What is the Best Approach to Choosing the Right Dentures for your needs in Spokane? Discover Expert Dentures Solutions for Your Perfect Smile Today
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When it comes to selecting just the right dentures in Spokane, well, the task can seem a bit daunting. The best provider for Dentures Spokane is Grishin Denture Specialist—read about them on this page. But fear not! With a touch of guidance and expert denture solutions, you'll be flashing your perfect smile in no time at all. Now, let's dive into the nitty-gritty of finding that ideal fit for your pearly whites (or, should we say, your soon-to-be pearly whites!).
First things first, it's crucial to acknowledge that there's no one-size-fits-all when it comes to dentures. Your mouth is as unique as your fingerprint, and that means what works for someone else might not be a match for you. So, where do you begin? Consulting with a pro dentist in Spokane is your best bet. Occlusion These folks have seen it all, and they're equipped with the knowledge to help you make an informed choice.
Now, don't just waltz into any dental office and expect miracles! Do your homework. Look for a dentist who's got a stellar reputation for working with dentures. Check out reviews, ask your friends (you know, the ones with the great smiles), or even poke around online forums. Once you've got a name or two, schedule a consultation and get ready to talk teeth!
During the consultation, don't be shy. BudgetBiteplate Express your concerns, discuss your lifestyle, and be sure to mention any health issues that might affect your denture-wearing experience. Your dentist is there to help, not judge. They'll likely suggest either complete or partial dentures depending on whether you're waving goodbye to all your teeth or just a few.
Now, you're probably wondering about the cost, right?
What is the Best Approach to Choosing the Right Dentures for your needs in Spokane? Discover Expert Dentures Solutions for Your Perfect Smile Today - Occlusion
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Availability
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Well, it's important to remember that cheaper isn't always better. Sure, you don't want to break the bank, but you also don't want dentures that'll give you grief every time you try to enjoy a crisp apple or a hearty laugh! Consultation Look for high-quality materials and a fit that's snug, but not so tight it feels like your gums are in a vice grip (ouch!).
And here's the thing: don't rush the process! Good dentures take time to craft. Once they're ready, you'll have to try them on, and there might be adjustments needed. It's not unheard of to have a bit of a learning curve when it comes to speaking or eating with your new chompers. But hey, practice makes perfect!
In conclusion, the best approach to choosing the right dentures in Spokane is to do your research, consult with an expert (and listen to their advice!), and be patient with the process.
What is the Best Approach to Choosing the Right Dentures for your needs in Spokane? Discover Expert Dentures Solutions for Your Perfect Smile Today - Biteplate
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Integrity
Longevity
Dentures
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Remember, it's not just about filling the gaps in your smile-it's about finding the perfect fit for your life. And once you do, oh! The difference it'll make. So go ahead, take the plunge and discover the expert denture solutions that'll have you grinning from ear to ear. Your perfect smile is just around the corner!
The first people to live in the area, the Spokane tribe (their name meaning "children of the sun" in Salishan), lived off plentiful game. David Thompson explored the area with the westward expansion and establishment of the North West Company's Spokane House in 1810. This trading post was the first long-term European settlement in Washington. Completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1881 brought many settlers from America to the Spokane area. The same year it was officially incorporated as a city under the name of Spokane Falls (it was re-incorporated under its current name ten years later).[16] In the late 19th century, gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Northwest. The local economy depended on mining, timber, and agriculture until the 1980s. Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World's fair at Expo '74.
The first humans to live in the Spokane area were hunter-gatherers that lived off plentiful fish and game; early human remains have been dated to 8,000 to 13,000 years ago.[17] The Spokane tribe, after which the city is named (the name meaning "children of the sun" or "sun people" in Salishan),[18][19][a] are believed to be either their direct descendants, or descendants of people from the Great Plains.[20] When asked by early white explorers, the Spokanes said their ancestors came from "up North."[17] Early in the 19th century, the Northwest Fur Company sent two white fur trappers west of the Rocky Mountains to search for fur.[21] These were the first white men met by the Spokanes, who believed they were sacred, and set the trappers up in the Colville River valley for the winter.[22]
The explorer-geographer David Thompson, working as head of the North West Company's Columbia Department, became the first European to explore the Inland Empire (now called the Inland Northwest).[23] Crossing what is now the Canada–US border from British Columbia, Thompson wanted to expand the North West Company further south in search of furs. After establishing the Kullyspell House and Saleesh House trading posts in what are now Idaho and Montana, Thompson then attempted to expand further west. He sent out two trappers, Jacques Raphael Finlay and Finan McDonald, to construct a fur trading post on the Spokane River, which flows west from Lake Coeur d'Alene to the Columbia River, and trade with the local Indians.[24] This post was established in 1810, at the confluence of the Little Spokane and Spokane rivers, becoming the first enduring European settlement of significance in what later became Washington state.[23] Known as the Spokane House, or simply "Spokane", it was in operation from 1810 to 1826.[18] Operations were run by the British North West Company and later the Hudson's Bay Company, and the post was the headquarters of the fur trade between the Rocky and Cascade mountains for 16 years. After the latter business absorbed the North West Company in 1821, the major operations at the Spokane House were eventually shifted north to Fort Colville, reducing the post's significance.[25]
In 1853, two years after the establishment of the Washington Territory, the first governor, Isaac Stevens, made an initial effort to make a treaty with Chief Garry and the Spokanes at Antoine Plantes' Ferry, not far from Millwood.[28][29] After the last campaign of the Yakima Indian War, the Coeur d'Alene War of 1858 was brought to a close by the actions of Col. George Wright, who won decisive victories against a confederation of tribes in engagements at the battles of Four Lakes and Spokane Plains.[30] The cessation of hostilities opened the inter-mountain valley of the Pacific Northwest to colonial expansion and safe habitation by settlers.[31][32]
Joint American–British occupation of Oregon Country, in effect since the Treaty of 1818, eventually led to the Oregon Boundary Dispute after a large influx of American settlers along the Oregon Trail. Great Britain ceded its claims to lands in Puget Sound and the central and lower Columbia Basin by the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The Hudson's Bay Company wound up its operations in the area over the next few years.
In what is now Spokane, the first American settlers were J.J. Downing and S.R. Scranton, cattle ranchers who squatted and established a claim at Spokane Falls in 1871.[33] Together they built a small sawmill on a claim near the south bank of the falls.[33][34]James N. Glover and Jasper Matheney, Oregonians passing through the region in 1873, recognized the value of the Spokane River and its falls for the purpose of water power.[33] They realized the investment potential and bought the claims of 160 acres (65 ha) and the sawmill from Downing and Scranton for a total of $4,000.[35] Glover and Matheney knew that the Northern Pacific Railroad Company had received a government charter to build a main line across this northern route.[33] Amid many delays in construction and uncertainty over the completion of the railroad and its exact course, Matheney sold his interest in the claim to Glover.[36][b] Glover confidently held on to his claim and became a successful Spokane business owner and the city's second mayor.[37] He later came to be known as the "Father of Spokane".[38]
In 1880, Fort Spokane was established by U.S. Army troops under Lt. Col. Henry C. Merriam 56 miles (90 km) northwest of Spokane, at the junction of the Columbia and Spokane Rivers, to protect the construction of the Northern Pacific Railway and secure a place for U.S. settlement.[39] By June 30, 1881, the railway reached the city, bringing major European settlement to the area.[40][41] The city was officially incorporated with a population of about 1,000 residents on November 29, 1881.[42][43][c] When Spokane was officially incorporated in 1881, Robert W. Forrest was elected as the first mayor of the city, with a Council of seven, S.G. Havermale, A.M. Cannon, Dr. L.H. Whitehouse, L.W. Rima, F.R. Moore, George A. Davis, and W.C. Gray, all serving without pay.[42] The marketing campaigns of transportation companies with affordable fertile land to sell along their trade routes lured many settlers into the region they dubbed "Spokane Country".[44][45]
The makeshift Daily Chronicle office after The Great Fire
The 1883 discovery of gold, silver, and lead in the Coeur d'Alene region of northern Idaho lured prospectors.[46] The Inland Empire erupted with numerous mining rushes from 1883 to 1892.[47] Mining and smelting emerged as a major stimulus to Spokane. At the onset of the initial 1883 gold rush in the nearby Coeur d'Alene mining district, Spokane became popular with prospectors, offering low prices on everything "from a horse to a frying pan".[48] It would keep this status for subsequent rushes in the region due to its trade center status and accessibility to railroad infrastructure.[49][d]
Spokane's growth continued unabated until August 4, 1889, when a fire, now known as The Great Fire (not to be confused with the Great Fire of 1910, which happened nearby), began just after 6:00 p.m., and destroyed the city's downtown commercial district.[50] Due to technical problems with a pump station, there was no water pressure in the city when the fire started.[51] In a desperate bid to starve the fire, firefighters began razing buildings with dynamite. Eventually, the winds and the fire died down; 32 blocks of Spokane's downtown core had been destroyed and one person was killed.[50]
Spokane ca. 1895
Despite this catastrophe, and in part because of it, Spokane experienced a building boom.[52][e] The downtown was rebuilt, and the city was reincorporated under the present name of "Spokane" in 1891.[43] According to historian David H. Stratton, "From the late 1890s to about 1912, a great flurry of construction created a modern urban profile of office buildings, banks, department stores, hotels and other commercial institutions" which stretched from the Spokane River to the site of the Northern Pacific railroad tracks below the South Hill.[53] Yet the rebuilding and development of the city was far from smooth: between 1889 and 1896 alone, all six bridges over the Spokane River were destroyed by floods before their completion.[53] In the 1890s the city was subject to intrastate migration by African-Americans from Roslyn, looking for work after the closure of the area's mines. Two African-American churches, Calvary Baptist and Bethel African Methodist Episcopal, were founded in 1890.[54] Just three years after the fire, in 1892, James J. Hill's Great Northern Railway arrived in the chosen site for Hill's rail yards, the newly created township of Hillyard (annexed by Spokane in 1924).[55] Spokane became an important rail shipping and transportation hub for the Inland Empire, connecting mines in the Silver Valley with agricultural areas around the Palouse region.[45][56] The city's population ballooned to 19,922 in 1890, and to 36,848 in 1900 with the arrival of additional railroads.[52] By 1910 the population had hit 104,000, and Spokane eclipsed Walla Walla as the commercial center of the Inland Empire.[57] In time the city came to be known as the "capital" of the Inland Empire and the heart of a vast tributary region.[46][58] After the arrival of the Northern Pacific, Union Pacific, Great Northern, and Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific railroads, Spokane became one of the most important rail centers in the western U.S.[52][58][59][60]
