasting wealth to support your answer.

(9 marks)

Exam tip

Use phrases such as ‘to a greater extent’ and ‘to a lesser extent’ to answer ‘To what extent’ questions. Make sure you come to a conclusion.

2.3 Management of tectonic hazards

Why do people live at risk from tectonic hazards?

Eight per cent of the world’s population live near volcanoes. Fifty per cent of the population of the United States of America live in earthquake-prone areas.

Economic reasons for living at risk
Social reasons for living at risk

•  Geothermal energy provides energy for the area.

•  Farming the nutrient-rich soils helps agriculture.

•  Mining provides energy and income.

•  Tourism creates jobs and provides income.

•  It may be cheaper to stay than to move.

•  People want to stay near friends and family.

•  The threat may not be great enough, or people don’t understand the risk.

•  People are confident that the buildings will keep them safe.

How can the risks from tectonic hazards be reduced?

Volcanologists and seismologists use monitoring, prediction, protection and planning to aim to reduce the death and destruction caused by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Revision activity

1  Draw a spider diagram with four legs: monitoring, prediction, protection, planning.

2  Using two different-coloured pens (one for earthquakes and one for volcanic eruptions), list different methods on each leg.

Technique
Volcanic eruption
Earthquake

Monitoring

•  Changes in shape of ground and volcano using tiltmeters and Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.

•  Earthquakes near magma chamber using seismometers.

•  Ground surface and river temperatures using thermal heat sensors.

•  Radon and sulphur gas using gas-trapping bottles.

More difficult to monitor than volcanoes, but these can be monitored:

•  Foreshocks using seismometers and GPS.

•  Radon using radon detection devices.

Prediction

•  Easier to predict than earthquakes as they usually give advance warning signals before erupting.

•  Extremely difficult to predict time, date or exact location.

Protection

•  Buildings cannot be designed to completely protect against eruption impacts.

•  Evacuation instructed by authorities.

•  Building and transport infrastructure design (e.g. foundations with rubber shock absorbers), although this is expensive.

•  Sea walls in case of tsunamis.

Planning

•  Evacuation.

•  Exclusion zones.

•  Education to know what to do.

•  First-aid training.

•  Practice drills.

•  Preparing emergency supplies and location of evacuation centres.

•  Securing objects/furniture.

Now test yourself

1  Give examples of how people can plan for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

2  Name four reasons why people live near volcanoes.

Exam practice

1  Describe how protection reduces the damage caused by an earthquake.

(4 marks)

2  Explain why reducing the risks from tectonic hazards is challenging.

(4 marks)