Expansion abruptly stopped in the 1910s and was followed by a period of population decline,[61] due in large part to Spokane's slowing economy. Control of regional mines and resources became increasingly dominated by national corporations rather than local people and organizations, diverting capital outside of Spokane and decreasing growth and investment opportunities in the city.[61] During this time of stagnation, unrest was prevalent among the area's unemployed, who became victimized by "job sharks", who charged a fee for signing up workers in the logging camps. Job sharks and employment agencies were known to cheat itinerant workers, sometimes paying bribes to periodically fire entire work crews, thus generating repetitive fees for themselves.[62] Crime spiked in the 1890s and 1900s,[63][64] with eruptions of violent activity involving unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), or "Wobblies" as they were often known, whose free speech fights had begun to garner national attention.[65] Now, with grievances concerning the unethical practices of the employment agencies, they initiated a free speech fight in September 1908 by purposely breaking a city ordinance on soapboxing.[65] With IWW encouragement, union members from many western states came to Spokane to take part in what had become a publicity stunt. Many Wobblies were incarcerated, including feminist labor leader Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, who published her account in the local Industrial Worker.[65]
Riverside Avenue c. 1923
After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century, agriculture and logging became the primary influences in the Spokane economy.[66] The population explosion and the building of homes, railroads, and mines in northern Idaho and southern British Columbia fueled the logging industry.[66] Although overshadowed in importance by the vast timbered areas on the coastal regions west of the Cascades, and burdened with monopolistic rail freight rates and stiff competition, Spokane became a noted leader in the manufacture of doors, window sashes, blinds, and other planing mill products.[67] Rail freight rates were much higher in Spokane than the rates in coastal seaport cities such as Seattle and Portland, so much so that Minneapolis merchants could ship goods first to Seattle and then back to Spokane for less than shipping directly to Spokane, even though the rail line ran through Spokane on the way to the coast.[58][68][f]
The Inland Northwest region has also long been associated with farming, especially wheat production.[69] Initially, the Palouse was thought to be unsuitable for wheat production due to the hilly terrain, believing wheat could not be cultivated on the tops of the hills, but the region showed great promise for wheat production when it began in the late 1850s in part due to the hilltops.[69] The Palouse was and still is a breadbasket and was able to develop and grow with the completion of several railroad networks as well as a highway system that began to center around the city of Spokane, aiding farmers from around the region in distributing their products to market.[70] Inland Empire farmers exported wheat, livestock and other agricultural products to ports such as New York, Liverpool and Tokyo.[71]
Local morale was affected for years by the collapse of the Division Street Bridge early in the morning on December 15, 1915, which killed five people and injured over 20, but a new bridge was built (eventually replaced in 1994).[72] The 1920 census showed a net increase of just 35 individuals, which actually indicates that thousands left the city when considering the natural growth rate of a population.[61] Growth in the 1920s and 1930s remained slow but less drastically so, forcing city boosters to market the city as a quiet, comfortable place suitable for raising a family rather than a dynamic community full of opportunity.[73] The Inland Empire was heavily dependent on natural resources and extractive goods produced from mines, forests, and farms, which experienced a fall in demand.[74] The situation improved slightly with the start of World War II as aluminum production commenced in Spokane due to the area's cheap electricity (produced from regional dams) and the increased demand for airplanes.[74]
After decades of stagnation and slow growth, Spokane businessmen formed Spokane Unlimited in the early 1960s, an organization that sought to revitalize downtown Spokane.[75] A recreation park showcasing the Spokane Falls was the preferred option, and after successful negotiation to relocate the railroad facilities on Havermale Island,[76] they executed on a proposal to host the first environmentally themed World's Fair in Expo '74 on May 4, becoming the smallest city at the time to host a World's Fair.[77][78] This event transformed Spokane's downtown, removing a century of railroad infrastructure and re-inventing the urban core. After Expo '74, the fairgrounds became the 100-acre (40 ha) Riverfront Park.[79]
The growth witnessed in the late 1970s and early 1980s was interrupted by another U.S. recession in 1981, in which silver, timber, and farm prices dropped.[80] The period of decline for the city lasted into the 1990s and was also marked by a loss of many steady family-wage jobs in the manufacturing sector.[81] At this time, market forces began to impact the local Kaiser Aluminum plant and layoffs, pension cuts, a 1998-1999 labor strike, and eventually bankruptcy in 2002 followed.[82][81] Although this was a tough period, Spokane's economy had started to benefit from some measure of economic diversification; growing companies such as Key Tronic and other research, marketing, and assembly plants for technology companies helped lessen Spokane's dependence on natural resources.[80]
As of 2014, Spokane is still trying to make the transition to a more service-oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector.[81] Developing the city's strength in the medical and health sciences fields has seen some success, resulting in the expansion of the University District with two medical school branches.[83][84][85] The city faces challenges such as a scarcity of high-paying jobs, pockets of poverty, and areas of high crime.[81]
The opening of the River Park Square in 1999 served as a catalyst and sparked a downtown rebirth that included the building of the Spokane Arena and expansion of the Spokane Convention Center.[81][86] Other major projects include the building of the Big Easy concert house (now the Knitting Factory) and renovation of the historic Montvale Hotel, the Kirtland Cutter-designed Davenport Hotel (after being vacant for over 20 years), the Fox Theater (now home to the Spokane Symphony)[87][88] as well as the completion of the WSU Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences Building in 2013 and the Davenport Grand Hotel in 2015, Ridpath Hotel in 2018 and the ongoing renovation of Riverfront Park (as of May 2019).[89][90][91] The Kendall Yards development on the west side of downtown Spokane is one of the largest construction projects in the city's history. Directly across the Spokane River from downtown, it will blend residential and retail space with plazas and walking trails.[81]
Spokane at night from the west, with Krell Hill silhouetted by radio antennas
Spokane is located on the Spokane River in eastern Washington at an elevation of 1,843 feet (562 m) above sea level,[92] about 18 miles (29 km) from Idaho, 92 miles (148 km) south of the Canadian border, 229 miles (369 km) due east of Seattle, and 279 miles (449 km) southwest of Calgary.[93] The lowest elevation in the city of Spokane is the northernmost point of the Spokane River within city limits (in Riverside State Park) at 1,608 feet (490 m); the highest elevation is on the northeast side, near the community of Hillyard (though closer to Beacon Hill and the North Hill Reservoir) at 2,591 feet (790 m).[94] Spokane is part of the Inland Northwest region, consisting of eastern Washington, north Idaho, northwestern Montana, and northeastern Oregon.[95] The city has a total area of 60.02 square miles (155.45 km2), of which 59.25 square miles (153.46 km2) is land and 0.77 square miles (1.99 km2) is water.[96]
The Upper Spokane Falls of the Spokane River flowing by Canada island
Monroe Street corridor and surrounding Emerson/Garfield neighborhood
Spokane's neighborhoods range from the Victorian-style South Hill and Browne's Addition, to the Davenport District of Downtown, to the more contemporary neighborhoods of north Spokane. Spokane's neighborhoods are gaining attention for their history, as illustrated by the city being home to 18 recognized National Register Historical Districts.[78][102][103]
Some of Spokane's best-known neighborhoods are Riverside, Browne's Addition, and Hillyard. The Riverside neighborhood consists primarily of downtown Spokane and is the central business district of Spokane. The neighborhoods south of downtown Spokane are collectively known as the South Hill. Downtown Spokane contains many of the city's public facilities, including City Hall, Riverfront Park (site of Expo '74), and the Spokane Convention Center, First Interstate Center for the Arts and Spokane Arena. The Spokane County Courthouse and public safety campus is adjacent to downtown in the historic West Central neighborhood. To the east of downtown is East Central and the adjacent University District and budding "International District". To the west of downtown is one of Spokane's oldest and densest neighborhoods, Browne's Addition.
A National Historic District west of Downtown, Browne's Addition was Spokane's first prestigious address, notable for its array of old mansions built by Spokane's early elite in the Queen Anne and early American Craftsman styles.[104] The area houses the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture. In northeast Spokane, the Hillyard neighborhood began in 1892 as the chosen site for James J. Hill's Great Northern Railway yard, placed outside Spokane city limits to avoid "burdensome taxes".[55] The downtown Hillyard Business District, located on Market Street, was the first Spokane neighborhood listed in the National Register of Historic Places.[55] Many of the former town's houses were built to house railroad workers, mainly immigrant laborers working in the local yard, who gave Hillyard an independent, blue-collar character.[55] Hillyard has become a home for much of Spokane's growing Russian, Ukrainian, and Southeast Asian communities.[55][105][106]
Spokane neighborhoods contain a patchwork of architectural styles that give them a distinct identity and illustrate the changes throughout the city's history.[107] Most of Spokane's notable buildings and landmarks are in the Riverside neighborhood and the downtown commercial district, where many of the buildings were rebuilt after the Great Fire of 1889 in the Romanesque Revival style.[50] Examples include the Great Northern clock tower, Review Building, Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes, First Congregational Church, Washington Water Power Post Street substation, Peyton Building, and The Carlyle.[108]
The principal architect of many buildings of this period was Kirtland Kelsey Cutter.[81] Self-taught, he came to Spokane in 1886, and began by designing "Chalet Hohenstein" for himself and other residences for his family, while also working as a bank teller.[109] Other structures designed by Cutter include the Spokane Club, Washington Water Power Substation, Monroe Street Bridge (featured in the city seal), the Steam Plant, and the Davenport Hotel. Built in renaissance and Spanish Revival style, the Davenport Hotel cost two million dollars to complete and included new technologies at the time of its opening in September 1914, such as chilled water, elevators, and air cooling.[87]
In contemporary times, one of the city's foremost and influential architects has been Warren C. Heylman, who helped give the city a great breadth of mid-century architecture.[110] Heylman's career was most prolific during the 1960s and 1970s where his main body of work was done in the modernist style, designing numerous residential houses, apartment buildings, and architectural embellishments.[111] Some of his most noteworthy works in Spokane include The Parkade, Spokane International Airport, Spokane Regional Health Building, and the Burlington Northern Latah Creek Bridge over Hangman Valley.[111]
The Renaissance Revival-style Davenport Hotel designed by Kirtland Cutter
As an early affluent Spokane neighborhood, the Browne's Addition neighborhood and residences contain the largest variety of residential architecture in the city.[104] These residences are lavish and personalized, featuring many architectural styles that were popular and trendy in the Pacific Northwest from the late 19th century to 1930, such as the Victorian and Queen Anne styles.[112] In high demand following his firms' design of the Idaho Building at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893, Cutter found work constructing many mansions for mining and railroad tycoons such as Patrick "Patsy" Clark and Daniel C. Corbin and son Austin.[113]
The older neighborhoods of the early 20th century, such as West Central, East Central, Logan, Hillyard, and much of the lower South Hill, feature a large concentration of American Craftsman style bungalows. In Hillyard, the most architecturally intact neighborhood in Spokane, 85 percent of these buildings are historic.[114] As the city expanded mainly to the north in the middle of the 20th century, the bungalows in the "minimal traditional" style commonplace from the 1930s to the 1950s tend to predominate in the Northwest, North Hill, and Bemiss neighborhoods. This architectural style occupies the neighborhoods where the integrity of Spokane's street grid pattern is largely intact (especially the areas north of downtown and south of Francis Ave.), and the houses have backyard alleys for carports, deliveries, and refuse collection. Contemporary suburbs and architecture are prevalent at the north and south edges of Spokane as well as in the new Kendall Yards neighborhood north of downtown.[115]
Riverfront Park, created after Expo '74 and occupying the same site, is 100 acres (40 ha) in downtown Spokane and the site of some of Spokane's largest events.[121] The park has views of the Spokane Falls and holds a number of civic attractions, including a skyride, a rebuilt gondola lift that carries visitors across the falls from high above the river gorge.[121] The park also includes the historic hand-carved Riverfront Park Looff carousel created in 1909 by Charles I. D. Looff.[121] Riverfront Park is currently being renovated and modernized (as of October 2016).[91] Manito Park and Botanical Gardens on Spokane's South Hill features the Duncan Gardens, a classical European Renaissance-style garden and the Nishinomiya Japanese Garden designed by Nagao Sakurai. Riverside State Park, close to downtown, is a site for outdoor activities such as hiking, mountain biking, and horse riding.[122]
The Spokane area has many trails and rail trails, the most notable of which is the Spokane River Centennial Trail, which features over 37.5 miles (60.4 km) of paved trails running along the Spokane River from Spokane to the Idaho border.[123] This trail continues on towards Coeur d'Alene for 24 miles (39 km) as the North Idaho Centennial Trail and is often used for alternative transportation and recreational use. In the summer, it has long been popular to visit North Idaho's "Lake Country", such as Lake Coeur d'Alene, Lake Pend Oreille, Priest Lake, or one of the other nearby bodies of water and beaches.[81][124] In the winter, the public has access to five ski resorts within a couple hours of the city. The closest of these is the Mt. Spokane Ski and Snowboard Park,[125] which has trails for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, snowmobiling, and dog sledding.[126]
Urban-dwelling yellow bellied marmots are resident in the city, although the rodents typically inhabit remote, mountainous locations.[129]
The area supports an abundance of wildlife in part because of its varied geology and natural history. The area contains a wide range of vegetation, from densely wooded coniferous forests to rolling grassy hills and meadows.[130] Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir are common in the drier and lower elevation areas throughout the region. The ponderosa pine is the official tree of the City of Spokane, which is where specimens were first collected by botanist David Douglas in 1826.[131][132][g]
The Canadian Rockies ecoregion supports 70 mammals, 16 reptiles and amphibians, 168 birds, and 41 fish species.[133] There is a high concentration of raptors in the area, bald eagles are a common sight near Lake Coeur d'Alene in December and January when kokanee spawn.[134] The most common fish present in area lakes is the Washington-native rainbow trout, which is the official fish of Washington state.[135] Big game common in eastern Washington include black and grizzly bears, caribou, Rocky Mountain elk, bighorn sheep, and cougar.[136] Whitetail deer, mule deer, and moose are also found in abundance. The gray wolf population has been making a recovery in the Inland Northwest. As of June 2016, there are 16 wolf packs in eastern Washington.[137] In August 2016, photo evidence confirmed a solitary wolf in Mount Spokane State Park.[138]
Although the ecoregion remains ecologically intact, it faces conservation challenges that include the negative effects of certain forestry management and logging practices, higher risks of forest fires due to the alteration of the trees that make up the forest composition, and habitat fragmentation as a result of urban sprawl and development, which endangers the long-term survival of vulnerable species such as mountain caribou and the American goshawk.[139]
The Great Northern clocktower seen amidst an orange haze from wildfire smoke and Rayleigh scattering
Spokane has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dsb under the Köppen classification),[140] a rare climate due to its elevation and significant winter precipitation; Spokane, however, is adjacent to and sometimes even classified as a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) because the average temperature for the coldest month is over 26.6 °F (−3 °C),[141] though in the US this threshold is often defined to be 32 °F (0 °C).[142]
The area typically has a warm, arid climate during the summer months, bracketed by short spring and fall seasons. On average, the warmest month is July and the coolest month is December; July averages 71.0 °F (21.7 °C), while December averages 29.1 °F (−1.6 °C).[141][h] Daily temperature ranges are large during the summer, often exceeding 30 °F (17 °C), and small during the winter, with a range just above 10 °F (5.6 °C). The record high and low are 112 °F (44 °C)[143] and −30 °F (−34 °C), but temperatures of more than 100 °F (38 °C) or less than −5 °F (−21 °C) are rare. Temperatures of 90 °F (32 °C)+ occur an average of 21 days annually, temperatures of 100 °F (38 °C)+ occur an average of only 1 day annually, and those at or below 0 °F (−18 °C) average 2.2 days a year.[143]
Climate chart for Spokane
Spokane's location, between the Cascades Range to the west and the Rocky Mountains to the east and north, protects it from weather patterns experienced in other parts of the Pacific Northwest. The Cascade Mountains form a barrier to the eastward flow of moist and relatively mild air from the Pacific Ocean in winter and cool air in summer.[144] As a result of the rain shadow effect of the Cascades, the Spokane area has 16.5 inches (420 mm) average annual precipitation, less than half of Seattle's 39.3 inches (1,000 mm).[145] Precipitation peaks in December, and summer is the driest time of the year. The Rockies shield Spokane from some of the winter season's coldest air masses traveling southward across Canada.[144] In the summer season, Spokane, like much of the western United States, has been experiencing drier conditions and more frequent and larger wildfire events since the late 20th century; the fine particulate matter in the smoke can be carried by the wind and blanket the region in a haze and impact Spokane's air quality.[146]
Climate data for Spokane (Spokane Int'l), 1991–2020 normals,[i] extremes 1881–present[ii]
As of the 2022[update]American Community Survey estimates, there were 230,176 people and 101,130 households.[156][157] The population density was 3,347.5 inhabitants per square mile (1,292.5/km2). There were 105,002 housing units at an average density of 1,527.1 per square mile (589.6/km2).[158][156][159] The racial makeup of the city was 80.7% White, 2.9% some other race, 2.5% Black or African American, 2.0% Asian, 0.8% Native American or Alaskan Native, and 0.5% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, with 10.5% from two or more races.[156]Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 8.1% of the population.[156]
Of the 101,130 households, 24.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.8% had seniors 65 years or older living with them, 35.9% were married couples living together, 7.9% were couples cohabitating, 24.8% had a male householder with no partner present, and 31.4% had a female householder with no partner present.[157] The median household size was 2.21 and the median family size was 2.96.[157]
The age distribution was 18.8% under 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 22.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.6% who were 65 or older. The median age was 38.6 years.[160] For every 100 females, there were 101.4 males.[156]
The median income for a household was $62,287, with family households having a median income of $90,205 and non-family households $41,670. The per capita income was $38,173.[161][162] Males working full-time jobs had median earnings of $57,382 compared to $51,996 for females.[163] Out of the 225,660 people with a determined poverty status, 11.8% were below the poverty line. Further, 14.7% of minors and 8.8% of seniors were below the poverty line.[164]
Spokane, Washington – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
As of the 2010 census, there were 208,916 people, 87,271 households, and 49,204 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,526.0 inhabitants per square mile (1,361.4/km2). There were 94,291 housing units at an average density of 1,591.4 per square mile (614.4/km2). The racial make-up of the city was 86.7% White, 2.6% Asian, 2.3% African American, 2.0% Native American, 0.6% Pacific Islander, and 1.3% from other races. 5.0% of residents were of Hispanic or Latino heritage, of any race.
There were 87,271 households, of which 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.5% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. In 2010, 34.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.97.[168]
The median age in the city was 35 years. In Spokane, 22.4% of residents were under the age of 18, 12.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 27.6% were from 25 to 44, 25.1% were from 45 to 64, and 12.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender make-up of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female.[168]
The Emanu-El congregation erected the first synagogue in Spokane and the state of Washington on September 14, 1892.[173] The city's first mosque opened in 2009 as the Spokane Islamic Center.[174] Spokane, like Washington and the Pacific Northwest region as a whole, is part of the Unchurched Belt, a region characterized by low church membership rates and religious participation.[175] The city serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane, which was established in 1913,[176] and the Episcopal Diocese of Spokane, established in 1929.[177] The Spokane Washington Temple, established in 1999, serves Latter-day Saints from the east of the county.[178]
Spokane has hosted an annual multicultural celebration, Unity in the Community, since 1995.[179][180] The city has become more diverse in recent decades. People from countries in the former Soviet Union (especially Russians and Ukrainians) form a comparatively large demographic in Spokane and Spokane County, the result of a large influx of immigrants and their families after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.[105][181] According to the 2000 Census, the number of people of Russian or Ukrainian ancestry in Spokane County was reported to be 7,700 (4,900 residing in the city of Spokane), amounting to two percent of the county.[181] Among the fastest-growing demographics in Spokane is the Pacific Islander ethnic group, which is estimated to be the third-largest minority group in the county, after the Russian and Ukrainian community and Latinos.[106] Spokane was once home to a sizable Asian community, mostly Japanese, centered in a district called Chinatown from the early days of the city until 1974.[182][183] As in many western railway towns, the Asian community started off as an encampment for migrant laborers working on the railroads. The Chinatown Asian community thrived until the 1940s and experienced a population boom during WWII as Japanese families fled the exclusion zones along the coast, after which its population decreased and became integrated and dispersed, losing its Asian character; urban blight and the preparations leading up to Expo '74 led to Chinatown's eventual demolition.[182]
Demographic map of the Spokane metro area. Each dot is 25 people. ⬤ White⬤ Black⬤ Asian⬤ Hispanic⬤ Other
The Spokane metropolitan area consists of Spokane County. As of the 2022 census estimates, the Spokane metropolitan area had a population of 597,919. Directly east of Spokane County is the Coeur d'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Area, which consists of Kootenai County, Idaho, anchored by the city of Coeur d'Alene. The urban areas of the two MSAs largely follow the path of Interstate 90 between Spokane and Coeur d'Alene. The Spokane area has suffered from suburbanization and urban sprawl in past decades, despite Washington's use of urban growth boundaries; the city ranks low among major Northwest cities in population density and smart growth according to the Sightline Institute, however Smart Growth America in a 2014 study ranked the census defined MSA as the 22nd most compact and connected in the nation using their Sprawl Index factors: development density, land use mix, activity centering, and street accessibility.[184][185] The Spokane and Coeur d'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA) are now included in a single Combined Statistical Area (CSA) by the Office of Management and Budget.[186] The Spokane–Coeur d'Alene CSA had around 781,497 residents in 2022.
Spokane became an important rail and shipping center because of its location between mining and farming areas.[45][56] In the early 1880s, gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Empire; as a regional shipping center, the city furnished supplies to the miners who passed through on their way to the mineral-rich Coeur d'Alene, Colville and Kootenay districts.[46] The mining districts are still considered among the most productive in North America.[187]
Natural resources have historically been the foundation of Spokane's economy, with the mining, logging, and agriculture industries providing much of the region's economic activity. After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century, agriculture and logging replaced mining as the primary influences in the economy.[66]Lumberjacks and millmen working in the hundreds of mills along the railroads, rivers, and lakes of northern Washington and Idaho were provisioning themselves in Spokane.[188] Agriculture has always been an important sector in the local economy. The surrounding area, especially to the south is the Palouse,[189] a region that has long been associated with farming, especially wheat production where it is one of the largest wheat producing regions in the United States.[69][190] As with the mining industry in the late 1880s, Spokane was an important agricultural market and trade center. Inland Empire farmers exported wheat, livestock and other agricultural products to the ports such as New York, Liverpool and Tokyo.[71] Today, a large share of the wheat produced in the region is shipped to Far East markets.[191] The Inland Northwest also supports many vineyards and microbreweries as well.[192][193] By the early 20th century Spokane was primarily a commercial center rather than an industrial center.[194]
In Spokane, wood and food processing, printing and publishing, primary metal refining and fabrication, electrical and computer equipment, and transportation equipment are leaders in the manufacturing sector.[195] Gold mining company Gold Reserve, and Fortune 1000 company Potlatch Corporation – a forest products company that operates as a real estate investment trust – are headquartered in the city proper.[196][197] Mining, forestry, and agribusiness remain important to the local and regional economy, but Spokane's economy has diversified to include other industries, including the high-tech and biotech sectors.[80] Spokane is becoming a more service-oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector which declined in the 1980s, particularly as a medical and biotechnology center;[81] Fortune 1000 technology company Itron, for instance, is headquartered in the area.[198] Avista Corporation, the holding company of Avista Utilities, is the only company in Spokane that has been listed in the Fortune 500, ranked 299 on the list in 2002.[199] Other companies with head offices in the Spokane area include technology company Key Tronic, vacation rental provider Stay Alfred, and microcar maker Commuter Cars.[200][201][202] Despite diversification to new industries, Spokane's economy has struggled in recent decades. Spokane was ranked the #1 "Worst City For Jobs" in America in both 2012[203] and 2015,[204] while also ranking #4 in 2014.[205] Additionally, Forbes named Spokane the "Scam Capital of America" in 2009[206] due to widespread business fraud. Trends of fraud were noted as far back as 1988,[207] again in 2002,[208] and continuing through 2011.[207]
As of 2013, the top five employers in Spokane are the State of Washington, Spokane Public Schools, Providence Sacred Heart Medical Center and Children's Hospital, the 92d Air Refueling Wing, and Spokane County.[209] The largest military facility and employer, the 92d Air Refueling Wing, was stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base near Airway Heights. The leading industries in Spokane for the employed population 16 years and older were educational services, health care, and social assistance (26.5 percent), retail trade (12.7 percent), and arts, entertainment, recreation, and accommodation food services (10.4 percent).[168] As the metropolitan center of the Inland Northwest, as well as parts of southern British Columbia and Alberta, Spokane serves as a commercial, manufacturing, transportation, medical, shopping, and entertainment hub.[195][210] In 2017, the Spokane–Spokane Valley MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $25.5 billion while the Coeur d'Alene metropolitan area was $5.93 billion.[211]
As of 2014, economic development in the Spokane area primarily focuses on promoting the following industries: manufacturing (especially aerospace manufacturing), health sciences, professional services, information science and technology, finance and insurance as well as clean technology, and digital media.[212][213] To aid economic development, the eastern branch of Innovate Washington, a state-supported business incubator was placed in the city.[214]
In recent years, Spokane has become a growing technology hub for both established companies and startups. Fortune 1000 cybersecurity leader, F5, Inc., has two offices in the area with over 250 employees whom are focused on hardware product development, software engineering, global services support, and digital sales.[215][216] Other established firms are moving to Spokane, such as Remitly, an app-based financial services corporation, which was founded by Josh Hug, a Whitworth University graduate.[217][218] Ignite Northwest, led by Silicon Valley entrepreneur Tom Simpson, has invested over $100 million through the Spokane Angel Alliance and Ignite to fund and support early stage companies.[219]
Spokane's main art districts are located in the Davenport Arts District, the Garland Business District, and East Sprague.[220] The First Friday Artwalk, which occurs the first Friday of every month, is dedicated to local vendors and performers displaying art around downtown.[221] The two most important Artwalk dates (the first Friday of February and October) attract large crowds to the art districts.
The Davenport Arts District has the largest concentration of art galleries and is home to many of Spokane's main performing arts venues, including the Knitting Factory, Fox Theater, and Bing Crosby Theater. The Knitting Factory is a concert house that serves as a setting for many mainstream touring musicians and acts. The Martin Woldson Theater at the Fox, restored to its original 1931 Art Deco state after years of being derelict,[88] is home to the Spokane Symphony Orchestra. The Metropolitan Performing Arts Center was restored in 1988 and renamed the Bing Crosby Theater in 2006 to honor the former Spokanite.[222] Touring stand-up comedians are hosted by the Spokane Comedy Club.[223] Theater is provided by Spokane's only resident professional company, The Modern Theater,[224] though there are also the Spokane Civic Theatre and several other amateur community theaters and smaller groups. The First Interstate Center for the Arts often hosts large traveling exhibitions, shows, and tours. Spokane was awarded the All-America City Award by the National Civic League in 1974, 2004, and 2015.[225]
Spokane offers an array of musical performances catering to a variety of interests. Spokane's local music scene, however, is considered somewhat lacking by the Spokane All-Ages Music Initiative and other critics, who have identified a need for a legitimate all-ages venue for music performances.[226] The Spokane Symphony presents a full season of classical music, and the Spokane Jazz Orchestra, a full season of jazz music.[227] The Spokane Jazz Orchestra, formed in 1962, is a 70-piece orchestra and non-profit organization.[228]
There are several museums in the city, most notably the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture, located a few blocks from the center of downtown in Browne's Addition, amid the mansions of Spokane's late 19th-century "Age of Elegance". A Smithsonian affiliate museum, it houses a large collection of Native American artifacts as well as regional and national traveling art exhibits.[229][230]
The Mobius Science Center and the related Mobius Kid's Museum in downtown Spokane seek to generate interest in science, technology, engineering, and math among the youth in a hands-on experience.[231] The Jundt Art Museum at Gonzaga University features 2,800 square feet (260 m2) of exhibition space and contains sizable collections of prints from the Bolker, Baruch, Jacobs, and Corita Kent collections.[232][233] The museum houses glass art by Dale Chihuly, bronze sculptures by Auguste Rodin, tapestries, paintings, ceramics, photographs, and a wide range of gifts, including from the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Foundation and Collections.[232] On the campus of Gonzaga University, the Crosby House, Bing Crosby's childhood home, houses the Bing Crosby Memorabilia Room, the world's largest Crosby collection with around 200 pieces.[234] A museum of flight showcasing historic airplanes and curated by the Historic Flight Foundation is located at Felts Field.[235]
Spokane is known as the birthplace of the national movement started by Sonora Smart Dodd that led to the proposal and the eventual establishment of Father's Day as a national holiday in the U.S.[236] The first observation of Father's Day in Spokane was on June 19, 1910.[237] Sonora conceived the idea in Spokane's Central Methodist Episcopal Church, while listening to a Mother's Day sermon.[238]
Lilac Bloomsday Run
The Lilac Bloomsday Run, held in the spring on the first Sunday of May, is a 7.46-mile (12.01 km) race for competitive runners as well as walkers that attracts international competition.[239] Also in May is the Lilac Festival which honors the military, celebrates youth, and showcases the region.[240] Spokane's unofficial nickname, the "Lilac City", refers to a flowering shrub that has flourished since its introduction to the area in the early 20th century.[241] In June the city hosts Spokane Hoopfest, a 3-on-3 basketball tournament, among the largest of its kind.[242] One of Spokane's most popular local events is Pig Out in the Park, an annual six-day food and entertainment festival where attendees may eat a variety of foods and listen to free live music concerts featuring local, regional, and national recording artists in Riverfront Park.[243]
The Spokane International Film Festival, held every February, is a small, juried festival that features documentaries and shorts from around the world.[244] The Spokane Gay & Lesbian Film Festival, held every November, features contemporary, independent films of interest to the LGBT community.[245]
Other notable events in the Spokane region include the Spokane County Interstate Fair, Japan Week, Spokane Pride Parade and the Lilac City Comicon. The Spokane County Interstate Fair is held annually in September at the Spokane County Fair and Expo Center in Spokane Valley.[246] Japan Week is held in April and celebrates the sister-city relationship with Nishinomiya, Hyogo, demonstrating the many commonalities shared between the two cities.[247] Students from the Spokane campus of Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute, Gonzaga, Whitworth, and other area schools organize an array of Japanese cultural events. The gay and lesbian Spokane Pride Parade is held each June.[248] There is an annual Renaissance fair and Civil War reenactment as well.[249][250]
The crime rate per 1,000 people in the Spokane metropolitan area (Spokane County) was 64.8 in 2012, higher than the Washington state average of 38.3; the violent crime rate of 3.8 and property crime rate of 61 also exceed the statewide averages of 2.5 and 35.8, respectively.[262]NeighborhoodScout describes Spokane as "Safer than 2% of U.S. Cities".[263]
Spokane County Courthouse
Half of all property crimes are localized in about 6.5 percent of the city.[264] Spokane had the fourth-highest rate of auto theft in the U.S. in 2010 and 2011, according to the National Insurance Crime Bureau.[264] Drive-by shootings and drug use, particularly crack cocaine use, became worse in the early 1990s, and four drive-by shootings were recorded in December 1993 alone.[265] In the 1990s, the Spokane Police Department (SPD) established a special gang unit, with an officer "collecting intelligence on gang activity and disseminating it to street officers".[265] The 1990s also saw Spokane's most prolific serial killer, Robert Lee Yates, who killed thirteen prostitutes in Spokane's East Sprague red light district and confessed to two others in Tacoma, Washington.[266] The transition of the Spokane Police Department to a community-policing precinct model has helped curb crime rates since its introduction downtown, and has been expanded citywide.[267] The crime woes are possibly due in part to an imbalance that Spokane County prisons receive of pre-release and work-release prisoners; An investigation by the Tacoma News Tribune found that while Spokane County accounts for 6.21 percent of the inmates in state prisons, it receives a disproportionate 16.73 percent of the inmate population to be released into the general population.[268]
Spokane and the Spokane Police Department have received national publicity and scrutiny in the 2000s and 2010s due to many officer-involved shootings and allegations of excessive force. The most high-profile of these incidents was the 2006 death of Otto Zehm, a mentally challenged man who was initially suspected of theft at a convenience store.[269] Zehm was later found to have committed no crime, but was struck with batons by several officers and tasered.[270] The increased pressure on the SPD prompted an independent review by a commission of the organization's use-of-force policies, an internal culture audit, and the purchase of body cameras.[271]
Restrictive zoning regulations were implemented in Spokane in the middle of the 20th century.[272][273] These zoning regulations were frequently motivated by a desire to keep lower-income families out of certain neighborhoods, in particular racial minorities.[272]
In 2022, Spokane relaxed its zoning regulations to permit on an interim basis duplexes, triplexes, quadplexes and townhomes in all residential zones of Spokane. In 2023, Spokane permanently permitted up to six housing units to be built on any lot in a residential area, as well as allow nonresidential businesses (such as grocery stores) and facilities (such as schools and churches) in residential areas.[272]
Serving the general educational needs of the local population are two public library districts, the Spokane Public Library (within city limits) and the Spokane County Library District. Founded in 1904 with funding from philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, the Spokane Public Library system comprises a downtown library overlooking the Spokane Falls and five branch libraries.[274] Special collections focus on Inland Pacific Northwest history and include reference books, periodicals, maps, photographs, and other archival materials and government documents.[275]
Spokane Public Schools (District 81) was organized in 1889, and is the largest public school system in Spokane, and the second-largest in the state, as of 2014, serving roughly 30,000 students in six high schools, six middle schools, and thirty-four elementary schools.[276][277] Other public school districts in the Spokane area include the Mead School District in north Spokane County, outside city limits. A variety of state-approved, independent charter schools and private and parochial elementary and secondary schools augment the public school system. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane manages ten such schools in & around the area.[278]
The Spokane Indians located in the suburb Spokane Valley, are a Class High-A baseball team in the Northwest League (NWL) and have been a farm team of the Colorado Rockies since 2021.[288] The Indians play their home games at the 6,803-seat Avista Stadium and have won seven NWL titles since their Short-Season-A debut in 1982. Prior to 1982, the Indians played at the Triple-A level. The team achieved considerable success in the early 1970s, winning the Pacific Coast League championship in 1970, and having a 94–52 record.[289] In the 1920s and 1930s the Spokane City League, a semiprofessional baseball league of teams of the Inland Empire, reached its peak.[290]
The Spokane Chiefs are a junior ice hockey team that play in the Canadian Hockey League's Western Hockey League.[291] They play their home games in the Spokane Arena and have a regional rivalry with the Tri-City Americans. They have won the CHL's top prize, the Memorial Cup, two times in club history, first in 1991 and again in 2008.[291]
Newspaper service in Spokane is provided by its only major daily newspaper, The Spokesman-Review, which has a daily circulation of 76,291 and Sunday circulation of 95,939.[297][298]The Spokesman-Review was formed from the merger of the Spokane Falls Review (1883–1894) and the Spokesman (1890–1893) in 1893 and was first published under the present name on June 29, 1894.[299][300] It later absorbed the competing afternoon paper The Spokane Daily Chronicle, a significant newspaper that existed from 1881 until 1982 and returned in 2021.[301][302][j] More specialized publications include the weekly alternative newspaperInlander,[303] the bi-weekly Spokane Journal of Business,[304] and the student-run Gonzaga Bulletin.[305] Monthly publications include The Black Lens, an African American community newspaper,[306] a newspaper for parents, Kids Newspaper,[307] and a home and lifestyle magazine, Spokane Coeur d'Alene Living.[308]
According to Arbitron, Spokane is the 94th-largest radio market in the U.S., with 532,100 listeners aged 12 and over.[309] There are 28 AM and FM radio stations broadcast in the city. The five most listened-to stations are KKZX-FM (classic rock), KQNT-AM (news/talk), KXLY-FM (country), KISC-FM (adult contemporary),KZBD-FM (Contemporary Hit Radio), and KZZU-FM (Hot AC).[310] Spokane's primary sources of non-commercial and community radio include Spokane's NPR-affiliate station KPBX-FM and KYRS, a full-power community radio station.[311]
Spokane is the 73rd-largest television market in the U.S., accounting for 0.366% of the total TV households in the U.S.[312] The city has six television stations, representing the major commercial networks and public television.[313] Spokane is the television broadcast center for much of eastern Washington (except the Yakima and Tri-Cities area), northern Idaho, northwestern Montana, northeastern Oregon, and parts of southern Canada (by cable television). Spokane receives broadcasts in the Pacific Time Zone, with weekday prime time beginning at 8 pm. Montana and Alberta, Canada are in the Mountain Time Zone and receive Spokane broadcasts one hour later by their local time. The major network television affiliates include KREM (TV) 2 (CBS), KXLY-TV 4 (ABC), KHQ-TV 6 (NBC; Spokane's first television station, on air on December 20, 1952), KAYU 28 (FOX), KSKN 22 (The CW), KSPS-TV 7 (PBS), and KCDT-TV 26 (PBS; operating out of Coeur d'Alene, Idaho).[313]
Spokane's streets use a grid plan that is oriented to the four cardinal directions; generally, the east–west roads are designated as avenues, and the north–south roads are referred to as streets. Major east–west thoroughfares in the city include Francis, Wellesley, Mission, Sprague, and 29th Avenues. Major north–south thoroughfares include Maple–Ash, Monroe, Division, Hamilton, Greene–Market (north of I-90), and Ray–Freya (south of I-90) Streets. Division Street divides the city into East and West, while Sprague Avenue splits the city into North and South.[314] Division Street is Spokane's major retail corridor; Sprague Avenue serves the same purpose in Spokane Valley. With over 40,000 vehicles per day in average daily traffic from Interstate 90 north to the US 2–US 395 junction, North Division is Spokane's busiest corridor.[315]
Spokane's extensive skywalk system covers thirteen blocks in the downtown area and is among the largest in the United States; it is used for pedestrian travel in cold and inclement weather and retail space as well.[316][317] Despite this, the city has an average Walk Score of 49 as of 2020, indicating that most errands require a car. Its average Bike Score is 52.[318]
Before the influx of automobiles, Spokane's electric streetcar and interurban lines played a dominant role in moving people and goods around Spokane. Streetcars were installed as early as 1888, when they were pulled by horses.[319] Many older side streets in Spokane still have visible streetcar rails embedded in them. Streetcar service was reduced due to declining ridership beginning in 1922, and by August 1936, all lines had been abandoned or converted to motor buses.[320]
Public transportation throughout the Spokane area is provided by the Spokane Transit Authority (STA), which operates a fleet of 164 buses. Its service area covers roughly 248 square miles (640 km2) and reaches 85 percent of the county's population.[323] The STA Plaza in downtown Spokane acts as the regional hub for most STA routes. As a part of the system's high performance transit network plan, STA introduced Eastern Washington's first bus rapid transit (BRT) route, City Line, in July 2023. STA is also planning a Division Street BRT.
Interstate 90 (I-90) runs east–west from Seattle, through downtown Spokane, and eastward through Spokane Valley, Liberty Lake, and onward to Coeur d'Alene and then Missoula.[324] Although they are not limited access highways like I-90, US 2 and US 395 enter Spokane from the west via I-90 and continue north through Spokane via Division Street. The two highways share the same route until they reach "The Y", a fork where US 395 continues northward to Deer Park, Colville then onward to Canada, and US 2 branches off to the northeast, continuing to Mead, Newport, and Sandpoint. US 195, also known as the Inland Empire Highway, connects to Interstate 90 west of Spokane near Latah Creek and travels south through the Palouse.[324]
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) is tasked with improving local highways to keep up with the region's growth and to try to prevent congestion problems that plague many larger cities. The WSDOT is constructing the North Spokane Corridor. When completed, the corridor will be a 10.5-mile-long (16.9 km) limited-access highway that will run from I-90, in the vicinity of the Thor/Freya interchange, northward through Spokane, meeting the existing US 395 just south of the Wandermere Golf Course.[325]
Spokane International Airport (IATA: GEG, ICAO: KGEG) serves as the primary commercial airport for Spokane, Eastern Washington, and Northern Idaho. It is the second-largest airport in the state of Washington, and is recognized by the Federal Aviation Administration as a small hub, with service from nine passenger and five cargo airlines.[326] The 4,800-acre (19.42 km2) airport is located 5 miles (8.0 km) west of downtown Spokane and is approximately a 10-minute drive away. The international airport's three-letter designation is "GEG", a result and legacy of the Geiger Field days prior to 1960, when the airport was named after Army aviator Major Harold Geiger in 1941.[327]
Felts Field is a general aviation airport serving the Spokane area and is located in east Spokane along the south bank of the Spokane River. Aviation at Felts Field dates back to 1913 and the strip served as Spokane's primary airport until commercial air traffic was redirected to Geiger Field after World War II.[327] In 1927, the strip was one of the first in the western U.S. to receive official recognition as an airport by the U.S. Department of Commerce and is now named in honor of James Buell Felts, a Washington Air National Guard pilot.[327]
The Spokane area has six major hospitals, four of which are full-service facilities.[328] The health-care industry is a large and increasingly important industry in Spokane; the city provides specialized care to many patients from the surrounding Inland Northwest and as far north as the Canada–US border.[329] The city's health-care needs are served primarily by non-profit Seattle-based Providence Health & Services and non-profit Tacoma-based Multicare Health System, which run the two biggest hospitals, Sacred Heart Medical Center, and Deaconess Hospital, respectively.[330] These two hospitals, the 102-bed St. Luke's Rehabilitation Institute,[331] 100-bed Inland Northwest Behavioral Health,[332] and most of Spokane's major health-care facilities, are located on Spokane's Lower-South Hill, just south of downtown, in what is known as the "Medical District" of Spokane.[333] Sacred Heart Hospital opened originally with just 31 beds[334] on Spokane Falls Boulevard on January 27, 1887, but later moved to its present location at 101 West Eighth Avenue.[335] As of 2014 it had 642 beds, with 28,319 admissions, 71,543 emergency room visits, and 2,982 births annually, and a full-time staff of 29 doctors and dentists and 583 registered nurses.[336] Deaconess Medical Center, the smaller of the two main hospitals, had 388 beds as of 2014.[337] Other hospitals in the area include the Spokane Veterans Affairs Medical Center in the northwest part of town, Providence Holy Family Hospital on the north side, and MultiCare Valley Hospital in the Spokane Valley. One of 20 specialty orthopedic Shriners Hospitals in the U.S. is also located in Spokane.[338] One of Washington's two state psychiatric hospitals, Eastern State Hospital, is located 15 miles (24 km) away in Medical Lake.[339]
The City of Spokane provides municipal water, wastewater management, and solid waste management.[340] Spokane operates Washington's only waste-to-energy plant as well as two solid waste transfer stations as part of the Spokane Regional Solid Waste System, a collaboration between the City of Spokane and Spokane County.[341] Electricity generated by the waste-to-energy plant is used to operate the facility, with excess energy being sold to Puget Sound Energy.[341] Spokane draws its water from the Spokane Valley–Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer; this 370-square-mile (958 km2) "sole source aquifer" is the only water supply for Spokane County in Washington, and for Kootenai and Bonner counties in Idaho.[342] Serving over 500,000 people, the aquifer is distinguished in being one of the largest aquifers in the country at 10 trillion gallons, as well as having one of the fastest flow rates in the country at 60 feet (18 m) per day, and for its purity.[343][i]
Natural gas and electricity are provided by the local utility, Avista Utilities, while CenturyLink and Comcast provide television, internet, and telephone service. Spokane hosts three hydroelectric generation facilities on the Spokane River: the Upriver Dam, the Upper Falls Dam, and the Monroe Street Dam. The Upriver Dam is owned and operated by the City of Spokane, and generates the electricity needed to operate the municipal water supply's pressure pumps.[344] The power generated in excess of that is sold to Avista Utilities.[344] The Upper Falls and Monroe Street dams are owned and operated by Avista Utilities, and have respective generation capacities of 10 and 15 MW.[345]
^[a] The name is said to derive from Spukcane, the vocalization of a sound made by a snake which the Chief of the Spokanes came to call "power from the brain" after pondering it made his head vibrate. It is unknown when the present meaning of the word, "Sun People" replaced this earlier meaning.[19] ^[b] Unbeknownst to them, the Spokane Valley was the only area within 200 miles that could provide passage to the Inland Empire through the Rockies at a reasonable grade.[33] ^[c] The present name, set forth by an 1891 charter reincorporated the city under the name "Spokane Falls", stating: "The corporate name of the city is Spokane Falls, and by that name shall have perpetual succession" (Charter, Article I). However, a later article in that same charter which was voted on concurrently changed the name to "Spokane".[347] ^[d] Secretary of the Spokane chamber of commerce, John R. Reavis tells of Spokane's significance to the Inland Northwest region as an entrepôt distributing center (largely the city's raison d'être) in his 1891 Annual Report, writing: "By reason of her geographical position and railroad connections Spokane is fitted as no other city is, or ever can be, to be the distributing center of all that country within a radius of 150 miles, and in some instances territory much farther away. There is no point 150 miles from Spokane that is not at least 225 miles from any other city of 10,000 population. We have about us a territory of 60,000 square miles in extent, to every point of which we are nearer than any other city, to every point of which we have better railroad connections and easier grades than any other city ... We have eight lines of railroad that radiate out in all directions through it, so that shipments made here in the morning can reach any point within its borders by nightfall. We have a telephone system connecting us with almost every shipping town and shipping station within its borders. Goods may be ordered, shipped and received, in most instances, within one day. Never was a city more intimately knit to its surrounding territory than Spokane, and never was one more free from a legitimate rival in trade ..."[348]
^[e] The financing for rebuilding the downtown core came in large part from the infusion of investment from Dutch bankers; this investment was so deep that by 1896, one prominent Dutch mortgage company, the Northwestern and Pacific Hypotheekbank owned a quarter of the city.[349] ^[f] In 1892, the Interstate Commerce Commission agreed with the city after it filed a complaint about these practices, but that decision was struck down by a federal court. In 1906, Spokane sued under the newly passed Hepburn Act, and won on July 24, 1911.[350] ^[g] The exact circumstances and sequence of events regarding the discovery of the tree are obscure due to conflicting accounts. ^[h] Average monthly temperatures obtained by summing the average monthly highs and lows then dividing by 2. ^[i] A study published in The Spokesman-Review on May 6, 1909, by City bacteriologist, Frank Rose found only seven or eight germs per cubic centimeter of water. As a standard, "water that contains 100 germs per cubic centimeter is considered comparatively pure".[343] ^[j]The Spokesman-Review has been a family-owned newspaper since 1894. The Cowles family also owns the city's NBC affiliate, KHQ-TV.[301]
^Mean maxima and minima (i.e., the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
^Official records for Spokane kept at Spokane Weather Bureau Office from February 1881 to July 1889, and at Spokane International Airport since August 1889.[147]
^Mean maxima and minima calculated based on data from November 1998 to December 2020 for months and 1999 to 2020 for years.
^Laura Arksey (October 3, 2009), "Spokane Falls (later renamed Spokane) is incorporated as a first-class city on November 29, 1881.", HistoryLink, Seattle: History Ink, The original Act of Incorporation spelled the city's name correctly, but the territorial printing office incorrectly spelled it Spokan Falls, a phonetic spelling that was used elsewhere during the period, including on the 1880 census. This spelling was also used for Spokane's first newspaper, the Spokan Times.
^ ab"Climate of Washington"(PDF). Climates of the States, Climatography of the United States No. 60. National Weather Service. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 11, 2015. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^Petersen, Mike; Keesecker, Levi; Li, Wei; et al. (September 2013). "Chapter 5: Fire and Smoke Impact Study". Spokane Climate Project. Pacific Northwest Climate Impacts Research Consortium. Retrieved July 9, 2023.
^"Threaded Station Extremes". ThreadEx. NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) and the National Weather Service (NWS), the Northeast Regional Climate Center (NRCC). Retrieved October 18, 2021.
^ abPayne, Loretta; Froyalde, Revelyn (January 2001). "Spokane County Profile"(PDF). Employment Security Department, Labor Market and Economic Analysis Branch. Archived from the original(PDF) on February 6, 2007. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^Moreno, Janet Novack, William P. Barrett Dirk Smillie, Katarzyna (December 9, 2002). "The Informer". Forbes. Retrieved April 12, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"Top Employers". Greater Spokane Incorporated. Archived from the original on January 28, 2014. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^"Ignite Funds". www.ignitenorthwest.com. Retrieved July 18, 2022.
^Crane, Julianne (April 1, 2004). "Take a walk for the arts". The Spokesman-Review. Archived from the original on August 16, 2009. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^"First Friday". Downtown Spokane Partnership. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^"Statistical Analysis Center". Uniform Crime Report. Washington State Office of Financial Management. November 30, 2013. Archived from the original on November 28, 2014. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^Clouse, Thomas (May 31, 2006). "Zehm death a homicide". The Spokesman-Review. Archived from the original on June 26, 2008. Retrieved November 21, 2014.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^Knight, Stephen (May 8, 1998). "1998 Memorial Cup Notebook". Canoe Inc. Archived from the original on July 21, 2012. Retrieved December 7, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ abOfficial State Highway Map(PDF) (Map) (2008–2009 ed.). 1:842,000. Official State Highway Maps. Cartography by United States Geological Survey. Washington State Department of Transportation. 2008. Archived from the original(PDF) on June 11, 2011. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^"Spokane International"(PDF). Washington State Department of Transportation. Archived from the original(PDF) on September 3, 2014. Retrieved October 12, 2014.
^ abcArksey, Laura (January 15, 2008). "Felts Field (Spokane)". Essay 8464. HistoryLink. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
^Spokane, Washington (1896). Charter of the city of Spokane, Washington: approved by the people at an election held March 24, 1891, attested and went into effect April 4, 1891 (including amendments). Spokane, Washington: W.D. Knight Co.
Dyar, Ralph E. (1952). News for an Empire: The Story of The Spokesman-Review of Spokane, Washington and of the Field It Serves. Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd. ISBN978-1-258-21546-0.
Kensel, W.H. (Spring 1971). "Spokane: The First Decade"(PDF). Idaho Yesterdays. 15 (1). Boise, Idaho: Idaho State Historical Society. Archived from the original(PDF) on November 1, 2019. Retrieved October 9, 2014.
Meinig, Donald W. (1993). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-05658-3.
Moffatt, Riley (1996). Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850–1990. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN978-0-8108-3033-2.
Soltero, Raymond A. (1992). "The Changing Spokane River Watershed". In Robert J. Naiman (ed.). Watershed Management: Balancing Sustainability and Environmental Change. New York, New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 458–478. ISBN978-0-387-94232-2.
Stratton, David H. (2005). Spokane and the Inland Empire: An Interior Pacific Northwest Anthology. Pullman, Washington: Washington State University Press. ISBN978-0-87422-277-7.
Bamonte, Tony; Bamonte, Suzanne (2011). Spokane Our Early History Under All is the Land. Spokane, Washington: Tornado Creek Publications. ISBN978-0982152935. OCLC759122758.
MacGibbon, Elma (1904). "Spokane and the Inland Empire". Leaves of knowledge(DJVU). Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection. Spokane, Washington: Shaw & Borden. ISBN978-1-110-68499-1. OCLC61326250.
Matthews, Henry (1998). Kirtland Cutter: Architect in the Land of Promise. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. ISBN978-0-295-98766-8. OCLC38536054.
Meinig, Donald W. (1968). The Great Columbia Plain; a historical geography, 1805–1910. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. ISBN978-0-295-97485-9. OCLC436410.
Schmeltzer, Michael (1996). Spokane: A City for Living. Helena, Montana: American & World Geographic Publishing. ISBN978-1560371052. OCLC35008269.
Wang, David (2003). Sounding Spokane: perspectives on the built environment of a regional city. Spokane, Washington: Eastern Washington University Press. ISBN978-0-910055-85-7. OCLC51306066.
Youngs, William T. (1996). The Fair and the Falls: Spokane Expo '74: Transforming an American environment. Cheney, Washington: Eastern Washington University Press. ISBN978-0-910055-33-8. OCLC866331426.
Mastication: chewing ability is improved by the replacement of edentulous (lacking teeth) areas with denture teeth.
Aesthetics: the presence of teeth gives a natural appearance to the face, and wearing a denture to replace missing teeth provides support for the lips and cheeks and corrects the collapsed appearance that results from the loss of teeth.
Denture stomatitis is an inflammatory condition of the skin under the dentures.[1] It can affect both partial and complete denture wearers, and is most commonly seen on the palatal mucosa. Clinically, it appears as simple localized inflammation (Type I), generalized erythema covering the denture-bearing area (Type II) and inflammatory papillary hyperplasia (Type III). People with denture stomatitis are more likely to have angular cheilitis.[2] Denture stomatitis is caused by a mixed infection of Candida albicans (90%) and a number of bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Fusobacterium and Bacteroides species.[3] Acrylic resin is more susceptible for fungal colonization, adherence and proliferation. In poor fitting dentures, these inflammations can be identified and referred to as a common sore of the mouth and are dependent on the severity of the inflammation.[4]
It's crucial to acknowledge that denture stomatitis ranks among the most prevalent conditions affecting denture wearers, affecting approximately 70% of this population.[5] Early recognition of the signs and symptoms of denture stomatitis is vital for prompt treatment. Some of these symptoms include oral white or red patches, sore throat, pain or discomfort when swallowing, or sores in mouth.[6] Common risk factors for denture stomatitis include denture trauma, poor denture hygiene and nocturnal denture wear. Additionally, systemic risk factors such as nutritional deficiencies, immunosuppression, smoking, diabetes, use of steroid inhalers, and xerostomia play a significant role. Therefore, it's important to conduct thorough examinations to detect any underlying systemic diseases.
Precautions denture wearers should take care improving the fit of ill-fitting dentures to eliminate any dental trauma. Stress on the importance of good denture hygiene including cleaning of the denture, soaking the dentures in disinfectant solution and not wearing it during sleeping at night is the key to treating all types of denture stomatitis. Topical application and systemic use of antifungal agents can be used to treat denture stomatitis cases that fail to respond to local conservative measures.[2]
Mouth ulceration is the most common lesion in people with dentures. It can be caused by repetitive minor trauma like poorly fitting dentures including over-extension of a denture. Pressure-indicating paste can be used to check the fitting of dentures.[7] It allows the areas of premature contact to be distinguished from areas of physiologic tissue contact.[8] Therefore, the particular area can be polished with an acrylic bur. Leaching of residual monomer methyl methacrylate from inadequately cured denture acrylic resin material can cause mucosal irritation and hence oral ulceration as well. Patients are advised to use warm salt water mouth rinses and a betamethasone rinse can heal ulcer.[9] Review of persisting oral ulcerations for more than 3 weeks is recommended.[10]
Periodontitis is defined as an inflammatory lesion mediated by host-pathogen interaction that results in the loss of connective tissue fiber attachment to the root surface and ultimately to the alveolar bone. It is the loss of connective tissue to the root surface that leads to teeth falling out. The hormones associated with pregnancy increases the risk of gingivitis and vomiting.
Hormones released during pregnancy softens the cardia muscle ring that keeps food within the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is the acid involved in gastric reflux, also known as morning sickness. This acid, at a pH of 1.5-3.5, coats the enamel on the teeth, mainly affecting the palatal surfaces of the maxillary teeth. Eventually the enamel is softened and easily wears away.
Dental trauma refers to trauma (injury) to the teeth and/or periodontium (gums, periodontal ligament, alveolar bone). Strong force may cause the root of the tooth to completely dislocate from its socket, mild trauma may cause the tooth to chip.
Removable partial dentures are for patients who are missing some of their teeth on a particular arch. Fixed partial dentures, also known as "crown and bridge" dentures, are made from crowns that are fitted on the remaining teeth. They act as abutments and pontics, and are made from materials resembling the missing teeth. Fixed bridges are more expensive than removable appliances but are more stable.
Another option in this category is the flexible partial, which takes advantage of innovations in digital technology. Flexible partial fabrication involves only non-invasive procedures. Dentures can be difficult to clean and can affect oral hygiene.[11]
Complete dentures are worn by patients who are missing all of the teeth in a single arch—i.e. the maxillary (upper) or mandibular (lower) arch—or, more commonly, in both arches. The full denture is removable because it is held in place by suction. They are painful at first and can take some time to get used to. There are two types of full dentures: immediate dentures and conventional dentures.[12]
Copy dentures can be made for either partial, but mainly complete denture patients. These dentures require fewer visits to make and usually are made for older patients, patients who would have difficulty adjusting to new dentures, would like a spare pair of dentures or like the aesthetics of their dentures already. This requires taking an impression of the patient's current denture and remaking it.[13]
Dentures are mainly made from acrylic due to the ease of material manipulation and likeness to intra-oral tissues, i.e. gums. Most dentures are composed of heat-cured acrylic polymethyl methacrylate and rubber-reinforced polymethyl methacrylate.[14] Coloring agents and synthetic fibers are added to obtain the tissue-like shade, and to mimic the small capillaries of the oral mucosa, respectively.[15] However, dentures made from acrylic can be fragile and fracture easily if the patient has trouble adapting neuromuscular control. This can be overcome by reinforcing the denture base with cobalt chromium (Co-Cr). They are often thinner (therefore more comfortable) and stronger (to prevent repeating fractures).
Carved ivory dentures from the 18th century. Left is lower/mandibular; upper/maxillary is at right.Pierre Fauchard described the construction of dentures using a metal frame, animal bone teeth, and leaf springs in 1728.[16]
As early as the 7th century BC, Etruscans in northern Italy made partial dentures out of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands.[17][18] The Romans had likely borrowed this technique by the 5th century BC.[17] A text by Martial (c. AD 40-103) referenced Cascellius, who extracted or repaired painful teeth. H. L. Strömgren (1935), postulated that by repairing it was meant tooth replacement and not tooth filling.[19]
Wooden full dentures were invented in Japan around the early 16th century.[16] Softened beeswax was inserted into the patient's mouth to create an impression, which was then filled with harder bees wax. Wooden dentures were then meticulously carved based on that model. The earliest of these dentures were entirely wooden, but later versions used natural human teeth or sculpted pagodite, ivory, or animal horn for the teeth. These dentures were built with a broad base, exploiting the principles of adhesion to stay in place. This was an advanced technique for the era; it would not be replicated in the West until the late 18th century. Wooden dentures continued to be used in Japan until the Opening of Japan to the West in the 19th century.[16]
In 1728, Pierre Fauchard described the construction of dentures using a metal frame and teeth sculpted from animal bone.[16] The first porcelain dentures were made around 1770 by Alexis Duchâteau. In 1791, the first British patent was granted to Nicholas Dubois De Chemant, previous assistant to Duchateau, for "De Chemant's Specification":
... a composition for the purpose of making of artificial teeth either single double or in rows or in complete sets, and also springs for fastening or affixing the same in a more easy and effectual manner than any hitherto discovered which said teeth may be made of any shade or colour, which they will retain for any length of time and will consequently more perfectly resemble the natural teeth.[20]
He began selling his wares in 1792, with most of his porcelain paste supplied by Wedgwood.[21][22]
17th century London's Peter de la Roche is believed to be one of the first 'operators for the teeth', men who advertized themselves as specialists in dental work. They were often professional goldsmiths, ivory turners or students of barber-surgeons.[23]
In 1820, Samuel Stockton, a goldsmith by trade, began manufacturing high-quality porcelain dentures mounted on 18-carat gold plates. Later dentures from the 1850s onwards were made of Vulcanite, a form of hardened rubber into which porcelain teeth were set. In the 20th century, acrylic resin and other plastics were used.[24] In Britain, sequential Adult Dental Health Surveys revealed that in 1968 79% of those aged 65–74 had no natural teeth; by 1998, this proportion had fallen to 36%.[25]
George Washington (1732–1799) suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life, and historians have tracked his experiences in great detail.[26] He lost his first adult tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became president.[27] He had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a dentist named John Greenwood. None of the sets, contrary to popular belief, were made from wood or contained any wood.[28] The set made when he became president were carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with gold springs.[29] Prior to these, he had a set made with real human teeth,[30] likely ones he purchased from "several unnamed Negroes, presumably Mount Vernon slaves" in 1784.[31]
Modern dentures are most often fabricated in a commercial dental laboratory or by a denturist using a combination of tissue shaded powders polymethyl methacrylate acrylic (PMMA). These acrylics are available as heat-cured or cold-cured types. Commercially produced acrylic teeth are widely available in hundreds of shapes and tooth colors.
The process of fabricating a denture usually begins with an initial dental impression of the maxillary and mandibular ridges. Standard impression materials are used during the process. The initial impression is used to create a simple stone model that represents the maxillary and mandibular arches of the patient's mouth. This is not a detailed impression at this stage. Once the initial impression is taken, the stone model is used to create a 'custom impression tray', which is then used to take a second and much more detailed and accurate impression of the patient's maxillary and mandibular ridges. Polyvinyl siloxane impression material is one of several very accurate impression materials used when the final impression is taken of the maxillary and mandibular ridges. A wax rim is fabricated to assist the dentist or denturist in establishing the vertical dimension of occlusion. After this, a bite registration is created to marry the position of one arch to the other.
Once the relative position of each arch to the other is known, the wax rim can be used as a base to place the selected denture teeth in correct position. This arrangement of teeth is tested in the mouth so that adjustments can be made to the occlusion. After the occlusion has been verified by the dentist or denturist and the patient, and all phonetic requirements are met, the denture is processed.
Processing a denture is usually performed using a lost-wax technique whereby the form of the final denture, including the acrylic denture teeth, is invested in stone. This investment is then heated, and when it melts the wax is removed through a spruing channel. The remaining cavity is then either filled by forced injection or pouring in the uncured denture acrylic, which is either a heat-cured or cold-cured type. During the processing period, heat cured acrylics—also called permanent denture acrylics—go through a process called polymerization, causing the acrylic materials to bond very tightly and taking several hours to complete. After a curing period, the stone investment is removed, the acrylic is polished, and the denture is complete. The end result is a denture that looks much more natural, is much stronger and more durable than a cold-cured temporary denture, resists stains and odors, and will last for many years.
Cold-cured or cold-pour dentures, also known as temporary dentures, do not look as natural, are less durable, tend to be highly porous and are only used as a temporary expedient until a more permanent solution is found. These types of dentures tend to cost much less due to their quick production time (usually minutes) and composition of low-cost materials. It is not suggested that a patient wear a cold-cured denture for a long period of time, as they are prone to cracks and can break rather easily.
Support is the principle that describes how well the underlying mucosa (oral tissues, including gums) keeps the denture from moving vertically towards the arch in question during chewing, and thus being excessively depressed and moving deeper into the arch. For the mandibular arch, this function is provided primarily by the buccal shelf, a region extending laterally from the back or posterior ridges, and by the pear-shaped pad (the most posterior area of keratinized gingival formed by the scaling down of the retro-molar papilla after the extraction of the last molar tooth). Secondary support for the complete mandibular denture is provided by the alveolar ridge crest. The maxillary arch receives primary support from the horizontal hard palate and the posterior alveolar ridge crest. The larger the denture flanges (that part of the denture that extends into the vestibule), the better the stability (another parameter to assess fit of a complete denture). Long flanges beyond the functional depth of the sulcus are a common error in denture construction, often (but not always) leading to movement in function, and ulcerations (denture sore spots).
Stability is the principle that describes how well the denture base is prevented from moving in a horizontal plane, and thus sliding from side to side or front to back. The more the denture base (pink material) is in smooth and continuous contact with the edentulous ridge (the hill upon which the teeth used to reside, but now only residual alveolar bone with overlying mucosa), the better the stability. Of course, the higher and broader the ridge, the better the stability will be, but this is usually a result of patient anatomy, barring surgical intervention (bone grafts, etc.).
Retention is the principle that describes how well the denture is prevented from moving vertically in the opposite direction of insertion. The better the topographical mimicry of the intaglio (interior) surface of the denture base to the surface of the underlying mucosa, the better the retention will be (in removable partial dentures, the clasps are a major provider of retention), as surface tension, suction and friction will aid in keeping the denture base from breaking intimate contact with the mucosal surface. It is important to note that the most critical element in the retentive design of a maxillary complete denture is a complete and total border seal (complete peripheral seal) in order to achieve 'suction'. The border seal is composed of the edges of the anterior and lateral aspects and the posterior palatal seal. The posterior palatal seal design is accomplished by covering the entire hard palate and extending not beyond the soft palate and ending 1–2 mm from the vibrating line.
Prosthodontists use a scale called the Kapur index to quantify denture stability and retention.
Implant technology can vastly improve the patient's denture-wearing experience by increasing stability and preventing bone from wearing away. Implants can also aid retention. Instead of merely placing the implants to serve as blocking mechanism against the denture's pushing on the alveolar bone, small retentive appliances can be attached to the implants that can then snap into a modified denture base to allow for tremendously increased retention. Available options include a metal "Hader bar" or precision ball attachments.
Generally speaking, partial dentures tend to be held in place by the presence of the remaining natural teeth and complete dentures tend to rely on muscular co-ordination and limited suction to stay in place. The maxilla very commonly has more favorable denture-bearing anatomy, as the ridge tends to be well formed and there is a larger area on the palate for suction to retain the denture. Conversely, the mandible tends to make lower dentures much less retentive due to the displacing presence of the tongue and the higher rate of resorption, frequently leading to significantly resorbed lower ridges. Disto-lingual regions tend to offer retention even in highly resorbed mandibles, and extension of the flange into these regions tends to produce a more retentive lower denture. An implant supported lower denture is another option for improving retention.
Dentures that fit well during the first few years after creation will not necessarily fit well for the rest of the wearer's lifetime. This is because the bone and mucosa of the mouth are living tissues, which are dynamic over decades. Bone remodeling never stops in living bone. Edentulous jaw ridges tend to resorb progressively over the years, especially the alveolar ridge of the lower jaw. Mucosa reacts to being chronically rubbed by the dentures. Poorly fitting dentures hasten both of those processes compared to the rates with well-fitting dentures. Poor fitting dentures may also lead to the development of conditions such as epulis fissuratum. In addition, the occlusion (chewing surfaces of the teeth) tends to wear away over time, which reduces chewing efficacy and decreases the vertical dimension of occlusion (the "openness" of the jaws and mouth).
In countries where denturism is legally performed by denturists, it is typically a denturist association that publishes the fee guide. In countries where it is performed by dentists, it is typically a dental association that publishes the fee guide. Some governments also provide additional coverage for the purchase of dentures by seniors.[32] Typically, only standard low-cost dentures are covered by insurance and because many individuals would prefer to have a premium cosmetic denture or a premium precision denture they rely on consumer dental patient financing options.
A low-cost denture starts at about $300–$500 per denture, or $600–$1,000 for a complete set of upper and lower dentures. These tend to be cold-cured dentures, which are considered temporary because of the lower quality materials and streamlined processing methods used in their manufacture. In many cases, there is no opportunity to try them on for fit before they are finished. They also tend to look artificial and not as natural as higher quality, higher priced dentures.
A mid-priced (and better quality) heat-cured denture typically costs $500–$1,500 per denture, or $1,000–$3,000 for a complete set. The teeth look much more natural and are much longer-lasting than cold-cured or temporary dentures. In many cases, they may be tried out before they are finished to ensure that all the teeth occlude (meet) properly and look esthetically pleasing. These usually come with a 90-day to two-year warranty and in some cases a money-back guarantee if the customer is not satisfied. In some cases, the cost of subsequent adjustments to the dentures is included.
Premium heat-cured dentures can cost $2,000–$4,000 per denture, or $4,000–$8,000 or more for a set. Dentures in this price range are usually completely customized and personalized, use high-end materials to simulate the lifelike look of gums and teeth as closely as possible, last a long time and are warrantied against chipping and cracking for 5–10 years or longer. Often the price includes several follow-up visits to fine-tune the fit.
In the United Kingdom, as of 13 March 2018, an NHS patient must pay £244.30 for a denture to be made. This is a flat rate and no additional charges may be made regarding material used or appointments needed.[33] Privately, the cost can lie upwards of £300.
Daily cleaning of dentures is recommended. Plaque and tartar can build up on false teeth, just as they do on natural teeth.[34] Cleaning can be done using chemical or mechanical denture cleaners. Dentures should not be worn continuously, but rather taken out of the mouth during sleep.[35] This is to give the tissues a chance to recover: wearing dentures at night is likened to sleeping in shoes. The main risk is the development of fungal infections, especially denture-related stomatitis. Dentures should also be removed while smoking, as the heat can damage the denture acrylic, and overheated acrylic can burn the soft tissues.
Deposits such as microbial plaque, calculus and food debris can accumulate on the dentures, which may lead to issues such as angular stomatitis, denture stomatitis, undesirable odors and tastes as well as staining. These deposits can also quicken the degradation of some of the denture materials.[36] Due to the presence of these deposits, there is an increased risk of the denture wearer and other people around them developing a systemic disease by organisms such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),[37] but research shows that denture cleaners are effective against MRSA.[38][39][40] Therefore, denture cleaning is imperative for the overall health of the denture wearers as well as for the health of people they come into contact with.[41]
After receiving dentures, the patient should brush them often with soap, water and a soft nylon toothbrush which has a small head, as this will enable the brush to reach into all the areas of the denture surface. The bristles must be soft in order for them to easily conform to the contours of the dentures for adequate cleaning: stiff bristles will not conform well and are likely to cause abrasion of the denture acrylic resin. If a patient finds it difficult to utilize a toothbrush, e.g. a patient with arthritis, a brush with easy-grip modifications may be used.[42]
Disclosing solutions can be used at home to make less obvious plaque deposits more visible to ensure thorough cleaning of plaque. Food dyes can be utilized as a disclosing solution when used correctly.[42]
Instead of brushing their dentures with soap and water, patients can use pastes designed for dentures or conventional toothpaste to clean their dentures.[42] However, the American Dental Association advises against using toothpaste as it can be too harsh for cleaning dentures.[43]
Patients should combine the brushing of their dentures with soaking them in an immersion cleaner from time to time as this combined cleaning strategy has been shown to control denture plaque.[44] Due to microbial invasion, the lack of use of immersion cleaners and inadequate denture plaque control will cause rapid deterioration of the soft linings of the denture.[45]
Liquid cleansers that dentures can be immersed in include: bleaches e.g. sodium hypochlorite; effervescent solutions e.g. alkaline peroxides, perborates and persulfates; acid cleaners.[42]
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) cleansers have a disinfectant action and remove non-viable organisms and other deposits from the surface, but they are weak for eliminating calculus from the denture surface. Immersing dentures in a hypochlorite solution for more than 6 hours occasionally will eliminate plaque and staining. Furthermore, as microbial invasion is prevented, the deterioration of the soft lining material does not occur.[42] Corrosion of cobalt chromium has occurred when hypochlorite cleansers have been used, and they may also result in the fading of the acrylic and silicone lining, but the softness or elastically of the linings are not greatly changed.[46]
Effervescent cleansers are the most popular immersion cleansers and include alkaline peroxides, perborates and persulfates. Their cleansing action occurs by the formation of small bubbles which displace loosely-attached material from the surface of the denture. They are not very effective as cleansers and have a restricted ability to eliminate microbial plaque. Moreover, they are safe for use and do not cause deterioration of the acrylic resin or the metals used in denture construction.[42] Despite this, they are able to cause rapid damage to some short-term soft lining.[47] Discoloration of the acrylic resin to a white denture often occurs; however, this can be due to the use of very hot water with cleaning agents against manufacturer instructions.[48][49]
Sulfamic acid is a type of acid cleanser that is used to prevent the formation of calculus on dentures. Sulfamic acid has a very good compatibility with many denture materials, including the metals used in denture construction.[42]
5% hydrochloric acid is another type of acid cleanser. In this case, the denture is immersed in the hydrochloric cleanser to soften the calculus so that it can be brushed away. The acid can cause damage to clothes if accidentally spilt, and can cause corrosion of cobalt-chromium or stainless steel if immersed in the acid often and for long periods of time.[42]
Other denture cleaning methods include enzymes, ultrasonic cleansers and microwave exposure.[42] A Cochrane Review found that there is weak evidence to support soaking dentures in effervescent tablets or in enzymatic solutions, and while the most effective method for eliminating plaque is not clear, the review shows that brushing with paste eliminates microbial plaque better than inactive methods. There is a need for studies to provide reports about the cost of materials and the negative effects that may be associated with their use, as these factors could affect the acceptability of such materials by patients which will in turn affect their effectiveness in a daily setting in the long term. Putting dentures into a dishwasher overnight can be a useful shortcut when away from home. Additionally, further studies comparing the different methods of cleaning dentures are needed.[50]
Dentures sometimes break, often during eating or when dropped during cleaning. A repair or replacement should be sought as soon as possible to restore function and aesthetics; the continued wearing of a broken denture results in unnecessary intra-oral tissue irritation, which may result in an increased risk of infection and other pathologies including malignancies.[51]
^Pinelli, L. A. P.; Montandon, A. A. B.; Corbi, S. C. T.; Moraes, T. A.; Fais, L. M. G. (2013-02-26). "Ricinus communistreatment of denture stomatitis in institutionalised elderly". Journal of Oral Rehabilitation. 40 (5): 375–380. doi:10.1111/joor.12039. ISSN0305-182X. PMID23438045.
^Mitchell, David A.; Mitchell, Laura; Brunton, Paul (2005). Oxford handbook of clinical dentistry (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-852920-0. OCLC58598367.
^Sakaguchi, Ronald L.; Powers, John M. (2012). Craig's Restorative Dental Materials (13th ed.). Elsevier/Mosby. ISBN978-0-323-08108-5.
^Chalifoux, Paul R. (2015). "Acrylic and other resins: Provisional restorations". Acrylic and other resins: Provisional restorations - Esthetic Dentistry (Third Edition) - 10. pp. 197–230. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-09176-3.00019-X. ISBN9780323091763.
^ abcdMoriyama, N.; Hasegawa, M. (1987). "The history of the characteristic Japanese wooden denture". Bulletin of the History of Dentistry. 35 (1): 9–16. PMID3552092.
^John Woodforde, The Strange Story of False Teeth, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1968
^Eden, S. E.; Kerr, W. J. S.; Brown, J. (2002). "A clinical trial of light cure acrylic resin for orthodontic use". Journal of Orthodontics. 29 (1): 51–55. doi:10.1093/ortho/29.1.51. PMID11907310.
^Van Horn, Jennifer (2016). "George Washington's Dentures: Disability, Deception, and the Republican Body". Early American Studies. 14 (1): 2–47. doi:10.1353/eam.2016.0000. S2CID147542950.
